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Internationalising Palestine: UNRWA and Palestinian Nationalism in the Refugee Camps, 1967-82

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Internationalising Palestine: UNRWA and Palestinian Nationalism in the Refugee Camps, 1967-82 The London School of Economics and Political Science Internationalising Palestine: UNRWA and Palestinian nationalism in the refugee camps, 1967-82 Anne Elizabeth Irfan A thesis submitted to the Department of International History of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, June 2018 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 98,570 words. 2 Abstract This thesis examines the relationship between the UN Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) and the Palestinian nationalist movement in the refugee camps from 1967-82. It argues that UNRWA had a quasi-governmental role in the camps, and therefore inadvertently helped shape the development of Palestinian political nationalism in these spaces. Despite its formally apolitical standing as a humanitarian UN body, UNRWA’s impact on the ground was politically loaded; it was an international organisation whose work was juxtaposed with the camps’ nationalistic environments. This resulted in a symbiotic process, whereby Palestinian nationalist politics came to influence UNRWA’s work, and vice versa. Such an outcome was the result of UNRWA’s long-standing intimate involvement with the Palestinian refugee camps, ever since it began operations in 1950 in Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, the West Bank and Gaza. Yet it was also due in part to the agency of the refugees themselves, who were politically active and organised despite their structural disadvantage. When it came to UNRWA, they drew on their limited leverage as beneficiaries and lower-level employees. Just as Israel, the Western donor states and the Arab host states sought to use UNRWA to influence Palestinian politics, so the refugees challenged the Agency whenever they believed it to be acting against their political interests. UNRWA accordingly came to act as an intersection between the international sphere and Palestinian refugee politics. In examining these dynamics, this thesis highlights the distinctiveness of the Palestinian refugee experience, as encapsulated by UNRWA’s unique institutional nature. It also provides an important case study of themes relevant beyond Palestinian history, including the politics of humanitarianism; the intersection between nationalism and internationalism; and the relationship of identity to territoriality. This thesis thus speaks to modern international history writ large, while also enriching understandings of 3 Palestinian and Levantine history in relation to the refugee camps, the UN and UNRWA. 4 Contents List of figures 6 Acknowledgements 9 Abbreviations 11 Glossary 14 Note on Transliteration & Translation 15 Introduction 16 1. The Establishment of UNRWA, c.1949-57 66 2. From Refuge to Revolution: The Impact of 1967 102 3. UNRWA’s International Relations 145 4. UNRWA’s domestic relations: The refugees and the Agency 194 5. UNRWA’s nationalist role: Internationalising Palestinian identity 229 6. Palestine at the UN: UNRWA and the PLO 268 Conclusion 303 Appendix A: List of official UNRWA camps in Gaza 311 Appendix B: List of official UNRWA camps in Jordan 312 Appendix C: List of official UNRWA camps in Lebanon 313 Appendix D: List of official UNRWA camps in Syria 315 Appendix E: List of official UNRWA camps in the West Bank 316 Bibliography 318 5 List of Figures 1 Evacuating Al-Fallouja village in Palestine, Exodus-1C I0000MfqFJNDyORw © 1949 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive [Photographer unknown]. (p. 70). 2 Palestinians leave the Gaza Strip on fishing boats, RG-Beach camp-7 I0000Ly3529i5QjQ © UNRWA Photo & Film Archive [undated, photographer unknown]. (p. 73). 3 Palestine refugees initially displaced to Shati Camp in Gaza board boats in search of a better life in Lebanon or Egypt, RG-Beach camp-10H I0000SvK_bpt8z.Q © 1949 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive, photo by Hrant Nakashian. (p. 73). 4 Shelter in cave, Bethlehem, RW-Betlehem-10 I0000PtI2N1QoZ7Y © 1950 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive [photographer unknown]. (p. 76). 5 Shelter in tents in Lebanon, RL-Ein El Hilweh-1(H) I00009qoNT32uMhc © 1948 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive, Photo by Myrtle Winter Chaumeny. (p. 76). 6 Map of UNRWA’s Fields of Operation, https://www.unrwa.org/where-we-work, accessed 1 June 2018. (p. 79). 7 Concrete shelters replace tents in Khan Younis camp, RG-Khan Younis-1 I0000bWTSwZZW048 © 1954 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive, photo by Myrtle Winter Chaumeny. (p. 84). 8 Open air classes for refugee children in Jericho, West Bank, SW- Jericho-1(H) I00003XE2Qp7ZlPY © 1948 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive [photographer unknown]. (p. 93). 9 Class in an UNRWA school in Mar Elias camp, Lebanon, SL-Mar Elias-4(H) I0000DBkMjv9qXuQ © 1953 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive [photographer unknown]. (p. 93). 10 Tel al-Zaatar camp on the outskirts of Beirut, RL-Dikwaneh-15 I0000WAI8Hw5YPso © 1966 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive [photographer unknown]. (p. 105). 6 11 UNRWA Ration Distribution Centre in Aida camp, West Bank, RW-Aida-5AR I0000UurXFP5Qy.8 © 1959 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive [photographer unknown]. (p. 108). 12 Palestinian refugees flee east across the Allenby Bridge during the Naksa, Exodus-1 I0000m3YmJ_BwYgU © 1967 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive. (p. 117). 13 Fatah commemorative stamp for the first anniversary of the Battle of Karama, 1969, The Palestine Poster Project Archives, http://www.palestineposterproject.org/poster/al-karameh-battle- anniversary-stamps, accessed 6 April 2016. (p. 128). 14 Nahr el-Bared camp in northern Lebanon, RL Naher El-Bared-1, I0000r3vem1.x08w © 1954 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive, photo by Jack Madvo. (p. 161). 15 New Amman camp in the aftermath of Black September, DJ-New Amman-16 I0000rDrZXuob_fk © 1970 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive [photographer unknown]. (p. 170). 16 Double-shifting at an UNRWA elementary school in Gaza. Children who have finished the morning shift prepare to leave as the afternoon shift of pupils line up to enter the school. SG-Gaza-16 I0000Dprh05Tm8Mg © 1975 UNRWA Photo & Film Archive, photo by Louise Gubb. (p. 210). 17 UNRWA ration card verifying the entitlements of Hassan Ismail Hussein and seven members of his family to rations, RJ-Baqa’a-121 I0000g7pYtw0By58 © 1972 UNRWA, photo by George Nehmeh. (p. 237). 18 A member of the Ibrahim family showing their ration entitlement document, RG-Maghazi-5 I0000OjIs34KW1Yk © 1978 UNRWA, photo by George Nehmeh. (p. 237). 19 Palestinian refugee children displaying their documentation while queuing outside school, SS-Sbeineh-34(A) I00009eflpz3KVGo © 1975 UNRWA [photographer unknown]. (p. 242). 20 Domestic science class for girls, New Amman School, Jordan, SJ-New Amman-34 I00001r8CQL30fQ0, © 1973 UNRWA, photo by George Nehmeh. (p. 253). 7 All UNRWA photos are reprinted here with the kind permission of the UNRWA Film & Photo Archive. 8 Acknowledgements Although a PhD is often described as a solitary project, I would not have been able to complete this without the support of many colleagues and friends. My most important thanks are to my supervisor, Dr Kirsten Schulze, whose instinctive understanding of this project enabled me to realise its full potential. This thesis would not exist without her consistent encouragement and counsel over the last four years. One of the best aspects of working on my PhD was having the chance to meet and speak to academics whose work I have long admired from afar. I was particularly privileged to spend time with my academic heroine, Rosemary Sayigh, and benefit from her wisdom. I am also grateful to Salim Tamari, Sara Roy, Susan Akram and Jalal Al Husseini for their valuable advice and suggestions, both academic and practical. At AUB, I am indebted to Nadya Sbaiti and Ziad Abu Rish for organising the Lebanon Doctoral Dissertation Workshop in which I was lucky enough to participate in 2016. The workshop opened my eyes to a wealth of historical sources across Lebanon, and both Nadya and Ziad continued to encourage me thereafter. Some of the most important contributions to this thesis have come from my fellow PhD students. Jo Kelcey was a much-valued ally as we both grappled with the complexities of researching UNRWA. I have also appreciated the friendship and camaraderie of my cohort at LSE, particularly Ian Stewart, Alex Mayhew, Michael Rupp, Max Skjönsberg, Cees Heere, Eline van Ommen and Fadi Esber, as well as Lewis Turner at SOAS. In Beirut, coffee- and baklava-fuelled conversations with Arthur Asseraf, Lama Mourad and Sean Lee proved just as critical to the thesis as my time in the archives. Arthur, Ian, Lama and Lewis all read parts of my writing along the way, for which I am particularly grateful. In this regard, I also thank Sarah Rutter for her constructive suggestions. 9 The research for this thesis has taken me to six countries across three continents. Along the way I have benefited from the hospitality and generosity of many friends: Elena Barsky and Simon Becker in New York, Jeff Handmaker and Friederycke Haijer in The Hague, Daria Rouholamin in Geneva, and Zeinab Hajj in Beirut. At UNRWA’s Headquarters in Amman, Lex Takkenberg was indispensable in helping me navigate the complexities of the Agency’s records, and patiently answering my endless questions. Matteo Benatti and Matthias Schmale kindly addressed my queries from afar, while Francesca Albanese shared her expertise about refugee law. One of the most enjoyable elements of the PhD experience has been having the opportunity to teach and develop a range of courses on the modern Middle East.
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