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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction 1. Background 2. Rationale of the Study 3. Objective of the Study 4. Scope and Limitation of the Study 5. Research Method II. Coastal and Marine Cambodia 2.1 Coastal and Marine Cambodia 2.2 Population of Coastal Provinces 2.3 Koh Province 2.3.1 General Status of Koh Kong 2.3.2 Socio-economic Status III. Mangrove Status in Cambodia 3.1 Ecological Characteristics 3.2 Mangrove Distribution in Cambodia 3.2 Mangrove Distribution in Koh Kong Province IV. Unsustainable Mangrove Exploitation 4.1 Driving Mechanisms of Mangrove Forest Exploitation 4.2 The Levels of Mangrove Exploitation 4.3 Fuel Wood and Charcoal Production 4.4 Shrimp Farming and Salt Farm V. Impacts of Mangrove Degradation on Environment and Coastal Communities 5.1 Impacts on Fisheries Resources 5.1.1 Impacts on Marine Fisheries 5.1.2 Management Problems in Marine Fisheries 5.1.3 Fisheries Taxes 5.2. Impacts on Coastal Communities VI. Agencies Involved in Management of Marine Resources VII. Conclusion and Recommendations REFERENCES

I. INTRODUCTION

1. Background

Cambodia is situated in Southeast Asia on the East Coast of the Gulf of Siam in the China Sea. The country cover a land area of 181,035 km 2 and has an estimated population of about 11 million persons in 1998. Cambodia shares a land border with Thailand on the northwest, Lao PDR on the northeast and Viet Nam on Page 2 of 23

the east and south.

Cambodia is an agrarian nation, largely dependent upon productive natural resources for food and income. More than 40% of the national GDP is derived from the primary sector, consisting of agriculture, fisheries, and forestry. The marine fisheries and marine resources contribute a significant proportion to the GDP and people’s livelihood in the coastal provinces. As a developing country, Cambodia still has a high level of poverty, particularly in the rural areas, low levels of education, health, and associated services. The coastal provinces also face similar issues.

Cambodia is moving gradually and steadily from a commended economy to a free market competition. The open up of the border, especially with Thailand, has attracted the Thai investors to look into the untapped mangrove resources along the coastlal provinces, mainly in Koh Kong. The introduction of a new market mechanism has led to the increase of a charcoal production and the shrimp culture investment in the mangrove forest areas which were the causes of rapid degradation of mangrove resources, especially in Koh Kong. While the mangrove resources has declined, only few made much money but many trapped in debt.

The charcoal production and shrimp farming have been viewed as a major cause of mangrove destruction by many different authors. The government has banned the mangrove cutting in 1994s and put it as illegal against cutters. As cutting of mangrove is illegal, the mangrove resources become scarce, and lacks of livelihood alternatives for most of the coastal households, the coastal communities are in the difficult position to make a living.

2. Rationale of the Study

Although large truck of mangrove forest areas have been cleared for charcoal production and shrimp farms, it is still not known to what extent it has been declined. Most of the blames for mangrove destruction go to local coastal communities. However, most of the coastal households are still poor and trapped in debts. In addition, this study identifies who has been also involved in the destruction of these resources. Furthermore, the driving mechanisms of unsustainable exploitation is still not known which is explored in this study.

Cutting the mangrove is illegal. To stop this illegal activities, the government has taken measures to crackdown the charcoal kilns, mainly in Koh Kong. Without identifying the alternatives for the mangrove dependent communities while develop and implement these policies, the crackdowns put additional pressures on small- scale charcoal producers and place the coastal poor in the venerable situation. It is important to view the outcomes and the consequences of the implementation of these policies.

This study reviews the existing information and additionally explores the linkages between the destruction of mangrove, the government policies and the impacts of these factors on the mangrove dependent communities and especially the response from coastal communities to such challenging situation.

3. Objective of the Study

The objectives of the study are:

to assess the current status of the mangrove forest,
to review the levels and driving mechanisms of unsustainable mangrove exploitation,
to analyze the causes and effects of mangrove deforestation on both environment and coastal communities, and
to develop a set of recommendations to address improve the conservation status of mangroves in the area.

4. Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study is conducted in a short period of time (25 days) which covers mangrove topics in relation to government policies on mangrove forest preservation, people’s livelihood in the mangrove areas and the causes of mangrove destruction. The study is more on the desk research with reviewing the secondary information.

Because of time constraints and the issues are complex, it is hard to make it in more details. The documents of mangrove forests and related topics for Koh Kong province in particular and Cambodia in general are not many, some of the data are collected from the old sources and these result in widening the gap of data collection. Page 3 of 23

5. Research Method

Two types of information are collected, primary and secondary. The secondary information is collected from libraries of different agencies. The study mainly relies on secondary information. However, the primary information is also collected. This involves interviewing different government and non-government agencies that are working on the marine and coastal issues at Phnom Penh basis, using unstructured questionnaires following the documentary research. The information generating from the interview includes the information of the previous project of each agency, the current activities and the future activities of these agencies. More than that the interview also explores the areas that has not been addressed by these organizations but needs intervention.

The secondary information gathered has included the status of mangrove forest in Cambodia and in Koh Kong, illegal mangrove cutting activities in the area, the charcoal production and shrimp farming, the impacts on environment and coastal communities.

II. COASTAL AND MARINE CAMBODIA

2.1 Coastal and Marine Cambodia

Over the total boundary of 2,600 km, the coastline of Cambodia extends some 435 km along the northeastern shore of the shallow Gulf of Thailand between the Vietnamese and Thai borders. Two provinces, Kampot and Koh Kong and two municipalities, Kep and Sihanoukville, are bordering to the coast. The coastal zone encompasses estuaries and bays and some 64 islands of various dimensions.

In Southeast Asia, Cambodia is still one of the countries endowed with natural resources, both inland and offshore. The marine resources comprise mangrove forest, coral reefs, sea grass beds, salt marshes and estuaries. Of these, mangroves cover one of the ecosystems, covering an area of 55, 150 ha including of coral reef and seas grass area of 475 ha and 175 has respectively.

The coastal zone includes some of the least populated areas in southeast Asia with an array of ecosystems including beach forests, strand vegetation, mangroves, Melaleuca swamp forest, lagoons and estuaries, mud and tidal flats, and the little studied coral reefs and seagrass beds of the marine environment.

The coastal climate of Cambodia is tropical monsoon, which is typically hot and humid. The average annual temperature is around 27 oC with a maximum average of 35 oC in April and a minimum average of 19 oC in December. Average annual precipitation varies from 2,000 to 4,000 mm. The rainy season is from about June to October.

Unlike its most of its southeastern Asian neighbors, Cambodia is still relatively low population and abundant productive natural resources as more than twenty years, the Cambodian coastline has been less developed. At present, the open up of free market mechanism has put the marine resources under threat. The destruction of mangrove resources has been sever and the degradation has had sever impacts on both the environment and the livelihoods of coastal communities. The unregulated exploitation of mangrove resources has occurred over large coastal areas. The charcoal production for domestic and foreign markets has been viewed as a major cause of mangrove destruction. Charcoal production is mainly carried out by large scale operation. The economic incentive of the operations and lack of regulation in addition have fuelled illegal cutting of mangrove forest as well. Despite a ban in 1994, the illegal cutting has continue to increase. The crackdown on charcoal production often impacts on people with subsistence livelihoods, i.e. the small producers.

A little attention has been paid to address the impacts on small-scale producers and their livelihoods. Despite the lack of quantitative information, there are signs that the health and integrity of productive natural resources – forests; wetlands; and fisheries - in coastal and marine Cambodia are beginning to become adversely affected by human activities.

2.2 Population of Coastal Provinces

The result of the population census in 1998 shows that the population of the four’s coastline provinces constitute 7.38% of the total population with a growth rate at 2.8% per annum. Kampot has the largest proportion of population, which is constituted 4.62% of total population, followed by Sihanoukville with 1.36%, and Koh Kong and Kep, 1.16% and 0.25% respectively. Page 4 of 23

Table 2.1 The Percentage of Population by Sectors

Province Primary Secondary Tertiary Kampot 87.6% 1.7% 10.7% Koh Kong 53.2 7.4 39.4 Sihanoukville 50.2 11.3 37.9

Source: Population Census of 1998, Cambodia

In Kampot province, more people involve in agriculture than industrial and service sectors. More than 50% of total population of Koh Kong and Sihanoukville respectively involve in agricultural activities. Sihanoukville is densely populated areas with a density of 179 people per square kilometer, which is twice of the national density of 64. Population density of Kampot province estimated at 108 people per square kilometer. These two provinces face a land shortage and land crabbing. The land pressure is relatively high compared with other coastal provinces. However, Koh Kong is relatively sparsely populated area. The density is very low compared with the national density but it is rich in natural resources.

Cambodia’s coastal residents rely almost exclusively on productive natural resources. However, the resource extraction remains under the influence of powerful people. According to ADB survey in 1999, 75% of the households in the four coastal provinces/municipalities rely on the primary sector, agriculture, fishing, and forestry, as the main source of employment and income. Coastal and marine biodiversity resources are very important to these households.

Table 2.2 Percentage and Density of Population by Province

Province Total Population Percentage Density Kampot 528, 405 4.62 108 Koh Kong 132, 106 1.16 12 Sihanoukville 155, 690 1.36 179 Kep 28, 660 0.25 n/a Total 844, 861 7.38

Source: Population Census of Cambodia 1998.

The number of studies has shown that most of the residents of Cambodia’s four coastal provinces and municipalities are recent migrants to the coastal zone. Statistics from the 1998 National Census indicate that 31% of the coastal population had their previous residence outside the place of remuneration and of these, fully 56% came from some other province or municipality in which they are currently living. Some 3% of the population of Kampot Province moved there from another province or municipality in Cambodia, while 45% of the residents of Koh Kong are from another province. Sideth and Vanntha (1999) point out that " many residents of PKWS are economic migrant and internally displaced people from inland areas of the country and therefore do not have traditional ties to the landscape or experience in the management of mangroves". Furthermore, interview by the ADB with residents of coastline provinces indicates that most of them moved to their current place residences for economic or security reasons. Coastal Cambodia therefore is populated by a great many inhabitants who may not have experience in the economic activities of the coastal zone and this may contributed to the socioeconomic conditions and quality of life for coastal Cambodia that are described below.

2.3 Koh Kong Province

2.3.1 General Status of Koh Kong

Koh Kong province covers an area of 11,160 km 2, bordering Thailand to the west, Pursat province to the north, Kompong Speu province to the northeast, Kampot and Kompong Speu province to the east and southeast and the South China Sea and Thailand to the south and south west. The coastline of Koh Kong is approximately Page 5 of 23

260 km long, linking Stung Hay district of Sihanoukville in the east and Thailand in the west. The Cardamon Mountain range surrounds one side of the coast of Koh Kong province while islands and ocean are on the other side. Koh Kong is divided into seven districts: Dongtung, Mondulsema, Koh Kong, Kirisakor, Botumsakor, Tmar Bing, and Sre-Ambel (Bann, C. 1997).

According to PMMR/IDRC (2000), Koh Kong province was established around 1960s, which was splited from Kompot province. Marschke (1999) provides clear example that this province was established in 1957 during the King Sihanouk to facilitate the administrative work. It is an isolated province, especially from Phnom Penh but has a strong economic link with Thailand, especially since 1979. Administratively, the numbers of districts has been divided up to 8 districts. The total numbers of communes and villages in Koh Kong is 32 and 127 respectively.

Located in the south-western part of Cambodia, Koh Kong is either mountainous or coastal; 70% is mountainous and 30% is coastal. Koh Kong is endowed with natural resources, rich in bio-diversity with estuaries filled with mangrove stands.

In Koh Kong, Peam Krasoap area has been designated in 1993 by the Royal decree as a Wildlife Sanctuary because of a number of values associated with the complex habitat system of estuaries and islands such as mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass and others in the water surrounding the Koh Kong Island. The mangrove forests in Peam Krasoap has been identified as a less destructive and dense pristine mangrove forest in Cambodia and in Southeast Asia. In Peam Krasoap Wildlife Santuary, Koh Kapic has been also put as a Ramsar Site, one of the three wetland areas in Cambodia.

Peam Krosaop is extended over seven communes including Peam Krasoap, Pak Klang and Toul Koki of Mondul Seima District, Stung Veng and Smach Meanchey of Smach Meanchey district, and Koh Kapic and Totai of Koh KOng dictrict.

2.3.2 Socio-economic Status

Koh Kong is sparsely populated province. The population of this province constitutes 1.2% of the total population. The population density is 12 per km 2, which is more than five times less than the national density of 64.

PMMR (2000) indicates that there are about 6 ethnic groups; Chinese, Khmer, Vietnamese, Thai, Cham and Lao. About 90% of the population are ethnic Khmer, 5.58% Muslim, 2.34% ethnic Thai, 1.84% ethnic Vietnamese, and 0.16% by large numbers of ethnic Thais. The population is predominately Khmer. There are two types of people settling in Koh Kong; in-migration and settlers. In-migrant have come to Koh Kong from central and eastern Cambodia provinces. The report of population census in 1998 show that 58% of the province population had their residents outside the province. 36.2% migrate to Koh Kong in search for employment. Those who are settlers mostly live in and around Koh Kong Town and those who are fishers, farmers and crop producers.

The net influx of people to Koh Kong occurs since 1979 with an estimated average annual growth rate in Koh Kong of 16%. A survey of 90 households was undertaken in three villages in Koh Kapik by Bann (1997) shows that 94% of the population are in-migrants, attracted to the area by the potential returns from fishing and charcoal production at a time when population and hence resource exploitation was low. Overall, only 6% of households originate from Koh Kong Province. The remaining population originates from 13 of the 18 provinces in Cambodia. The majority (36%) originate from the other coastal provinces of Kampot and Sihanoukeville, and from Kandal province and Phnom Penh 22%. The greatest influx into the area occurred during the period 1985-90. A high proportion of households are now in debt and unable to leave the area due to lack of funds. The study also shows that nearly 90% of households are dependent on fishing for their livelihood. However, fish productivity has reportedly declined dramatically in recent years due to the increased number of fishers, the loss of mangrove areas due to the construction of shrimp farms, and water pollution from these farms. According to Bann in 1997 indicates households in Koh Sra Lao village claim to have turned to charcoal production because of low fishing yields, while many villagers in Lamdam are reportedly involved in logging activities in nearby Koh Kong Island. If these explanations are correct a linkage can be made among shrimp farming, declines in fish yields, and changes in the activities of local people resulting in new and additional stresses on the resource base.

III. MANGROVE STATUS IN CAMBODIA Page 6 of 23

3.1 Ecological Characteristics

In 1995, IDRC/DNCP indicated that mangrove ecosystems are rich in diversity. They are significant to both the economies and to the protection of coastal environments. Mangrove ecosystems are important to inshore and offshore fisheries. Organic matter and nutrients supplied to the ecosystem by a variety of flora species, while providing nurseries and shelters for important marine stocks. Decomposed litterfall supplies a considerable amount of nutrients that can be used directly by fish and other aquatic species. Detritus matter is known to be exported to nearby seagrass beds, coral reefs and other coastal communities. Mangrove species are valuable for firewood and charcoal production. They have traditionally been used for these purposes. Coastal communities use mangrove wood as a direct source of fuelwood energy. In particular, mangrove species such as Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata are especially valued for their high calorie content and slow burning capacity. People use mangrove for building houses, boats, fences and fish traps. The species Rhizophora mucronata is ideal for making fences, beams of houses and foundation pilling. Coastal people have traditionally used various resources extracted from mangroves for medical and other purposes.

Ecologically, mangrove helps stabilize shorelines and protect from soil erosion. Mangrove tree serve as natural barriers against strong winds, tidal bores and waves. Mangrove serves as a link between marine and terrestrial ecosystem. Mangroves are important habitats for biodiversity. They provide physical habitats for a large variety of coastal species.

More than 50 mangrove species are found in Asia (Bann, C. 1997). However, According to Smith (1996), the Cambodian mangrove consists of 37 plant species. An initial field study of DNCP/MOE (1995) found up to 42 species of trees and shrubs belonging to 20 families in the mangrove forest of Koh Kong. Later report by PMMR/IDRC (2000) found more than 64 species in PKWS. These mangrove species divide into tree, palm, shrub and vine species. Of these 64 mangrove species, the PMMR Team has observed 47 of these species. The most dominant species are of the family Rhizophaceae (species Mucronata and Apiculata); family Combretaceae with genera Lumnitora; and, family Avicenniacae with genera Avicennia.

The predominant mangrove along the estuarine system of PKWS is the Rhizophoran sp. especially Rhizophora apiculata, while a mix of species inhabit the extensive rear or depression estuaries areas. The Rhizophoran sp. grows in soft, mud, near the edge of the stream, hence much species are easily visible and accessible. Rhizophora apiculata are good for charcoal, construction materials, and medicines. The mangrove trees grow to their tallest as Xylocarprus sp.grows as tall as at a height of 25-30m. Towards the upland areas, away from the coastline of PKWS, mangrove vegetation changes slowly to freshwater vegetation and terrestrial forest types.

3.2 Mangrove Distribution in Cambodia

Mangrove forests occur in Cambodia's three coastal Provinces on the Gulf of Thailand-- Koh Kong (where they are most abundant), Kompong Som (where there are only a few patches on the shore), and Kampot. While mangrove forests spread almost all along the coastline, large, and dense forests are found at the main estuarine areas--Peam Krasaop, Andong Tuk, Sre Ambel, Chak Sre Cham, and the Delta of Prek Kampot.

There is still not a clear understanding as to the exact extent of the current coverage or the trends of deforestation due to lack of information. Depending on different sources, there are different information figures. The clearing of mangrove forests for firewood, charcoal and for development of intensive shrimp farming were grown unpredictably. It is not known exactly as to how much mangrove forest has been destroyed.

It was estimated by FAO that the total areas of mangrove forest along Cambodia’s coastline was 37,000 ha before 1970, although this figure seems rather low considering other future estimates. It should also be recognized that the development and exploitation of mangrove forest at that time was not extensive (DNCP/MOE, 1995). The Land Cover maps published by the Mekong River Commission/UNDP/FAO (1994), however, show that in 1992/3, the mangroves consist of about 85,100 ha. Of these land area, 63,700 ha are located in Koh Kong Province, 13,500 ha in Sihanoukville, and 7,900 ha in both Kampot Province and Kep Resort City (Bann, 1997).

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Table 3.1 Differences in Available Data for Mangrove Distribution in Cambodia

Koh Kong Kampot Kompong Som Total Source 31,100 3, 600 2, 300 37, 000 Chea Peng Chheang, DoF. 1993 16, 000 7, 600 17, 400 37, 000 FAO (before 1970) 63, 200 7, 300 13, 200 83, 600 Mekong Remote Sesing Landate, 1992 83, 700 Landsat 1988-89

LUMO 1992 17, 234 Catherine Vallee, Mam Kosal-Wetland of Current Cambodia

31, 000 3, 600 3, 700 38, 300 Thart Sovannarith, Student of the 4 th gen.of fishery fac. 1989-93

Source: IDRC and MoE, 1995

Ashwell (1997) indicates that the total area of mangroves including the Melaleuca dominated rear mangrove amount to less than 60,000 ha. Recently, the ADB study (2000) found an estimated existing areas of mangrove forest in Cambodia to be 26,650 ha, coral reef is 476 ha and seagrass is 175 ha. The coastal wetland is estimated to be 54, 500 ha. Most of mangrove forest areas are located in national park, wildlife sanctuary and multiple use area (see table). The mangrove forest alone provides nearly US$ 5 million a year.

Table 3.2: The economic value of major coastal Resources in Cambodia.

Estimated Net Total Estimated Net Annual Annual Benefits Estimated Existing Area in Benefits Ecosystem Cambodia (ha) (US $/ha/yr) (million US $/yr) Mangrove Forest 183 26,650 4.9 Coastal Wetlands 130 54,500 7.1 Coral Reefs 300 476 0.14 Seagrass 300 175 0.05 Total 81,801 12.2

Source, ADB, 1999.

According to ADB (2000), the Cambodia’s mangrove forests are still in a good condition. Of 26, 650 ha of mangrove areas, 23, 726 ha have been currently protected by the 1993’s Royal Decree. This figure constitutes 89% of the total mangrove forest areas. Similarly, 88% of coral reef and 60% of seagrass are currently under the protection in Cambodia also.

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Table3.3 Ecosystem coverage, current protection, and proposed protection in Cambodia and the subregion

Known Ecosystem Currently Under Protection Proposed for Protection Area (ha) Cambodia Cambodia Coverage Ecosystem Current Subregion Current Subregion Area Area Index Cambodia Subregion % (ha) % (ha) (ha) (ha) Coverage Coverage Mangrove 26,650 157,360 23,726 89 73,473 23,726 89 74,550 1.88 Coral Reef 476 40,260 420 88 18,662 420 88 33,824 -- Seagrass 175 5,580 105 60 605 105 60 3,160 -- Island No information available on total area of islands in Cambodia’s claimed territorial waters

Other Coastal 54,500 279,330 16,550 30 39,135 16,550 30 76,625 1.11 Wetlands Total 81,801 672,120 40,801 50 169,129 40,801 50 271,484 1.23

Source: ADB, 1999.

As indicated above, most of the mangrove areas have been designated within the protected areas system under the Royal Decree Creation and Designation of Protected Areas' signed on November 1, 1993 by King Sihanouk (Table 3.4). These protected areas include Ream National Park in Sihanoukville, the Multiple Use Areas and Wildlife Santuary in Koh Kong and the National Park between Koh Kong and Sihanoukville.

Although many mangroves are found throughout much of coastal Cambodia, the most extensive and mangrove formations are in Koh Kong Province, where much of the mangrove estuary are located in a Wildlife Sanctuary namely Peam Krasop Wildlife Sanctuary (PKWS). With a total area of 23, 750 ha, the large and dense mangrove forest in PKWS which is described as a pristine mangrove forest to be found in Southeast Asia (ADB, 1999).

The southern part of the Sanctuary is Cambodia's first Ramsar Site, chosen because of its pristine mangroves and importance for migratory birds. The mangrove formations in Kampong Som Bay, in Preah Sihanouk National Park, and along the coast between Kampot and Kep are under threat from expansion of salt farms and extensive shrimp aquaculture.

Table3.4: The Distribution of Mangrove Forest by Areas.

Preah Sihanouk Dong Peng Botum Sakor Peam Krasop

Koh Kong Provinces
Sihanoukville Koh Kong Koh Kong Sihanoukville Area (ha) 21,000 27,700 171,250 23,750 Cambodia National Park Multiple Use Area National Park Wildlife Sanctuary Classification

Coastal Forest

Mangroves,

Evergreen forest,
Coastal forest, Mangroves, Coastal Dacrydium / Ecosystems Mangroves, Coral Wetland Mangroves reef Podocarpus swamp forest

Corals, Seagrass Page 9 of 23

Source: ADB, 1999.

Most coastal villages surveyed by the DANIDA Environmental Management of the Coastal Zone Project between 1997-1999 and villages in the IDRC project areas in Koh Kong report using mangroves as a source of fuel and building materials. Wood and charcoal from mangroves are highly efficient fuel sources, and charcoal production continues to be an important economic activity of many villages in Koh Kong Province within the Peam Krasop Wildlife Sanctuary.

The coastal and marine sector is extremely important to Cambodia's economic development as well as local people. According to ADB coastal study (2000), coastal and marine biodiversity provides substantial benefits to local communities and the country. The estimate of about US $12 million in benefits per year for the major coastal and marine ecosystems of Cambodia translates to about US $162 per household per year for all residents living in the coastal districts in which these ecosystems occur. A survey of 90 households by Bann C. (1997) undertaken in three villages in Koh Kapik shows that local fishing benefits are estimated at US$84 per hectare (the benefits from commercial fishing have not been estimated). Fuelwood is valued at US$3.50 per hectare.

Coastal and marine biodiversity generates significant flows of benefits to local households and communities;

3.2 Mangrove Distribution in Koh Kong Province

Koh Kong has a diversity ecosystem: mangrove forest, mountainous forest, coral reefs and sea grass beds where host of wild animal, fish and other aquatic habitat thrive. The systems are diverse; forest water system, mangrove estuaries and sandy beaches all linked to the sea and islands dot the waterway. The Cardamon range separates the flat coastal areas from the low-lying region inland. About 75% of the total area is covered by evergreen forest. The flat coastal areas are mostly covered with mangrove forest (Smith, 1996).

Koh Kong has the vast majority of mangrove forests in Cambodia, with some of the last remaining areas of pristine mangroves in Southeast Asia. Mangroves are spread along Dongtung, Mondulsema, Koh Kong, Kirisakor, Botumsakor, and Sre-Ambul districts.

The mangrove areas in Koh Kong province have been described as ecologically and economically significant to Cambodia and all other countries situated around the Gulf of Thailand. Furthermore, this environment is the only site in all of continental Southeast Asia considered appropriate for the establishment of a coastal biosphere reserve. The mangrove forests and related environments of Koh Kong are therefore of vital international importance for nature conservation.

FAO (1970) and Ashwell (1994) estimated that the remaining mangrove forests in Koh Kong province to be about 16,000 ha. However, the FAO estimation is seemed to be very low because during that time, there has been less impact on mangrove resources and the population was still low. The estimation by Chea Peng Chheang (1993) seems to be a bit higher compared to the previous two estimations, which amounts to be 31, 100 ha. However, the Mekong Landsat in 1992 had doubled their estimations of mangrove in Koh Kong to be 63, 200 ha (see Table 3.1). There seems to be a gap between these figures. So far, it is still unknown the exact amount of mangrove forest areas remained in Koh Kong.

Most of mangrove forests distribute in Peam Krasaop Wildlife Sanctuary. Of 23, 750 ha of PKWS, the mangrove is estimated to be 7, 600 ha (ADB, 1999). There are some mangrove forests also in Botum Sakor National Park (171,250 ha), Koh Kapik (12, 000 ha) and associate islets situated within Peam Krasaop Wildlife Sanctuary but relatively low.

The PKWS faces a major threat due to non-sustainable exploitation of mangrove forests for commercial charcoal production, shrimp farming and illegal fishing by powerful people, businessmen and local government who hire local people of more than 6000 people living in 22 villages. This is still believed to continue but in a small-scale and in the deep forest.

IV. UNSUSTAINABLE MANGROVE EXPLOITATION

4.1 Driving Mechanisms of Mangrove Forest Exploitation

In recent years, mangrove forest areas have been severely degraded. The exact extent of this degradation is Page 10 of 23

not known. There are many factors, which contribute to the degradation and depletion of mangroves. Mastaller (1999) and Kosal (1994) have outlined the main factors including population growth, raising economic activities, accessibility, and lack of management plan, lack of law enforcement, weak Institutions and lack of awareness. However, Mastaller suggests further into drainage, clearing and conversion of mangrove swamps into shrimp ponds or salt pans and paddy fields. Paul (1997) indicated that, in Kampot province, an inadequate staff and equipment for effective control results in the overutilization of mangrove forest. He also mentions that the low paid government employees have a little motivation to enforce the policy. Many authors address illegal cutting of mangrove forests which involved villagers. The ADB (1999) intentionally or unintentionally sees that as rural incomes of Cambodians are among some of the lowest, with the population growth rate ranging from 2.3% to more than 3% a year and commodity production techniques are subsistence with low yields, this is creating pressure to increasingly exploit productive natural resources to supplement low incomes. All agree that charcoal production and intensive shrimp farming are a threat to the existing mangrove forests in Cambodia throughout the country.

The open up of the border with Thailand has attracted the Thai businessmen to look into untapped resources, especially mangrove resources. The buy of the charcoals from local markets for foreign markets and the introduction of shrimp culture for Thai’s market have led to increasing in destruction of mangrove forest resources intensively.

The natural resources are protected by the law on the Environment Protection and Natural Resources Management adopted in 1996. Its is also protected by other relevant legislations such as Fishery, Forestry and Land Laws. Much of these laws are outdated and some parts of its are no longer valid for the time being, especially dealing with the increased free market economy.

These Laws recognize little rights of communities to fisheries resources and their involvement in protection of the resources. The law recognizes the importance of increasing habitat protection to assure sustainable use of the resources into the future, but failed to address the coordination among relevant line ministries.

However, the rewriting of these laws are being done with donors driven or by national government agencies with insufficient capacity for appropriate training in the preparation of these legal instruments and by communist-led process. All are being prepared on a sectoral basis with basically no substantive consultation and coordination with other ministries and their own evolving legal frameworks.

The ability to enforce the existing natural resource and environmental regulations, particularly those related to fisheries, is weak in Cambodia. But, some argue that the policy and legislations are more than enough to protect the natural resources but the implementation and enforcement are completely different from what state in the laws and regulations. This is seen by local communities as a general ineffectiveness of ability of the regulatory agencies to control violations and to enforce regulations.

A number of government ministries have responsibility for coastal resources management in general. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) and the Ministry of Environment (MoE) are the main government agencies with responsibility for natural resources and environmental management in Cambodia.

The Ministry of Environment currently lacks the capacity and basic resources to fulfill its major functions. There is a shortage of upper and middle level management, and low salaries and lack of incentives promote inertia among junior staff. The limited financial resources, lack of appropriate training, experience, supervision and motivational problems associated with low salaries and absence of structured career profiles are among the key factors affecting performance and attitude. While the MoE staff actually on reserves are responsible to the central agency, these staff and the reserves in fact receive basically no financial support from the Ministry. In addition, to a great extent, field operations have been almost completely funded or subsidized by the activities of NGOs and other donors which are limited to some location on the coastline.

The MoE presently has a weak position within the RGC, and its right as the designated authority over mangrove resources is repeatedly challenged, and even sometimes ignored by other government agencies and parties such as the military. Its capacity for enforcement of compliance of the legal framework for environment is limited. This is compounded by the fact that there are conflicts in mandate and responsibility between MoE and MAFF, particularly with respect to the Wildlife Protection Office (WPO) of MAFF and the Community Forestry Office within MAFF. Conflicts have also been arisen over marine protected areas since the Fisheries Law is going to mandate DoF responsibility for living and non-living resources in the marine area and for marine fish sanctuaries.

It is clear from the above responsibilities of MAFF and MoE that close coordination between the ministries and departments involved in nature conservation is essential to avoid conflicts and promote complementary activities towards implementing the coastal and marine protected areas plan. In this respect, the present Draft Page 11 of 23

of the Sub-Decree on Protected Areas Management does not specify the nature of the complementary roles and responsibilities of the MoE (in the DNCP) and the MAFF to conserve biodiversity and provide efficient management for protected areas. It should be amended to cover these important issues (ADB, 1999).

4.2 The Levels of Mangrove Exploitation

The mangrove destruction has been increased since the early 90s. The extent of the deforestation in the coastal zone of Cambodia is unknown but is known to be massive on a national level due to lack of data and information.

The ADB (1996) suggests that the estimates of the rate of mangrove forest degradation in 1995 in Koh Kong are varied between 40% and 50%. Compared with Koh Kong, Kampot has been more destructive with a mangrove deforestation rate varied from 50% to 60%. In Kompong Some, especially in Ream Natioanl Park, the mangrove forest has been well-preserved (see Table 4.1). Although there is still an issue.

In Koh Kong, most of the degraded areas are in Mondulsema and Dongtung districts where mangrove areas have been converted to intensive shrimp farms (Dongtung District) and where extensive cutting for charcoal production has occurred. Degradation is also evident in Peam Krasaop Wildlife Sanctuary.

Table 4.1 Estimated Rate of Mangrove Forest Degradation, 1995

Province/City Total Areas (ha) Area of degradation (ha) Density degradation (%)

Koh Kong 63, 700 1, 500 40-50 Kompong Som 13, 500 800 35-40 Kampot 7, 900 400 50-60

Source: ADB, May 1996

The coastal zone falls under Military Region 3, and according to ADB (2000), there are reliable reports that military and/or police-facilitated illegal logging occurs in Koh Kong, Peam Krasop Wildlife Sanctuary, Botum Sakor National Park, Preah Sihanouk National Park, and Bokor National Park, as well as in other forested areas along the coastal zone with the great majority of timber being illegally exported to Thailand. Many of these illegal facilities operated by these authorities include sawmills and processing plants. The deforestation associated with both legal and illegal logging is leading to decreased rates of flow in rivers during the dry season and increased rates of sedimentation in rivers and the coastal zone. Senior government environment officials have attempted to raise alarm over the destruction of the Preah Sihanouk National Park, while the governor of Sihanoukville has acknowledged that this has been happening for a long time due to insufficient preventive measures. A substantial portion of the Koh Kapik Ramsar Site has already been clear-felled.

The Table 4.2 shows the levels of deforestation in preserved areas and the actors involved in illegal logging activities, including armies and Thai businessmen. The table also shows the continuation of anarchic logging activities in Ream Nationak Park, Botum Ssakor and PKWS. These areas have been categorized as high logging activities among the main coastal areas.

Page 12 of 23

Table 4.1 Historical patterns of logging in existing coastal and marine protected areas.

Coastal and Marine Protected Area Assessment of Logging Historical Patterns

Kep Low
Limited to local people and armed groups

Intensive logging by Navy and a private Preah Sihanouk High company. Ongoing logging by local residents and communities

Very intensive logging in the late 1980s and early 1990s by the military and Thai Botum Sakor High businessmen. Now limited due to a lack of valuable species

Mangrove charcoal making and recent Peam Krasop Medium clear-felling of mangrove in Koh Kapik Ramsar Site

Logging in the late 1980s and early 1990s Dong Peng Low by the military and Thai businessmen. Now limited due to a lack of valuable species

Source: ADB, 1999

Global Witness (1998) released a report indicating that illegal logging were happening near the PKWS and the mangrove waterway were used to export the timber into Thailland. At the same time, the mangrove trees have been cut down at alarming rate. In PKWS, large boats exporting either charcoal or mangrove wood constantly flow out of PKWS. The famous Koh Kapic stream, one of the pristine mangrove areas in Southeast Asia, has been decimated. At the Ramsar site within Peam Krasop Wildlife Sanctuary (Koh Kapik), a large proportion of mangroves was clear-felled between July and November 1998 (Melissa Marschke pers. comm. to Vicky Nelson, and personal observations of Vicky Nelson).

In Kampot, Paul (1997) found that 50% of mangrove had been cleared due to over exploitation for firewood, expansion of salt beds and shrimp projects. He also pointed out that in 1992 alone, about 100, 000 tons of mangrove timber was exploited in Cambodia. Of these, about 10, 000 tons was exported to Taiwan under the government contract. He also mentions that about 80% (150 ha) of standing mangrove resources from three villages and 67% (231 ha) from one village in Kompong Trach district had been destroyed within one year.

4.3 Fuel Wood and Charcoal Production

Fuelwood is an important resource collected from the mangrove. It is used locally for cooking and sometimes, small amounts are burned to repel mosquitoes and other insects. A survey of 90 households undertaken in three villages in Koh Kapik by Bann (1997) indicates that between 55%-66% of households collect fuelwood from mangrove areas near their homes. Fuelwood is readily available, with 80% of household claiming that it is now more difficult to collect fuelwood now than it was compared to five years ago.

Mangrove species are well suited for charcoal production, their wood being dense and hard, with high calorific value and producing little smoke on burning. Mangrove species such as Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata are especially valued (Bann, 1997).

IDRC (1995) reveals that the charcoal production is occurred since the old time. It has also occurred in the Sihanouk regime (1953-1968), but was small-scale and only for family consumption. During Pol Pot Regime (1975-1979), cutting mangrove forests for charcoal production was still carried out and it was not much. Under the Vietnamese backed government, large truck of mangrove forest lands had been cleared for security reason against the Khmer Rouge. Since the country frees its economies, the increase of foreign investments has impacted on the untapped resources. Since 1979, however, entrepreneurs from Thailand, Singapore, and Malaysia, begun buying charcoal from Koh Kong which has led to the creation of a thriving charcoal market in Park Klong Commune and in Koh Kong Provincial town.

In addition, as the demand for charcoal has been increased, especially for export market, large truck of mangrove forests has been cleared for charcoal production. Much illegal exploitation had occurred. Despite the 1994 ban, the mangrove cutting had been continued to increase. Far from controlling, this ban just pushed the producers underground and many have switched to using small kilns since there are detectable. Page 13 of 23

The DNCP/IDRC (1995) and PMMR/IDRC (2000) views that the charcoal kilns were increasing while the mangrove forests were increasingly cut. In 1980, the charcoal kilns in Koh Kong were 2-3. In 1992, there were more than 300 charcoal kilns producing over 24,000 tons of charcoal-- 94% of which was exported to Thailand. In 1993, there were 224 charcoal kilns operated in Koh Kong.

The intense battle between the MoE and local people has occurred since the government began cracking down on charcoal production. In 1994, 200 kilns with diameters between 8-10m were destroyed by the Anti- charcoal Kiln Committee set up by the local authorities to control illegal charcoal activities. The committee was active for only a short while during this period due to a lack of resources, and, as a consequence, failed to stem charcoal production in the area. In time, the number of kilns using smaller diameter of 3-5m increased and operated deeper inside the forest to avoid detection. The old kilns were smashed, the new kilns spring up and kilns were supported by local authorities. As resource limited, the enforcement is ineffective. The charcoal producers flee deeper into the mangrove forests. Despite the fact that the export of charcoal has been made illegal since mid-1994, the number of kilns continued to increase-- even in Peam Krasaop Wildlife Sanctuary. According to one commune chief, the number of kilns had reached almost 1,000 by November 1994. The total number of kilns located in Koh Kapik is unknown, although there were estimated to be 30 kilns operating in Koh Sra Lao village. Charcoal production in Koh Kong has destroyed large areas of mangrove forest, resulting in loss of species diversity, sedimentation, and erosion.

Concerns over the effects of charcoal production on the mangrove resource, led to a second attempt by the charcoal kiln committee in July 1996 to stop charcoal production. By January 1997, the Committee had demolished virtually all of the charcoal kilns in the area and was in the process of closing the few remaining (Bann, 1997).

Following the closure of the charcoal kilns, the Government intends to fully regenerate the mangrove forest and then to regulate and legalise the charcoal industry. It is recognised that local people need to produce charcoal because they cannot afford to buy fuel. However, the level of charcoal production that would be sustainable for the area is as yet unclear, and needs to be considered in any future management plan.

The enforcement addresses only small scale and less powerful charcoal producers and failed to stop the real destructive producers. As yet, no viable livelihood alternatives have been identified in the area and the majority of people are very poor. The possibilities appear limited as there is no land available for crop cultivation. One possible solution, promoted by the provincial government, is to relocate people living in environmentally sensitive areas (such as the proposed Ramsar site) to a new village located in the upland area where they can cultivate crops as well as fish.

In support of relocation is the fact that most people (around 94%) have migrated from other provinces since 1985 to villages located in areas with limited carrying capacity and therefore inappropriate for extensive human settlement (often within protected areas). A problem is that the Government does not have money to support such a transition. According to Bann (2000), more than 30 households had their kilns destroyed in Koh Sra Lao village. Some ex-charcoal producers have returned to their birth village following the destruction of their kilns. However, the majority have no money and cannot leave. Some have borrowed more money to buy a boat and engine for fishing.

The price of charcoal in Koh Kong has varied from $0.05 in 1997 and 1998 to $0.1 in 2000. The price is increased while the enforcement is also increased. The return of charcoal production is around $24 from a medium size kiln per burning. Before the crack down, the charcoal producing families owned between 5-16 kilns with a size of a bottom diameter, 5-8 m, and height 3.5-6 m. The charcoal kiln of 6m in diameter can convert 45 tons of mangrove wood into 15 tons of charcoal during one month production cycle. Charcoal kilns with a diameter of 5m actually can produce 50 hap (1 hap=60kg) of charcoal 10 times a year. From estimation made in October 1994, a kiln owner can earn 105, 000 Baht ($4, 200) a year with charcoal price of 3.5 Baht per kg.

4.4 Shrimp Farming and Salt Farm

Sideth and Vanntha (1999) view that small scale shrimp farming has been carried out in Koh Kong for a number of years and large scale shrimp farming has been introduced since 1985. The IDRC (1995) also mentions that shrimp culture has been brought to the Cambodian’s coastline after 1985. Thai investors were the pioneers of shrimp culture in Cambodia. They joined venture with Cambodians in order to gain concession licenses to operate shrimp farms. The experts and materials including post larvae were imported from Thailand. The market for shrimp production was mainly in Thailand and a little used for local consumption. However, according to Mastaller (1999), while the rapid development of the shrimp culture had mushroomed, the economic prospects for the majority of these businesses were still uncertain. Page 14 of 23

Mastaller identifies that first shrimp farming started in 1989 in Kampot province. The PMMR/IDRC (2000) finds the connection of Thai investors to the World Bank’s money and the way the Thai’s businessmen invest their money in Kok Kong province. The DNCP/IDRC (1995) explains clearly the development of shrimp culture in Koh Kong. In 1994, 105 entrepreneurs invested over areas of 840 ha in Koh Kong. By 1997, 23 shrimp farms covering over 800 ha were started near and in side the mangrove forest, especially in three districts namely Mondul Seima, Koh Kong and Smach Mean Chay. Since early 1998, most of shrimp farms have stopped operation. In 1999, only one shrimp farm remained operational with one or two ponds operating. Mastaller (1999) quoted the ADB study in 1996 that by 1996, about 70% of shrimp farms were abandoned because there was no longer production. PMMR (2000) identifies four main causes involve including increase of shrimp diseases, degradation of mangrove forests, lack of treatment of waste water discharged from the ponds and lack of scientific techniques for shrimp culture. Mastaller (1999) adds some additional causes to PMMR findings, including poor soil quality (acidic soil), unfavorable (seasonal ) salinity, poor pond management, decreasing/ insufficient supply of larvae, the drop of shrimp prices on international markets and theft.

Intensive shrimp aquaculture is also a threat to mangroves and the estuarine system in Koh Kong Province as well as in Kampot. Many of mangrove areas have been converted to intensive shrimp farming in Koh Konh and Kampot. The DNCP/IDRC (1995) raises that less than 4% of the mangrove areas in Koh Kong had disappeared in early 1990s. The countries in the region are looking to persuade Cambodia to follow the ways they exploited their mangrove resources. Due to the massive degradation of many other mangroves in southeast Asia, the remained untapped mangrove resources in Cambodia are in a great demand especially from the across Thai border for shrimp farming to meet the shrimp demand. In Kampot, large truck of mangrove areas had been cleared for salt fields in order to supply a salt production for national consumption, which accounts for 80% of national salt production. In 1940, the salt production areas were 500 ha and this had increased to 3, 340 ha in 1994. Mastaller (1999) and Nelson (1999) also agree that the construction of large- scale salt farms is a major cause of destruction of mangrove forest in Kampot province and in Kep city. It is estimates that some 3, 500 to 4, 000 ha of former mangrove lands has been converted to expand the salt farm.

V. IMPACTS OF MANGROVE DEGRADATION ON ENVIRONMENT AND COASTAL COMMUNITIES

5.1 Impacts on Fisheries Resources

5.1.1 Impacts on Marine Fisheries

The value of mangrove forest as a food source as well as shelter and nursery for both culture and capture fisheries along coastal areas of Koh Kong is not well understood but is considered to be high. This mangrove function is especially important to local communities given that over 80% of the Koh Kong population are fishermen. Fishing is the main source of income for the majority of coastal families. Local fishing tends to occur near the shore since boats are typically 5Hp and local people cannot afford the equipment needed to fish off- shore.

The mangroves in Koh Kapic, a Ramsar Site in PKWS, provides a vital source of fish recruitment into the Gulf of Thailand. Fish is a vital source of protein for people. The shallowness of the Gulf of Thailand makes it highly suitable for great diversity of marine species and hence it is very productive.

The ADB (2000)’s study shows that activities such as land reclamation for large salt and shrimp farms have more serious impacts on the mangrove and other coastal forests. The conversion of mangrove forests into salt farms seems to be having a particularly deleterious effect on the health of mangrove habitats. The study even shows that many salt farms have caused an increase in the salt concentration of the water near mangroves, thereby indirectly causing their destruction. This increase in salt concentration also seems to be contributing to the decline in marine resources. Mastaller (1999) points out that in Kampot in areas where salt farms are abundant, micro climate changes are visible as the remaining mangrove vegetation is stunted and local fishermen claim that no fish or shrimp juveniles nurse in these habitats. Indicators for high evaporation rates are many sand patches encrusted with salt which develop outside the farm, and the numerous physiological stress signs of the remaining mangroves in these areas.

While many references view the destruction of mangrove forest habitat as a serious issue, more concern was expressed over the destruction of marine habitats such as seagrass as well as over the decline in marine resources. Coral reefs that are found around many of Cambodia's islands have been under threat by dynamite, cyanide fishing, and sedimentation in or near coral reef areas. Mangroves and seagrass beds have also been under threat by illegal cutting, and trawling and pushing nets and agricultural and industrial run-off has affected the coastal and marine area (ADB, 1999). Although reliable quantitative data on catch statistics are lacking, indications are that the numbers of fishing boats are increasing and catch per unit effort of fish, shrimp, squid, Page 15 of 23

and crab is declining, while the size of fish and other products caught has decreased. The ADB (2000) indicates that the livelihoods of subsistence fishers are already threatened by a decline in catch that is making fishing difficult for small-scale fishers. The Coastal Zone Management (CZM, 1999) reveals that the subsistence fishers are even more vulnerable due to threats from the large-scale fishermen, foreign boat’s fishermen, armed forced and illegal fishers. According to Sideth and Vanntha, the annual marine fishery production in Cambodia is estimated to be 30, 000 tons and in Koh Kong province, the catch has decreased from 56% in 1990 to 43% in 1996. Fisheries are generally thought to be less productive due to habitat destruction, an increase in fisher numbers, and employment of modern methods, prohibited gear and the degradation of the environment.

Fishing methods and season have changed over time in line with the decline in fish catch and disappearance of mangrove forest to compete with the big and powerful fishers. Traditional fishing gears that was not overly efficient, were replaced by modern fishing gears which were introduced by Thai businessmen following the open up of Thai market. Since then, villagers have noticed a gradual decline in resources. In PKWS, most people no longer fish merely for subsistence purposes. Fishers now use nylon nets, trawlers use polysynthetic nets. Although push netting and trawling in the shallow waters is illegal, but it is practiced, as is dynamite and cyanide fishing. However, illegal fishing is quite popular and increasing. Bann (1997) indicates that in his three studied villages, species caught and fishing techniques vary according to the season, location, and equipment available. Proximity to fishing grounds appears to be a key factor and there are no boundaries regarding where people can fish. Push nets, while illegal, are commonly used. Officials at the Fisheries Department are aware of illegal fishing activities but do not have the resources to monitor and control such activities. In Kompobg Som bay, trawling in water depths less than 20 m is prohibited by the fisheries law but it is very common. There are problems with fishing with explosives and electricity in Some areas. This is also an environmental concern, especially in coral reef areas around islands and other shallow areas, which are important as breeding, nursing, feeding grounds and habitats for many types of marine aquatic animals and plants.

The competition has led to a conflict over these resources among the user groups. This explains clearly in CZM study (1999) where there are conflicts between small scale and large scale fishermen. The trawlers and push nets are the root of conflicts, especially between people in Stunghav, Sihanoukville and Sre Ambel/Botum Sakor dsitrcits, Koh Kong. The trawler destroyed the fishing gears of small scale fishers and often do not pay them compensation for their losses. Despite the complains from lower levels to high levels, the solution has not been come out and this still continues.

5.1.2 Management Problems in Marine Fisheries

The management of Cambodia's nearshore fisheries resources can be characterized by no effective control and management of the use of coastal and marine resources or of the record-keeping, regulations, and enforcement associated with these uses; no stock assessment activities in progress; a shortage of financial resources and basic necessities among all of the fisheries management institutions; an acute shortage of persons with credentials or experience in marine fisheries management; and little or no vocational or in-service training in place for the management of marine fisheries, coupled with lack of incentives for promotion of and support to scientific research on natural resources in general in Cambodia.

Records of fisheries activities in the offshore zone are mostly unavailable in Cambodia as the fishermen did not recorded their catches. There seems to be little fishing activities by Cambodian vessels in the offshore areas because Cambodian fishing vessels are not equipped to stay at sea overnight and cannot reach these areas in one-day round trips. Therefore, from a Cambodian perspective, these areas are under exploited. As with the nearshore fisheries management, there seems to be little patrolling and monitoring of the offshore by Cambodian authorities, due to an shortage of proper equipment, boats, fuel, supplies, trained persons, and the absence of equipment for alternative approaches such as monitoring by aircraft. Foreign fishing vessels seem to be able to operate freely in any of these areas without any license. Moreover, there is no information about the numbers or the fishing effort of foreign fishing vessels.

This is also the case with productive marine resources, where protection fees are paid by fishers with advanced fishing gear, thereby forcing coastal residents away from traditional fishing grounds and on to alternative sources of income. Moreover, there is also lack of respect to the law including the fishery law as many people living in the coastal area are poor forcing them to resort to fishing and thus the number of fishing boats increases to 29,566 in 1999 (DoF 2000).

Despite shallow water, Kompong Som Bay is heavily trawled although prohibited by the current fishery law. The senior marine police and navy officers are behind the trawlers and even the foreign fishermen. The trawlers paid them 10, 000Thai Bahts a month and have to pay an extra 1, 000-2,000 Bahts if they are unlucky and meet a military or patrol police at sea. Corruption is continuing. The trawlers are still operating in the Bay and nobody can stop this. Fishermen have experienced threats by different armed forces. Although they have Page 16 of 23

paid the fisheries officials but additional pays made also for them. In addition, the fishermen have to pay also to military as well as police.

Many authors point that the corruption occurs because of very low salaries. Some high ranking military stand behind the illegal fishers. Some large-scale fishing boats are accompanied by militaries. The foreign fishermen have encroached the Cambodian coastline with the supports from militaries and armed forces with modernized destructive fishing gears such light to attract fishes, electricity etc.

Robbery, theft of fishing equipment and kidnapping occurs regularly in the sea, especially in Kompong Som Bay. Villagers actually refer the navy officers to marine thieves.

Wayn (2000) in his consultancy report for Oxfam expresses that the Fishery Law is not well implemented at all levels. The enforcement is still a major problems. Illegal fishing occurs every day, but nobody can stop it. The Law provides authorities to only the Department to manage the fishing activities but in reality, sometime militaries carry out instead of DoF personnel.

5.1.3 Fisheries Taxes

Taxes on fishing boats are collected by the Fisheries Office, while they are collected by the Navy Police and the Department of Public Works and Transport (Waterway Office) in some areas. High taxes are mentioned as a priority issue. The amount of tax to be paid is determined after the inspection of a fisher's equipment and boats by staff from the Fisheries Office, and is set according to the boat's horsepower. There is inconsistency in the amount of tax to be paid from village to village, but the average tax for a big boat with an engine is about Riel 80,000/yr. The tax on a smaller boat had higher inconsistency, ranging from Riel 15,000/yr in Kampong Keh Village, Kampot to Riel 103,000/yr in Koh Khchoang Village, Krong Preah Sihanouk. The penalty for not paying taxes ranges from the paying of fines to the confiscation of fishing equipment and engines. Some villagers feel that the confiscation of their fishing equipment, often the only means they have to make a living, is unfair. Some villagers feel that it is wrong for the Fisheries Office to be collecting such high taxes when the fishing productivity has declined in recent years (e.g., Lork Village, Kampot) (ADB, 1999).

5.2. Impacts on Coastal Communities

Majority of Koh Kong population migrated from other provinces to seek for employment opportunities. Charcoal production, fishing and shrimp farms provide jobs for majority of people. Smith (1996) argued that although charcoal production sounds highly lucrative and thus attracted more and more people to migrate to Koh Kong to make money, but only few make much money and left many trapped in debt. The IDRC/PMMR (2000) links the pressure from different angles on mangrove resources in Koh Kong to the government crackdown action to stop illegal mangrove exploitation. The government enforcement has led to the decrease of charcoal production. The government announced that cutting mangrove forests is illegal activities in order to stop charcoal production and to protect the forests. As result, some people have stopped this business and returned to their birth provinces, other have begun fishing and others still have fled deeper into the mangrove forest.

Bann (1997) indicates that fish productivity has declined dramatically in recent years due to the increased number of fishers, the loss of mangrove areas to shrimp farms and water pollution from these farms. 90% of households involved in fishing claim that it was harder to fish nowadays compared to 5 years ago. Households claim to have turned to charcoal production within the mangroves and logging in upland areas because returns from fishing are no longer sufficient for subsistence purposes. This suggests a linkage between, for example, shrimp farming, declines in fish yield and the adoption of new activities by local people resulting in new and additional stresses on the resource base. Returns from fishing are low and no viable alternative livelihoods have been identified. Faced with low living standards, people appear to be making short-sighted production decisions which are not in the interest of long-term management. This is despite the fact that villagers recognize that activities which destroy the mangroves will affect their livelihood. Furthermore, there seem to be barriers to mobility that prevent people from migrating after their living standards fall. These include lack of money to move (the majority of people are in debt), insecurity in making the move, and lack of a place to go.

The ideas of relocation of people from the mangrove forest areas were implemented. Some 32 families were relocated out of sensitive mangrove areas to the new village in PKWS. Despite the voluntary relocation, a month after the relocation time, only 22 families remained in the village and this number has gone down to 19 and 16 within a short period of time. Finally, there are only 8 families remained in this village. The remaining families in this new village are very poor with debt and lack of jobs. The person who set up the new village with a hope to be a model village felt disappointed of the outcome (IDRC/PMMR, 2000). The voluntary relocation could not only protect an ecologically valuable resource but also failed to improve the living standards of the local people. This policy initiatives have failed, because while the charcoal kilns have been destroyed, no solutions for maintaining the living standards of local people are evident, and adequate management and Page 17 of 23

control of shrimp farms is lacking (Bann, 1997)

VI. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN MANAGEMENT OF MARINE RESOURCES

For many years, several NGOs and agencies have been involved in marine related resources management in the coastal provinces. Some are involved in livelihood, socioeconomic activities and others in research, some focus on specific areas and others work along the coastline provinces. These include the American Friends Service Committee, Australian People for Health, Education and Development Abroad, Culture and Environment Preservation Association (CEPA), Wetlands International, The Participatory Management of Mangrove Resource (PMMR)/IDRC and Coastal Zone Management Project of Danida.

American Friends Service Committee (AFSC)

AFSC began emergency relief and aid programs in Cambodia in 1979 and further on, these programs has been expanded to community development, hydrology, community disable and sustainable livelihoods. In 1993, the AFSC began its program of integrated sustainable livelihoods in Koh Kong province. This program, based in Sre Ambel District, focus on coastal communities. The program integrates animal production, agronomy, natural resource management and community development technologies in order to improve the people’s livelihoods.

The mangrove forest in this area is a secondary forest with less impacts compared with other areas in Koh Kong province. The extraction of mangrove in this area was still in small scale for only household consumption. The large scale destruction for instance for shrimp farming, salt bed and charcoal production has not been the case.

In Sre Ambel, there has been a conflict between fishermen in Sre Ambel district, Koh Kong province and fishermen from Stung Hav, Sihanoukville, and AFSC has been active in resolving this conflict. A number of workshops have been organized by bringing together fishermen from these places to talk and speak in order to find a solution. Furthermore, the AFSC has conducted a case study in two coastal villages in Sre Ambel to identify the resource uses and causes of resource depletion which in turn affect the people’s livelihood. They have established a community based natural resource management in these two villages and will expand to 5 villages in the future.

Australian People for Health, Education and Development Abroad (APHEDA)

The APHEDA has been operating in Cambodia since 1986. The APHEDA has focused on several fields including coastal environment in Kampot province which started in 1992. APHEDA works closely with the Provincial Department of Agriculture of Kampot province. In 1993, APHEDA started its projects on marine aquaculture with establishment of hatchery station to supply fingerlings to farmers, IPM program and integrated farming in Chhouk, Bantey Meas, Dong Tong, Kompong Trach and Angkor Chey Districts. However, only one district from 1993 to 1999, Chhouk district, has continued these programs due to serious flooding in other districts.

The mangrove reforestation program had been carried out along the 93 km coastline of the province since 1995. Following this, APHEDA had established the community mangrove forestry in Kampot district with 26 families. The awareness program had been implemented to educate people on the importance of mangroves. The pilot project had been undertaken to divert local people from mangrove destruction and motivate them to restore and protect mangrove. In the future, the mangrove reforestation will be expanded.

Culture and Environment Preservation Association (CEPA)

CEPA is local non-governmental environmental organization established in 1995 by a group of students from the Royal University of Phnom Penh after attending training courses on environments at JVC. In 1997, CEPA implemented a project of mangrove plantation in Peam Krasoap commune with supports from Canada funds. A CEPA team together with the provincial environmental department had planted one hectare of mangroves. The financial support for this project had been stopped and at present CEPA has no longer involved in this type of project. However, a visit had been paid to the plantation area one a year. Moreover, CEPA staff has attended a regional workshop on mangrove resources and correspondent works on mangroves are still conducted with regional group.

Wetlands International (WI) Page 18 of 23

Wetlands International (WI) is international non-governmental organization involved in wetland issues both marine and inland wetlands. Regarding marine wetlands, WI had conducted a wetland study in Koh Kapic, a Ramsar Site in PKWS. A study on mangrove resources in PKWS in Koh Kong province was also conducted by WI together with IDRC in 1994/5. Furthermore, a drafting National Wetland Action Plan (NWAP) has been prepared with assistance from WI, which is also included the Koh Kapic, a Ramsar site in PKWS, Koh Kong province. Apart from studying the wetland areas, the relevant coastal institutions of Cambodia also has been studied. The study analyzed the roles and responsibilities of the coastal institutions at both national and local levels.

Currently, WI is implementing a project called a park management in Ream National Park, Sihanoukville with supports from Canadian funds and ADB-TA. The project focus on the community based natural resource management in the National Park. The community fishery is also established to manage the fisheries resources in the park jointly the National Park authority.

In the future, WI will be conducting coral reef and seagrass studies in the coastal areas. Although there is no specific project related to mangrove forest, WI believes that the protection of mangrove resources in the coastal areas will be important for both coastal communities and marine resources. The protection of current mangrove forests has been more important than reforestation as long as the land ownership is still unclear and the legal framework is far behind. Community participation in mangrove forest management plays a key role in ensuring the protection of mangrove and sustainable livelihoods of the local mangrove dependent communities.

The Participatory Management of Mangrove Resource (PMMR)/IDRC

The Canadian’s International Research Development Center (IDRC) has been a long-standing agency interested in mangrove resources in Cambodia. The research works have been carried out mainly in PKWS, Koh Kong province. Since the establishment of MoE in 1993, the IDRC has been working closely with an assigned team from the MoE with the office base in the MoE. At provincial level, IDRC works closely with provincial MoE. With supports from the IDRC financially and technically, the team has later called the Participatory Management of Mangrove Resources (PMMR). The PMMR project was implemented in Peam Krasoap Willife Santuary (PKWS), Koh Kong province since December 1997, focusing on research on socio- economic, sustainable uses of marine resoueces and mangrove ecosystem. Consisting of national MoE staff, provincial technical staff and Canadian project advisors, this interdisciplinary team facilitates a participatory research process in PKWS focusing on sustainable livelihood and management issues. This project is funded by the Canadian’s International Research Development Center (IDRC).

The PMMR conducts a research and document in the form of technical report. The report compiles research undertaken by PMMR team from December 1997 until February 2000. It is hoped that those interested in Kok Kong province, initiatives and sustainable livelihood issues can learn and further this research. The PMMR has continued to do this work in the future and especially they will involve coastal communities in PKWS in managing and protecting mangrove resources. People in PKWS has been aware of the importance of mangrove forests and increasingly they protect its for their current situation and their next generation.

The mangrove reforestation has been carried out also in PKWS of more than 10 ha. Community participation in natural resource management has beenpromoted and a number of community representatives have been exposed to the community fisheries of FAO in Siem Reap and Ream National Park in Sihanoukville. A number of trainings on community based natural resource management including topics on mangrove, fisheries, environment education and protection of PKWS for communities, local authority and militaries have been conducted in PKWS.

Coastal Zone Management Project of Danida

Danida has been providing supports to environmental management of the coastal zone in Cambodia since May 1997. The project is established following the recommendations of the mission team sent to Cambodia in 1996 to assess the requests for supports to CZM by MoE, Cambodia. It was designed for 14 months and later extended another 10 months for bridging phase.

The private firm who wins the project through bidding actually executes the project. The Kingdom of Denmark supports this project in the form of bilateral aids to Cambodia. The main objective of the project is to create some basic skills in CZM at the provincial levels as well as to begin to establish a baseline of physical information on the coastal zone of Cambodia. The seconded staffs from MoE were employed by the project to carry the project activities. This project has developed a link with NGOs working related marine issues in order to promote stakeholder participation in the long-term development. During the implementation, a number of studies have been conducted in coastal provinces ranging from institutional analysis, illegal fishing and Page 19 of 23

management issues and socio-economic condition of coastal communities.

The first and bridging phase project implementation was carried out by a company called Carl Bro international. However, the second phase is carrying out by another company-DHI (Water and Environment). This phase links to the previous phase with a main focus on policy and legal framework developments, physical framework and planning and communities based natural resource management (CBNRM). With regard to the last component, the CZM will identify key partners to carry out the implementation of 8 pilot projects along the coastline. So far, CZM has identified two main partners in two different location for the pilot phase; one in Koh Kong which will be carried out by PMMR/IDRC and second in Ream National Park by the Park Authority. The rest will be identified later on. The CBNRM includes the mangrove forest resources, fishery resources and other marine resources. Community will play an important role in managing the resources in a given location together with relevant and competent authorities.

VII. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Mangrove destruction has been alarming over the last five years. The charcoal production and shrimp farming have exploited mangrove resources rapidly in Koh Kong. The government crackdown measures were mainly effective for short times and impacted most on the small-scale producers with subsistent livelihoods. The rich and powerful people behind these activities were not really touched.

Lacks of alternatives for mangrove dependent communities when the crackdown carried out reflect the weakness of government agencies in taking into accounts of peoples ’ livelihoods and social issue complexity. In addition, it reflects a technical and central inflexibility of the commend economy. Although most of the people migrated from elsewhere, they have spent time working in the mangrove areas and any efforts to stop them from cutting the mangrove forests must also provide them a clear alternative so that they can prepare to make a new way of live. If not, these measures turn to be a sword that finally kill their people and end up with no sustainability. At the same time, protection of mangrove forest does not mean that leave people starving and kick them out of the mangrove areas. The protection can be worth wide unless people involve. There has been a decrease of mangrove exploitation but at the same increase logging in the upland forest areas and fishing activities also grow. This is the reality that we must know and acknowledge that people themselves will find their own alternatives regardless of more or less impacts.

Both mangrove resources and people livelihoods need to be protected. The Sustainable mangrove resource management with taking of local people interests is absolutely important. The involvement of local communities around mangrove forest areas together with local government agencies to manage these forest areas for the benefits of all in a wise management is the wishes of the government and people. The community based natural resource management (CBNRM) is a good tool that can provide communities an opportunity to manage the resources around their communities to meet their long-term needs. Given the roles and responsibilities to communities, the supports from local authorities and competent authorities will contribute to a sustainability of the resources management.

The study recommends to:

1. implement a pilot project on the community based natural resource management in the mangrove forest areas with involvement of communities, local authorities, relevant agencies, 2. implement an awareness raising program about the protection of mangrove resources, fisheries resources and marine resources for coastal communities, local authorities, militaries and provincial government officials, 3. provide sustainable alternatives such as small business operation, credit etc. to mangrove dependent communities in order for them to gradually reduce the impacts on mangrove areas, and 4. provide supports to MoE to enforce the laws and regulations related to natural resource management.

REFERENCES

ADB, 2000. Cambodia Main Report; Coastal and Marine Environmental Management I in South China Sea, Phase 2, ADB-5712.

ADB, 2000. Cambodia Demonstration Project; Coastal and Marine Environmental Management in South China Sea, Phase 2, ADB- 5712, May 2000, Kingdom of Cambodia.

ADB, 1999. Draft Strategic Plan for Coastal and Marine Environmental Management; Coastal and Marine Page 20 of 23

Environmental Management I in South China Sea, Phase 2, ADB-5712, Volume 1, October 1999, Kingdom of Cambodia.

ADB, 1999. Draft Coastal and Marine Protected Area Plan, Coastal and Marine Environmental Management in South China Sea, Phase 2, ADB-5712, Volume 2, September 1999, Kingdom of Cambodia.

ADB, 1999. Coastal and Marine Community Survey Summary Report, Coastal and M Marine Environmental Management in South China Sea, Phase 2, ADB-5712, Technical Annex 1, Kingdom of Cambodia.

ADB, 1996. Costal Zone Management in Cambodia, TA No. 5552, Feb 1996, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Bann, C. 1997. The Economic Valuation of Mangroves: A Manual for Researchers.

Bann, C. 1997. An Economic Analysis of Alternative Mangrove Management Strategies in Koh Kong Province, Cambodia.

CEPA. 1999. Briefing Report on Field Trip to Koh Kong Province on 9-13. Feb 1999.

Danida/Carl Bro International, 1999. Trawling in Kompong Som Bay, Case Study, March 1999, Cambodia.

Danida and Carl Bro International, 1999. Environmental Management of the Coastal Zone: Cambodia; Input Completion Report, Institutional Specialist, Bridging Phase.

Danida and Carl Bro International, 1998. Environmental Management of the Coastal Zone: Cambodia; Draft 5 Year Program Strategy.

Dainda and Kampsax International A/S. 1999. Environmental Management of the Coastal Zone; Cambodia, Illegal Fishing in Kompong Som Bay, T Transition Phase June-December 1999,

FAO, 1992. Regional Wood Energy Development Program in Asia; mangrove for Charcoal: A Vanishing Sustainable Woodfuel Resource System (The Case of Yeesarn, Upper Gulf of Thailand), Bangkok, Thailand.

Gum, W. 2000. Inland Aquatic Resources and Livelihood in Cambodia; A Guide to the Literature, Legislation, Institutional Framework and Recommendations, Consultancy Report for Oxfam Land Study Project, Nov. 2000, Phnom penh, Cambodia.

Harty, C. 1997. Mangroves in New South Wales and Victoria; Forests of the Tidal Zone in the Temperate Australia, Australia.

Houy, V. 1995. Towards a Coastal Management Strategy in Cambodia, Special Project Report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the UNEP-University of Adelaide, Australia.

Cambodia Working Group, 1999. Management of Fisheries, Coastal Resources and the Coastal Environment in Cambodia: Institutional, Legal and Policy Perspectives, by ICLARM, Sida and Wetlands, Working Paper No. 3.

IDRC, 2000. Mangroves Meanderings; Learning about Life in Peam Krsaop Wildlife Sanctuary, Prepared by Participatory Management of Mangrove Resources (PMMR), Phnom Penh, Cambodia, June 2000.

IDRC, 2000. Participatory Management of Mangrove Resources (PMMR), Final Technical Report, Prepared by PMMR, Cambodia, April 2000.

IDRC and MoE, 1995. Mangrove Forest Resources and Local Communities, January 1995,Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Kingdom of Cambodia, MoP, NIS, 1999. General Population Census of Cambodia 1998, Final Census Results, Funded by United Nation Population Fund, July 1999.

Marschke, M. 1999. Using Environmental Knowledge: A Case Study of Mangrove Resource Management Practices in Peam Krasaop Wildlife Santuary, Cambodia; Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Environment Study at Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, April 1999. Page 21 of 23

Mastaller, M. 1999. Environmental Management of the Coastal Zone of Cambodia: Assessment of Sustainable Livelihood Alternatives to Mangrove Exploitation, November 1999, Cambodia.

Nissay, S. Paper presented at the Environment Working Group Meeting of the NGO Forum on April 22, 1999, Phnom Penh.

O’ Callaghan, B. 1999. Proceeding of the Workshop on Wetlands, Awareness, Local People and the Ramsar Convention in the Mekong River Basin " Can Local Communities Play A Role in the Wise Use of Wetland?" 12- 14 September 1999, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Paul, N. C. 1997. The Environment Approach of APHEDA with the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery, Kampot, Cambodia.

Sareun, B. Report on Shrimp Farming and Mangrove Forest; a Paper presented at the Environment Working Group Meeting of the NGO Forum on April 22, 1999, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Sideth, M and Vanntha, N. Cambodian Country Paper: Local People and Wetland Management in the Koh Kapic Ramsar Site, a Paper Presented at the Workshop on Wetlands, Awareness, Local People and the Ramsar Convention in the Mekong River Basin, 12-14 September 1999, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Smith, A. 1996. The Mangrove Forests and Marine Fisheries of Cambodia; A Socio-economic and Ecoligical Study in the Province of Koh Kong, January-June 1996, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom.

APPENDIX:

List People Interviewed

1. Mam Kosal, Director, Wetlands International (WI) 2. Tep Bunnarith, Program Officer, Culture and Environment Preservation Association (CEPA). 3. Pheng Reth, Team Leader, American Friend Service Committee-Sre Ambel. 4. Sam Nissay, Socio-economic Specialist, Coastal Zone Management Project, Danida. 5. Nin Vanntha, Researcher, IDRC/PMMR/MoE. 6. Lim Sok San, Program Officer, APHEDA.

Questionnaires

A. General Question

1. The Organization:

2. The Person Interviewed:

3. Position:

B. Specific Question

1. Please describe your activities in relation to mangrove forest?

Community Development------
Community Fishery------
Others------
Government work------
Have your organization had any connection with mangrove forest?

2. What do you see the mangrove forest?

The situation of mangrove forest? a) Good condition( )

b) Bad condition ( ) Page 22 of 23

c) As Usual ( )

How important the mangrove forest is? Please describe the benefits of mangrove? a) For people:------b) For Environment------

3. What are the levels of mangrove deforestation?

serious degradation( )
not serious ( )
below the level ( )

4. Who is the major cutter?

powerful people ( )
local people ( )
Businessmen ( )
Military ( )
local authority ( )

5. Why mangrove forest was cut?

charcoal production ( )
shrimp farming ( )
firewood ( )
house construction ( )
salt farm ( )
clear for land ( )

Please specify among these activities which one is the most destructive methods?

6. What action government has taken to reduce this destruction? Which year? Who did this?

7. What was the effectiveness of the measure?

Effective ( )
not effective ( )
better than nothing ( )

8. How you rate the situation after the crackdown?

the cutting decreased ( )
the cutting increased ( )
the cutting continued ( )
as usual ( )

9. What type of impacts resulted from this crackdown?

Impacts on local mangrove dependent communities?

 lack of jobs ( )  move into deep forest ( )  migrate to other places ( )  more people fishing ( )

Impacts on mangrove forest?

 strong protection ( )  more involvement of people in protecting mangrove forest ( ) Page 23 of 23

 establishment of mangrove community forest ( )  legislation ( )

10. What actions have been taken to help local mangrove dependent communities?

 providing food ( )  set up a new village ( )  provide job ( )

11. Who did this?

 Local government ( )  MoE ( )  NGO/MoE/Local government ( )

12. How you rate these supports to local mangrove dependent community?

 Failed ( )  Successful ( )  Faire ( )

C. Your Organization’s Future Activity

11. What are the current activities of your organization dealing with these issues?

12. What are the future activities your organization will do?

13. Which areas you think it is important to be looking into that your organization did not address?

14. What suggestion you have regarding the overall situation of mangrove forest?

Date of interviewing: