CEU eTD Collection Advisor: Professor Selim Deringil State, Physical Education and Nationalism under the Young Turk Rule Turk Young underthe andNationalism Education Physical State, Constructing and Mobilizing the “Nation” through through Sports: Mobilizingthe“Nation” and Constructing In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Nationalism StudiesProgram Central European University Central European Yasar TolgaCora Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Master of Arts (1908-1918) Submitted to Submitted 2007 By CEU eTD Collection in my life and never left me alone. left never and life in my to my mother process of the present thesis as my as supervisor. thesis present the of process to Prof. Judith Bodnar professors me Ialso needtothank to shevariousinhas showedto occasions. that support personal courses I took my during studies in thankProf.CEU. Ialso to alot Brubaker, Will Kymlicka, András Kovács, András Brubaker,Kymlicka, Will of Nationalismthe Program forStudies infinite their energy.professors to Ithank thesis. present of the for development the and in my stay of Budapest Cihangir Gundogdu only for their interest in history but also thank my friends‘historian’ Kenjar the M.A. Program of Nationalism studies and have spent the year with me. Anastasiya Salnykova, Suleymanova, Dilyara Agnes Kiss, AnnaKutuzova, SananMirzayev, Spencer Rangitsch,Tudor Rosu, Banulescu-Bogdan, Cristian Cercel, Costica Dumbrava, HenioHoyo,Irakli Jibladze, Acknowledgments: Finally to I thank I also thank also I friends my thank to have also I I thank especially to my friends to especially I thank I would like to thank , my colleagues like to I would , and , Selim Deringil Michael L. Miller L. Michael Urska Mavric Serap Cora for theideas sheme that gaveto year.Andthe throughout Iespecially thank Szilvia Balassa for their friendship throughout myhelp for theirfriendship life, throughout different during and phases for his support in andfor CEU myapplication his the during writing to support Ioana Stefu, andmyfather who made who Budapest tolerable first me. then enjoyable for Ialso Stevo Djuraskovic, BrunoMesquita Stevo for his limitless efforts to correct my unrefined English and to and English my unrefined correct to efforts limitless his for and besides everything else, for being herself. And I thank I And herself. being for else, everything besides Kerem Coskuner, Alp Demirel for their friendship throughout the year. the throughout friendship their for Karina Pomogajev Yuksel Cora Yuksel Goran Batic, Efe Kevin AidaCavalic, Baysal, Goran Batic, Christoffer Andersen, Matthew Baltz, Natalia , i Alexei Miller and Tibor Toro who showed me every showedsupport whomeevery of kind the assistant and coordinator the assistant the and Anton Pelinka who have been enrolled in enrolled been have who Mária M. Kovács Mária M. and Danilo , Ahu Erdogan Sarenac from whom , for her Rogers , and not CEU eTD Collection Table of Contents: of Table (1913-1914)...... 35 Chapter IV) National-Identification Through Physical Education: TheJournal Idman Chapter II) Intellectual Currents behind the Development of Physical Education.....18 Chapter III) ABrief History of Physical Education ...... 26 in Europe From Empire to Nation and its ‘Governmentality’...... 10 Chapter I) Historical and Theoretical Framework: YoungTurk (1908-1918): Rule ...... 1 Introduction iv List of ...... Illustrations: ii ...... Table of Contents: i Acknowledgments:...... III) The Women of the ‘Nation’ and Gymnastics for Women:...... 39 III) Theoretical Framework: ‘Governmentality’ and Modernity ...... 14 of State Rule: II) Physical andEducation Building the I) Physical Education and “National-Identification” in ...... 35 Late Ottoman Empire: V) English ...... 32 Boy-Scout Movement: UniversalIII) Conscription ( II) Solidarité and Corporatism:...... 20 I) The Century of Science and ...... 18 ‘Racial’ Struggle: IV) Czech IV) III) The Zionist and Germany II) I) A General Overview:...... 26 IV) Construction of ...... 24 Modern Masculinity: II) The ‘Nationalism’ of YoungTurksandthe its I) Historical Framework: The Young Turk ...... 10 Rule (1908-1918): II) Organization ...... 6 of the Thesis: I) Literature Review and ...... 1 the Aims of the Study: Sokols Muskeljuden Turnen ...... 31 : Gmatc:...... 28 Gymnastics: Levée en masse Levée Movement:...... 29 Heroic ii ):...... 21 Males ...... 36 of the ‘Nation’: Modernity :...... 13 CEU eTD Collection ilorpy ...... 82 Bibliography: Conclusion: The Legend of the CUP Rule and the Role of Physical Education...... 75 Chapter VI) Mass Gymnastic Festivals under Young Turk Rule...... 62 Chapter V) The Emergence of Boy Scouting ...... 45 in the Ottoman Empire V ocuin ...... 42 IV) Conclusion: IV) Conclusion: The Purposes of Mass Gymnastic Festivals:...... 70 III) Mass Gymnastic Festivals under Young Turk Rule:...... 65 II) Theoretical Background of ...... 63 Mass Gymnastic Festivals: I) Introduction:...... 62 V) Conclusion: The Conference of Ismail Hakk IV) Pedagogy, Nature ...... 55 and Boy-Scouting: III) The Political Economy of ...... 51 the Movement: II) History of the Ottoman Boy Scout Movement (1908-1914):...... 46 I) Introduction: Setting the Picture:...... 45 IV) The Journal The IV) Idman : Identifying the Turks and the ‘others’:...... 40 iii Õ Bey:...... 57 CEU eTD Collection Figure 15: “A photo from the Second Idman Festival”...... 74 Figure 14: “A photo from the Second Idman Festival”...... 73 Figure 13: “A photo from the Second Idman Festival”...... 73 Figure 12:“The of students Figure 11:“The students of Darulmuallimeyn arerestingbefore start the of IdmanFirst Figure 10: Figure 9: “Necmeddin Bey, amember of Galatasaray Sultanisi Boy-Scouts”...... 61 Figure 8: “Scouts of Istanbul High School in an official ceremony”...... 60 Figure 7: “The scouts of Galatasaray and Alt Figure 6: “Mr. Parfitt, the Vice-Leader of the ...... 59 Boy Scout Organization” Figure 5: “Enver Pasa, the Leader of the Boy-Scout Organization”...... 59 Figure 4: The first Football Team in Ankara...... 44 Figure 3: Tug-of-War Team of Galatasaray ...... 44 Sports Club. Figure 2:“ issuefirst of The cover of Figure 1:the List of Illustrations: rules of Swedish gymnastics”...... 72 etvl ...... 72 Festival” Sa “ The praise-worthy exercise of the students of ‘Ittihad ve Terakki Mektebi’...... 61 ÷ lam Vücudlar Meh Darulmuallimeyn ú eri ” (The exhibition of ‘rigid’ ...... 43 bodies). Idman Õ od”...... 60 nordu” are making physical according to aremakingphysical exercises iv ...... 43 CEU eTD Collection 1 Feroz Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey the the training of troops. the of organisation the with help to instructors sent Powell scoutingBoys introduced were Baden- to and Lord 1990s. in the even do they as thrive to began Galatasaray such as andclubs becamevery popular however, Soccer, participated in Olympic in in games the Stockholm 1912. the ever before. They introduced competitive sport and,for firstsocietyrefashion to they but attempted also political system by borrowingtime, more anfreely Ottoman from the West than team of two athletes , (New York: Routledge,1993), 31. They Turks]notonly[theYoung changed the v 1 CEU eTD Collection University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104. by andanInterview with Foucault Michel 3 State During the Young Turk the Period: and 1908-1918,” Feminism Family, “The author, same see: family, “national” and “new” of the idea of the development “Milli 2 that the Ottoman state constantly altered its policies on its population during the 19 the during population its on policies its altered constantly state Ottoman the that to use this new resource of ‘population’ more effectively. use this‘population’ of to newresource aim of andchangingsocial transforming varying from order the economy. familythe to apparatuses with the various state of buttheiralso utilization ideologically CUP)Progress; 1 disciplining he individuals; thelevel of population,named the on this of point by of he respectivethe departure basedwhich meant ofthemodern-state policies on governmentality in the transformation of the art of government from sovereignty to a new form of penetration of the state intodifferent institutions of the Ottoman society was an important step party ruling the of policies determined the This which process resultof was the demographicthe andgeographic changes,notonly before. been never had it than homogenous ethnically more became Empire Ottoman the of Turkish as well the ‘nation’. as inmobilization the aspect of this phenomenon, the use of ona I will focus particular lastdecade. in its gymnastics Empire Ottoman in multi-ethnic the process and physical education in the construction I) Literature and Review the Aimsof the Study: Introduction Michael Foucault, “Governmentality,” in Ça For the development of “national” economy under Young Turk rule, the basic text: Zafer Toprak, Zafer text: basic the rule, Turk Young under economy of “national” development the For ÷ lar Keyder, “The Political Economy of Turkish Democracy,” Turkish of Economy Political “The Keyder, lar ø ktisat” In this respect Michael Foucault’s influential essay on “governmentality” will be the be will “governmentality” on essay influential Foucault’s Michael respect this In ruleThe Turk Young of betweentheyears in witnessed1908-1918 aprocess which evaluateThe mainof the nation-building isto thesis purpose presentthe Turkish (“National Economy”in Turkey) . The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality :With Two Lectures , ed.GrahamBurchell, ColinGordon, PeterMiller, and Varia Turcica (1908-1918) 1 ø ttihad ve Terakki ttihad , (Ankara:, Yurt Yay 13 (1991): 441-452. New Left Review 3 Following this logic I will claim will I logic this Following (Committee of Union and I/115(May-June 1979):3-7. Õ nlar bio-politics Õ , 1982), forand the th , in order , (Chicago : Türkiye’de century 2 This 1 CEU eTD Collection 1876-1909 7 6 Sport Journal 5 Turkey modernization. In the following pages I will show how the concept of citizenship is closely of reforms hence so-called the means, by various nation-state emerging into the within “modern-state” the is whichit implemented. Itis a integratingway of the population state and its “citizens”. Membershipis alongreconstructed with fundamental the rebuilding of between isitthe but andrelationship adialectical obligations justrights more categorical than Empire Howeverfrom prevent the falling my in apart. isis claim thatcitizenship this paper create ideologicalbasically,a common citizenship, ‘Ottoman’ attempt to terms,to thus an mostly in literature, theconceptof is In theconsidered citizenship relevantOttoman citizenshipby introduction revolution 1869 andthe franchiseof universal lawof of 1908. the important of these reforms were introductionthe of citizenship asa political category with the deeperinto society and the various with ever-continuing penetrate witnessed a massive attempt of ofa This quarters modernthree century basisthe republicTurkey.today’s of period of of changing the social order with The of 1908andeventually the Revolution the basic goal of the state to followed by reignofAbdulhamidthe II(1876-1909)with his ‘autocratic modernization’. bureaucratization and law”, centralization of “the order of establishment the with associated of name its from edict which takes the in this respect which was crucial to the application of 4 technologies’. that of this new form of and after, aphenomenon iswhich labeled astheTurkish experiencemodernization of Selim Deringil, Erik J. Zürcher, D.L. Andrews, “Desperately seeking Michel: Foucault, Genealogy and Critical Sport Sociology,” Sport Critical and Genealogy Foucault, Michel: seeking “Desperately Andrews, D.L. One of the basic texts onTurkish modernization, see: Niyazi Berkes, , with, an introductionby Feroz Ahmad, (London: Hurst &Co., 1998). This period of is modernization This of called period , (London: I.B. Tauris, 1998). 10, No. 2(1993): 148-167. 5 The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology andLegitimationthe ofPower Empire: Ottoman inthe Turkey: A Modern History governmentality , (London: I.B. Tauris, 2004). Tauris, I.B. (London: , . Our topic, the physical education will be evaluated Gulhane Hatt-iHumayunu coup d’etat 2 Tanzimat-i HayriyeTanzimat-i by inCUP leaders 1913 established ‘bio-power The Development ofSecularism in of1839 (Auspicious Re-Order) ’ and ‘disciplinary reform 6 and is closely s. The most s. The Sociology of 4 was 7 CEU eTD Collection Napoleon,” and‘GermanValor’ Honor’: Nation, and Masculinity War, Age of Uprising Prussianthe Againstthe in in 12 Twentieth Century: A Cross-Cultural Perspective,” Feminist Journal of Politics 38; Nira Yuval-Davis, “The ‘Multi-Layered Citizen’: Citizenhip in The Age of ‘Glocalization’, ” 11 Theory Female Citizenship inthe New Nation,” in 10 Press, 1996). 9 Press, 1988). Sexuality: Middle-Class Morality and Sexual Norms in Modern Europe History constructionthe of “ideal-malethe Turkish citizen” during theBalkan and First WorldWars. citizenshipnationhood, between gendered and war. war on Napoleonicpost Germanyprovidemethodological pathsregarding the association by historians.feminist haveworks related been produced togender aspect of national identity andmostly citizenship, will education’s citizenship,examine association masculinity. physical warandto war. I to its relation and nation the of of construction the project masculine the focus on will perspective aspecific from masculinity Turkish modern of study inproper education Ottoman/Turkishphysical contextof providewill construction the 8 citizenship. masculinity, andpolitics between Therelationship war concept the masculinity of with of anothermy dimension regard to construction of the thesis, defending country. the associated with nation-building project especiallythrough emphasisthe on duty the of an essential part of an modernof essential masculinitypart the19 throughout be to considered was physicaleducation First, thesis. aspects of this two the with associated isclosely of aman’ view a ‘standard masculinity, modern scholars, these to According of middle-class values and nationalistic ideologies,has been by discussed various scholars. George L. Mosse, L. George Stefan Dudink, Karen Hagemann and John Tosh, ed., Karen Hagemann, “The German Heroes: The Cult of the Death for the Fatherland in 19 Ann Curthoys, Ann “Feminism, Citizenship andNationalIdentity,” Linda K. Berger, “May All OurCitizens Be Soldiers and All OurSoldiers Citizens: The Ambiguities of Masculinities inPolitics andWar , ed. Jean, Bethke Elshtain and Sheila Tobias, (Bollman Place,Maryland, 1990), 89-103. , (Manchester, New York: Manchester University Press, 2004); George L. Mosse, This theme of building up citizens for the ‘defense of the country’ is the basis of basis is the country’ the of ‘defense the for citizens up building of theme This Central European History The Image of Man: the Creation of Modern Masculinity 11 1, No.1(June 1, 1999): 119–136; IdaBlom,“Feminism Nationalismand in theEarly In this context the studies of Karen Hagemann on masculinity and masculinity ofKaren Hagemannon studies the context Inthis , ed. Stefan Dudink , ed.Stefanand others, 116-136; KarenHagemann,“Of ‘Manly 30, No.2 (1997): 187-220. Women, Militarism, andWar: EssaysinHistory, Politics andSocial Journal Womenof History Masculinities in Politics and War: Gendering Modern 3 12 In the context of this thesis, this means this thesis, this of context the In Feminist Review , (Madison: University of Wisconsin th 9 . Second, and more important, I important, more. Second,and and early 20 7, No. 4 (1995 Winter): 82-94. Winter): 4 (1995 No. 7, , (New York: Oxford University Oxford York: (New , 8 , and particularly role the particularly , and , No. 44 (Summer, 1993):19- 44(Summer, , No. Nationalism and th th centuries; thus a Century Germany,” Century International 10 Many CEU eTD Collection France,” No.1971): 70-98 1(Feb., and the same author, de “Pierre Coubertin Introduction andthe of SportOrganized in “Gymnastics and Sports in Sports and “Gymnastics Conn.: ArchonBooks, 1981);also works of Eugen Weber are informative in this respect: EugenWeber, 16 of theInternational Order 15 160. form theNapoleonic Wars throughthe Third Reich, 14 the ‘desired citizen’ civic knowledge from II. Constitution to today ), (Istanbul: physical education such French as III physical Republicsuch education on cases similar peculiarity, claim of the despite However, thesis. the focus of the constitute thus and but WarsandWorldvital will WarI(1912-1918), short this Balkan during period between period particularly of time, in short a relatively measures various of taking challenge the ruling elite and intelligentsia. of boundaries ideological in the in shift the boundaries werereflected change ingeographical this importantly, above, mentioned as More Turkey. ofRepublic of borders present less the with the last blow of Balkan Wars of 1912 and the Empire’s last of amountof territories inthe BalkanPeninsulasincethe 19 quarter the western border became more or accompanied the building more nation losses urgently Turkish of process duethe great which ina level in existed discursive Central countries inWestern other or Europe, of sense the was its peculiarity case Ottoman gave the what However exception. nation throughout the 19 nation throughout the to meant all of first was economies, market contemporary in commercialization 13 aspect. from particular this citizenship on policies its and a nation-state into Empire Ottoman the of transformation the important tools to create citizens of a Turkish nation. Therefore the study will concentrate on became most howthe they oneof and (1908-1918) picture during Turkrule the Young For the development of sports in France, see: Richard Holt, Richard see: France, in of sports development the For Tan George L. Mosse, L. George Füsun Üstel, Füsun Õ l Bora, “Turkish National Identity, Turkish Nationalism and The BalkanPeninsula,” in The present study examinehowThe presentstudy fitinto physical this will education and gymnastics Journal Contemporaryof History ‘Makbul Vatanda The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements inGermany , ed. Gunay Goksu Ozdogan, Kemali Sayba Fin-de-Siecle th and early and early 20 13 ú¶Õ I contend that physical education and sports, contrary to their n Pe 15 ú France: Opium of the Classes?,” ofthe Opium France: inde,II. Me No.5, 2 (1970): 3-26. For the establishment of youth clubsthe by the Besides these, the Ottoman ruling elite had to face the th centuries, (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press,127- 1991), ú rutiyet’ten Bugüne Vatanda 4 16 , II German Empire 14 Sport and Society in Modern France and the late Ottoman Empire was no úÕOÕ , (Istanbul: Eren, 1995), 102-120. The American Historical Review ø letisim Yayinlari, 2004). úOÕ 17 , The British Empire British The , k E ÷ itmi Balkans: A Mirror th (In the pursuit of pursuit the (In century.And construct decadence , (Hamden, 76, a 18 CEU eTD Collection Cem Atabeyo 24 2002) are two examples of sort ofthis work. Do Kahraman, 23 of studies. kind this Europe, itsmemorable stars), ( Galatasaray Tarihi:Avrupa Zaferleriyle, Unutulmaz Y its legends,its heroes and numbers), (Istanbul:Yap 22 “Sport, Politics and the Engaged Historian,” Engaged the and Politics “Sport, 21 20 2002). E. Nolte 19 1880-1935 F. McDevitt, 1999); J.A. Mangan, ed., (London: Frank Cass, 1996); J. A. Mangan,ed., 17 Europe particularly in England and France: J.A. Mangan, ed., Mangan, J.A. France: and England in particularly Europe 18 Gesellschaftsgeschichte, 1800-1939 (football) clubs Ottoman Empire, as the works on this subject are either on the histories of prominent sports Groups in Pre-War Paris: Les “Petites A’s,” Les “Petites Paris: Pre-War in Groups Youth and Schools “Primary Margadant, W. Ted see: purposes, paramilitary for use their and state French historians. “academic” the and “amateur’ the between battle-ground a constitute and sections different two into Ottoman/Turkish caseand of elsewhere.The history aredividedphysical education and sports movement even ‘independist’ theor Czech context of modernity of context modernity and modernization. education whichand sports has generally a low historiographic status physical of history the examines study This mycase. of particularities socio-political the to basic questions the help meadapt will cases comparative these topic, this on written differences. and commonalities pointing insights, different deepen analysesthe of movementingymnastic Ottoman/Turkishthe case by providing the history of sports in history the of “modernization”. of sports context the Ottoman/Turkish As an example for a study that considers sports as an agent for ‘modernization’ of the Turkish society, see: The following works emphasize the “eternal character” of the Turkish nationfor making sports: Ât Altan Tanr Altan For the trends Steven A. inRiess, “The Newthe Sport History,” use of history of sport by “academic” historians and purposes, see: Allen Guttmann, The most updated book onCzech nationalism and its association to mass gymnastics is the following: Claire For the history of sports in Germany see: Christiane Eisenberg, Christiane see: Germany in sports of history the For The following books which are edited by J.A. Mangan are consisting of the texts on history of sports in ÷ an Y an , TheSokolintheCzech lands to1914:Training Nationfor the This approach will be a weakness as well as a strength since very littlehas very been since as asastrength willbe This well a weakness approach Õ ld , (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). Õ Osmanl z, Õ kulu, MayWin:theBest Man Sport,Masculinity, andNationalism inGreat BritainandtheEmpire: ÷ Ça lu, “Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Spor (Sports from the ÷ 22 larboyu Türkler'de Spor Õ Fenerbahçe Tarihi:Efsaneleriyle, Kahramanlar or on sports generally in the Ottoman Empire without much reference to the to reference much without Empire Ottoman the in generally sports on or Devleti'nde Spor Militarism, Sport, Europe:War Without Weapons 21 The same problem is valid for the history of sports in the late ø stanbul: Yap , (Aerborn :Schöningh, 1999). (Sports in the (Sportsthe inOttomanState), (Ankara: Kültür T.C. Bakanl (Sports among Turks throughout centuries), ( Journalof Contemporary History Journal of Contemporary History Õ Kredi KültürSanat Yay Reviews in American History Sport inEuropePolitics, : Class, Gender 23 19 Unfortunately, there are few works which place Õ will be examined briefly in a chapter in order to in order chapter in a briefly examined be will Kredi KültürYay Sanat 5 Õ ld Õ zlar Õ TribalIdentities: Nationalism,Sport Europe, yla English Sports und Dutsche Bürger: eine Õ yla, Rakamlaryla, (History of Galatasaray: its victories in Õ nc ÕOÕ , (London: Frank Cass, 2003). Patrick k, 2003) canbe givenas examples of 18, No. 3(Sep., 1990): 311-325. , (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, Palgrave York: (New , 13, No. 2(Apr. 1978): 323-336. 38, No. 3(2003): 363-375. Tanzimat Õ nc Õ yla ÕOÕ k, 2002) and B.Tuncay, to the Republic),” in (History of Fenerhbahce: (History 24 , (London: Frank Cass, ø One is exception stanbul:Telebas 20 inthe Õ÷Õ , 1995); Õ m, Õ f , CEU eTD Collection Ak Ottoman Empire and asks fora synthetic study the for history of Boy Scouting underYoung Turk rule. Yi 27 29, (2006/1, summer): 177-192. education II.Constitutional inthe period and the notes onbook ‘ entitled Yasar Tolga Cora, “II. Me “II. Cora, Tolga Yasar 26 policies of physicaleducation and sports in theRepublican Period ),” author, “Ana Hatlar “Ana author, children” physicaleducation sportsand in the Early ( Republic), 25 conscription and the spread of ideaof the spreadof and the conscription forces intheit Ottoman Empire. examine will of importance the universal Third the political-economic dominant the as corporatism and solidarité of ideas the briefly discuss 19 attention to four themes. First, it will pay attention to the growing importance of science in the governmentality Foucault’s Michel thesis, of the framework the theoretical introduce I will discussion specific attention to their and ‘nationalism’ its As ‘modernizing’ aspect. an outcome of this II) Organization of the Thesis: masculinecitizen”. in “ideal of creation the of the context history the physical education inand sports inOttoman Turkey its last decades and this conceptualize ed. Murat Belge, ( Empire. context. particular arguments on associationthe between governmentality and in physical education this 1945). politics Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Türkiye Ansiklopedisi Ak study Yigitthe of For instance, Yigit Ak Fora criticism on this work as well as the other narratives of history of sports in late Ottoman Empire, see: Yi th Õ n, century and Social-Darwinism as a part of this “scientification” of society; second it will it second society; of “scientification” this of a part as Social-Darwinism and century ÷ it Ak “Gürbüz ve Yavuz Evlatlar 25 After introduction,After 1willbriefly chapter discuss rule history the of Youngwith Turk Chapter 2 will elaborate on the ideological background of the period and pay specific and pay of period the background ideological on the 2will elaborate Chapter of the Turkish Republic and physical education in Republic(1923- the early education Turkish Republicandphysical Turkish of the 27 Ak Õ This present work will fill these lacunae; it will re-construct the early history of n, “Gürbüz ve Yavuz Evlatlar” Erken Cumhuriyet’te Beden Terbiyesi ve Terbiyesi Beden Cumhuriyet’te Erken Evlatlar” veYavuz “Gürbüz Õ n’s study is a pioneering work, but it lacks empirical data to support islacks butit his to empirical n’s study apioneeringdata work, ø stanbul: Õ and ile Cumhuriyet Döneminde Beden Terbiyesi ve Spor Politikalar ve Spor Terbiyesi Beden Döneminde Cumhuriyet ile 26 Italsofails to construct a convincing history of sports in the late Ottoman bio-politics Õ Õ n admits that there is a lack of studies in many aspects of history of sports in late n which deals with the association between association the dealswith n which ø ú leti rutiyet’te Beden Terbiyesi; ‘ Terbiyesi; Beden rutiyet’te ú im Yay , ” 133. of of Youngthe Turkgovernments. Õ nlar Õ , 1985), 1474-1518. , levee en masse en levee (Encyclopedia of form the Turkey 6 Milli Jimnastik ø stanbul: (nation-in-arms) from revolutionary from (nation-in-arms) Toplum ve Bilim ø ’ Adl leti National Gymnastics ú im Yay Õ Kitap Üzerine Notlar(Physical governmentality Spor (“Robust and tough Õ (The main lines ofthe lines main (The Õ Tanzimat nlar , No. 103 (2005): 53-92. Õ , 2004) and samethe to the Republic), ’),” and Muteferrika body ÷ it CEU eTD Collection Universitesi Yayinlari, 2006). construction of the of construction of sports in the rendering of the certain elements of the Ottoman society the ‘others’ in the Dogan, 30 Gender, Place and Culture 539; M.Tervo, “Nationalism, Sports andGenderFinnishin Sport Journalisminthe EarlyCentury,” Twentieth Patriotism the Boys’ in Magazines,1892-1914,” methodological questions: Robert H. MacDonald, “Reproducing the Middle-Class Boy: From Purity to 1998): 4-9.Concerning sportjournalism followingthe articles are providing me the theoretical as wellas “national identity” as identity” constructed “national journal and the rolecolumns. in these attributedprevalent were tothat overtones women social-Darwinist the examine will I And Wars. through Balkan of context it. Second I will inthe education physical through citizen” masculine of “patriotic-heroic the construction discuss another levelI will focus on the part Inthat as amale‘Turk’. understanding self identity”“national asthe of ( history of sports in Turkey: The magazine of will identity”examine “national the imposedby sport journal named developmentof physical ineducation lateOttomanthe Empire. Ottoman Empire. The subsequent chaptersin had in developmentphysicalof education Sokol considerable effects the and Boy-Scouts will be the core of the thesis and will discuss the pioneering works isZafer Toprak, "Türkiye'de Sporun Tarihi -SporAlemi Dergisi ve Türkiye'de 29 American Journal of Sociology 28 construction ofthenation-state as John W. calls Meyer of what sociologist in world framework the in masculinity.modern of education construction the of FranceFinally, parts world.the it toother upon importanceof the will touch physical Muskeljuden The most comprehensive work on the Ottoman intellectual’s attitude towards social-Darwinism, see: Atilla Unfortunately systematica study on sport Ottoman/Turkish sport journalism does not exist, one of the Nation-State,” the and Society “World Ramirez, O. Francisco M.Thomas, George Boli, John W. Meyer, John Osmanli Aydinlari ve Sosyal Darwinizm Chapter 3 will discuss the spread of gymnastics from Germany to other parts of the parts other from to of Germany thespread 3will gymnastics Chapter discuss The core of the thesis is designed in three parts; first I will analyze the discourse of a ), Czech ( ), groupness ø dman 8, No.4(2001): 357-353. Sokol 103, No. 1(July 1997): 144-181. 30 (gymnastics), which was published between 1913 was 1914. which and (gymnastics), published Subsequently I will briefly briefly Subsequently I will women the discuss ingymnastics the of of ‘Turkish’the nation. ) and British (Boy-Scouting) cases since especially Turnen, especially since cases (Boy-Scouting) British and ) . vis á vis 28 It will elaborate on the German ( German the on elaborate will It Spor Alemi (Ottoman intellectuals and social Darwinism), (Istanbul: Bilgi Journal of Contemporary History the ‘others’. In that section I will examine the role 7 and gymnastics in Turkey)," Idman on two folds. First I will analyze 24, 1989): 519- No.3 (Jul., Tombak exogenous cultural Turnen , No., 20 (Summer ), Zionist ), ø dman (The dman 29 I CEU eTD Collection Tradition (Cambridge, Mass.: HarvardOzouf, UniversityMona is now to up Press,work 1988); best the Eric Hobsbawm and Terenceconsciousness; Ranger,ed., communal of 33 phase of Boy Scouting)," Mütareke Yillarina: Türkiye'de Izciligin Ilk Evresi (From the years of II. Constitution to the Armistice: The First Eve of RepublicanTurkey)" Bilimler Dergisi (Paramilitary youthorganizations of Comittee of Union and Progress),” ø the II. Constitutional Period)” in 32 Future?,” John Springhall, “Baden Powellthe understanding of andpurpose the with technologies” the Scout Movement “inventedof tradition”.First Iwill use theoriesthe Michel Foucaultof on “disciplinary before 1920: traditions”. “invented Hobsbawn, phrase of Citizen Trainingconstruction of a common “national-consciousness”or Soldiers or, they were one of the, in the famous ofperiod. the It is well known that public festivals are of movement social the intermingled.militaristic, andaspects were pedagogy one of the most important movementelements in the and forces behind the aslegitimizing knowledge of importance and practical pedagogies examine a was Third, discusswill briefly political-economy idea ofthe period. dominantthe I the story on a “naturalbuilding aspect of thescout”. movement character will andthe on beyond discussion I the ideamove “citizen building”. the scouts of and concentrate This onCUP. of policies underthe nature storyits association will with corporatismfirstshow I will give a brief history of the movement uswhich in Ottoman Empirehow and show its paramilitary the in Greatin Britain, 1900-1920,” 31 agent. paramilitary a as functioned and training military for was it whether the question of whether the Boy-Scout organization was promoting“character-building” or sufficiently, particularlyEmpire. on the contextThe subjectof British Empire. of Theseboy studiesscouting are particularly is oneon of the few subjects that have been studied leti There is a developed literature on the importance of public festivals and their importance on the construction the on importance their and festivals public of importance the on literature a developed is There Zafer Toprak, “II. Me For this debate, see: Allen Warren, “Sir Robert Baden-Powell, the Scout Movement and the Citizen Training Citizen the and Movement Scout the Baden-Powell, Robert “Sir Warren, Allen see: debate, this For ú im Yay In chapter 6 I will examine the gymnastic festivals which were began beto held in this In chapter 5 I will concentrate on the emergence of Boy-Scouting in Ottoman the of Boy-Scouting emergence the on 5Iwillconcentrate In chapter , (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992). The English Historical Review Õ nlar VII(1979): 95-113; Z. Toprak, "Cumhuriyet Arifesi Türkiye'de Izcilik(Boy-Scouting in the Õ , 1985),pp. 531-536;Z.“ Toprak, ú Tombak rutiyet Döneminde Paramiliter Gençlik Örgütleri (Paramilitary youth organizations in The English Historical Review Tombak , No.24 (February 1999): 19-27. Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e TürkiyeAnsiklopedisi , No., 25 (April 1999): 71-81and samethe “II. author, Mesrutiyet'ten 102, No. 102, 405 (Oct., 1987): 934-942. 32 Then I will examine the association between the boy- the between association the examine will I Then 33 In this chapter I will scrutinize this specific kind specific this scrutinize will I chapter this In 8 ø ttihatve ParamiliterTerakki’nin Gençlik Örgütleri 101,No. 399(Apr., 1986): 376-398. body-politics Festivals and the French Revolution Bo ÷ aziçi Üniversitesi Dergisi BeDergisi Üniversitesi aziçi of the Young Turk state , ed.MuratBelge, ( 31 Inthischapter TheInvention of ø stanbul: ú eri , CEU eTD Collection 1991). Germany form the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich 35 Europe,” 34 Turkey. in arefelt andhow contemporary even the they state nation forsuccessive the period in importance the CUPrule of the the out and I pointed education of specific angle physical from CUPa very of legend the of atthe look origins I will them. among education of physical briefly discuss the different connotations ‘beingof strong’ as conceived by CUP and the place in of masses. means the nationalization the gymnaststhe also but anideal represented society through theirand wereoneof cohesion the under these rule.Iwill festivals showthat not only “docile” theYoungTurk of bodies created festivals sport the of importance the comprehend to order in questions theoretical pose me to regimes communist under by mass his gymnastics festivals.behindwill examining massgymnastics extend Itheory the gymnastic festivals in the “nationalization inof masses” in festivals Germany. gymnastic the“nationalization George L. Mosse, L. George PeterRoubal, “Politics of Gymnastics: Mass Gymnastic Displays underCommunism inCentral and Eastern In the conclusion of the thesis I will outline the main findings of the thesis. I will Body & Society The Nationalization of theMasses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in 9,No. 2(2003): 1-25. 34 and L. byusingthe ideasof George Mosseon of importance the 9 , (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 35 These works will help will works These CEU eTD Collection ø 3 Tauris, 1998). Protected Domains: Ideology and the LegitimationPower of theOttoman in Empire: 1876-1909 an example of “autocratic modernization”, for the development of this argument see: Selim Deringil, Era was not conservative as it beenhas always depicted. Itismuch more appropriate to call the social life family social years from economy this to ten during period. of CUP was described as a centralized one which tried to penetrate intoalmost every aspect of presentin the name of their political party: Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). The rule 2 (Huntingdon,Cambridgeshire, England: EothenPress,1988), 109-127. Routledge,31-51; 1993), Roderick H. “FromEmpire Davidson, to Republic,”in 1 in the prevailing conservatism sharply with cautious the contrasted primethe mover insociety and a activism,certain a beliefinin change, progress,which as state central in of the faith spreadof innaïve) the power education the great (andsomewhat of attitudes were nationalism,in set element this Important of programme. set than a common rather of attitudes a sharedset a positivist was were:“ideologically eclectic common denominator of and their leaders Turks Young the belief in the value a famous historian Erikof far from According to Zurcher, unified whole. of objective scientificHowever astheYoungTurkswerefar from a unifiedof group people their werealso policies truth, a the World War I in late endthe of at defeat the 1908 to of years revolution from the ten for almost lasted rule which 1918 was identified Young Turkrule underthe aforementionedwith title “from empire nation”. to their policies to ‘nationalize’ the empire.I) Historical The Rule Framework: Young Turk (1908-1918): its‘Governmentality’ Nationand to Empire 1918): From (1908- YoungTurk Rule Framework: Theoretical I) Historical and Chapter ktisat For the nationalization of the ‘economy’ in this period see the seminal work: Zafer Toprak, Zafer work: seminal the see period this in ‘economy’ of the nationalization the For Erik J. Zurcher, J. Erik For instance see: Feroz Ahmad, “From Empire to Nation,” in (“National Economy”in Turkey) The belief inYoungof Turks and changewas progress anditomnipresent was even Almost all the well-known books on Ottoman-Turkish history describe the period of Turkey: AModern History (1908-1918) , (I.B. Tauris, 2004),132. However the studies show that , (Ankara: Yurt Yay 10 The Making ofModern Turkey Õ nlar 3 Õ , 1982); and for the ‘new family’ However this rule was not Hamidian Turkey: AShort History modern 1 TheYoung Turk era” Türkiye’de “Milli Hamidian , (London: I.B. , (London: Turkey, the 2 , (New York: , Hamidian The Well- Era as , CEU eTD Collection Turkish nationalism in the core of the empire, now Anatolia, remained the only source for source only the remained Anatolia, now empire, the of core in the nationalism Turkish Islamism. and Nationalism Turkish to Ottomanism of dream political the from change remaining of lands ArabianPeninsulathe asonlyimperial Anatolia inoutside resulted a elite. ruling ideologiesthe of the in change a in resulted also but periphery very its to Europe Eastern and Central from empire boundaries of the shifted the only not Montenegro and Greece Serbia, ofBulgaria, armies the protecting straits and Istanbul protecting andIstanbul June1913. straits after for Balkans a stripthe on to were restricted in Europe theempire of territories rule. The one, the Ottoman rule in the WarsBalkan in 1912and War 1913andWorldfrom 1918. As I 1914 to a result first the of Balkan Peninsula ended after more than five hundred years of the end of the WWI. was established ministersof the War, Navy Affairs and respectively Interior lastedand it until Darwin Press, 1995). 7 McCarthy, Justin of theInternationalOrder year. After this event, the event, this After year. 6 Mahmudunionist Prime-Minister Sevket not- but reformist the when peak the reached power its reached it and War of Minister the of leader, a conducted when Turk Pasa Enver Young the The CUP was able to consolidate its power as its power the consolidate to The CUPwasable of name the under later and Party] 5 a front against the unionists known as ‘liberals’ (first in the name of 4 Turcica same author,the “The Family, Feminism and theState during theYoung Period:Turk 1908-1918,” in April as ‘31 1909 (known in monarchy to the for areturn abacklash as by palace the challenged anditwas uncontested Justin McCarthy, Justin Tan Roderick H. Davidson, Erik J. Zurcher, Õ l Bora,“Turkish National Identity,NationalismTurkish and BalkanThe Peninsula,” in 13 (1991): 441-452. During the rule of CUP, the Ottoman Empire witnessed two catastrophic wars: the catastrophic wars: two Empire witnessed Ottoman CUP, the of During rule the Turkey: A Modern History The Ottoman Peoples and the End ofEmpire Death andExile: TheEthnic Cleansing ofOttoman Muslims, 1821-1922 4 Turkey: ShortA History , ed. Gunay, ed. Goksu, Ozdogan, Kemali Sayba st dictatorial triumvirate of March Incident’) and by different political powers who created who powers political different by and Incident’) March of 6 The flow of Muslim refugees from these territories Hurriyet ve Itilaf Firkasi [Freedom and Accord Party] Accord Firkasi and [Freedom Itilaf ve Hurriyet , 93-131. , 114. Pa ú 11 5 a This disastrous defeat of the Ottomans against was assassinated in the summer of the same of the summer in the assassinated was of the three the of governing power , (London: Arnold,2001), 71-97. coup d’etat úÕOÕ pa , (Istanbul:, Eren, 1995), 102-120; ú a which resulted in death the which resulted s, Enver, Cemal and Talat, only only January after 1913 Ahrar Firkasi Ahrar Balkans: AMirror , (Princeton, N.J.: [Liberal 7 and the and Varia ). CEU eTD Collection 12 Hovannisian ,ed., 11 emergence of the of emergence to “contributed institutional,the ideological andunderlay social that development the According toDavidson these changes in the Ottoman society during the ten years of CUP rule events tragic most the of in one lives, their lost Armenians had andduring the‘deportations’ of spring andsummer one1915 around million of Jews. of exception the with unsuccessful was it but rule imperial the into Jews) and Armenians Greeks, notably (most communities communitiesterritories, of the thereEmpire. was one more Itproblem is forknow its leadingthat cadre the to dealCUP with: tried the non-Muslim to integrate the non-Muslim 10 Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis, (New York : Holmes & Meier, 1982), 401-434. HasanKayal, 8 countries. Thrace movedintheir andWest of exceptions living Constantinople from respective ones the In populationthis exchangeand 900.000Orthodox 400.000 Muslim sidespeople onboth with in apopulation followingexchange thewar between ‘Greeks’ and ‘Turks’ in 1921and 1922 army. Ottoman the against fought and forces British with in socalled the particularly Arab after ‘identification’ 1917 whenArabs the Revolt united Empire, 1908-1914,”in 9 (Berkeley : University of California Press, 1997) Forthe Islamist policies of the CUP and its attempts to integrate the Arabian lands and to gaintheir loyalty see: Feroz Ahmed, “Unionist Relations withThe Greek, Armenian, and JewishCommunities of the Ottoman Roderick H. Davidson, There is a huge literature onthe Erik J. Zurcher, If these were the failed policies of the CUP to avoid the disintegration of the imperial the of disintegration the avoid to CUP the of policies failed the were these If 10 However the Armenians of the Empire had a much worse fate than the Greeks fate the than worse hadamuch Empire of the Armenians the However Arabs and YoungTurks: Ottomanism, Arabism, andIslamism in theOttoman Empire: 1908-1918 Turkey: A Modern History The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics modern Turkish nation Christians andJewsOttoman inthe empire:theFunctioning ofaPlural Society Turkey: ShortA History Armenian Genocide , 164. and the Turkish republic [emphasis mine].” 9 , 109. The problem The integratingof problem Greeks only solvedwas 12 and for one of the most important works, see: Richard G. , 8 (LondonMacmillan, : 1992). of the twentieth century. twentieth the of 12 , ed. 11 , CEU eTD Collection 18 ( ø WWI during andparticularly published CUPera the books during warpropaganda the through based national-identity of a culture theformation case, they emphasized first In the journals. ‘nationalist’ and as books such sources literary the on have focused studies other Some Ziya “official” the ideologue Gökalp, of nationalism Turkish even in his after 1924. death Some scholarsfocused on ‘nationalist’the intellectuals of periodthe andmost prominently on Anatolia. of communities Christian the to and Balkans the of communities of nationalisms mentioned the policy to and astate response as adirect was depicted nationalism Turkish the of emergence the view this In empire. the of ‘others’ the of nationalisms the to response empire the of nationalism” “official the calls Anderson 17 Company, 1950). and state modern of the state modern the in behavior form context the political appropriate of “Turkish nationalism.” fromof orTurks perceptions asOttoman theirTurks Russia andtheirdifferent of authors a nation”. into “community the of transformation 16 William W. Haddad and William Ochsenwald, (Ohio State University Press, 1977), 25-56. OttomanResponse,” in 15 Verso, 1991), 83-112. 14 Press, 1968), 323-361. Bernard Lewis,13 “Community and Nation” in II) Theof ‘Nationalism’ the Young Turks and its From propaganda to nationalidentity construction: Turkish literature and the FirstWorld War, 1914-1918 Arai, Masami, stanbul : Erol Köro Erol Urel Heyd, Urel For an example of such an approach Benedict Anderson, see: Roderick Davison, “Nationalism as an Ottoman Problem and the This is the typical idea concerning the formation of Turkish nation, see the chapter in the seminal book of 17 whereas in the latter case the “nationalist” journals have been evaluated on on basis the beenevaluated journals have case “nationalist” the in whereas latter the I claim that these theses attempted to understand Turkish nationalism as “an especially as nationalism understand Turkish to attempted these I claim theses that The studies on the Turkish nationalism under Young Turk rule focused on the ø leti ÷ Foundations ofTurkish Nationalism: TheLifeand Teachings Gökalp ofZiya lu, ú im Yayinlari, 2004). Turkish Nationalism in the Young Turk Era Türk Edebiyat Imagined Communities: Reflections Originon the and Spread of Nationalism Nationalism in aNon-National State:TheDissolution Ottoman ofthe Empire 18 Õ veBirinci DünyaSava The Emergence of Modern Turkey 13 úÕ 13 , 1914-1918:Propagandadan Mill , (Leiden, New York: E.J. Brill, 1992). They either concentrated on what Benedict what on concentrated either They 14 Modernity orstudied nationalism Turkish asa : , (Oxford, : Oxford University , (London: Luzac and Luzac (London: , Õ Kimlik In , (London: ú as , ed. Õ na 16 15 ), , CEU eTD Collection 24 23 Books, 1986),5-53. Enlightenment and to its rationality. its to and Enlightenment limits thought” nationalism ourunderstandingof the boundaries history the of to of ‘freedom’. to development political its for and a‘special’ deviant one (of the East) whose deviancy is explained a dichotomy between itdilemma West ‘pure’ of the constructs the type as liberal-rationalist thought”. “nationalist on work his in extensively essay this discussed had who others many is among Chatterjee Partha historian 22 and Secession 21 Eugene Kamenka, (London: E. Arnold, 1976), 30. states: case,Plamenatz latter Forthe nationalisms. African) Asian, (Slavic, andother of ‘Western’ nature the the andcompares discusses essay Plamenatz first discussed by inhisJohn Plamenatz essay “TwoTypesentitled of Nationalism.” In that and III) Theoretical ‘Governmentality’ of Modernity Framework: State Rule: 20 larger context of context larger 19 system.” Partha Chatterje, Partha Roger Brubaker, “Myths and Misconceptions in the Study of Nationalism,” in JohnPlamenatz, “Two Types of Nationalism,” in John Breuilly, John Ibid Ibid. ., 17. , 1-6. This view has been discussed and criticized by various scholars various by criticized and discussed been has view This This modernizing nature of nationalism of some [“non-Western”] countries has been has countries [“non-Western”] some of nationalism of nature modernizing This 19 But they lacked a crucial point in doing so since they did place this project in thisproject in sosincethey place did doing Butthey lacked acrucial point , ed. Margaret Moore, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 233-286. they they were. than advanced more were drawn, were they which into civilization the of standards the by who, peoples the of level the to themselves acquired from their ancestors were inadequate, if they were to raise ideas customs and skills, alsothe wasanawareness themselves...there for identities national create to anew, make themselves civilization not of their making, own they have had,asitwere, to themselves.to them, a civilization alien into a practice,into ideas andpractices, western the they have In to theirre-equip effortsthemselves culturally,to assert to transformthemselves as equals in a Nationalism and the State Nationalist Thought andthe Colonial World:Derivative A Discourse? modernizing Drawn gradually, as a result of the diffusion among them of 20 Turkish society Turkish society while constructingit. 22 , (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994), 1. Chatterjee criticizes Plamenatz’s essay on the basis of its 24 In other words he searches for the “possibilities that “possibilities the for searches he words other In 23 However according to Chattarjee the “nationalist Chattarjee the to according However 14 Nationalism: TheNature and Evolution of anIdea sociologically National Self-Determination , (London, U.K. : Zed 21 and sub-altern , asstages , ed. , CEU eTD Collection concern. According to Foucault is: Accordingconcern. governmentality to its concern with the with concern its University of Chicago Press, 1991), 100. by andanInterview with MichelFoucault of power.” exercise for the condition asthe may appear freedom well insofar [and] free… asthey andonly free are is only “power subjects over since exercised as such.” them some accept extend to subjects andtheiras oppressors, not andliberators themselves as in minds. Butthey see reachdeeper their becausetry to they precisely old were, rulers rulers who demandnew “These so stating: much by essay his of concludes theirPlamenatz nationalisms. of peopleskinds two the between are in the same ways more oppressive than the 28 Rabinow,(New Harvester York: Wheatsheaf, 1982), 221. Hermeneutics with an Afterword byandan Interview with Michel Foucault 27 26 at 25 new a 1908represented rule after Turk Young section the above governmentality that ‘freedom’ is itthat exactly However freeing peoplefrom theirformer [repressive]bounds and madethem free and equal citizens. possibilities opened up: Were there alternative ways of thinking about a modern state?” many Thatis new the in movements where of of these course been the had repressed Michael Foucault, ‘Governmentality’ in Michael Foucault, John Plamenatz, “Two Types of Nationalism,” “Afterword:36. Shaikh, Nermeen by interview TheModernity,” aPostcolonial “Towards SubjectChatterjee, Partha and the Power” in http://www.asiasource.org/news/special_reports/chatterjee_print.html Here I try to bring a new dimension to Chatterjee’s critique to Plamenatz’s division 26 I agree with this argument that nationalism is a [positive] force in the sense of sense in the force a [positive] is nationalism that argument this with Iagree etc... directing the people of without awareness the of the flow campaigns,of or populationitself population the is it largeon willwhich through government directly act whether scale population; the to into immanent sense certain some in all regions arethemselves toattain ends these uses means government the the that and etc.; health, orlongevity, wealth, its activities,of increase the condition, its of improvement the population, the of welfare the but itself, government in contrast to sovereignty, government has its purpose not the act of by Michel by isMichel Foucault Aspath opening. haveI mentioned in introduction the 28 population indirectly throughtechniques that will makepossible, it ruled and the physical education tothis it ruled andthewas atactic physical education related The Foucault Effect: Studies inGovernmentality: with Two Lectures , ed.GrahamBurchell, ColinGordon Peterand Miller, (Chicago: also places them under them places 15 , the stimulation of birth rates, the MichelFoucault: Beyond Structuralism and , (23/05/2007)]. disciplinary ed. Hubert L. Dreyfus and Paul art of government of art 27 Here the concept of Asia Source powerstructures based on , [available 25 CEU eTD Collection in the United States,” United the in 31 Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics… Wintage/Random House,p. 1979), 170quotedHubert in L. Dreyfus Paul and Rabinow, eds., 30 homogeneous whole asa itself represent to and tries institutions, civil includes state, to restricted andadministration. control, surveillance, besides makingsensemade andbeing of by powerrelations provide schemes that the of discipline as individual an moreand optimizing capacitiesits towork body the of disciplining the see we education physical Through coincide. powers disciplinary vary”.can to cause these that conditions the all with longevity, and expectancy life health, of level the morality, and births propagation, lifebody imbued mechanicsof with the and serving basisof asthe biological processes: the 29 in of cultural process ‘subject-ification’ the exercise.” ofits instruments as objectsand individuals both regards that a power of specific technique the is it individuals; ‘makes’ “discipline a as emerges education Physical general. in healthy socialthe body, population and ‘nation’ with these efficientbodies and being strong and the and its docility, its integration of efficient and economic controls”. Whereas the second one, ofits usefulness increase parallel the its forces, extortion of the of capabilities, optimization politics According to Foucault and its of understandto this relation physical education nature the there were two kinds of disciplinary power, first one was Aihwa Ong,“Cultural Citizenship as Subject-Making: Immigrants Negotiate Racial and CulturalBoundaries Michel Foucault, Michel Foucault, regulatory controls: ofthe population abio-politics Therefore physical education emerges at the point where these two kinds of two where these point atthe emerges education physical Therefore The ideal of ‘freedom’ and ‘equal' citizenship needs specific attention since ita since attention allows specific needs and‘equal'citizenship ‘freedom’ The ideal of Foucault’s onthe studies body thesetechniquesreveal which are crucial for usto of human body of 30 Historyof Sexuality: AnIntroduction Current Anthropology Discipline and Punish: The Birth Prisonof whichis “paradoxically attained through a process of individualization which was “centered on the body as a machine and its disciplining, the , 156. 37, No.5 (Dec., 1996): 737. 29 Foucaltian 16 , (New York: Vintage Books, 1990), p. 139. 31 This sense of the word which refers to the “focused on the species of body, the govermentality efficiently , trans. Alan Sheridan, (New York: and the identification of identification the and of the state, but not but state, the of governmentality MichelFoucault: anatomo- unified, . CEU eTD Collection Meyer calls as and discuss its spread to Ottoman Empire in the framework of what sociologist John W. doing focusbrieflyhistory in soIwill of the physical differentineducation countries Europe physical education which go hand in hand with the implantation of disciplines.these After with the mentioned the with American Journal of Sociology 34 Genealogy,”Citizenship Studies 1, No.1 (1997): 121. to other classes33 other than the privileged ones. see: Engin F. Isin, “Who is the New Citizen? Towards a look into rulefestivals Young-Turk the this under to mass-gymnastic I willorganization and of onthe emergence that focus Boy-Scout the in journal entitled the period published Young Turkrule is of paper.this subject the study, the Throughout first I will examine asport ‘nationalization’ bodiesthe of Turkishof male citizensphysical through education under 32 citizens. consumers, andwelfare-dependents” inwhereby people areconstructed definitive specific and ways ascitizens-taxpayers, workers, John W. Meyer, John Boli, George M. Thomas, Francisco O. Ramirez, “World Society and the Nation-State,” the and Society “World Ramirez, O. Francisco M.Thomas, George Boli, John W. Meyer, John Soldier-citizenas a category of ‘citizenship’ is a crucial step inthe ‘democratization’ and spread of citizenship Ibid., 738. Before doing so I will focus on the ideological currents behind the development of A very specific ‘discipline’ and ‘discipline’ specific A very 33 exogenous cultural constructionofthe nation-state governmentality 103, No. 1(July 1997): 144-181. and 32 and in our case (masculine and patriotic) soldier- andpatriotic) (masculine case andin our Idman disciplinary technologies subjectification 17 to have an idea of this subjectification of the citizens, namely the . . 34 and how it intermingled it andhow subjectification . After CEU eTD Collection human history. The natural selection however was not restricted to human biology and biology human to restricted not was however selection natural The history. human was made upon minute the acting selection by mainelementof the for existence struggle the fixed is nature resultof laws’,claimedthe view aworld that natural evolution the through Social-Darwinism was reflectinggoverned aworld viewby belief the ‘everythingthat in roof. a single under etc. capitalism to socialism from pacifism, to militarism from patriarchy, which many encompassed camps polarizedand totally viewsworld from feminism to Darwinism. Social- to inrelation especially ‘scientification’ this of targets the of one were below detail 3 2 StefanBerger, (Malden, MA: BlackwellPub., 2006), 334. of society. the elements ‘weak’ of exclusion the the to epidemics and diseases against fight from varied health those public of theconcerns was society 1 ‘abnormal’ racially and/or inherently thus weak. mentally whowere others various boundaries against class middle strengthening of the rid of its religious rhetoric. Thedefinition ‘normal’ of the was particularly inthe utilized transformation the legacies on body and mind of the other gained scientific legitimacy and get this In discourses. medical and scientific various through self the of definition the Whatis important in these changes concerning our purpose was the affect of these changes on institutionally. and ideologically both changes, radical underwent sciences social the lastly I) Theof Century Science and Struggle: ‘Racial’ Education Chapter II) Intellectual Currents behind theDevelopment of Physical Kathryn M. Olesko, “The Century of Science,” in Ibid. Ibid. , 339. , 336-337. The other ideology (or science) of science)19 the of ideology (or The other Throughout the nineteenth century first the physical sciences, than life-sciences and life-sciences than sciences, physical the first century nineteenth the Throughout A Companion toNineteenth-Century Europe: 1789-1914, 18 th 2 century was social-Darwinism, again a term The next step in the “scientification” of the of “scientification” in the step next The 3 Bodies , as I will discuss in Iwill discuss , as ed. 1 CEU eTD Collection 2001), 290-292. 8 7 terbiyesi/idman Bora, ( problems of daily politics theoriesgrand left they Since one. political a to movement intellectual an from itself transformed about social the more evenimportance when CUP social gained HaniogluDarwinism suggests change and adapted social-Darwinism as a way to cope with the international arena depended on having a having on depended arena international in in argued that survivalof defeated they andthe consequently “struggle” the state the the being not of way only the was “strong” being intellectuals, Ottoman some to According willif ableto defend they not (i.e. weak groups states) themselves. are disappear itintellectuals, after was 1870s.Second, the argueemployed in sphere political the thethat to of thought,as away Social-Darwinism, of state”. the the“survival of discourse the under daily politics, first began to be utilizedpopulation. in the debates of positivist or materialist sametime.the by itat ills werediagnosed which to the antidotes the discovered Ottoman also Social-Darwinism time. the of discourses scientific/medical by Modern Türkiye’de Siyasi Dü in the society or Eugenics waseither proposed. ‘racial’ quality populationthe of of mainwas one the solutions thatsocial-Darwinist thinkers unsurprisingly coincided with what wasdefined asthe social ills, the 6 5 StefanBerger, (Malden, MA: BlackwellPub., 2006), 225. 4 included ofhumanand mental social existence. aspects Mike Hawkins, “Social Darwinism and Race,” in Ibid. Ibid. M. M. HasanÜnder, “Türkiye’de Sosyal Dü Darwinizm ù , 430-432. , 232-233. ükrü Hanio ükrü ø stanbul: The Ottoman intellectuals of the period emphasized training the body ( body the training emphasized period the of intellectuals Ottoman The Among the Ottoman intellectuals social-Darwinism received particular attraction in attraction particular received social-Darwinism intellectuals Among Ottoman the 5 ø leti ÷ ) as a mean for “the survival of the state” and to prevent lu, ú im Yay Preperation a Revolution, for TheYoung Turks: 1902-1908 positive Õ nlar ú 8 ünce: Milliyetçilik which are again seen through glasses of social-Darwinism. of glasses through seen again are which Õ , 2003), 428-429. which encourages the breeding of breeding whichencourages the higher of the elementsof negative thus prohibiting the breeding of thusthe prohibiting breeding inferior of the elements (Political thought inmodern Turkey:ed. nationalism), Tan strong A Companion Nineteenth-Century to Europe: 1789-1914, ú üncesi (The Idea of Social Darwinism inTurkey),”in 19 nation, and a and nation, Eugenics 4 These mental and social aspects strong the way of improving the way of the degeneration army. , (Oxford University Press: University , (Oxford degeneration 7 Also,asSükrü as labeled which beden ed. Õ 6 l CEU eTD Collection Solidarism’, 14 Constitution: populism),” 13 12 Politicsof and International Relations 11 (Political thought in modern Turkey: nationalism),ed. Tan “official ideology “official ideology Thirdthe of French Republic” itother exhibited itself in antagonism toothergroups, often not compromising. Solidarité, the the on However, togetherness. feeling importantly most and others for responsibility unity, division. ( occupations” solidarismproperty butwas also trying social between, liberalismfree touchingto entrepreneurship private socialism,without and and upon “relieve theeconomically, pains”mid-way, be a to believed was one which system social a and of wild-capitalism.politic-economic that a The divisionsecond dimension of of labor in society would build an “era of among members of a group which promotes mutual members whichamong promotes a group of support.” ofreciprocal feeling is scholar,“theAccordingsympathy and responsibility one solidarity to developed inhis influential study “Thedivisionentitled in of Labor Society” (1893). II) Solidarité and Corporatism: 10 Contemporary History No.17, 1 (Jan., 1982): 51-68. 9 bodies.” thecreation “national of through development” “national create Republic.aimed to inherited by They which were the projects eugenics quantitative and qualitative developmentwas also observed among intellectuals the French of period.the of the population. The CUP rule witnessed the first examine more this phenomenon deeply in coming the chapter on journal sports the is bodies”this itin one since project means the“national Iwill makingof the these of docile. Robert A Nye, “Degeneration, Neurasthenia and the Culture of Sport in Belle Époque France,” Journal of Journal France,” Époque in Belle of Sport Culture the and Neurasthenia “Degeneration, A Nye, Robert J. E. S.Hayward, ‘The OfficialSocial Philosophy of Frenchthe Third Republic: LéonBourgeois and ZaferToprak, “ Lawrence Wilde, “The Concept of Solidarity: Emerging from the Theoretical Shadows?” Theoretical the from Emerging of Solidarity: Concept “The Wilde, Lawrence Ayca Alemdaroglu, Ojeni Dusuncesi (Idea of eugenics), in Ibid. ,171-172. Solidarity Solidarity is a inventedby as concept sociologistFrench Emile Durkheim, and 13 But there lied a paradox at the heart of solidarité. On the one hand ithandpromoted one the On solidarité. of heartthe liedat aparadox Butthere International Review of Social History meslek devri meslek ø kinci Me Toplum ve Bilim ú rutiyet’te Solidarist Dü ) where a classless society will be created and based on this 9,No.1 (2007): 171. , No., 1 (Spring 1977): 95-101. , 6 (1961):19–48. ú ünce: Halkç 20 Õ l ( Bora, 14 Modern Türkiye’de SiyasiDü was also very prominent among the ÕOÕ ø k (Solidarist thought in the period of Second 10 stanbul: The physical education is of a The education part physical 9 12 ø This survival bewill through leti Solidarism was primarily a primarily was Solidarism ú imYay Õ nlar The British Journal The British Õ ú , 2003),, 414-421. ünce: Milliyetçilik Idman . 11 CEU eTD Collection Yay 17 92-95. 16 Turkey), ( 15 nationalistideologist and Ziya Gökalp. Turkish intellectuals of periodthe particularly by promoted well the known Turkish project of leaders.of project CUP Muslim/Turk bourgeoisiewhowas still a weak potential,became thefundamental part of the traditional system imperialof and classes assupporters of Therefore, the supportto powers. recreate to of bureaucracy who attempts blocks the asagroup alsobut bureaucracy will defeat who of a bourgeoisie members only not as were seen who bourgeoisie with non-Muslim the ( create economy” ableto theirnot leaders “national were CUP terms, economic it.create in Speaking political- ofCUPto bourgeoisie andattempts “native”,of Muslim/Turk it absence we think of when the gains at ameaning sametime, the solidarité and corporatism theme ofbeing enterprising ( the with in hand hand went it since intellectuals Ottoman among problem complex rather awakening.” “national enterprising and “economic nameof economy” under the encouraged to III) Universal Conscription III) Universal( Conscription movement. examine the mergence of boy-scouting since they stand as one of the major themes of following the revolution, there emerged an intimate connection between national identity, national between connection intimate an emerged there revolution, the following of replacing privileges the by identity and national power the state the legitimizing anew of way masse became en Leveé Revolution. the and country the defend to order in Revolution, French the after Zafer Toprak, Zafer Ça Taha Parla, Taha Õ nlar ÷ lar Keyder, lar Õ The Although it seems to beAlthough it inconsistent promote seems to [individual] to enterprising and[social] , 1982), 57. ø stanbul: Levée en masse Levée Ziya Gökalp, Kemalizm ve Türkiye’de Korporatizm 17 We will turn back to themes of enterprising and Türkiye’de Devlet veS Türkiye’de “Milli ø leti ú im Yay 16 Õ nlar (the people in arms/ As a result, the Muslim/Turk elements of the society were ancient regime müte Õ , 1989), 18-19. ø ktisat” Levée enmasse ú ÕQÕ ebbis flar (“National Economy”in Turkey) (State and Class inTurkey),( ). 15 However this issue of solidarité ( solidarité issue of this However by growing popular participation. In century by In popularparticipation. the growing 21 millet-i müselleha ): (Ziya Gokalp, Kemalizm and corporatism in ø solidarité stanbul: ) is a phenomenon emerged (1908-1918) ø leti once more when I ú im Yay tesanüd , (Ankara: Yurt milli iktisat Õ nlar ) was a Õ , 2004),, ) CEU eTD Collection the the ‘desired citizen’ civic knowledge from II. Constitution to today ), ( 21 Horne, 20 Akad, ( Conscription the inMiddle EastandCentral Asia) Context),” in 19 Waldron, (Cambridge University Press,2003), 100-123. Arms, Military MythandNational Mobilization since the French Revolution 18 youth: the of education patriotic During thisperiod, themilitary instruction followed by serviceuniversal wassupplied by the I. War World the with front” “back the or front” “civic of part the into evolved now men old from Empire. separate Ottoman the were trying to which states nationalism Balkan to the of infrom varying and French, “tyranny” the time, political the context on it; dependent mobilize against theirpeople to defined enemies, their forcefully. time, of most the andfor the or voluntarily either andEgyptincrease Ottoman Empire, to tried military by their power conscription universal military capacity. and legitimacy political and taxes. paying service military obedience, bases: three had role citizenry the of definition the that us shows the necessity defineto the role of the ‘citizens’. in butsimilarities withitsAftercounterparts 1908,Young Turkshad European a slowerpace. love anddefend country the is missions one by of ordered sacred the Holy the Islam” or Füsun Üstel, “ Charles de Freycinet, de Charles Er John Horne, “Defining the Enemy, War, Law, and the and Law, War, Enemy, the “Defining Horne, John Õ k Jan Zürcher, “Zorunlu Askerlik veDireni Askerlik “Zorunlu Zürcher, Jan k Defining the Enemy… ø stanbul: The main of“total components wars” of 19thcentury;the men, women, children and A study of the books prepared for school children’s’ education of citizenry knowledge The steps followed by the Ottoman Empire in order to create a nation in arms, had Devletin Silahlanmas no one has the right to avoid. to right the has one no which of performance andpersonal,the direct, is close, consequence, but a duty, a duty like that of defending ones’ family and home that, in a burden not is defend fatherland the to children that Let usteach our ø Makbul Vatanda stanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yay 21 These books share similar statements to the one quoted above such as: “to La Guerre en Province pendant le siége deParis , 111. ú´Õ Õ , Ortado, n Pe ú inde, II.Meinde, ÷ u’da veOrta Asya’daZorunlu Askerlik Õ nlar 20 ú 18 : Tarihi Çerçeve (Conscription and Resistance: the Historical the Resistance: and (Conscription Çerçeve : Tarihi All around the world, the states in Europe, Japan, in Europe, states the world, the around All Õ , 2003), 2-22. (1775-1925) ú 22 rutiyet’ten BugüneVatanda Levée en masse en Levée ed. Er ed. ø stanbul: Õ from 1870 to 1945,” in c Jan Zurcher, trans. Mehmed Tanju Mehmed trans. Zurcher, c Jan , (Paris, 1871),359, quotedJohn in 19 In this process, the states the process, Inthis ø , ed.Daniel Moranand Arthur leti úOÕ ú im Yay (Arming the State: Military k E ÷ itimi Õ nlar (In the pursuit of pursuit the (In Õ , 2004), 83. The People in CEU eTD Collection dissolution of the CUP. of organizations paramilitary the role of military in politics under Young Turk rule was an elementin this process the other was which every Ottoman citizen was ready to sacrifice himself for forwar. whole ‘nation’ prepare the nation. If the increasing Balkan until was postponed Wars. 1914 dueto conscript ( conscript the army was dividing the forces of the army into three as standing ( 24 43 (1998): 437-449. 23 the contraryon state, the of latterthe puts emphasis character Islamic onthe the on unity makeemphasis of one Ottomans, former including the as sources non-Muslims. different two from quotations influenced from Prussian useless. of universal conscription of 1909 includingthenon-Muslim citizens became more even The law “traitors”. and potential more “un-trustful” became of empire the ethnic components multi- Wars. itsAfterthe during the this peakespecially process war, reaching Balkan point themeloosing landnationalisms of became andantagonist animportant component of this aresoldiers”. poor rich or 22 stating the clear idea of M. Erik JanZurcher, Erik “The OttomanConscription System, 1844–1914,” Ibid. ù , 87. The ambiguity definitionof citizenship, and its rights as well asits obligations are reflectedthese in ükrü Hanio These were all the parts of the CUP’s project to create an “Ottoman armed nation” in nation” an“Ottoman armed create to project of CUP’s the parts all the These were Besides this law, the Ottoman army changed its structure, the system which was Ottoman governmentpassed thelaw of in conscription universal 1909. However the ihtiyat ÷ lu, ) and militia ( redif Preperation for a Revolution, is striking and as I will demonstrate it was no coincidence. Levée enmasse Levée 22 Landwehr redif ). In 1912the ). system, was introduced in 1843. According to that system by saying “all the Ottomans of age twenty whether 24 294-295. The establishment of Boy-Scouting and the and Boy-Scouting of establishment The 23 redif 23 Theidea behind was these changes to s were decided to bes were dissolved decided this and to International Review of Social History Nizamiye ), reserve ), , CEU eTD Collection Journal of Sociology 28 27 Press, 1996), 9. 26 (Wisconsin: The University of WisconsinPress, 1985), 7-9. masculinity as it included more. The promotion of a heroic masculinity was one of the most the of importantone outcomes was of the relation between physical education,masculinity militarism and nationalism.heroic a of In promotion The more. included it as masculinity up the body and the development of the soul was not the only aspect in development of 25 developing the physical virtues of a man show hiswhich also moral virtues. honor. needs of the society, the middlemainly class are threatened. In this transformation male body conceived as a symbol orderof the and progress valuesof is whentraditional masculinity society,intransformed modern structural changes as well as the middle class virtues such of anational building stereotype. as ideology” nationalist of the part in the construction modern masculinity.of wordshowother In “the ideals manlinessof are IV) Construction of Modern Masculinity: masculinity: the Ancient Greek male beauty and themoral virtues that were attributed to it. in 19 the ideological reflections their protectorate of outward The virtue. the andexcavations onAncient discoveries Greek and the visualshape of perceivedasthe body Thus and perceptions. was the virtues related their social realities and hope for the future. These attributes were mainly physical and moral Anthony Synnott, “Tomb, Temple, Machine and Self: The Social Construction of the Body,” George L. Mosse, L. George George L. Mosse, L. George Ibid ., 17-39. 26 Gymnastics was perceived as thebasic way to reach this ideal masculinity since it was the of in spite intact remained stereotype male the although that claims Mosse George is education here Iwill physical that therole of highlight intellectual current The last The modern masculinity contained a whole series of attributes that reflected both thatreflected of attributes series awhole contained masculinity modern The 43, No.1 (Mar., 1992): 93-94. The ImageofMan: TheCreation ofModern Masculinity Nationalism Nationalism and Sexuality: Middle-Class Morality andSexual Norms in Modern Europe 25 and physical education seen and amean inwas education as physical this process th century Europe resulted in the ultimate ideal of 24 , ( New York: Oxford University 28 But the building Butthe The British The 27 , CEU eTD Collection Turnen introduction thetopic attheto Iwill look main gymnastic of movements period:the German in After innation building abrief coming education general physical chapter. Europe and the vatan the of rebuilding and rescue “to Iran contemporary its to similar Turkey, Ottoman in the since soldier”. a as nation the serve to citizen the of duty internalized an into conscription of institution in 31 Tosh, (Manchester, New York: ManchesterUniversity Press, 2004), 31. Masculinities inPolitics and War: Gendering Modern History 30 Mangan, (London: Frank Cass, 2002), 12. in Imperialism,” New ofthe Age the in Militarism and 29 ideal the of it since promoted masculinity physical education since the latter got more militarized towards the WWI. manliness with and death heroism,were associated this idealsof and the relation sacrifice Joannade Groot, “Brothers of Iranian the Manhood,race’: Nationhood, Modernity and in Iranc. 1870-1914,” John Horne, “Masculinity in Politics A. andSynnott, War “Tomb, in theTemple, age Machine of Nation-Statesand Self...,” 50; J. A. Mangan, and “DutyWorld unto Wars,Death: English 1850-1950,” Masculinity in Masculinities in Politics and War, (homeland) and m and (homeland) , Zionist , Before moving to movingBefore caseof to the will between Ottoman Empire relationship I the examine Physical education as training to war has an important aspect of the creation of 30 This linkis crucial understand to rolethe of physical ineducation nation building Muskeljuden ellat , Czech (nation) were the tasks for a new masculine patriot citizenry.” eds. StefanDudink and others, 144. Sokol and the British Boy-Scout movements. Boy-Scout British the and levee en masse levee 25 TribalIdentities, Nationalism,Sport Europe, , eds. StefanDudink, Karen Hageman and John which “sought to turn coercive toturn “sought which 29 , ed. J.A. 31 CEU eTD Collection also to “indivualize” the people under disciplinary technologies. disciplinary people under the also to“indivualize” masses” the “nationalize Mosse’s terms, George and initseducation spread toothercountries Europe was oneof means the using notonly to, chapter 6: “Organizations Take aHand,” 127-160. from the Napoleonic Wars Through the Third Reich period”. historical same in the ways similar in organizations mayhave distinct and histories,complex butthey all have expanded structurally and “nation states isit that observed Therefore local to circumstances. attached strongly makeas thefailure torealizeit these goalsidentify that easy failures.” andto decry readily modelavailable Alsosocial morally and compelling. are available definedproblems, are goals national of measures and Models in asociety. arise to forms sociopolitical standard 4 3 2 American Journal of Sociology 1 policies andthey undertake around nation-states framework worldthe showgreatisomorphism in and their structures nation-state as calls Meyer W. John sociologist of what framework a way to stop ‘degeneration’ of the society besides many other themes as explained above. phenomenon was the utilization of the physical education as a mean for military-fitness and as incontinental Europe middlethe of 19 the I) AGeneral Overview: Chapter III) A Brief History of Physical Education in Europe George L. Mosse, L. George Nation-State,” the and Society “World Ramirez, O. Francisco Thomas, M. George Boli, John Meyer, W. John Ibid Ibid. .,156. , 151. This spread of physical education to a wide range of contexts can be explained in the canbeexplained contexts a wide of range education to physical This spreadof Modern . 1 According to Meyer, According “makes to cultural for this iteasy and construction ‘natural’ physical education had spread to varietyits ofin had to physical after emergence spread contexts education The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany 103, No. 1(July 1997), 144-181. structuration in wayssince modelsthese standardized are not th 26 , (Ithaca : Cornell University Press, 1991),particularly century. Thebasic century. lyingreason behind this 4 3 thus represent itself thusas a represent whole’ but‘unified I contend that, as I stated above, physical exogenous culturalthe construction of 2 In this In CEU eTD Collection Nationalism in in both Centuries” Twentieth Early and Nineteenth Late the in Sport International Frnak Cass, 2002), 108-124; Matti Goksoyr, “Phases and Functions of Nationalism: Norway’s Utilization of Nineteenth-Century Denmark” in Denmark” Nineteenth-Century 8 1914,” in 7 6 Review gymnastics of Germany itsin diffusion parts to other of world.the goal the However behind 5 as (known gymnastics Swedish the Sweden and patriots. by fatherland creating their promoting aim of shared type“Anglo-Saxon” with the from the a adapted wasdistinctive type or which “own” their of type gymnastics Denmark created discussion of development of sport in France. Germans, via adapting the gymnastics invented by via Germans, invented them. the gymnastics adapting whilewas that, France mobilize wastrying to citizens her horrific against the enemy, the nationalisminimpose mobilize totheir and citizens point them.Theparadoxical situation this whowere by trying states to weresupported “German-type” gymnastics the the whereas countriesother were English disliked sports and remained inthehands of privileged classes as elitist. conceived are hence they collectivities, abstract than rather nation and to serveGerman forgymnastics other. each than state,different more much were ends social their However, ends. social into triedEnglish to youth of create energies the canalize to tried sports them of both importantly most and a exercise nationalphysical emphasized consciousnessby offered pleasure and emulation voluntary of of freedom, importance the them emphasize on the andindividual, of Both body. the aimed training of models Anglo-Saxon the and German the toforms: distinctive diffuse on toteam whole work Henning Eichberg, “Nationalism and Culture of theBody: the Politizationof ‘Popular’ Gymnastics in Richard Holt, “Contrasting Nationalisms: Sport, Militarism and the Unitary State inBritain and France before Eugen Weber, “Gymnastic and Sports in Fin-de-Siecle-France: Opium ofClasses?” Opium Fin-de-Siecle-France: in Sports and “Gymnastic Weber, Eugen Ibid ., 70-71. 76, No.1(Feb., 76, 1971): 70. “Training for what?” was questionthe by Weber,asked inEugen his influential 8 Tribal Identities, Nationalism, Europe, Sport The emphasis that was given to gymnastics in the Scandinavian world was at top in top gymnasticswas at world in was to Scandinavian the given Theemphasis that , ed., J.A. Mangan, 125-146. TribalIdentities, Nationalism, Europe , ed. J. A. Mangan, (London: Frank Cass, 2002), 39-40. 27 5 In his article he separated sports into two sports Inhis he article separated Lingian system) was only second to second only was system) 7 Other states such as Norway and , Sport , ed.J.A. Mangan, (London: 6 InFrance in many and The American Historical Tribal Identities, Turnen CEU eTD Collection University Press, 1994), 141-156. 11 Andrew Strenk, (Champaign. Ill. :Stipes Pub.Co., 1978), 36. 10 2001), 146. and Globalization: EuropeanNorth and AmericanPerspectives 9 At this stage of German Empire especially defeat the after of in Germans Franco-Prussianthe war of 1870-71. the II) Germany and military contributed to “create and seektraining to a distinctSwedish national identity”. Swedishthe different gymnastics not than was forms any other of education physical since it century, the of half second the In states. European many by welcomed is nationalism and obedience use youth through energies the military This asacombination discipline of to of opportunity more militaristic position especially disciplineto youths and make them obedient toauthority. Ludwig founder of Friedrich the culture. Jahn, voice in Italy, Belgium, northern Switzerland and Scandinavian world. Scandinavian and Switzerland northern Belgium, Italy, in voice radical from the separation the after behaviors inhis resulted imprisoned, and outlaw of his disobedient of Vienna; Congress the after and regimes reactionary the for egalitarian platforms many and pupilsadventurous followed him.much Jahnwas However, too Turnplatz his led In students heout of therefore his into1811, Jahn classroom the woods setup the people inmind body for and the struggleliberation for and pavethe way for German unity.” movement of Jahn was a precedent to modern German nationalism although he never aimed never he although nationalism German modern to a precedent was Jahn of movement Alan Bairner, “Sporting Nationalism for Beginners: Sport and Nationalism in Sweeden,” in AllenGuttman, F. Hertz, “Friedrich Ludwig Jahn,” in Turnen Turnen Turnen in the fields near Berlin where he constructed a milieu with towers, ropes and amilieu he with towers, nearBerlinconstructed where in fields the had a much more a conservative outlook and became nationalist supporters of supporters nationalist became and outlook conservative a more much a had gymnastics was the direct outcome of German of outcome direct the was gymnastics spread to Western and Southern Europe, primarily to France but also had a had also but France to primarily Europe, Southern and Western to spread Turnen Games and Empires, ModernSports andCultural Imperialism Turnen movement, the gymnastics became an indoor activity and had much had and activity indoor an became gymnastics the movement, Gymnastics: Sport andInternational Relations Turner after the 1848 Revolution, the remaining part of 1848Revolution,the remaining part the after 28 Turnen Turnen , (Albany: State University of New York Press, had the aim of had “preparing aim the of young . When . banliftedthe in 1842 and , ed. Benjamin Lowe, David B. Kanin, Körperkultur , (New York: Columbia 11 The gymnastic The Sport, Nationalism, , the physical the , 9 10 CEU eTD Collection 17 (Oct.1992): 565-566. regenerating the Jews wouldbe through physical education inwhich the endnot only would and an antidote to what he saw as the social, clinical Herzl. political founding Zionism byMax with fostered of Theodor the father Nordau, and moral ills of his society. their struggle for national independence and the founded should who Jews the of dignity the recapture to was remedy the And works. productive for taste lost their intellectuals who and over-refined as werecity-dwellers they degenerated implicitly proposal, although the Jews were not entitled publishedbook 1892 Nordau a mentioned as a category of the abnormal, they were III) The Zionist gymnastic movement 16 1997), 253-268. Jews, 1939-1945:Continuityor Contingency?, 15 14 Press, 1996), 43. were designed in fact to create newin create Germans.” were designedfact to meantonly form to healthy bodiesand beautiful would that morality expressa proper but “not words: Mosse’s in George movement, Turnen competition. and sports team to opposed 13 12 bear arms.” to andready truthful the form it took at the end. create George L. Mosse, “Max Nordau, Liberalism and the New Jew,” the and Liberalism Nordau, “Max Mosse, L. George Anita Shapira, “The Origins of the Myth of the ‘New Jew’: The Zionist Variety,” in George L. Mosse, L. George F. Hertz, “Friedrich Ludwig Jahn,” 41. Ibid. Ibid. , 567. , the ideal man 44. The greatest impact of impact The greatest Muskeljuden have deep chests, powerfully builtbodies and be keen-eyed men. The ImageofMan: TheCreation ofModern Masculinity, ( Muskeljuden through gymnastics. capable,through Thisman fearless, pure, be:would “chaste, was a Zionist project for the creation of a specific kind of “New Jew” in Eastern Europe where Czechs, Slovaks and Poles adapted 12 However Jahn’s gymnastics meant more than this. He aimed to Turnen Movement: 13 Jahn’s athleticism gymnasticsfostered solidarity and as was on the Zionist project of Entatrung ed. JonathanFrankel, (New OxfordYork: University Press, 29 14 (Degeneration) which was was a response Sokol Journal of Contemporary History (Falcon) organization. (Falcon) New York: Oxford University Muskeljuden Theof European Fate the 17 This process of process This and Slavic and Turnen 16 27, No. 4 In this In 15 In in CEU eTD Collection of masculinity. middle ideals class asEuroepean were identified that werethe ones moral virtues the whereas disciplined ‘nation’ was a phenomenon of the post- Europe, disciplinethe individual of the and individualthe through formation the of a the of realities the were morality and discipline on emphasis The principles. speech in 1898.Through this ideals theJewwoulddiscipline learn lostthe the and moral people all modern andIt aimed Zionist.conquere Palestine to and forit.prepare anation was more since to thanaresponse perception this thisproject However following: National Association inGymnastic years. followingthe Initiallyinstated 1898,Nordau the muskeljuden gymnastics”. for aptitude muskeljuden in 1898 and then elaborated it in it in elaborated the then 1898and JewishRegeneration,” 21 20 earth. 19 18 the of stereotype above-mentioned the overcome Todd Samuel Presner, “Clear George L. Mosse, “MaxHeads, Nordau, Liberalism and theSolid New Jew,” 569. Stomachs, and Hard Muscles: Max Nordau and the Aesthetics of Encyclopaedia Judaica Ibid. 18 , 568. of this nation would be the ones who were manly disciplined as stated in Nordau’s In thearticles published in Nordau first publicized his first ideaof Nordau publicized the greater will be their self-confidence andself-respect. willbe greater the their self-confidence various branches of sport, inthe Jews achieve moreexercise… The islack we All quality. extraordinary an of muscle,achievements athletic the for has us discipline…nature required endowed with spiritual the qualities of and isalack has been deficitand greatest Jews, whose thatfor us important Gymnastics andphysical exceedingly training are can be developed with the aid of physical was accepting it as one of the antidotes “inherent buthad Jews’as stunted an body the acceptedthat andunsurprisingly to what Nordau saw as Modernism/Modernity , Corrected Edition(1996), “Maccabi World Union.” 20 Therefore the most plausible explanation for the invention of the of invention the for explanation plausible most the Therefore Judische Turnerzeitung Judische 10, No.2 (April 2003), p.281. Judische Turnerzeitung Judische Muskeljuden 30 new in the SecondWorld inthe Zionist Congress Jahn Jew but also complete his place on era of the German gymnastics Nordauconvoluted his idea of the journal of the Jewish 19 muskeljuden fin de siecle degeneracy is above 21 The . CEU eTD Collection thus create a strong and conscious nation.” nationality, their of awareness an them instill to individuals, vigorous and alert disciplined, train to in order utilized were exercise gymnastic and fitness “physical Movement: a movements. Sokol with an exception of yearsthe 1905and 1906.Nevertheless, pan-Slavic the initiatives of 25 andSport International Relations 24 in Functions,” 23 Ttraining for the Nation potential danger of a movementsuch on his multi-ethnic and subjects banned the realized he until monarchies rival against goals imperial pan-Slavic his in organizations century. touse attempted theremainingSerbia and Russia throughout Bulgaria Ottoman to andEmpires spreadout EastEuropean other countries such as Poland, Slovenia, amuchmovement moreform, took nationalist and separatist against Habsburg and the imposed upon France,the them like in caseof reveal from “Germanism” the the 22 exercise. gymnastic and widespread organized through movement nationalist a up building of objective the with Feugner R. Jind Sokol IV) Czech Paul Vysny,Paul in Czechoslovakia,” in Movement Sokol “The Jandacek, L. see: of Sokols, history of the account early an For WojciechLiponski, “Sport in the Slavic World before Communism: Cultural Traditions and National Fora detailed history of Sokol Movement see: Clarie E. Nolte, Sokol among theCzechs and especiallyBulgariansbecame in crucial theirindependence Movement. It was founded in 1862 by a Czech historian Miroslav Tyr and the merchant The other important movement that was influenced by Turnen to a large extent was extent large a to Turnen by influenced was that movement important other The ” [emphasis mine].” [emphasis Neo-Slavism and the Czechs, 1898-1914 23 Sokols Sport in Europe, Politics, Class,Gender The motto of Tyr explained the aim of : , (New York : Palgrave Macmillan, 2002). , eds. Benjamin Lowe and others, 63. others, Lowe and Benjamin , eds. 24 Tobe precise, asone historian had putaptly,in 22 Despite the fact that, Czechs German used that, fact the Despite 25 , (Cambridge: Cambridge University 1977),Press, 23-24. , ed. J. A. Mangan, (London: Frnak Cass, 1999), 218-221. 31 Sokol movement: “ The Sokol in the CzechThe Sokol Landsto1914: He who is a Czech is Sokol until 1917 Turnen Sokol Sokol Sokol to CEU eTD Collection 28 1969): 4-5. paramilitary youth membersin with organization 100,298 1910. December 1909aBoy GoverningScouting Councilisseta became upandBoy Scouting In elites. political and military of attention the gained and movement mass a into evolved citizenship and patriotism to defend the Empire. In short period of time, Boy Scouting males. the building of character and preparedness military creating of role the fulfilled and movements gymnastic abovementioned to those functions similar undertook organizations HoweverEnglishboy-scout competitive characters. promoted not words they were disliked by ‘nationalisttheir due and sportsmen’ to 27 1914,” 44. 26 asource-book wrote also after intheBoerWar.Powell his personal experiences founded Boy-Scouts Baden-Powell boys overtwelve. for activitiesChurch-oriented by using military organization,discipline, uniform and symbolism boys into especially working-class capture wasto organization aimof Scotland.this The first the when century youth. class high to ideals imperial of implementation and characters elitist their boy-scoutorganizations andtheir diffusion. Anglo-Saxon the frame, in this include to dimension a third need we still but Empire Ottoman V) English Movement: Boy-Scout PaulWilkinson, “EnglishYouth Movements, 1908-1930,” Richard Holt, “Contrasting Nationalisms: Sport, Militarism and the Unitary State in Britain and France before Ibid. , 14-15. Organization for training youth inexisted Anglo-Saxon world since the end of 19 In abovethe mentioned movements gymnastic were English dismissed sports due to Turnen and Sokol 27 Boys’ Brigade However Boy-Scouting did not spread upuntil when not General However1908 did Boy-Scouting can be considered as the precursors in of movements gymnastic the astheprecursors canbeconsidered Scouting for Boys Scouting for was founded by 1880s byWilliam Alexander Smithin 32 , in , he which paid ideals emphasis on of Journal ofContemporaryHistory 28 In 1910 boy In boy 1910 scouting 4, No. 2 (April, 26 In other th CEU eTD Collection Journal of Contemporary History 31 James Walwin, (ManchesterUniversity Press, 1987), 200-204 Manliness and Morality: Middle-Class Masculinity in Britain and America: 1800-1940 30 Procedures that this before debate, by ahistorian, well is it argued for war.Similarly generations future him according to in andpreparing “context” the emergedwasmilitarism which scouting Therefore wasamean. formation” “character and military efficiency of a“nation” goal was prepare youth for thatPowell’s war.Theasserts the organization’s mainauthor was to goal Baden Powel’s that states and Boy-Scouting of aspect building’ ‘character ideas the about the Boys’ Brigadein Glasgow. andMovement inspected asearly he Boy-Scout as 1904when the before were observed is of Powell’smilitary It Boy-Scouting. arguedthatideas fitness about boy-scouting through 29 personal health as well for individualas and national fitness, and washighly individualistic. character puts somewhere else the major of the Powell’s Warren,is according to basicthe And of he citizen-training byscouting. element imagined as Boy-Scouting works, in Powell’s was the “individualism” on emphasis development The ones. religious the and militaristic of the than rather scouting of aspect training citizen the to priority the gave Powell of teachings the author, the to According period. context the in analyzed be to needs and complicated is duty, obedience) on emphasis (i.e. being militaristic what isaccusedof that theme, stated in of whowas defense former the the AllenWarren instance, historian For for reconciliation. seeking than rather movement of the aspect on either put emphasis to issue andpreferred this citizen buildingand paramilitary embodiedaspects in Historians movement. the debated on Scouting in 1912 following the English case. spread toAmerica of and Boy wasfoundedAmerica The Scouts inFebruary 1910 andGirl Michael Rosenthal, “Knights and Retainers: The Earliest Version of Baden-Powell’s Boy Scout Scheme,” Scout Boy of Baden-Powell’s Version Earliest The Retainers: and “Knights Rosenthal, Michael in Character,” of Manly Development the and Scouting, Baden-Powel, Manliness: “Popular Warren, Allen Elizabeth R. Pendry and Hugh Hartshorne, However we also observe that somehistorians put emphasis on the paramilitary aspect What was also important in Powel’s vision of Boy-Scouting was the tension between tension the was Boy-Scouting of vision in Powel’s important also was What , (New, York: McGraw-Hill Book Com.,1935), 11-41. with specific emphasis to outdoor activities and practical for concern activities andpractical knowledge, specificemphasistooutdoor with 31 15, No.4 (Oct., 1980): 603-617. Along this line, historian John Springhall claims the opposite of opposite the claims Springhall John historian line, this Along Organizations for Youth, Leisure Time and Character Building 29 33 , ed. J.A. Mangan and Mangan J.A. ed. , manly 30 CEU eTD Collection 34 Review 33 Contemporary History 32 Scouting. of Boy- tone militaristic over the with dissatisfied leaders whowere founded byscout were claimedWoodcraft that influencedMovement theother youth movements in England that is life Thusit promotingtraining different. outdoor the weregreatly and citizen/soldier aims of their respective background; ideological their similar arepractically organizations these Although in England. Movement Boy-Scout contemporary its than different ThompsoninMovementorganized andledbyErnest Woodcraft Americathe was Seton depiction of national identity”. cultural forforms the specifystandard education] casephysical “models [inour argued that so Iwill ontheformation focus of physical isidentity” through “national Since iteducation. buildingcitizen militaristic aspectsof and boy-scouting. Ottoman the However before doing between tension over-mentioned the understand to try and context in Ottoman organization manner,to outbreak the inof war 1914.” in in an anenthusiastic respond even and beingpreparedto girls uncritical, were indeed boys and following “adolescent butshemakes conclusion: 'social control' the and 'militarism' of framework conceptual inamonolithic boy-scouting assimilate to literature inthe tendency Idman in thatappeared in thearticles andsocial-Darwinism between these roles association on the men assigned to‘Turkish’ and in contextof women especially Balkan Iwill Wars. the focus citizen” were physical that roles the “new through discuss patriot masculine education the of ideal the scrutinize also will I identity”. “national Turkish of construction in the role its John W. Meyer and others, “World Society and the Nation-State,” 158. Nation-State,” the and Society “World others, and Meyer W. John Anne Summers, “Scouts, Guides and VADs: A Note in Reply to Allen Warren,” Brian Morris, “Ernest Thompson Seton and the Origins of the Woodcraft Movement,” Woodcraft ofthe Origins the and Seton Thompson “Ernest Morris, Brian 102,No. 405(Oct., 1987): 947. . Lastly I will examine the function of sports in construction of Turks as a ‘group’. In the chapter on Ottoman Boy-Scouting I will examine the emergence of this In thecoming asports journal chapter, entitled 32 In a response essay to Warren’s article, historian Anne Summers criticizes the 5, No.2 (1970): 183-194. 34 33 34 Idman (gymnastics) will be in studied The English Historical Journal of CEU eTD Collection Swedish and, in all probability, will remain so.” Englishin most defining moments. However cannot he GoranErikson, the ex-coachof theEnglish national football team, whom Hunterdefines as: “He may citizenwho supports UK and is against divisions such as English and Scottish. His other example is the Sven- kinds of ‘nationalIdentities: Global Studies inCultureand Power identity’ as ‘strong’2 and ‘weak’ ones. For the former case he gives the example of a British levels meaning are of if mixed usually confused. together not of likekind”. the others sense of the“individuals’ as first self meaning, of levels different two to asrefers term The national”identity’. ‘national and second as topic.to the for reasons this of the One problem ambiguoususeoftheemergesthe term from “identity of the collectiveencompassing everything related almost concept anover-arching ‘national-identity’ isusedas whole in relation to and makehence literature mentioned my aim more clear. between 1913 before doingsoIwillinand 1914.However addresssome the problems 1 are sincethey and‘categorization’ ‘identification’ word the Iwill connotations use different avoid order to anymore complications which inalready ‘identity’exist word the its and entitled journal sport examine adiscursive re-production masculineof throughthe articlesa heroic, Turk of the and the Ottoman Empire as well as pointing to some particularities of the latter. Hence, I will onsports andliterature politicsstates byemphasizing betweenEuropean the commonalities tothis line, contributes Along this building’ chapter this states. certain processesof European in I) Physical Late Ottoman Empire: Education and “National-Identification” (1913-1914) Journal Idman The Education: Physical Through National-Identification IV) Chapter As an example to such a work: see John S. Hunter, “Flying the Flag: Identities, the Nation, and Sport,” Katherine Verdery, “Whither ‘Nation’ and ‘Nationalism’ ?” ‘Nationalism’ and ‘Nation’ “Whither Verdery, Katherine In most of the studies on the role of sports in the nation-building processes the word the processes nation-building inthe sports of role the on studies the of most In In the previous chapters I have examined the role of physical education in Ihave role the ‘nation- education the of physical chapters In theprevious examined Idman 1 However in the literature on “nationalism” and sports these different these sports and “nationalism” on literature in the However (sports, physical (sports, education) which was publishedfor ayear , Vol. 10 (2003):409-425.In, Vol. work this distinguishes Hunter two Ibid. , 415. 35 be Daedalus English more than a temporal dimension; he is , (Summer 1993): 40. 2 Therefore in this chapter, in feel CEU eTD Collection dares to insult him, he will contest. Do you know if he is beaten in these fights…?” these in is beaten he if know you Do contest. he will him, insult to dares Gunduz making [it],used says, my “Iam when son get to if school I senthim someone to and “Weak Race”, he claims that there can not be a better example for a weak race than the race than for aweak example be abetter not can there he that claims “Weak Race”, expression in the articles of implicit ideaBurhaneddinlifefor struggle of appears in that finds pieceGunduz’s amore explicit Bey. In the first of two successive articles entitled Idman [28 May 1913]), 2-3. of columns in the prevalent country”. thatcansaveprimary our work the publication publication of the [Figure 1] 5 period. authorintellectuals such tobein important important as AkaGunduz,avery Republican the [Bruhan Felek] who was also the director of a sport club named of a sport director the was also who Felek] [Bruhan by sportsman prominent early Constitutional the of and BurhaneddinRepublican periods, Bey Darwinist overtones. I focused on the columns written by the owner of construct theto journalused were they how Cemi out Bey, point II) Physical the Education and Building 4 ‘nation’ Turkish the of identification its by other the on and asnational) nation (self-understanding Turkish asamalecitizen the of of creation Turk 3 journal the ‘identifier’, case, the identifying”. specify the agents thatdo the to and“invite us terms procedural active AkaGündüz,“Fikirce ‘Idman’c Cemi, “BirKaç Söz (Few Words),” Rogers Brubaker and Frederick Cooper, “Beyond Identity,” states his aim to raise his son raise hisaim to states To start with social-Darwinism, this kind of thinking as mentioned above was above mentioned as thinking of kind this social-Darwinism, with start To In the rest of this chapter I will focus on the articles published in Idman . Cemi Bey was the author of the first article in which he stated the purposes behind ’s firstissue appearedin Wars middle the inlate Balkan of the May 1913 Idman : “tosupport youth the iswho in interested ‘physical education…the Idman Õ Cemi Bey’e (InThought: to ‘Gymnast’ CemiBey ),” Idman Idman . A byAkacolumn written publication the Gunduzabout of Dogan , (15 May will be evaluated on the one hand by its role in the 4 (Falcon) according to rules of survival in life. Aka a Õ masculine, citizen-soldier Turkand hadsocial- s 329 [28 May 1913]), 1. 36 Heroic Theory and Society Malesof the ‘Nation’: vis-á- vis Anadolu the ‘others’. the 29, No.1 (Feb., 2000): 14. Sport Club and other and Club Sport Idman Idman , (15Mayis 329 and try to 3 In our 5 The CEU eTD Collection 9 8 race?),” the strengthen 7 As “motherland”. the of defense the target: urgent an has it nation, well-fit a therefore and Turkish essence. uncorrupted education and alawtopromote goal this well as toavoidas thedecay hewhat of called“the “Balkan Disaster”. He condemns the lack menin Navy the Hecondemns the continues: of and strong Disaster”. “Balkan with the theresultgame the of Warsandequates Balkan andthe between game analogy the Beyreplies: Race?” Burhaneddin the Strengthen Physical Education “Does theme latter this to article hissecond devotes 6 sailors American some and Force Naval Ottoman of members some between game atug-of-war on observations his on comments Bey, Cemi probably to socialantidote ills appearsinan articleunsigned “OurGeneration.” entitled Theauthor, is education. physical secondone the prohibit alcohol consumption and and smoking of Burhaneddinto these gives antidotes first isleisure, avoid one ills: Bey social two to to comprehension lackand asits result of mental immorality,and etc.” power, non-determinacy ‘Ottomans’. The author says: “Weak race, weak body, and as a result of this weak “Neslimiz (Our generation),” Burhaneddin, “Zay Burhaneddin, “Zay Ibid., 190. If education is physical asconceived ameans togenerate well-fitbodies individuals of Another example of social-Darwinist assumptions and ‘positive’ eugenics as an as eugenics ‘positive’ and assumptions social-Darwinist of example Another After this statement the author proposes a solution, not surprisingly physical the contemporary Turkish generation is not the one of yesterday! of one the is not generation Turkish contemporary the you that poor? Yes, today all of our national existence is declaring that mergeto going we are how Then, health. withhave even don’t we and commerce other nations?Therefore Oh, the glorious we Turkish don’t ancestors, have were science and knowledge, we don’t have The nation should consist of strong nation, should emphasis beputonphysical education. of our the For improvement threat… lackisanational this that claim I Therefore ‘rotted’. people ‘rotted’ arethemselves of which consist Thenations byfunctioning. placesthe capture non-functioning the of Õ Õ f Irk f I (WeakIrk I),”race f Irk II:Terbiye-if Irk Bedeniyye Irk Idman , (1 Eylul329 [14 September1913]), 100-104. Idman 9 , (5 Kanun- Idman Õ Evvel 1329 [18 December1913]), 189-190. , (1 Augustos 329 [14 August 1913]), 79-80. Õ [Figure 2] Sa 37 ÷ men lamla … The struggle for life is to úWÕUÕ . As a reply histo questionin the title m Õ ? (Weak race II: Does physical education 7 [Figure 3] [Figure 8 . He makes an 6 He CEU eTD Collection December1913]), 173-174. 13 12 the field of education and Balkan Wars),” Balkan and of education field the men of the region were the second to it. The author continues: nations.” few savage of “The huge blames the youth of the education, character building of future citizens and the aim citizens and future aim of the of building character education, physical connects article an anonymous of anauthor physicalsince through education give toyouth aimed these to ‘character’ also proposals be inthis But atmosphere. viewed 11 education. aimed to change the societyintellectuals in different spheres who Ottoman among society the viewtowards acritical Wars created Balkan ranging that claimed thought from aboutpolitics boundaries. ideological in their in ashift the resulted and elite to ruling in the economics,a trauma reasons ofand theto defeat and came up with the ideas that of theInternational Order 10 discussed above the defeatin Balkan Wars and the end of Ottoman rule in “ “Ke Yahya Akyüz, “E Tan ø dmanc Õ úú l Bora, “TurkishNational Identity, TurkishNationalism and The Balkan Peninsula,” in afl Similarly the author of the article entitled “Physical “Physical ShouldEducation Be Supported” entitledSimilarly authorof article the the Õ ÕOÕ k So 11 k Himaye Edilmelidir (Physical educationshould be supported),” Rumeli to this bloodlessness, this heartlessness and this laziness, we point out point we laziness, this and heartlessness this bloodlessness, this to give birth that Among reasons the comes from belief’. the fatherland martyrdoms.behindaway, leaving lands those sacred of of theirthe ancestors, all legs totheirtheir and power running away.just Theyare running given had They eyes. in their light no is there belts, their on are hands -in mostThey apt words -women arewith … feet. Theirfleeing skin is yellow, their without knowing that ‘love for The brave hearted, strong handed young men of the of men young handed strong hearted, brave The character is the only reason for our disaster. our for is only the reason character meaningmass tobring of citizens. word the upperfect of The lackof is to give youth a character and through this means in the whole through seeingthrough the hidden in ‘spirit’ articlesthe [of situationhomeland isdisastrous from present the possible only the save will that generation strong mentally and a physically raise To The proposal that appeared in appeared that The proposal ÷ ukluk Mu? (Is scouting coldness?),” ÷ itim Alan lands, the capricious girl of the motherland. [It is] now on the bloody laps bloody the on now is] [It motherland. the of girl capricious the lands, , ed. Gunay Goksu Ozdogan, Kemali Sayba 13 If the army carried the primary responsibly for the defeat, the young Rumeli Õ nda Ayd for losing the in war a language having sexual overtones: Õ nlar Tarih ve Toplum Õ n Özele Idman ú Idman tirisi ve Balkan Sava 38 38, No. 228 (December2002): 54-58. , the promotion of physical education should , (1 A ÷ 12 ustos 329 [14 August 1913]), 73-75. úÕOÕ , (Istanbul: Eren, 1995), 102-120. Idman ú Idman lar Rumeli Idman Õ (Self-criticism of intellectuals in in the following way: following inthe ]. This spirit , (28Te ? They are ? They Rumeli ú rin-i Sanirin-i 1329 [11 Balkans: A Mirror had created 10 It is It CEU eTD Collection 291. race: According author,thereason the more to behind isno this than eugenics future of and the the latter, the beauty and the proportions of the body is most the crucial women and men certaintyboth to for important iswomen.” these of first the Although education. physical by and preserved be created only health beauty can and day that more every obvious becoming us hints of gives of one articles first these byAli Bey. The Seyfi “Woman Gymnastics” women, entitled the logic and assumptions behind female gymnastics. Seyfi Bey says: “It is generations was not restricted to restricted not was generations assigned ‘roles’ to females. Two pieces appeared in appeared pieces Two females. to ‘roles’ assigned similarly the considering without be understood not can masculinity since gymnastics beconsideringnot well comprehended without III) The Womenof the ‘Nation’ forand Gymnastics Women: examples. European contemporary its to similar very was which masculinity a ‘heroic’ of theconstruction This was fatherland. the for sacrifice and bravery honor, of ideals ‘manly’ the with youth Turkish the 15 14 A.Seyfi, “Kad Ibid. , 174. However this identification of young Turkish males with heroic masculine ideals heroic males can masculine identificationwith ofyoung Turkish However this Idman This ideal having bodiesof its strong reproductionand relation to of coming children children who will have naturally bodies. well-developed inherittheir beauty will real mothers whohave therefore genetics, to related is beauty but body of somewhat whole beauty the facial only not beauty Since fathers. of ones the important than more are For the strong bodies of the race in the future, the bodies of mothers [physical education]. makingnot gymnastics…We wish governmentthat will supportit promoted not promoted only formilitaristicphysical strength butidentified purposes also Õ n Jimnastiklerin (Womangymnastics),” 14 Idman and was thought in the particular text books on 39 Idman Idman , (23Kanun- Idman ’s vision of women and female related to physical education tophysical related education of Õ Sani 1329 [5 February 1914]), 288- 15 CEU eTD Collection 19 18 17 126. the ‘desiredthe citizen’ civic knowledge from II.Constitutionto today ), ( Galatasaray Ottoman society. In the first issue of first the In society. Ottoman the of communities non-Muslim and foreigners the were visible made were that elements the elements those “must be first rendered visible, then assimilated oreliminated…” assimilated then visible, be rendered “must first elements those renders commonality beingof categorical non-confirming of reproduction the aTurk produced be discursively which could belonging together a senseof commonality and categorical self-understanding, and“groupness” through messagesthe itdelivered. ina part nation construction the imaginedof and Turkish the akind developed collective of 16 ‘knowledge of for girls’citizenship in samethe period. specifically defining whatyoung a male IV) The Journal education. In short the ideal citizen for the country was an able solider. which alink thought masculinity created between defense of homeland,the the and physical of ideology thetracks determined the time problems. thedominant of Social-Darwinism as actual defeat at Balkan‘for thesurvival of country’.the The rhetoric of decadence, which by was strengthened the Wars, fostered a wide spectrum reproduction. of ofcapacities their through problemsnation the of construction the to women the of and solutions to these theattachment idea spheres represents respectively. also activities inpublic andprivate This notof thought onlyby seeing role differentiated men models of and women and their Katherine Verdery,“Whither ‘Nation’ and ‘Nationalism’?,” 42. Rogers Brubaker and Frederick Cooper, “Beyond Identity,” 19-21. Nira Yuval-Davis, Füsun Üstel, Füsun The development of the “groupness” of a collective entity, a nation depends on If these were the identification of individual males with the Turkish nation, by nation, Turkish the with males individual of identification the were these If To sum up To 18 hence the pieces in hence pieces the Sport Club Sport makes the following after comments criticizinghis own due players ‘Makbul Vatanda Gender&Nation Idman Idman published many articles concerning the role of of education physical many articles concerning the role published : Identifying the : Identifying Turks and the ‘others’: ú¶Õ n Pe , (London: Sage Publications, 1997), 26-37. ú inde,II. Me Idman Idman should aim these. In this discursive production and , a piece written by Ali Sami, the director of the ú 40 rutiyet’ten Bugüne Vatanda be, do and look like as a Turk 16 It is It understand important to this line ø stanbul: stanbul: ø leti úOÕ ú k E im Yay ÷ itmi Idman Õ nlar (In the pursuit of pursuit the (In 19 Õ , 2004), 112- In also took 17 Idman CEU eTD Collection an Armenian youngman won race…Hethe didmore than Hemadethis. his putin photo the results of a bicycle race in which only one Turk had participated, the author says: “As a result, only fourth the one wasaTurk.” pitied that the first was gives“And itvictorious, author assuch: the results to deserves where werenot Turks an Armenian, the runner-upnecessarilynotMuslims butinstance Armenians.usually tothe and For in a race running was a Greek, the thirdnon- to victory went the when results unsuccessful for the was werecriticized Turkish sportsmen a Serb and Football?”, “Only entitled article an In process. nation-building Turkish in the ‘visibility’ the governmentthe to establish aninstitution beto responsibleits development. for sportsmen of the period, Abidin Daver, calls this team as the While narrating between agame and some famous of foreigners the team consisting Turks, squad. The author Burhaneddinsquad. The author Beyclaims: sincein in includeforeigners “national their football criticizedthey for lackof their purpose” 23 foreigners.” goingare not give to away titlethis whichisthe sign backexistenceyouth,of to 22 and sports],” 21 May 1913]), 9-11. sports to sports of its players aside and have to leave the role of safeguarding the Turkish achievements in 20 to theirlosses against Hungarians.Ali Sami says: “after [their] return “Yaln A. D[aver], “Ayak Topu Müsabakalar Burhaneddin, “Terbiye-i Bedeniyyeve Spor’da Milli Gaye: Futbol [National purpose in physical education Ali Sami, "Galatasaray Kulubünün Tarihçesi (History of the Galatasaray Club)," Õ Similarly the non-Muslim elements of the Ottoman society gain the kind of mentioned of kind the gain society Ottoman the of elements non-Muslim the Similarly This team that represents Turkey was called a ‘national team’ in issues. following a‘national team’ was called Turkey This represents that team z Ayak Topu Mu? [Only football?],” Fenerbahce Idman not participate in participate not game.the can foreign elements other and Germans represent Turkey; to Turks itcreate is in If team to a team of Turkish needed consisting entirety. be a not becausecan team that disastrous they arealso appreciated in teams are well foreigners theservicesof these the Although 20 However in However the following issuesboth , (12Kanun- [Figure 4] Õ Evvel 329[25December1913]), 209-211. . Indeed 23 Õ [Football games],” Similarly in the same article this time commenting on the on commenting time this article same the in Similarly Idman 21 Fenerbahce , 23 Kanun- 41 Idman was the champion and proved that they Õ Sani 1329 [5 February 1914], 285-287. , (14Nisan 1330 [27 April 1914]), 433-436. Fenerbahce Turkish National Team and Galatasaray Idman Galatasaray , (15May 22 left some left Õ and asks s 329[28 were CEU eTD Collection 24 the various dynamics of this project. and its particularly on establishmentunder thepatronage of Enver Pasain and examine 1914 vis identity collective as well as ‘national’ as asself-understanding both Turks of identity’ tounderstand intheformationendeavored ofthe ‘national- the role education of physical hence chapter The nation’. the of ‘mothers the as project this to women the of integration the discussed briefly I also ‘nation’. the of defense for masculinity heroic a and social-Darwinism In soIalsodoing its dismantledthis three on relationship axes:ideal of citizen-soldiers, gymnastics. and education physical to relation in nationals the and nation the of construction nation during daysof the Balkan Wars andprior WWI.to I triedexamine to the discursive IV) Conclusion: And he had the right todo that.” most prestigious sports magazine of France with the title of ‘the cycling champion of Turkey’. Ibid the ‘others’. In the following chapter I am going to elaborate on the Boy-Scout Movement Boy-Scout the on elaborate to am going I chapter following the In ‘others’. the ., 287. This chapter has This chapter theaim of nation-buildingTurkish the the process understanding of 24 42 vis á CEU eTD Collection Idman of contributors oneof was the Bey Seyfi right, onman the The bodies). of ‘rigid’ exhibition (The Figure 2: Idman published photos of the ‘desired’ bodies under the title of “ title the under bodies ‘desired’ of the photos Idman published 2: Figure , (25 December 1913), 219. Figure 1: The cover of the first issue of 43 Idman , (28 th of May 1913) Sa ÷ lam Vücudlar Meh Vücudlar lam Idman ú eri ” , CEU eTD Collection Director of Fenerbahce Sport Club, andtheHonorary ofthe Ankara Governor Bey, Hulusi which founded by is Ankara Team in Football usually affiliated with the major sport clubs of Fenerbahce and Galatasaray. This photo is the first whoare ofsportsmen bytheefforts time this period in tootherprovinces spread Football 4: Figure Figure3: Tug-of-War Team of Galatasaray Sports Club, Idman , (12February 1914),304. 44 Idman , (6 March 1914), 329. CEU eTD Collection Press), particularly chapterthe 4:“Inspecting,”171-209. 3 chapter III, part IIon this paper. World War, war economy and étatism in Turkey) in étatism and economy war War, World Terakki ve Cihan Harbi, Sava 2 press), 42. Mobilization onThe Western Front,1914-1918, ed.RogerChickering and Stig Foster, (Cambridge Universtiy 1 corporatism. economy and war strategy, axes: had discursive three This newconcept states. for theEuropean also fornot Ottomansa new“total but the only of war”, face concept coming challenges the the it thecorporatist for envisioned.citizens order up building as well as purposes militaristic its for movement the utilized CUP that point Turk. In this chapter I willidentification of a certain examinekind of citizen who is an ideal soldier-citizen and a heroic masculine the Boy-Scout Movement in Ottoman Empire I) Introduction: Setting the Picture: until the Chapter V) The Emergence ofBoy Scouting in the Ottoman Empire intellectuals utilized the last two concepts duringWWIconcepts last two utilizedthe intellectuals development of the movement, I will examine the association between boy-scouting and boy-scouting between association the examine will I movement, the of development However this will not be the only aim of the chapter. After I provide a brief contexts”. civilian within acclaimed history was of which the body military “the as but front” “fighting of needs the for front” “home the mobilizing as not “strategy” of concept the on focus Iwill However the“strategy”. concept: first military drills and particularly the role of Boy Scout Organization ( Organization Boy Scout of the role andparticularly drills military using by soldiers’ into ‘citizens the transform to aimed intellectuals and cadres CUP the Joanne Bourke, For the “war economy” the new study of Zafer Toprak and isCombat War, Total yet War, Great in War,” the ofTotal Theory most the and I War “World eloboratedChickering, Roger one, Zafer Toprak, like hadto its Ottoman contemporaries the WorldEmpire, War, First the Just before In the previous chapter I examined the discursive reproduction and the national- Dismembering theMale,Mens Bodies, Britain andthe Great War ú Ekonomisi veTürkiye’de Devletçilik, 1 We have at least some idea about how CUP and some Ottoman 3 In other words, I will think over the issue of In Iwill how theissueof other words, over think 1914-1918 45 , (HomerKitabevi, 2003). On corporatism see 2 and in this chapter I will focus on the (Committee of Union and Progress and Progress and Union of (Committee ø zci Oca , ( The University of Chicago ÷Õ ) in this) project. ø ttihad- CEU eTD Collection 5 Boy-Scouting?),” book of of Powell’s M Sami translation “was the stated Organization”, by the Boy Scouts things achieved important most“One of the weretrained. provinces from scoutmasters potential local and then recruited, were schools abovementioned the of scoutmasters command, Parfitt’s UnderMr. Scouts. Boy theBelgian leader of former the Enver Pa about boy scouting and afterinformation gather to been sentabroad had Assembly Ottoman the of of one deputies that, the his return, an official Boy Scouts Organization was set up by Sultanisi 1915, oneof which country “What can was entitled our expect from Boy Scouting?” Hakk Turkish nationalist,Ziyain Young the Era.Ismail during IstanbulUniversity, Gökalp Turk point out the earlier examples of the Boy Scouts organizations in organizations Scouts Boy of the examples earlier the point out journal of education in 1915.M. Sami begins his history mentioning an article of an in observer the book entitled Scout’sII) Historyof the Ottoman Boy Scout Movement (1908-1914): Guide ( Empire. Ottoman in the scouting boy save his questionthe my answer to for makebrief history conclusion and a of review of the [Baltac 4 role of pedagogy as alegitimizing behind force Boy-Scouting. of idea asThird corporatism political-economy period. dominantthe the will the upon I touch M.Sami, ø smail Hakk Õ had attended a series of conferences in the ‘National Library’ of in of Izmir summer in of Library’ the ‘National the aseries of conferences hadattended Õ One of our main sources on the history of boy-scouting in the Ottoman Empire is a I will beginmy following chapter aquestion that was by posed Ismail Hakk oglu], a famousa of oglu], Turkish professor pedagogy and colleague of prominentthe and ú ø zci Rehberi a himself. The vice-leader of the organization mannamedParfitt, was anEnglish of organization the vice-leader The a himself. Say veTetebbu Say Õ Bey [Baltac Istanbul Sultanisi Istanbul ø zmir Konferanslar (Scout’s guide), ( ÕR÷OÕ that touched upon the virtues of boy scouting. The writer goes on to ], “Memleketimiz Õ , the most prominent high schools of the time. He informs us (Izmir conferences), ( ø zci Rehberi zci ø stanbul: Zarafet Matbaas ø zcilikten Ne Bekleyebilir? (What can our country expectfrom ) written by M. Sami, a teacher of physical 46 ø zmir: Selanik Matbaas Õ , 1331 [1915]), 23-26. Darü Õ , 1331), 50-69. Boy Scouts úú afaka , Galatasaray .” 5 4 I will Õ CEU eTD Collection (1979): 101-105. organizations of Comittee of Union and Progress),” and Union of ofComittee organizations translation in Zafer Toprak, “ Toprak, Zafer in translation 10 (1912-1931) Devlete Türk Milliyetçili 9 determined to live),” to determined 8 live)” to determined 7 (Turkish nationaslim in Young the Turk period), ( slogan: “The is Turk’s Strength for enough everything!” ( inwork for the publichygiene whichwereexpressed youth andto education physical through Türk Gücü 6 specifically students livingthe inLausanne. and issuelivinginof Ottoman/Turkish debates intellectuals inthe Europe especially ones the Oca (The Turkishwas founded Strength), as a sub-branch of nationalistthe organization generation iswhich “brave, solid, determined and ‘fully’ Turkish”. raise afuture wishto Fescizadethe forfuture. with youth the concluded theirprepared they howwell and education Anglo-Saxons of wastheperfect-ness idea of article the guard) ashe wasno thatthere in for(outpost; claimed match “scouting” Turkish. in ina conference was presented from in articles These text weregatheredthat the period. England which wasflourishing that in movement boy scouts the articles about of issued aseries future republic, the policies of figure behind theeducational of Director andanimportant Edirne, the Province Education of conference. In these articles, he used the words, he the used articles, these In conference. in the Which AreNations Live” Determined to andfocused he onBoy-Scouting in this interesting “Children topic: hadan The conference Galip. by Fescizade Ibrahim Association) Themost updated andcomprehensive work about Türk Ocaklar Fescizade Fescizade Fescizade Fescizade Forthese students and theirpolitical initiatives, see. Masami Arai, Türk Gücü’nün UmumiNizam ÷Õ (The Turkish Hearth). A year later in 1913, the first organized “boy scouts” movement, named inA year later “boy 1913,thefirstscouts” organized become acentral had boy-scouting weseethat 1912, years to afew If wegoback , ( , ø ø brahim Galip, “Ya Galip, brahim brahim Galip, “Ya Galip, brahim was influenced by wasinfluenced ø stanbul: Say ve Tetebbu Say ve Tetebbu ø leti ÷ i: Türk Ocaklar ú im Yay Õ ú ú (The general by-law Gucu) of Turk ø amaya Azm Etmi Azm amaya amaya Azm Etmi Azm amaya 9 ttihat ve Terakki’nin Paramiliter Gençlik Örgütleri (Paramilitary youth (Paramilitary Örgütleri Gençlik Paramiliter ve Terakki’nin ttihat The main goal of the organization was strengthento the Turkish Õ , (15, Haziran 1328 [28 June 1912]), 9-12. nlar , (1 A Õ , 1997). ÷ Sokol Õ ustos 1328 [14 August 1912]), 13. (Turkish nationalism form Empire to the nation: TurkishHearths) Lozan Türk Yurdu Lozan Türk , English Boy Scouts and German ø stanbul: ú ú 6 Milletlerde Çocuklar (Children in the nations which are which nations the in (Children Çocuklar Milletlerde Milletlerde Çocuklar (Children in the nations which are which nations the in (Children Çocuklar Milletlerde In a periodical,by Âtuf Nâfi [Kansu], published 47 Bo ÷ ø aziçi Üniversitesi Be leti ú pi im Yay ú kar , (Istanbul: Matbaa-i, (Istanbul: Hayriye, 1329[1913]) Õ see:Üstel, Füsun (assistant; disciple) and disciple) (assistant; Õ nlar (Lausanne Turkish Homeland Turkish (Lausanne Türk’ün Gücü Her Jön TürkDönemi Türk Milliyetçili Õ , 2003), 111-126. 8 ú eri Bilimler Dergisi ø mparatorluktan Ulus ú eye Yeter! Pathfinders 7 Türk Gücü The core , Vol. VII Vol. , karakol Türk ). 10 ÷ , i CEU eTD Collection 1913]), 5-8. 14 Yurdu Türk 13 12 the military military the of aspect scouting gains again mergingprominence values with of honor and findbasis However and doesnot asound this Time’ Boy-Scouts. division and ‘Peace-time’ issues of says: Bey Sukru Turks. Ottoman among boy-scouting of introduction the about informative forhad boy-scouts seen firstthe time inHamburg narrative1911. His is onthis event Bey narrates formalthe history Bey aswellhispersonal of Boy-Scouting Sükrü accounts. Pasa establishmentthe Organization of Boy-Scout byApril patronageof 1914 under the Enver itsdevoted pages Boy-Scoutingto and more andgave more pages boy-scoutingto inline with instanceissue magazines.from firstisscouting) For invery observed the , popular the form the form inits declaration. main argument of race” asthe “degeneration the the II. the Constitutional period)” in Gücü 11 for the organization. relations thementioned with had Ziyawho above “NewAtilla” composed Gökalp, march a by wassupported had CUP, and aspect. This organization from particularly paramilitary their A. Türk Gücü Türk Heyeti, Gücü:Türk’ün “Türk Gücü Her Füsun Üstel, Füsun Zafer Toprak, “II. Me [Figure 5] ù had spread to main cities of the empire. ükrü, “Ke Three succeeding articles by the same author followed this column in coming the column followed this author bythesame articles Three succeeding In the first issue of firstIn the During thesame anincrease in period towards interest Tanzimat 3,No.11 (7 Mart 1329 [20 March 1913]): 337-343. Idman in nice weather.” walking are if they as walking rain, the about concerned not soldiers, like walking are youth German strong This uniform. same in all red, German army. fearsome the basis of the are] is [they one sixteen, oldest the fourteen is one Allyoungest The soldiers. child but of soldiers not them are they that realized I areThen army. of kind a healthy,I thought are. they who understand strong, Asnot behind approaching.me were I heard Icould they acrowd tall; their cheeks are ø mparatorluktan Ulus Devlete Türk Milliyetçili úú to the Republic), ed.Murat Belge, ( . . In the last one of these Sukru Bey, divides Boy-Scouts into two as ‘War- af Yolda 11 ú rutiyet Döneminde Paramiliter Gençlik Örgütleri (Paramilitary youth organizations in According to some authors, thanks to its relationship with CUP, úOÕ÷Õ Idman : 14 Boy Scout Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’eTürkiye Ansiklopedisi , an Fraternity” entitledarticle “Scout written by Ali Sükrü (Scout fraternity:Boy-Scout),” ú eye (The Turk’sYeter strengthis enoughfor everything),” ø 12 48 stanbul: Most notably Most ÷ i... ø leti , 64. ú im Yay Türk Gücü Türk Õ nlar Idman ke 13 Õ , 1985), 532. úú afl , (15Mayis 329 [28May (Encyclopedia of Turkey presented the idea of the idea presented Õ k (a new word for Idman Türk CEU eTD Collection [27 April 1914], p. 3. 22 21 Tanin 20 1919; 1926-1927), Çocuk Dünyas magazine and its index withsome transcriptions, see: Yavuz Selim Karak scouting see: scouting 19 2; “ 18 17 Within editorials, Within a week,two in concerning boy virtuesof followed the other scouting each major chapter in daily other the published was organization the day, of by-law the toadaily in he on how official, commented paper, waswelcomed Turkey. was evidenced. [ Belgium in order to reach an agreement with Mr. Parfitte, the leader of Belgium Boy Scouts. whenEnverPa newspapers prominenton of some scouting tents appeared on the first page of daily first pageof prominentthe appeared onthe some scoutingof tents page. At Burdur, OrganizationScouts in April 1914. From newspapers the we learn CUP the that deputy of scouting andonhow toimprove physical strength. Theseperiod. varied articles incontent virtues onmoral butgenerally put emphasis of 16 notes about scouting under the name of name the scouting about under notes 15 soldiers needed only hearto ‘it is coming’ to run away…” atmost BalkanWar; of the our knowsSukru Bey,that “Look everybody continues: and patriotism.“Doyou want an exampleshow to the non-existence of scouting [in Turkey]” asks Figure 6 “ “ “ For instance, the “nationalist” periodical designed foryouth, “Boy Skavt ( “ “Ke A. ø ø ø ø ø zci Çad zcilik Muallimi (Scouting ‘nstructor),” zcilik Oca zcilik Yolunda: Mösyö Parfitte ile Mülakat (On the way Boy-Scouting:to interview with Mr. Parfitte),” zciler Oca ù , 10 Nisan 1330 [23 April 1914], p. 1. úú 18 ükrü, “Ke af In the following month, an attempt to create a positive public opinion about scouting about opinion public positive a create to attempt an month, following the In The news and ideas about boy-scoutingThe newsappear about and becamemoreand ideas prominent beganto Similarly Õ n Muht n ] After their] news the boyscouting return about in in flourished thedaily full papers Õ rlar Õ Çocuk Dünyas f Bey who was also the head of the above-mentioned the of head the also was who f Bey ÷Õ ÷Õ Õ Dergisi(Cocuk Dunyasi magazine from the II. Constitution to Republic)the (1913-1914;1918- ø Õ zci) Te úú (Scouting tents),” ,” ’n Õ afl 19 Õ ras ø Müteferrika n kdam Talebe Defteri Talebe An interview was made with Mr. Parfitte who was dressed as a Turkish Õ ø Õ k (Boy Scouting),” ç Nizamnamesi (Internal by-law of the Boy-Scout Organization),” notes),” (Scout ú kilat , 10, Nisan 1330[23April 1914], p. 1. Õ Õ , “ (Boy-Scout ORganization),” , No.13 (Yaz 1998): 119-191. ø zcilik Özel Tanin (Student Book), a magazine for school boys, began publishto Talebe Defteri , 13Nisan 1330[26 April 1914], p.1. Idman ø Say kdam ÕVÕ , (1 Eylül329 329 [14 September 1913]), 96-100. ,” (29May (Istanbul), 8 Nisan 1330 [21 Nisan 1914], p. 4. ú Ke , (16 Kanun- Sani 1329 [29 January 1914]), 293. a, the Minister of Minister of War,hada, the organized 49 úú af Tanin Õ 16 Õ n Muht s 1330 [13 June 1914]).For more detail about this Çocuk Dünyas (Istanbul),Nisan 9 1330 [22 April 1914], p. 1- 15 Õ ras Õú Õ (Scout’s Notes) in the same la, “II. Me Õ , published a special issue onboy Turk Gucu ú rutiyet’tenCumhuriyet’e ø 20 Tanin kdam Then the photos the Then , 14 Nisan, 14 1330 had gone to hadgone . 21 The next The the ø kdam Boy- . 22 17 CEU eTD Collection Örgütleri,” 105-107. Vakayi 29 28 1330 [26 May 1914], p. 1. May 27 26 25 schools. Again according to the by-law of the by-law the of to Againaccording schools. formerthe wasbased on membership while voluntary latter wasmandatory the in all public (Ottoman Strength Societies) wasfounded,by (Ottoman Strength War. again Ministry the of 24 21 Nisan1330 [4 May 1914], p. 1. regulations, the main difference between main the difference regulations, leaders; new organization, a scout the thegraduation of after when you see the fruit of your work. God be with you.” in useful will andmotivated tobemore army. the object preparing activebe pleased You delivered speech: ashort “…you canjudge important how is your oath willbeScouting a prepared army prepared when needed. recruit eighty scouts per month in different districts of Istanbul,Parfitte therefore in the Ministry ( leaders creating of War. In a thewell- ceremony of taking the scout oath, Enver Pa claimed into was Parfitte imperialtaken by theinservice imperial decree 22 May1914as papers goal army creating astrong of scouting. through about Parfitte’s tenurein 19 April 1914. 1914], p.1; “ Laws ( 23 this paper. “Osmanl “ “ “Mösyö Parfitte (Mr. Parfitte),” (BurdurMebusu) At “ Ba ø ø ø zcilik Aleminde (In the scouting world),” Õ zcilere, Tüccara ve Erbab- Tüccara zcilere, zcilik: Oymak Beylerinin Tahlif Merasimi (Scouting: The oathceremony of scout leaders),” ú s 1330 [26 May s 1330[26May 1914], p.4;“Oymak BeylerininAnd bakanl , 25May ø The general picture about scouting became more complicated when only two weeks two only when complicated more became scouting about picture The general Few days after the formal employment of Mr. Parfitte, on 25 zcilik Düsturlar zcilik 25 oymak beyi Õ a month after the after month a Güç Dernekleri Hakk 23 Õ ø Osmanl zcilik Ne Mühim At Õ s 1330[7June 1914], p. 1-2, trans. Zafer“ Toprak, Õ f Bey also engaged in this campaigning by writing an article entitled Scouting entitled article an writing by campaigning in this engaged also f Bey Õ Ar Õ f, “ ) were graduated from ) weregraduated which course the was possibly opened byMr. ú ivi ø zcilik Düsturlar Õ ), in ), hewhich describedscouting inBelgium,and concluded with the (B.O.A.),MV, 1332/Ca/23 [19/April/1914],Document no: 187/57. Õ øú Sanata (To Scouts, Merchants and Artizans),” and Merchants Scouts, (To Sanata lerKe 28 Tanin Õ Meclis-i Vükela nda Nizamname (Regulations of Ottomanthe Strength Societies),” [ Figures 7and8 ú , 9May fettiriyor(Scouting is leading us to discoverimportant things),” Õ (Scouting laws),” Tanin 26 Õ s 1330[22May p. 4.1914], ø zciler Oca , 9May (Ministerial Council) (Ministerial had discussedtheissues 50 Güç Dernekleri Güç ] ø Õ çmesi (The oathof scout leaders),” s 1330[22 May 1914], p.4. Tasvir-i Efkar 24 ÷Õ Along with these developments, Mr. developments, these with Along and ø 27 ttihat ve Terakki’ninParamiliter Gençlik Güç Dernekleri The “fruit” of the work was to , 4May 1330 [17 May 1914], p. 4. , ø zcilik Dernekleri zcilik Osmanl ø kdam th of May, thirteen scout- , 18 Nisan 1330 [1 May Õ 29 GüçDernekleri seems to be that Regarding their ø kdam (Scouting , 13 May Tanin Takvim-i ú a, had ø kdam , 13 Õ s , CEU eTD Collection 11 Haziran 1330[24 June 1914], p. 2. 33 32 Strenth Societies),” Societies),” as stated inas stated Law”, being “Scout the loyal, trustworthy, helpful,friendly, kind, courteous, characteristics were, virtuous youth. These to characteristics provide virtuous to it aimed also III) Theof Political Economy the Movement: daily papers.daily masculinity. It is stated is stated that: It masculinity. Empire. The including Ottoman the states, many of policy theofficial World hadbecome Warperiod declarationin idea“total-war” of andpre- the that states citizen-soldiers The beginningof declaration the was also a good example of what I discussed above as heroic very significant idea very significant forbe Young the began published.Turks to declaration by the Ministry declarationWar about bytheMinistry of above. changes system in conscription in Ottomanarmy same period the asdiscussed the of the age (article #5). that over Ottomans years-old-ageunder whereas 17 31 30 of asub-organization became Societies) “Güç Dernekleri (Strength Societies),” (Strength Dernekleri “Güç “Millet-i Müsellehaya Do “ See chapter III, part IIIon this paper. ø zcilik: Osmanl 30 However it will be reductionism restrictto boy-scouting tomilitary preparedness since This pace in the foundation of organization could be understood This pacein be in of the organization understood foundation could the relation to On 8 Tanin namus else, took itinto its responsibility and founded the God…Ministry of Warwhich isconcerned with this vital issue more than anyone defend the Ottoman honor and motherland which is entrustedmen, will notto roam aroundus on the by streets, but they will gettheirweapons, to run a soldier, from now on when the müselleha In this era, for every nation that wants to survive, to defend the motherland, 31 th Then the articles about the concept of , 26 , May of June 1914, we see the first news about ø Õ Güç Dernekleri Hakk kdam (honor) against the enemies, there is no other way than being a (nation in arms) to achieve these [goals]…From now onevery one will be , 26 May Õ s 1330[8June 1914],p.4; “ ÷ ru (Towardsru nation-in-arms),” Õ s 1330[8June 1914], p. 1. Güç Dernekleri Güç Tanin Õ nda Nizamname (Scouting: regulations of the OttomanStrength vatan , 11Haziran1330[24 June 1914], p.4; “Güç Dernekleri,” Güç Dernekleri Güç Dernekleri Güç is in danger, those who have the title of being 51 ø zci Ocaklar Tanin would concentrate on the recruiting of Ottoman Strength Societies , 10 Haziran 1330 [23 June 1914], p. 3. millet-i müselleha Õ , Güç Dernekleri (Boy-Scout Organization, that appeared in every inpaper. every daily appeared that ; with the role of recruiting boys recruiting of role the with ; Osmanl 32 Õ The final peak was the GüçDernekleri (nation in arms), a millet-i ... Õ 33 rz ve on the ø kdam , CEU eTD Collection political-economy of the Ottoman society. Obedience to the orders of scout masters can be masters can of scout orders the to Obedience society. Ottoman the of political-economy sacrificing, enterprising nation, [and] an army of strong discipline and obedience.” “…thesewords: are the goals andbasis boy of scouting whichwillbuild aunified, self- obedience ( obedience cited “moral”length mentionedin interesting: abovetwo themes texts the areparticularly 37 scouting?” 36 period. Inhisperiod. the of economy political dominant the corporatism, of idea the with hand in hand go should scouting boy Therefore society. future the of elements the be will who citizens up bring to Turkish Turkish children regain characteristics.” their traditional youth willthe and makeus, Alittle effort, yet of races”. “historical become the amember not have we[Turks] andcharacteristics traditions… greatest areall sacred amongto order [our] 35 Company, 1935), 22-23. ø Fescizade In onthe in topic. 1912, articles is early movement observedeven aspect of the the 34 reverent. and clean brave, thrifty, cheerful, obedient, brahim Galip had written: “you all know, being courageous, brave, helping others, obedience (BurdurMebusu) At M. Sami, Fescizade Fescizade Elizabeth R. Pendry and Hugh Hartshorne, And similarly At similarly And Besides the themes of ‘sacrifice’ and ‘military recruitment’ we have discussed at discussed we have recruitment’ ‘military and ‘sacrifice’ thethemes of Besides However Boy-Scouting was more than providing character for the youth since it aimed ø ø conscription. ( training military the all had they therefore unified, that are born out of scouting will be armies masses whom The education future. the in and recruitmentmotherland their had for sacrifice most the make will who ones first aims of it [scouting]. The youth who are educated in good hands, will be the education( under a law according to occupational education ( education occupational to according a law under and enterprising determinant ( them make and are, they wherever lives own their earn them prepare to make them know theirmotherland, to make them healthy and physically powerful, The aim of scouting is to make youth strong, and with moral virtues ( zci Rehberi itaat brahim Galip, “Ya Galip, brahim Scout’s Guide ) and being ( enterprising Õ f,“ , 17. terbiye-i milliye 36 ø zcilik Düsturlar Õ f Bey concluded his above-mentioned article after with the following the with after article above-mentioned his concluded f Bey müte ú amaya Azm Etmi Azm amaya , M. Sami offered an extended answer to the question, “What is “What question, the to extendedSami answer an offered , M. ú ebbis ) to create a unified group of youth. This is one ofthe one is This youth. of group unified a create ) to ), and also to ( recruit Õ ,” p. 4. Organizations forYouth müte ú Milletlerde Çocuklar,” 12. Çocuklar,” Milletlerde 52 ú ebbis/giri 34 talim terbiye-i meslekiye In our case, a great emphasis on this 35 terbiye-i askeriye [ ) and educate ( educate ) and ú Figure 9 ken ) which became crucial in the in crucial became which ) , (New McGraw-HillYork: Book ] ) and national ) and terbiye ) before their before ) ahlakl ) youth Õ ), to 37 CEU eTD Collection ve 42 41 40 39 ø Vatanda Matbaas entrepreneur had become a part of “Scout Law” “Scout of hadbecome apart entrepreneur youth and tobuild up “occupational educations” and similarly At similarly and educations” “occupational idea youth the under the cultivating of thinkingside of about coin,M.Sami was the it an in asbureaucracy state official ameanand represented for “survival the state”. the of appreciated when an entrepreneur generation grows twenty-thirty later.” years twenty-thirty grows generation an entrepreneur when appreciated solidarité and enterprising on emphasis put claimed, as scouting boy on works the atmosphere, this century.” 38 ( entrepreneur writer of such a book, with social-Darwinist assumptions in mind, pointed out: “Yes, being an providing knowledge of citizenship ( with newthe regime. andof secure the foundations to modernlaws state and of the seen as a tool to accustom the youth not only to the military discipline but also to the rules entrepreneurship was one of the most dominant themes in these books. Hakk books. themes inthese one mostentrepreneurship the dominant was of ( entrepreneurship private of project, this period.Aspart Young-Turk ineconomy the te (BurdurMebusu) At “ stanbul: ø Ibid ù Hakk zci Oca ú ø zcilik Yolunda: Mösyö Parfitte ile Mülakat,” p. 1. ürekas ebbüs-i ., 89-95. solidarité Õ úOÕ Õ Boy Scouting as mentioned above put great emphasis on both both mentionedthemes.great emphasis on The Boy Scouting aboveput as The emphasis beingon enterprising is a more complex issue. It wenthand in hand , 1327[1911]), 121,quoted inFüsunÜstel, Behiç, ø ÷Õ k E Õ leti 38 . For instance, Mr. Parfitte was claiming that “the real virtue of scouting will be , 1330[1914]), 20. ’n These books put Theseemphasis books on entrepreneurshipprivate toworking as opposed as ú ú ÷ Õ im Yay ahsi n itmi müte Malumat- ø ( ç Nizamnamesi tesanüd) (In the (Inthe Pursuit of ‘Desiredthe Citizen’ Civic Knowledge fromConstitution II. to Today), ) entered the school curriculum in this period via text books designedbooks for via in text this period curriculum school the ) entered Õ Õ ú nlar f, “ ebbis solidarité ø Õ Õ zcilik Düsturlar , 2004), 89. Medeniye ve Ahlakiye and corporatism which were the major values of Turkish political, ) and honest… those are the ones who deserve to live in the 20 (Internal by-law of Boy Scoutthe Organization), ( among them through boy scouting.” Õ ,” p.4. (Civic and moral knowledge), [ (Dersaadet Õ malumat- f Bey was aiming to overcome selfishness of of overcomethe selfishness f Bey wasaimingto ‘Makbul Vatanda 53 42 , and Õ medeniye tesanüd ú¶Õ n Pe / ). The idea of private ). Theideaof solidarité ú inde, II.inde,Me 41 ø stanbul: Matbaa-y was stated in the ú rutiyet’ten Bugüne 40 ø On the other stanbul]: Õ Behiç,the Õ Hayriye ø kdam 39 In th CEU eTD Collection 48 and stress on order and discipline, scouting helped the idea helpedscouting of the and and on discipline, order stress achievement within the borders of a broader social solidarité. Along with these metaphors depended to personaldepended to as well achievement age as ‘compatriots’ as brothers and sisters of the society. asfather‘state’ and mother, is as in perceived ‘homeland’ which nation state Turkish aselderbrother.” positions mother, leader ( mother, 47 Japan,” in Association Reserve Military of Imperial Creation “The Smetrusth, J. Richard See: children”. like were people young and recruits and brothers elder like elders village and soldiers old fathers, like were officers and officials “the emperor, Japans tried to create a reserve army by putting emphasis on solidarity, cooperation andequality before the “Makbul Vatanda by Young Turks as motherland is home, citizens are children of this home and they are allbrothers. FüsunÜstel, 46 were seen in the by-law inwere seen the 45 44 be eighteen to be the instance for one hadto positions; for fulfilling certain wereestablished limits command. Age in command. This isproblem firstovercome by by age, eldersplacing inhigher positions in is between ideabe there of members of need ‘group’, equality the the always to someone for 43 though Even scouts. boy of system corporatist in the deficiencies first article of the Boy Scouts Organization’s by-law. uniformity of clothes to present the unity of ideas and labor.” and ideas of unity the present to clothes of uniformity the to be paid will “Attention states: by-law the of asanarticle order of this representation the in factor a became crucial wearing notably,uniforms Most importance. gained and obedience order this of representation physical the state; to of obedience metaphor a as scout-leaders to scouts themselves. of boy the activities in physical the were embodied This metaphorof home and family whichis dominant inthe period appears in the ideal constructionof state Ibid ø Ibid Ibid Ibid zci Oca ., 8-9. , 4. , 7. , 1. This allowedstructure individual initiatives for occupation of higher positions were Along with the stress on the discipline in the exercises of the scouts and “obedience” and scouts the of exercises in the discipline the on stress the with Along ÷Õ ’n Õ n ø ç Nizamnamesi ú´Õ ba n Pe ú bu ú kalfa inde... ÷ ) as father, and all the scouts as brothers and all scouts in higher scouts all and brothers as scouts the all and father, as ) 46 : “after taking the oath, the taking “after : The Journal ofAsian Studies and twenty one to be the be to one twenty and 47 , 73-74. This metaphor is also employed by other nations such as Japan where Japan as such nations other by employed also is metaphor This 73-74. , , 4. These metaphors were references to the ideal construction of the of ideal the construction to werereferences Thesemetaphors 54 48 30, No 4 (Aug., 1971): 817-818. ; which are parallel to the idea of individual of idea the to parallel are ; which ads D÷ 43 Õ z Moreover, a will know the organization ( know will . 45 Along thisline kinship metaphors 44 However, there seemed to be solidarité solidarité solidarité wasbased on the and enterprising by creating ocak ) as CEU eTD Collection information of how physical education is introduced in many schools, see the memoirs of Selim S ofSelim memoirs see the many schools, in introduced is education of how physical information classroom 1914], p.1-2. Inthisnews, the“oldinwas school” as pictured a crowded, dirty fullplace ofboysand a dark in contrast to “new school” where girls were making gymnastics in the open air. For a first hand Terakki Edioyor? Schools Piousthe (How of the Foundations Progressing?),” are 52 Vol.V, (Dersaadet Matbaas 51 50 49 plays, military for boyseducation and household economy and sewing for girls. and school education includingfor children physical newlaw, wereprogrammed this courses andetc. and maker,telegrapher shoe tailor photographer, miner, ironsmith, technician, cook, musician, carpenter, cavalry, plants, could boy scouts assistant,pilot gain included sailor, assistant, beingdoctor specialist on that specializations the of Some society. within labor of division fostering thus specialists, naïve’ faith in the power of faithnaïve’ in power of education”. the CUPleadersthe had of ashared asetwhich includes set ‘andattitudes, “a somewhat great and specifically for the development of the scouting-movement. According toEric J.Zurcher, IV) Pedagogy, and Boy-Scouting: Nature citizens. asfuture soldiersbutalso recruit youth only the not potential as to leaders fortool CUP which is basedon solidarity Weboy canconcludeand corporatism. was that scouting a great amicro-society establish thus them and between interdependency create topics, ofthese one Temporary Law of Primary Education ( of Education Primary Law Temporary mind and practicalthe making for a living. His ideas seemed have to been by reified the period, Turk Young during emphasized the both aspects of foreducation, theoretical the the first Education but of wastheknowledgealso Efendi on one.Minister practical Emrullah onthisimportant regardwas idea the thateducation should dependnotonly on theoretical survive. Particularly to reform hadeducation, to state the therefore, state”; of the “survival the “Tedrisat- Eric J.Zurcher, Eric Ibid Ibid ., 11-18. ., 808. Physical educationseems to be importantan component of this reform: “Mekatib-i Vakfiye Nas Before I conclude, I have to mention the importance of pedagogy for YoungTurks mention the ofpedagogy thehave importance Before Iconclude, I to Õø btidaiye Kanun- Turkey: AModern History Õ , 1332[1914]),804-823. Õ Muvakkati (The temporary law of primary education),” 49 , (I.B., Tauris, 2004), 132. The aim of this was to make boy scouts specialize on 50 Tedrisat- Ottoman intellectuals saw education for as ameans saw education intellectuals Ottoman 55 Õø btidaiye Kanun- Õ Muvakkati Tanin , 12May Düstur ) in 1913. 52 Õ s 1330[25May [ , Tertib-i Sani, Figure 10 Õ rr Õ [Tarcan]: 51 In ] Õ l CEU eTD Collection propaganda book: Red-Black Book) (1913),” (Red-Black Book), This book was published during Balkan War probably in the summer of 1913. For further For of 1913. summer informationthe in about thisprobably book, War see: Balkan Yavuz Selimduring Karak published was book This Book), (Red-Black 57 56 55 54 ÜlkenYay 53 ø published as serials in the periodical in serials the published as childheronamed R short story entitled story short need inlife manner from a practical nature.” “Scoutingiswalking not mountains on for kilometers or but toteach children things theywill between practical education and boy scouting was illustrated in the words of M. Sami: scouts were evaluated according to their practical abilities. and knowledge wereevaluatedtheir according to practical scouts “Selim S is bait fish similar tothe children give on a desirededucation, our the line.” boy educateisscouting via to playinggames, which he described“Plays as: which we use to At isinstance, boy in legitimized they his ofpedagogy. that on scouting For grounds long article blamed the schooling system for the defeat. The significance of these arguments for ourstudy intellectuals many Ottoman in Wars accordingly and Balkan defeat the the“traumatic” after knowledge. practical thevalueof stressed system,for blamingit serving only of purpose the and recruiting for state, officials the figurean important in the Ottoman arenaduringpolitical the period, criticized the schooling Sabahaddin, instance, Prens For intellectuals. other were were endeavored butthere that ideas same emphasis on the practical part of education in of by-law the education of part practical onthe same emphasis The illustrations used in the story were taken from a propgandate book published, named published, book propgandate a from taken were story the in used illustrations The (BurdurMebusu) At Hilmi Ziya Ülken, stanbul: Türkiye Yay ø M. Sami, Õ zci Oca f Bey underlined the importance of games for education. He claimed one of the bases of The best example of this idea and other aspects of boy-scouting was anillustrated of was boy-scouting idea aspects and other of this The bestexample Emrullah Efendi was possibly the most influential of the intellectuals in terms of his of in terms intellectuals the of influential most the possibly was Efendi Emrullah Õ rr ÷Õ Õ nlar Õ Tarcan: Hat ø ’n zci Rehberi Õ n Õ , 1979), 192. ø ç Nizamnamesi Türkiye’de Ça Õ Õ f, “ nevi, 1946),nevi, 46-55. Õ dvan, a Muslim shepherd, who was helpinghisdvan,shepherd, aMuslim elders theirvillage who protect Da , 11. Õ ø ralar zcilik Düsturlar ÷ lar Çocu Õ m (Selim Sirri Tarcan: My Memoirs)” in , 4. ÷ da ú ÷ Dü u, Tabii Ke u, Tabii Õ ,” p.4. ú Toplumsal Tarih Toplumsal Talebe Defteri Talebe ünce Tarihi 53 Arguments of a similar kind intensified especially intensified kind asimilar of Arguments 56 56 úú Õú (History of the modern thought in Turkey), ( la, “BirPropaganda Kitab af (Child of Mountains, The Natural Scout) 21, No. 131 (October2004): 94-96. . 57 The story was constituted around the Canl ø Õ zciler Oca Tarihler Õ : K Õ rm 54 (Living Histories), .Õ We also see the Õ]Õ 55 rm ÷Õ SiyahKitap (A Therelation where boy- where Õ]Õ Siyah Kitap ø stanbul: CEU eTD Collection 61 217. 60 233. 59 1331-1329 [6 November1913]), 187-189. [practical knowledge]; [practical andhunger) hehis [reflection of since was in tolivingdeterminacy] nature accustomed to thirst (indifferent by nature affected not was He masculinity]. ‘heroic’ the of component emergence of the boy scouting from the point of view of an Ottoman intellectual: inwords lastthe pagesof makehis text conference us understand thesituation and thusthe situation; rather, he criticized the form that boy scouting took in the Ottoman Empire. His stays always and control’] 58 Hakk Ismail former one. the to had priority given the citizens, andeducating soldiers recruiting as scouting, boy of foundations double the where a path into evolved had movement orders of the elders). from Bulgarian rebels ( V) Conclusion: The of Conference Ismail Hakk main ofboy goals scouting, therelation the that of title serialthe had suggested. soldier”, “good the citizen”)“good and apotential man” bereadas “good (can examplea of ø “Da "Da “Da smail Hakk ÷ Õ ÷ ÷ states: lar Çocu lar Çocu lar Çocular However we should not rush to claim that Ismail Hakk In 1915, when Ismail Hakk kinds of scientific, social and natural abilities and ideas. To shape boy scouting into withits uniform. Nevertheless, boy scouting is a kind of educationto provide all Therefore, boy scouting took amilitaristic form withits spirit, withits orderand only way to live independently. And that is to recruit the bodies of its youth. scientific, norabout healthbut militaristic. The country found out that that is the every patriot. onits military power. Military power these is also besides dependent and oneconomics theand military commerce, service of agriculture, by its determined is society fight with itsblood andits sword for the claim of life.The continuity of every Disarmament is a dream for the 20 Õ Bey [Baltac ÷ ÷ ÷ u, Tabii Ke Tabii u, u, TabiiKe u, u, Tabii Ke u, Tabii In ourIn country boy emergedscouting afteratremendous defeat.Itisneither 60 59 From living tobe From wholethe aboy, an story, wasillustrated innature, 61 ÕR÷ komitac he never lost himself [middle class masculinity ideal of being ‘self- being of ideal masculinity class [middle himself lost never he úú úú úú lu], “Memleketimiz af IV,” af III,” af (Child ofmountains, the af (Child scout),”natural obedient Õ ). 58 Talebe Defteri Talebe Defteri Throughout the story, R story, the Throughout to elders (he does not kill rebels himself but waits for the Õ Bey delivered his speech inBey speech delivered his Izmir, Boy Scout the th ø century. It is a necessity for every society to society every for necessity a is It century. zcilikten Ne Bekleyebilir?,” 50-51. , (5Kanun- 57 , (21 , Te ú rin-i sani1329-1332rin-i [4 December1913]), 216- Õ Bey: Õ Sani 1929-1332 [18 December1913]), 232- Õ dvan acted as a very a as acted dvan Talebe Defteri Õ was a proponent of the , (24Te brave ú rin-i evvelrin-i boy boy [a CEU eTD Collection 62 constructing nation the its as ideal well as representing order. idealbetween nature, the andmilitaristicmasculinity, values. citizenship, relation the illustrated I scout” a“natural of by Andan example movement. the legitimate islast usedby that a I claim point practical was to the promisedscouting knowledge that by providing characters to them alsobut aspreparing them for corporatist the social As order. organization.the Boy-Scouting However alsocontributedto buildingthe upcitizens notonly War took of under Ministry after particularly of project this elements basic werethe citizens Ibid., 69. In the next chapter I am going to examine the mass gymnastic festivals as a mean for as festivals a themass gymnastic examine Iam goingto chapter In thenext I can andsoldier- creation nation-in-arms the of To sum a up thissuggest that chapter, and indeterminism, which have been seen in the historywill speak only ofTurkish. Boythe country.scouts will overcome the shortcomings like weakness interact with thea kind of military villagers,movement isto understand its role insufficiently…Boy scouts will find out their brothers, carry the flag of the motherland, 58 62 CEU eTD Collection Figure6: “Mr. Parfitt,the Vice-Leader of the Boy Scout Organization”, Idman Figure5: The coverof the 29 , (4 May 1914). th issue of Idman : “Enver Pasa, the Leader of the Boy-Scout Organization”, 59 Idman, (4 May 1914), 449 CEU eTD Collection Figure8: “Scouts of Istanbul School High anofficial in ceremony, Idman, Figure7: “The scouts of Galatasaray and Alt (27April 1914), 444. Õ nordu salutingare theSultan during anofficial ceremony,” 60 ” Idman, (14 May 1914), 474. CEU eTD Collection Progress School) in in School) Bursa, Progress Figure10: Bey.” Bey, a member of Galatasaray Sultanisi Boy-Scouts, will take the place of his martyred uncle, Muhtar Figure9: The emphasis on revenge and sacrifice were one the main aspects of boy-scouting: “Necmeddin Idman “ The praise-worthy exercise of the students of ‘Ittihad ve Terakki Mektebi’ (Unionand Mektebi’ veTerakki studentsof of‘Ittihad the exercise The praise-worthy , (12 February1914), 474. ” ù ehbal , (28May 1914),p.4. 61 CEU eTD Collection gives us a glimpse of the aims behind it: behind aims the of aglimpse us gives and later few years direct he would that festival gymnastic the foreshadow occasion this on First Iwill of thetheoretical give massbackground these festivals. gymnastic was invited by of president the the Budapest. Science, Academy of meetingthe Congressin of Olympicwas summoned of Gameswhich the International 2 Matbaas held in Empire the instruction Ottoman thatunder were Selim S of Republican in visitedperiods, Hungary 1914. Selim S Selim 1 I) Introduction: TurkRule under Young GymnasticFestivals Mass VI) Chapter The memoirs of this visit and Selim Sirri’s account onthe education policies of the HungarianMonarchy see: Ibid ., p. 54. Õ Õ The last pages of his account on this visit were about a gymnastic festival to whicha gymnastic he visit festival to thiswere about his accounton The lastpages of In the following pages, I will examine the first Gymnastic Festivals ( Festivals Gymnastic first the examine will I pages, following the In Selim Selim S rr , 1330[1914]). Õ [Tarcan], children children were moving like a beehive. Hungarian spirit blood. Morethan carried thousandand Hungarian ten feltlike Hungarian, had children They appreciated who these tribunesthe are watching children,the future hopes the of nation.the body…In minutes ten fieldthe full ofchildren.Nowthe in was people acommon of organs the if were they as moving legs were arms, the hundred like children electricity and they the followed drum. The [the my two inissound of It soundears. This affected drum]the still Õ rr Õ [Tarcan], the most important sportsman most [Tarcan], the YoungTurkandthe of Early Macaristan’da Terbiye-i Etfal Reál Gimnázium 62 [Education of children in Hungary], (Dersaadet: (Dersaadet: Hungary], in of children [Education 1 The purpose of the visit was to participate to 2 , Professor Szekeres. Selim S Selim Szekeres. Professor , Õ rr Õ Beyin1916 and1917. Idman Bayrami Õ rr Õ ’s words ’s ù ems ) CEU eTD Collection “Organizations Take a Hand,” 127-160. Napoleonicthe Wars throughthe Third Reich 226 (Cambridge,Mass. Ozouf, :Harvard University Mona Press, 1988). see: regimes Revolution French and festivals on account best attempts to increase the loyalty of citizens to newregime. the loyalty to citizens the toincrease of attempts enhancemorals of to war andtraditions” the Ottomansconsidered as“invented the the during as literaturerelevant on “nationalthe holidays” these holidays Turkperiod the Young during were festivalswere themainunderwere celebrated holidays rule. national In that Young and Turk the festivals” under Young Turk rule was a mean in the “nationalization of the masses.” ‘desired citizen’ civic knowledgefromconstitution II. to today), ( this discipline is to form thismay isto a “docile discipline used, transformed be [body] that and subjected, festivals. of gymnastics structure organizational the under lies that doingwill so,I my extent discussion previous Foucault’s ideas on on ‘disciplinary technologies’ Bayrami Parliament” ( Parliament” on anniversarythe of revolutionthe and the holiday on dayof the “Opening the National the of ( Holiday” National “Ottoman The rule: this to exception no was revolution Füsun Üstel, Füsun 225 Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 263-307. 19 late in in countries the various and monuments all of which aimed the creation of loyalty and popular resonance of the populace 224 II) Theoretical Backgroundof Mass GymnasticFestivals: George L. Mosse, L. George For a brief summary of this literature on Festivals under Young Turk rule and the argument for this view, see: Eric Hobsbawm,Eric “Mass Producing Traditions: Europe,1870-1914,” in However here I will endeavor to go beyond this view and look for how “gymnastic According to Foucault,According disciplineitnot aninstitution.is is Themain to of atechnique object Public festivals were only second to the the two other to festivalssecond wereonly Public ; first held in; first 1915)and“Children’s held Holiday”( ‘MakbulVatanda Meclis-i Milli’nin Yevm-iBayrami Kusadi Meclis-i Milli’nin The Nationalization of theMasses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from ú¶Õ n Pe ú inde, II.Me th and early and early 20 , (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), particularly chapter 6: chapter particularly 1991), Press, University Cornell (Ithaca: , ú rutiyet’ten BugüneVatanda 63 th centuries. ø stanbul: ), the “Student’s Holiday” ( Holiday” “Student’s the ), Cocuklar Bayrami invented traditions 225 224 ø The Ottoman Empire TheOttoman 1908 after leti The Invention of Tradition Festivals and the French Revolution ú im Yay úOÕ k E k Õ ÷ nlar itmi Iyd-i Milli-i Osmani Iyd-i Milli-i ; first held in 1916) Õ , the public schools public , the , 2004),29and forthe (In the pursuit of the 226 Mektepliler But before , ed. Eric ed. , ) , CEU eTD Collection 230 Europe,” 229 228 HarvesterWheatsheaf, 1982), 153. afterword byand an interview withFoucault Michel ed. Hubert L.Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow Wintage/Random House,136, quoted1979), in 227 importantisus most the aspect transformation the of in massesintocommunity,the our adesired control of the cell was concomitant with the order of the whole operation.” This carried out. be successfully could multiplicity of whole “theorderingthe By methods these regular with enable units andabsences. Theseslots function.presences the disciplinary power to inis to partitioned The space becomes crucial. space of organization the creation docility total of bodies the this In efficientlyin aredesigneddisciplinary work power, technology. and to the is the key to “micro-power” of construction This body andas awhole. the both part the control improved.” symbols, offered a convenient framework for the work of ‘the engineers of souls”. human of of ‘the engineers work forthe framework a convenient offered symbols, the aim of the power was to maindiscipline task of the thepower minds to discipline and gymnaststhe of “In case the them: watching spectators andthe onthefield athletes between the convince the bodies them. and Theuse ritual,them, bodieswhereas with intoplay theuse caseofthem of itspectators produced “The underCentral produce ‘docile’states: gymnasticnot Communism, displaysEurope did ‘docile’and in East displays bodies gymnastic on study his in Roubal, Peter instance, For to displays. these displayon them.” andFascism us nuanced gives working the about of a understanding this disciplinary technology PeterRoubal, “Politics of Gymnastics: Mass Gymnastic Displays under Communism inCentral and Eastern Michel Foucault, Ibid Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism ., 11. The studies on mass gymnastic displays under totalitarian regimes such as Communism as such regimes totalitarian under displays gymnastic mass on studies The Body & Society 227 In this approach the body is analyzed in its constitutive parts as the aim is to DisciplinePunish: and The Birthof Prison 9,No. 2(2003): 10. , ed. H. L.Dreyfus,153-156. Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics with an 64 , Translated by Sheridan,Alan (New York: 229 Roubal makes adistinction Roubal 228 , (New York : 230 For CEU eTD Collection aims donations the of “gentle and families”, loyal gymnastics gamesand sport appeared in its that organization which was held byacharity Festival”in“Flowerinstance a For celebrations. had beenheld under same the namein period that orsports wereincorporated asa part of other Gymnastic Holiday). However this wasfarfrom title being aninnovation since many occasions III) Mass Gymnastic Festivals under Young Turk III) MassGymnastic under Rule: Festivals Young Rule. this andexpressionism the Turkish in desired ‘nation’ Gymnasticthe Festivals YoungTurk under of a totalitarian liturgy and ... of sportive expressionism”. element a wholestandard “become into bodies rhythmic the of fusion festivals, the gymnastic place as part of the gymnastic festivals. But there was no place for frivolity.” place for no was Butthere festivals. gymnastic as partof placethe of ‘sacred acts’...Song, the martial note of trumpets, short speeches, and holy flames, all had their he performance in through a masspart disciplined into of a chaotic crowd channeling that meant such rites for herealized that rites; national for meaningful concern waspartof Jahn’s gymnastics consciousness.” insocieties were main liturgy the and“concerned revivalof actors this the with national The celebrations andfestivals male-choirs particularly gymnasts, of the andsharp-shooting 231 liturgy of nationalism.” case to a “nation” through their ritualistic display, in the words of George Mosse: “the political 233 232 Evolution of an Idea 235 234 George L. Mosse, “Mass Politics and the Political Liturgy of Nationalism,” in George L. Mosse, “Mass Politics and the Political Liturgy of Nationalism,” 40. John M. Hoberman, George L. Mosse, L. George Ibid. , p. 42. Tegmatcfsiasta ilfcso are te name the I on focus that will festivals carried The gymnastic According to Mosse,nationalism becomesa According to reality liturgy only the itthrough created. 233 , ed. Eugene Kamenka, (London : E. Arnold, 1976), 38-54 The Nationalization of the Masses… In his genealogy of gymnastic festivals from Jahn, he claims: “The creation of Sport and Political Ideology 231 , (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984), 10-11. 65 , 128-129. 235 In following the pages I will examine Idman Bayrami Nationalism : the Natureand 234 Therefore in the Therefore (literally 232 CEU eTD Collection pre-decided day in spring… a on cities of fields sport public in the gather children school the all that custom is a it Europe contributors. The author states aimthe behind the gymnastic festivals in followingthe “In words: Tedrisat Mecmuasi Tedrisat 239 examples. disciplined technologies and secondly their“political liturgy” distinguished them from these Bey? My firstis and two-fold:the organization embodied over-mentioned the gymnastics answer 238 p.2 “Gymnastic Festival” ( 237 ( Exhibition” “Gymnastic name carry the festivals those sports important majorthe mostelements.one of or In the periodthis wealsosee some and gymnastic political figures. many in clubs participated competitionsthe probably due to presencethe of mentionedthe major yachtraces and to games from varying tug-of-war sports, of kinds different wasagain festival Ottoman government, Talat and Enver Talat government, Ottoman Cemiyeti) ( by for National was held Protection” “Spring Festival” “Society the another 236 programme sorts after of artistic exhibitions. “Alt “Büyük “Fenerbahce’de Kir Eglenceleri (Field entertainments in Fenerbahce),” in entertainments (Field Eglenceleri Kir “Fenerbahce’de “Kadikoy’de Cicek Bayrami (Flowerfestival Kadikoy),”in Õ nordu Our knowledge onthe Therefore what was the innovation of these of innovation was the what Therefore ø which aimed to collect donations for the war veterans. Two major heads of the dman Müsameresi (Great gymnastic exhibition),” ø dman Bayram 237 More examples can be given similar kinds of festivals in which sports were sports in which festivals of kinds similar given be can examples More [literally: Instructions Journal] of which Selim S Idman Bayrami Õ (Altinordu gymnastic festival),” Darulmuallimeyn Idman Festivals ) Pa 239 . ú a s were present at this occasion. The main event in the event main The occasion. this at present were s 236 [High School for Instructors] had this festival on 66 Similarly more than a year after this occasion leans on leanson in an appeared article anonymous Ikdam Ikdam Ikdam Idman , 19 May , 15 Mayis 1332 [28 May 1916], p.2. , 16 Haziran 1333 [16 June 1917], p.1. Festivals bySelimS conducted Ikdam Õ s 1333 [19 May 1917], p. 2. , 5 Agustos, 1333 [5 August 1917], Idman Musameresi Õ rr Õ was one of the main Mudafaa-i Milliye Mudafaa-i ) 238 and Õ rr Õ CEU eTD Collection 244 bounteous Gift; 3) Success and advancement in profession. 243 in advancement and Success 3) Gift; bounteous ideal social order. social ideal under achieve political-economy corporatist the YoungTurkstriedthe theof solidity to of their its asit leadership society isrepresent [communist] and argued desired to aimed gymnastics communist the If machine. a of parts the between one the like cohesion, marching in order.” were complementing this liturgy:“the in gymnasts white shits,black pans andredbelts were carrying theflag ahead of army this andof wisdom blessing.” for “was proud head author people,Rusen Esref Bey the of Accordingthese article, to the the of Mektebi prominent high schools ( gymnasts of 242 a German officialm, Von Hoff Pasa. 241 under Ministryunder of TheyWar. followed example the theirGerman counterpart, commander of the paramilitary Ottoman Youth Societies Youth Ottoman paramilitary the commander of instructor is“whoinstructor tall was and strong” carrying the flagof elements were crucial in these festivals: order of the gymnasts, their songs and uniforms. An to physical education to physical an also create buteducation to 240 29 the Peter Roubal, “Politics of Gymnastics: Mass Gymnastic Displays...,” 3. “ Ibid Ibid Osmanli Genc Dernekleri ø lk , 283. , 283. Te actual word inthe text is ‘ th ø dman Bayram The order, songs and uniforms aimed to achieve the main goal songs and achieveThe order, behindmain aimedto thewhole uniforms the goal of event: The minister of The ministerof public education, professors from university,the andVon Hoff Pasa the of inApril of thefield of ) were followingmarching.) werenotably weresingingwhile their Most elders. gymnasts the Darulmuallimeyn Õ (First Gymnastic Festival),” 243 (Ottoman Youth Societies) were the paramilitary organizations established in 1915 established organizations paramilitary the were Societies) Youth (Ottoman Sultani Ittihad werefollowing him and they were followed by students of ) and fifty students from each “Experimental Schools” ( Schools” “Experimental each from students fifty and ) feyz Sports Clubs not only to demonstrate the value thatit gives ’ which hasdifferent meanings: 1) Anabundant blessing of God;A 2) Idman Tedrisat Mecmuasi 67 Festival in our country.” 241 , no. 34-3, (1916),no. 283. were present at the festival. Three at the werepresent Darulmuallimeyn 242 Jungdeuscthlandbund The dresses of the gymnasts 244 240 , the mass-gymnastics , the . [ Figure 11 and directed by directed and Numune ] The CEU eTD Collection interesting. This metaphor is the reflection of the “century of science” and its concern with concern its and science” of “century the of reflection is the metaphor This interesting. gymnasticfestivals in metaphor of Budapestand is Istanbulby same the using electricity in command very first of thedescription this First, for tworeasons. important are itsand narrative Selim S Selim was the leader of the gymnasts [ leader was the gymnasts the of 246 114-115. S Selim that is observed it command, and leadership of issue the with begin To patterns. 247 in Denmark,” Century 245 examples of patterns of Historian gymnastics. the Henning Eichberghas identified main in these patterns “ Henning Eichberg, “Nationalism and Culture of the Body: Politization the of ‘Popular’ Gymnastics in Nineteenth- “Hazir ol! “Hazir ø lk ø dman Bayram When we examine the gymnastic exhibitions in the was dependent organizationthe on order andof disciplinary social this The achievement 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Õ rr Õ Bey and “it left an affect of an electric current on the gymnasts.” the on current electric an of affect an left “it and Bey purposes. patriotism-isinstrumentality: serving of instrument thebody one for external as andvalues-health, pedagogies, The relationshipbetween practical activities instructor. an without gymnastics isno there isin command; leader The following logical constructed, apedagogically scheme. The exercises are synthetically The bodies are in uniform. position. geometrical movement, the celebrate They leader. The fixed by andmeasurestructured exercises a follow a drill, of the time a pattern ” is a phrase with two meanings. It means “be straight!” and “beready!” and “bestraight!” It means meanings. two with aphrase ” is Turnen Õ TribalIdentities, Nationalism, Europe ,” and 245 Tedrisat Mecmuasi Sokol gymnastics assuch: gymnastics straight line Figure 12 , 284. of body and bodies: the straight spine, symmetry of ]. “Be Straight! ( 68 , Sport, ed. J.A. Mangan, (London: Frnak Cass, 2002), Hazir ol! Idman Festivals we see the same see the Festivals we ) 246 ” was the command of 247 This command This Õ rr Õ Bey CEU eTD Collection 251 250 second in IdmanFestival 1917[ cohesion.” “They schools][different marchedin directions…Theirlegsdifferent and arms were moving in marching”. while and order duetotheir uniformity high appreciated were “fewof them and particularly on emphasis the and line, a straight in being on emphasis an line in marching had andevery a straight apredestined field. location on the gymnast Therewas such a cohesive tug-of-war game before. Theway they lift rope the up from the ground, the wehaveshould that seen benot “It its admitted regeneration: ittimedemonstrated race” butthis Idman journal the on chapter the in examined have I that one the than different totally was game the speed of a machine. Then all of them began to move in a nice cohesion…” command of Selim S Selim of command 248 form. its as electricity and energy 249 StefanBerger, (Malden, MA: BlackwellPub., 2006), 341-342. together. In this scenehimself/herself Selim S energy for a as well as a part of a bigger machine (society) that multiple of them created “ “ Kathryn M. Olesko, “The Century of Science,” in “ ø ø ø lk kinci lk ø ø dman Bayram dman Bayram [see p. 37]. In that narrative the lost of the game had represented the “degeneration of of the “degeneration the losthad game of the represented 37]. Inthatnarrativethe [see p. As I have mentioned above the gymnasts were in uniform (black-white-red). They They were inuniform (black-white-red). the gymnasts were As Ihavementioned above Few games were also played in the festival, one of which was tug-of-war. The narrative of ø dman Bayrami (The second gymnastic festival),” 250 251 machine An again cohesion and order were the main concerns regarding the whole scene: whole the regarding main concerns the were order and cohesion An again Õ Õ ,” ,” Tedrisat Mecmuasi Tedrisat Mecmuasi to function. The human body (individual) is conceived as a small machine small a as conceived is (individual) body human The function. to Õ rr Õ Bey all the gymnasts raised their arms on the level of their chest in a chest their of level the on arms their raised gymnasts the all Bey Õ rr Figures 11-12 Figures Õ 248 Bey appears to be the engineer to start this engine: “with a Electricity is the key element here because it provides the , 285. , 285. A Companion toNineteenth-Century Europe:1789-1914, 69 ] . More schoolsfestival had in ] .More participated the Tedrisat Mecmuasi order , (1, Haziran 1333 [1 June 1917]), 4. became more obvious in the 249 ed. CEU eTD Collection 255 254 Haziran 1333 [1 June 1917]), 7. 253 representshow chapter Itried including to thethat mass-gymnastics the “nationalist aimed to ones” strong ideal function.” its stressed body latter the of ideal shape the by the obsessed bodies were the former “whereas gymnastics: andcommunist nationalist between following distinction toPa the spectators. The constant emphasis to solidity both as a show of acrobats. The acrobats. of show merebut pedagogical gymnastics not were exercises their article of the author the to According to describe its characteristics.” describe to represent community potential have meaning, the and the any to without explicitbodies, political the as system symbolic ideal “an were gymnastics mass the that states Roubal festivals. these the festival and the disciplined cohesion of the exercises supporting it were the main elements of IV) Conclusion: The of Gymnastic Purposes Mass Festivals: Hoff Pasa stated: “our aim is not to bring up acrobats but to raise a strong nation.” these exercises severely.After stating that he notdid consider these exercises as gymnastics, Von the from Swedish pedagogical second In gymnastics. scheme of the 252 wonderful.” means all positions of their arms and legs and their way of directing their energy intoone direction were by Peter Roubal, “Politics of Gymnastics: Mass Gymnastic Displays...,” 13. acrobatics),” and education (Physical ve Canbazlik Bedeniye “Terbiye-i Hoff, Von Mirliva “ Ibid ú ø a lk has stated but also to represent it. I want to direct a criticism to Roubal since he makes the Roubal he since to a criticism want todirect it. I represent alsoto but stated has , 15. ø dman Bayram So what were the external purposes of the gymnastic festivals? The ritualistic aspect of aspect Theritualistic festivals? gymnastic the of purposes external the what were So The movements of were highly gymnasts the controlled inthey and a were following Kuleli Military Lycee had participated into the festival although they were not invited! not were they although festival the into participated had Lycee Military Õ ,” Tedrisat Mecmuasi 252 Tedrisat Mecmuasi 254 The , 286. main had published a letter of Von Hoff Pasa criticizing purpose was to create a “strong nation” as Von Hoff asVon a“strong nation” create wasto purpose 70 Idman Festival, a group of Festival, of gymnasts agroup 255 Tedrisat Mecuasi Tedrisat Howeverin this 253 , (1 CEU eTD Collection spectators andspectators most remarkably ‘nationalize’to them with its liturgy. [ only to infiltrate into the bodies of the gymnasts but also to penetrate into the minds of the and they and and by the songs of the gymnasts. They were the dreams fieldliturgy its wassupplemented economy.society byflagsaroundthe corporate and This of to a society consisting of strong bodies desired coherent to wasareference narrative andasa mass gymnastics inthe representation represented its solidarity in this ritualistic atmosphere. The mass gymnastics aimed not aimed gymnastics mass The atmosphere. ritualistic inthis solidarity its 71 Figure 13 ] CEU eTD Collection Mecmuas gymnastics,” Figure12: “The students of Figure11 Õ : , No. 34/3(1916). “The students of Darulmuallimeyn are resting before the start of First Idman Festival,” Tedrisat Tedrisat Mecmuas Tedrisat Darulmuallimeyn Õ , No. 34/3 (1916). are making physical exercises according to ofSwedish to rules according exercises aremakingphysical 72 CEU eTD Collection Figure14: “A photo from the Second Idman Festival,” Figure13: “A photo from the Second Idman Festival,” 73 Tedrisat Mecmuasi Tedrisat Memcuasi Tedrisat , No., 39 (1 June 1917). No., 39 (1 June 1917). CEU eTD Collection Figure15: “A photo from the Second Idman Festival,” 74 Tedrisat Mecmuasi Tedrisat , No., 39 (1 June 1917). CEU eTD Collection When they looked at Europe either from within or from Istanbul, they saw that Europe achievedEurope from eithersaw that they from Istanbul, Europe or within at When looked they well bringing as upits citizens andwho will defense develop imagined building physical CUP military upasociety education as as a solution. preparedness of cope withenvisioned to manysolutions various problems and gymnastics considered and soldiers through in context of series uninterrupted the of wars from 1922. 1912 to opened the population to various population to the opened policiesimportantmost onwas in population the introduction the citizenship of this period which policiesthe on in education physical period this reflected emphasis.Iclaimedone of that the and itsemphasis population on great showed CUP rulethe of that Iargued physical education. itson policies byfocusing on rule of Turk Young the aspects ‘modernization’ examined the legacies of this short but intense rule of CUP. militarism“nationalism”weightin and inpolitics theTurkish contemporary of are direct Turkey its the political-economy, secularism, culture, “modernism” political andto the to adherence shoulders. The strong rule of the state, its ever continuous attempts to centralize the country, deep is main the –willingly unwillingly-or heir of this rule and she isfeeling its burden still her on AmongTurkey them peoples. of these societies even contemporary the andaffected etc… Kurds Progress foundations of the Turkish modern the italsobutconstructed tomodernize thesociety attempts intensified only not witnessed Conclusion: The Legend of the CUPRule and the Role of Physical Education Within thischanging Throughout this paper I touched upon few of these topics from a very specific angle. I The Young Turk rule was one of the most important Turkey.of history It in periods most the rulethe The of Turk wasone Young marked the fate of many different ethnic groups Turks, Armenians, Greeks, Arabs, Turks,Armenians, fateofmany markedthe ethnic Greeks, groups different governmentality disciplinary technologies nation -state. The ten years rule of rule years Theten -state. 75 and context of wars the CUP leaders had and aimed to use them as citizen- their country makeand country progress. Committee of Union and Committee of CEU eTD Collection internalization of the duty of military service by the male nationhand armedsuccessfully be could only the achieved an Ottoman since through visibly the creation of the nation-in-arms and a heroic masculinity. These themes went handin in ‘strong’ this world of constant struggle. therewere However agendasother in most project,this corporatism. masculinity, and military service, Ifocusedother. ontheimportance inof education physical of matrix the survival’, for ‘struggle meanings and these showedhow meaningsdifferent and areintermingled connotations with each meaning andcarried abagof connotations. Throughout paperthis these Iscrutinized other beingmeaning, Butthis physically strong. physicalstrength beyondwent well that single oftheCUP. committee by were the central thecountry few who andruled ministers killed even all opposition, the Theyabolished asrevolutionaries. they acted and rule They by came to a revolution government. country. of the development the to enhance members Armenians of living inAnatoliaa Muslim-Turkishand create ‘native’ bourgeoisie class Muslim businessMuslims. partners butnot to abolish to Thenthey attempted almost all the non- their to and foreign capital to benefits gavecommercial which “capitulations” sided one the and strong beinglot did economically They abolished tochangetheeconomical a first structures. to the second category and wanted to make her one of the ‘ the war of ‘ many notablethrough physical education.things achievements its Most of in was ‘survival’these Social Darwinism was the dominant ideology ideology be Social it was behind viewsand to Darwinism dominant necessitated these the In in‘strong’ literary paperIexaminedbeing theCUP’s this of its understanding Related tothese policies, CUP being‘strong’ conceived also asbeing anironhanded They conceived being‘strong’ in broad way. avery instanceFor it they understood as strongs ’ and the ‘ weaks ’; and CUP cadres saw empire’s decline as a sign of belonging 76 citizens strongs . The ideal masculine type of the ’. CEU eTD Collection quotation from quotation from petitionthat relevanceshows the thoughts of inour paper:this permission for expanding their activities and a establishing branch.sharp-shooting Along Club) which gave a petition Ministry to the of Internal Affairs inlate 1913. It aimed toget in this period. One of these clubs was notablyincreased agentsmost whose numberThere wereother extensively clubs gymnastic the University Press, 2002), 117-122. 256 characteristics. how thepresented I country. their defend to ready are who males of nation authorsa strong up build have could in According to and soldiers. aspatriots “national identity” Turkish analyzing the discourse of the sport journal and 5,Iexamined Inthe became fundamental. by relationship idealmasculinity chapter this preparedness between and military linkeducation Wars Balkan physical the the during andafter in ineducation modern period of the lying. that roots Ipointed which the were society Turkish Soldier is Soldier). our Greatest service in farewell”with “soldier’s “En singleone rhyme: the Buyuk Asker Asker!”(The Bizim convoys covered with flags andyoung people aresendingtheirfriends, their sonstothemilitary car The Turkey. contemporary the in observed be can still CUP of legend This soldiers. able take the revenge of his ancestors. These were foundationsthe ofmodern ‘Turkish’ masculinity as to sacrificewas ready anddeterminant wasaheroicwho his‘nation’ for himself period Turk to Yael Navaro-Yashin, Idman ‘nation’ andphysical betweenstate, examined the paperI relationship the Throughout was not the only agent outside direct CUP rule but acted in line with that rule. Faces ofthe State: Secularism and Public life Turkey in Idman filled the bag of “national identity” with patriotic andheroic with patriotic identity” “national bagof filledthe 256 Anadolu Hisari IdmanYurduAnadolu Hisari Idman 77 . In that journal I spotted the construction of the Idman (Anadolu Hisari Hisari (Anadolu Gymnastic , only physical , only physical education , (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton N.J.: (Princeton, , CEU eTD Collection the author claims author the gymnastic societieswill and shooting that create: sharp particularly andexplainingEngland howthey became nation-in-armsphysical through education, Denmark and France, of Germany, examples the After giving a nation-in arms.” through beachieved voice and only heard’ can ‘make our word the increasing…Mixing of with rest the are ancestors great their and them between gap the and in decline are Ottomans continues: “…today Ottomanthe youth must beraised up as soldiers…Today of all aspects and tent!” and weapon horse, is equipment “Turk’s headline the with starts It nation-in-arms. of inthecreation education physical importance of the attests petition tothe attached society allowedfoundit“a enterprise deserving this and project support.” 259 258 War,Pa of Enver Minister June1914 when continued until branch the for of establishment the 257 B.O.A.,DH. KMS; Tarih: 26/B/1332; document no: 12/20-3. B.O.A.,DH. KMS; Tarih: 26/B/1332; document no: 12/20-1. Basbakanlik Osmanli Arsivi The paperwork between Ministry of Internal Affairs and Ministry of War on the permit the generationsthe willbe purified. Anatolia… organization to means By will thenation this be revived and this spread to have we And deserves. it one the to nation Ottoman of status enhancethe will anddeterminacy…They andtheirtarget courage the find always that bullets their legs, and arms strong by their honor future…the generations youth of will declineprevent the in national the homeland… aspects other the exercise will they homeland, their for duty the service, military of for their more ready be will homeland the of sons being the Since society… physical education courses now we establishaim asharp-shootingto soldier quickly and be ready for the defense of the district of] Club” which “Gymnastic name of the under asociety wehave established ancestors, will make these dark days andtobringfuture generations upthe akintotheir the nation therevengeof necessity take to the physical of wethink education. Since resistantlack to Wars]war [Balkan of adherence wasthe in last witnessed the to war and Westruggle, have seen in [thethat one of the reasons behind the disaster that we have Anadolu Hisari. 257 [B.O.A.], DH.KMS, 26/B/1332 [20June 1914]; document no: 12/20-2. Besides the instruction of different kinds of 259 78 258 The programme of the of Theprogramme ú a CEU eTD Collection totally totally militarized movement.the history mid 1914whenCUPgovernmentuntil Organizationestablished theBoy-Scout and andits paramilitary showed itsthroughout evolutionaspect in Ottoman the Empire. Ipursuedits movement the of history the examined have I length. at movement Boy-Scout the of aspect this have discussed paper,I this 6of Inthechapter military fortraining. agent adirect Scouting as sawBoy- CUPofficials the That former one. as the important isas which aspect is another there homeland”. thedefense of the against attempt againstevery work dreadful to wasresponsible “[it] War since of Ministry from the and any other preparations for ‘special’ aims of elements of the Ottoman society. This ban thisclub to wasWar wasasked inof Ministry Greek”.The exercisingare evencommanded and asked onthemare manuscripts Armenian flags with andcarrying who caps were wearing “students which in club the of abolishment the was request The Kadikoy. district inthe Club Armenian an Affairs and sent tothe Ministry War.of deserving The was signed chiefsupervisordocument support”. bythe of Internal ministerof the mentioned “a project over andfindingitdays approval after petition on the the Enver Pasha’s in the Ottoman society. 260 identity” “national of creation in the important were sports and education physical how demonstrated journal the on chapter the In ‘nation-state’. a into evolving was Empire Ottoman the However in thepast. its ‘heyday’ back to state lead theOttoman will determinacy B.O.A., DH. MBHPS.M., 1332/ This document showed the attitude of This non-Muslims, attitude showed the government CUPdocumentthe towards but An on archival document activitiesthe of Armeniana certain club issued onlyfewwas A society A society of whoarephysicallycitizen-soldiers and strong full and courage of vis á vis the ‘others’. The ‘others’ were the foreigners and particularly non-Muslims the andparticularly foreigners werethe ‘others’ The ‘others’. the ù /5 [29 June 1914]; document no: 14/ 25. 260 Itwas about the “so-called Boy-Scouting activities” of 79 Idman , I have , I CEU eTD Collection individuals created a whole which is greater then the sum of its constituting parts. Itrepresented its parts. constituting sumof the then isgreater awhole which created individuals disciplined the aggregateof individual bodies and the these weredisciplined gymnasts of was flagssupplemented by songs, and uniforms. the mass Under festivalsgymnastic the a liturgy as it evolvedinto This order aunityandanorder. action of fieldcreated the position on order movements to. The actions they that andwere subject ofanindividual andhis gymnast by the wascreated which society the of thecohesion also represented bodies. they However able create to aimed exercises physical other all like festivals gymnastic mass First aims. further had massfestivalsintradition. wereheld gymnastic Iclaimed 1916and in1917 which that However festivalsof this werepart sports and theirexamples exceptionEuropean to contemporary to create a feeling of ‘togetherness’. The purposes of the festivals under Young Turk rule were no as wellgetpopular as aimedtosupport regimes be inwhichvarious the occasions to considered are in general festivals The angle. different a from but education physical through society Turkishwillthe state be founded upon. that bourgeoisie citizens andnative future Theywerethe society in for the general. significance emphasis on wasthese a main themes toolboy-scouts model amongof the forSolidarité it society. the them acorporatist citizens”, prepared carriedin the movementboy-scouting“ideal for boy-scouts movement.to the structure of Besides beingan givingcharacter the as well beyond as they its were militaristic expected to plansbe ‘entrepreneur’. and showed its The always emphasized the citizen building aspect was also present andit buildingwas aspect wasalsopresent thecitizen always emphasized been has of movement the aspect paramilitary the Although was evenmore complicated. aspect this illustrated have caseasI In boy-scout the building’. ‘character also but preparedness military In thechapter onmassfestivals,issue Iapproachedto gymnastic the of envisioning However as I have argued in the chapter on inhave chapter the asIargued However 80 Idman , physical education aimed not only embodied in the CEU eTD Collection foundations of the contemporary nation-state. Turkish of contemporary the foundations was which rule underCUP citizen-soldiers muscular of creating process militaristic values, patriotism focused sacrifice. and of inthis I on physical education role the Turkey. how Ishowed the concept of an ‘ideal’ citizen hasgrown up handin hand with work I examined I covered a tiny portion of the legend of the Ottoman Empire on contemporary coincidence. birthday of ifisitnot known is certainly.But that anything merge iscertain nation’, the of the ‘revival the of Atatürk and since Atatürk bebirthday of is to WWI. considered also It after the forces inAnatolia occupying the gymnastic of independencewar againstthe issignificant it since beginning asthe Turkish the considered festival of Turkish youth on the same day is not a festival has been heldon that day during his rule and evenafter it. 261 19 Turkey. over all celebrated is Festival” Youth and Sovereignty “National rapidintelligent, andof morality.”high Every year inthe19 maxim Kemal thefounder Atatürk, of of republicisthe “Ilike written: is sportsman the who isfollowing complexTurk sport in of asasoldier!).Intheentrance born every the Turkey, marchingin the their rhyme Askerexercise physical courses singing Do “HerTurk still Today children are school society.secondary the positions inthecontemporary Turkish festivals. of these liturgy cohesivethe future andits of membersorder the society the to whowere‘nationalized’ in the It is interesting that 25 The legends of an empire can be felt in every single nation-state heir to an empire. In this The I havethemes that uponin touched paperarestill this keeping theirprominent 261 th of May was the birthday of Tito, ex-Yugoslavia’s most famous leader and a gymnastic 81 th ofMay, festival agymnastic embodied th ÷ of May is ar!” (Every in the CEU eTD Collection Daily Newspapers: Periodicals: Ba Unpublished Primary Sources: Primary Sources: Bibliography: ú Tanin Ikdam Tedrisat Mecmuasi Defteri Talebe Idman Affairs: Internal of [Ministry Mudiriyeti ve Hapishaneler Emiriye Mebani-i Dahiliye: Dahiliye:Kalem-i Mahsus Muduriyeti [Ministry Internal of Affairs: Directorate of Specialthe Meclis-i Vukela [Council of Ministers] (MV.) bakanl Directorate Directorate of BuildingsGovernment andPrisons] Chamber] (DH. KMS.) (Istanbul).1 April1914-1 July 1914. (Istanbul).1 January 1912- 1August 1917. . 28May 1913-23 May 1914. Õ Osmanl . 6November 1913-21May 1914. Õ Ar . 1January 1914- 1August 1917. ú ivi [Prime Ministry Ottoman Achieves](B.O.A.): 82 CEU eTD Collection Türk Gücü Türk Heyeti, “TürkGücü:Türk’ün Gücü Her [Karayel], M. Sami. ø Fescizade Fescizade Fescizade Fescizade “Tedrisat- [Tarcan], Selim S [Tarcan], [Baltac (Burdur Mebusu) At Published Primary Sources: zci Oca ÕR÷ for everything).” Matbaa-y 1912]), 10-13. live).” nations to which are determined nations which are determined to live).” to are determined nations which 1912]), 9-12. Tertib-i Tertib-i (Dersaadet Matbaas Vol.Sani, V, Dersaadet [Istanbul]:Dersaadet Selanik Matbaas country expect from Boy-Scouting?).” 1330 [17May p.1914], 4. ÷Õ Õø ’n ø ø lu], brahim Galip. “Ya brahim Galip. brahim Galip. “Ya Galip. brahim btidaiye Kanun- Õ n ø ø smail Hakk ç Nizamnamesi Õ Hayriye ve Hayriye Õ rr Õ Õ ø . f.“ zci Rehberi(Scout’sGuide) Macaristan’da Terbiye-iEtfal Õ ø , 1331 [1915], 50-69. , 1331[1915], Türk Yurdu zcilik Düsturlar Õ Bey. “Memleketimiz Õ Muvakkati (The temporary law of primary education).” ù ú ú ù ems Matbaas amaya Azm Azm amaya Etmi amaya Azm Etmi Azm amaya ürekas (Internal by-law of the Boy Scout Organization), ( Organization), Scout Boy the of by-law (Internal 3,No.11(7Mart 1329 [20 March 337-343.1913]): Õ , 1330[1914]). Õ (Scouting laws).” (Scouting Õ , 1330 [1914]. , 1330 83 ø zmir Konferanslar zmir ú ú Say veTetebbu . 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