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Agricultural Intensification in Nepal, with Particular Reference to Systems of Rice Intensification

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Agricultural Intensification in Nepal, with Particular Reference to Systems of Rice Intensification Agricultural intensification in Nepal, with particular reference to systems of rice intensification Rajendra Uprety Thesis committee Promotor Prof. Dr T.W. Kuyper Personal chair at the Department of Soil Quality Wageningen University Co-promotor Dr H. Maat Assistant professor, Knowledge, Technology and Innovation Group Wageningen University Other members Prof. Dr P.C. Struik, Wageningen University Prof. Dr P.J.G.J. Hellegers, Wageningen University Dr W.A. Stoop, STOOP Consult, R&D for tropical agriculture, Driebergen- Rijsenburg Dr M.P. Temudo, University of Lisbon, Portugal This research was conducted under the auspices of the Wageningen Graduate School of Social Sciences (WASS) Agricultural intensification in Nepal, with particular reference to systems of rice intensification Rajendra Uprety Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr A.P.J. Mol, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Monday 12 December 2016 at 11 a.m. in the Aula Rajendra Uprety Agricultural intensification in Nepal, with particular reference to systems of rice intensification 204 pages PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2016) With references, with summary in English ISBN: 978-94-6257-965-1 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18174/392853 DEDICATION To my beloved parents late Ganga Prasad Uprety and Laxmi Devi Uprety Abstract This thesis deals with agricultural intensification in Nepal. The initial focus of the study was the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), as introduced in Nepal from 2001. The multiple factors affecting SRI adoption, modification and dissemination together with the option to apply SRI in different combinations of its components result in a variety of SRI applications. For the same reason the effect of SRI on overall agricultural and livelihood development of Nepalese farmers has to be evaluated within the variety of farming systems in which it is applied. Despite government policies to promote rice cultivation, national rice production is declining. Farmer livelihood strategies, as reflected in rice farming systems, and field management strategies were influenced by several agro-ecological and socio-economic factors. Livelihood and field management strategies of rice farmers are interconnected. In the study presented here four livelihood strategies and three kinds of field management strategies are distinguished. Two livelihood strategies can be characterized as more intensive and more productive; the other two are less intensive and less productive. Livelihood strategies are more family resource-based strategies, while farmers’ field management strategies are more context-dependent. Field management strategies were characterized by forms of nutrient management. Intensive management strategies had most similarities with SRI. But rice intensification is not achievable as a general strategy. Government policies (fertiliser subsidies) encourage increased fertiliser use. Study results didn't show any significant effect of volume of fertilisers on rice yield but the combined use of organic manure and mineral fertilisers resulted in the highest average rice yields. Irrigation management is another important factor for rice production. Field management is influenced by the reliability of water which was better in farmers' managed irrigation system. Choice of rice varieties influenced the overall rice farming system and cropping intensity and preference of varieties for rice cultivation by scientists and by farmers were different in eastern Nepal. Most popular varieties were those not recommended by science and policy and were disseminated farmer to farmer. The introduction of SRI in Morang district resulted in several changes in rice farming, but only part of the farmers have adopted such technologies, and adoption has been only in part vi of their fields. Other farmers have incorporated some SRI practices in their conventional practices. After the introduction of SRI, farmers further tested, re-packaged or hybridized SRI methods to make SRI ideas suitable for their agro-ecological and socio-economic environments. In order to reform Nepalese rice farming, we need to recognize that different farmers, with different livelihood strategies, and with access to different kinds of fields, need different forms for agricultural intensification. High-intensive farmers prefer to use modified SRI methods where there is good irrigation and drainage facilities. There are many possibilities for improvement of the existing nutrient management practices of rice farmers in Nepal. Nutrient management will be useful to increase rice production because the majority of farmers currently use fertilisers non-judiciously. The SRI-recommended practices (younger seedlings, early weeding, use of organic manure, and alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation) will be useful to improve the nutrient use efficiency of rice farmers. Cost-reduction strategies and less labour-intensive cultivation practices will be appropriate options to improve existing rice farming system of Nepal. Participatory cultivar selection and dissemination will be better strategies to introduce new, promising rice cultivars among rice farmers. vii Acknowledgements It has been a long journey for me from that time when I read a beautiful and attractive article on SRI written by professor Norman Uphoff in LEISA magazine. That article inspired me to do something for the development of rice sector in Nepal. After that, thousands of peoples connected with me from around the world, contributing to refine my knowledge, skill and thinking about SRI and rice farming system of Nepal and abroad. I am very thankful to all those people and societies who were connected and contributed to my professional journey. First of all I want to remember the day when I wrote a short message to doctor Harro Maat on his wall about his research interest. That message connected me to Harro and laid a path for me to Wageningen University as a PhD candidate, leading to the defence of my thesis. I will never forget this connection which brought me to the best University of the world and converted me from an active SRI promotor into a researcher and rice professional. In this professional journey Harro always support me as a good guide, friend and supervisor. He supported me whenever I needed help in technical matters, thesis writing and when I was sick and in trouble. I enjoyed his company and warm welcome at his home during festivals time with his family. I am very thankful for that. My promoter professor Thom Kuyper connected with me later when I arrived in Wageningen but without his uninterrupted support I may not have been able to stand here to defend my thesis. I am very thankful for all your support as a guide and guardian during my PhD. I will always remember all your efforts and support during data analysis, thesis writing, review of manuscript and many more, you were always available for me whenever I needed your guidance and help, through face-to-face meeting or at Skype conversation. I will never forget all those events and forever maintain good memories of you. Connections with professor Paul Richards, doctor Willem Stoop and doctor Dominic Glover have always inspired me and supported me to sharpen my thinking and analytical capacity and also broaden my understanding about technology and its innovation process. I maintain viii good memories of the time Dominic visited my study area. It was an opportunity for me to learn from his rich experience. I will always remember Willem’s and Nadamo's warm welcome and hospitality during my visits to their home. I am very thankful for their friendship and support. I remember the unexpected first meeting with professor Van den Ban when I was standing in front of the ABN-AMRO bank to activate my new ATM card. He supported me and we connected with each other and I got several chances to learn from his experiences. I am thankful to doctors Kees Jansen, Sietze Vellema, Conny Almekinders and all faculties and friends of the former Technology and Agrarian Development (TAD) group, now members of the Knowledge, Technology and Innovation (KTI) group, for their support and guidance. I am very thankful to doctor Atul who supported and guided me during data analysis. I will remember Inge Ruisch for all her administrative and logistic support. But foremost her smile and energetic appearance always inspired me to be active. The Nepalese student community of Wageningen has always been friendly and supportive in this journey. I want to remember Kalasram, Hom, Surya, Ram, Shyam, Anita, Nabin, Kulprasad, Sushil, Durga, Goma, and all others who were at Wageningen when I was there. I am also thankful to all my fellow PhD candidates who became friends during my time at Wageningen, especially Kazbek, Carolina, Valerie and Rica. I sincerely acknowledge many friends and farmers who connected with me and contributed in completion of my field work, my boss Mohan Bahadur Thapa, Kedar dai, Sarojkanta, Sagar, Basanta, Kashi, Bishnumani, Abhimanu, Chandra, Kishor, Gobinda and all others respondent farmers who gave their full support during my research. My parents who always want to see me as my family's first PhD. They were very happy on my selection for the PhD at Wageningen but my father is no more in this world to see his son's PhD defence even though my mother lost her memory due to Alzheimer. But I always feel their blessing and love around me. I learned honesty, hard work and dedication from their life, which has always inspired me and activated me to search possible alternatives ix during hard times of my life. I want to remember continuous support and encouragement of my brother Mohan Krishna Uprety. From the very early stage of my student life till now, he has always been there to support me. Thanks also to all my family members who have always supported and inspired me for this journey. Without their support my journey may not have been complete.
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