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Introduction INTRODUCTION Jazz, Europe, Americanization Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/625813/9780822387282-001.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 And they dreamed dreams, above all of the United States, the land of modernity, freedom, space, jazz, spontaneity.... —malcolm bradbury (1982, 8), on young Britons in the 1950s Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/625813/9780822387282-001.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 n Paul Gilroy’s bold phrase, the ‘‘planetary force’’ (quoted in Hutnyk 2000, 215) of black music today has come about in part through I 1 the circulations of jazz. In its international origins, jazz was always already a globalizing culture—consider only the familiar narrative of the ‘‘syncretic mixture of African and European influences that came together in the United States’’ (Shipton 2001, 830) through modern slavery. Jazz here is the musical culture or legacy of the triangulation, a music of modernity, the sonicity of the black Atlantic. James Camp- bell argues that ‘‘what sets black American music apart from other folk musics is the circumstances of its creation, which is what gives it its sense of urgency’’ (1995, 5). Does music have a privileged posi- tion as a cultural product of transatlanticism, more so than food (from the potato to gumbo), some literature (slave narratives, pirate and ex- plorers’ testimonies), some linguistic developments like Creole? I think of calypso, reggae, carnival, and most of all jazz and blues—formed from the experience of global circulation, and even being born before the development of mass media that would give later, newer musics a rapid international profile. Further, in its practice and development through the twentieth century jazz was characterized by a restless inter- nationalism, and its sense of timing was as good as one would expect of that music: its early period of creativity coincided with, was aided by, developing transatlantic media and mass communications institutions 2 and transport structures, for instance. So in a very obvious way jazz has been a product of modernity: its multiple nature and influences (Africa, Europe, America) were only possible because of the develop- ing global economy. It was the cultural product of diaspora, in origin and subsequent trajectory. The British jazz historian Alyn Shipton is Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/625813/9780822387282-001.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 sensitive to the globalism of jazz: ‘‘Today jazz is being shaped just as much by musicians from Norway and Brazil or from the South Afri- can townships and the bustling cities of Japan as it is by Americans’’ (2001, 358).Yetthere is also something contradictory in the characteris- tic flexibility of the music, which fits best as an emblem of a modernity of flux and change rather than a monolithic modernity, even while jazz is undeniably a culture of the great hegemon of late modernity, the United States of America. Even in the parochial narrative of early jazz in Britain there was an internationalism that moved beyond the obvious American origins of the music. For example, what David Boulton in Jazz in Britain de- scribes as ‘‘the first jazz records of genuine worth to be made entirely by a British unit’’ (1958, 52) were made by the Quinquaginta Ramblers, led by the Spanish pianist, composer, and self-publicist Fred Elizalde in 1926. Phillippine-born, Elizalde had begun playing jazz in Califor- nia in 1923. By 1928, in England, Elizalde ‘‘had managed to entice a galaxy of American stars to cross the Atlantic and work with him... The recordings made by Brunswick [record company] of this Anglo- American group were undoubtedly the finest made in England during that decade’’ (Boulton 1958, 53). The band included the exceptional Adrian Rollini on bass saxophone. Elizalde returned to Spain in 1930 to continue his music studies and fight for the Caudillo as an officer in Franco’s army—‘‘a strange role for the leader of a jazz band,’’ as Jim Godbolt notes (1984, 70). The double bassist and critic Patrick ‘‘Spike’’ Hughes—though London-born, he was of Irish parentage, and edu- cated in Europe—effectively took over from Elizalde as the leading local player and critic, in the same year, 1930. Spike Hughes and his Decca-dents made their first ‘‘hot’’ recordings then, and Hughes tire- lessly wrote music and music criticism, and played bass, over the next few years before suddenly dropping his enthusiasm. Boulton describes his best recordings as ‘‘the first British jazz compositions of real intrin- sic (as distinct from historical) value’’ (1958, 58). British jazz, if such a thing there was at that time, was thus from its beginnings a hybrid, transnational affair, as Godbolt elaborates in A History of Jazz in Brit- ain: 1919–50: ‘‘It was a racially and socially mixed quartet that made such positive efforts to present jazz, live and recorded, to the British public in the late twenties and early thirties: a British-Jewish dance- band leader in the London-born Bert Firman, a wealthy Cambridge 4 jazz, europe, americanization Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/625813/9780822387282-001.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 University undergraduate from Manila in [Fred] Elizalde, an orchestral violinist from Wales in Philip Lewis, and an Anglo-Irish, Chelsea-born Cambridge undergraduate in Spike Hughes’’ (Godbolt 1984, 76–77). That said, the attractions of jazz require elaboration, and must often be read in terms of the music’s Americanicity. Indeed, what follows directly is a discussion of the appeal of jazz as an export culture in terms of issues and problems in Americanization, and it may be that jazz stands as a suitable synecdoche for America/Amerika—the ‘‘all- American jazz’’ beloved of American radio announcers in the 1940s and 1950s. Dick Hebdige almost makes this point when in discuss- ing the British design establishment’s critical pronouncements on cul- tural innovations between the wars, he observes that ‘‘the words ‘jazz’ and ‘America’ are virtually interchangeable in this kind of writing’’ (1988, 62). the appeal of jazz3 (as global culture) It is important to consider European roles in jazz because Europe is part of the originary axis: jazz as a mixed culture from its begin- nings, as triangulation between (West) Africa, (North) America, and Europe.The primary focus for me is a transatlantic one, between North America, the Caribbean, and Western Europe, with a timely dip to Africa at one point. So the story goes, in Storyville of course: the Mis- sissippi port of New Orleans birthed jazz from its mix of French and Spanish influences, Creole, African American slaves and their descen- dants, and various Southern whites, in the mythic space of ‘‘a festive riot of music and dance’’—music at the festival of Mardi Gras, dancing to the drums in Congo Square. In this legendary version of things, Ship- ton writes, ‘‘the city became a sort of musical hot-house that forced the cross-pollination of syncopation and blue notes, leading to the flower- ing of collective polyphonic improvisation’’ (2001, 75).4 Jelly Roll Mor- ton has captured the internationalist originary plot: ‘‘We had Spanish, we had colored, we had white, we had Frenchmens, we had Ameri- cans, we had them from all parts of the world’’ (Morton 1949, 17; see also Roberts 1999, ch. 1). Jazz spread ‘‘like wildfire’’ (Shipton 2001, 1) through the United States in the early years of the twentieth century. The export of jazz, newly formed, through live performances and the jazz, europe, americanization 5 Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/625813/9780822387282-001.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 contemporaneous mass communications technology and industry can be seen as a secondary, a cultural diaspora, an identifiably Ameri- can culture listened to and played across Europe, across much of the globe, including the Caribbean, West and South Africa, Japan, South- east Asia, Australia, South America. The history of jazz is one of a broadly simultaneous development of styles alongside an international spread of enthusiasts, throughout the twentieth century. The diasporic narratives and energies of jazz were intertwined, but as one original mix-music it already presents adjectival problems for critics. It is often called ‘‘syncretic’’ (as it is by Shipton above) or, more commonly, a ‘‘hybrid’’ form. Helen Taylor offers one apparently clear description, following Paul Gilroy, of the music’s originary ‘‘routes rather than roots’’: ‘‘Jazz was always hybrid, played from the outset by mixed-race and white musicians, using European forms and often re- lying on extended visits to Europe. For many critics, the idea of appro- priating jazz...forAfrocentrismistodistort and diminish it, since it is inextricably linked to European practice. Jazz in particular is today an ‘international ‘‘language’ ’’ (Taylor 2001, 23–24; my emphasis). But both terms are problematic. ‘‘Syncretism’’ originally means an attempted union of diverse or opposite beliefs or practices; it holds within it the possibility, even the assumption, of failure in that union. If a music is syncretic it is at best aiming toward a successful combination or mix- ing of divergent trends or influences, while at worst the term projects a doomed ending to combination. Because of the explosive racial mix- ings of jazz, ‘‘hybrid’’ is more problematic still, as John Hutnyk explains in Critique of Exotica: ‘‘The criticisms of hybridity can be collected into several categories: the heritage of hybridity’s botanical roots; the ste- rility of the hybrid mule, and its extension to mulatto, mixed race, half- breed and other obscene racisms; the reclamation of the term reconfig- ured as creativity at the margins and as advent of vibrant intersections that cannot be otherwise incorporated; the hegemony of the pure that co-constitutes the hybrid; the inconsequence of hybridity in the rec- ognition that everyone is hybrid, everyone is ‘different’; the commer- cial co-option of multiplicities; and that if everyone is hybrid, then the old problems of race, class, gender, sex, money and power still apply’’ (Hutnyk 2000, 114–15).
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