VYTAUTO DIDŽIOJO UNIVERSITETAS HUMANITARINIŲ MOKSLŲ FAKULTETAS ANGLŲ FILOLOGIJOS KATEDRA
Asta Venskūnienė
KULTŪRINIŲ REALIJŲ VERTIMO Į LIETUVIŲ KALBĄ STRATEGIJOS KETURIUOSE DIDŽIOSIOS BRITANIJOS IR KANADOS JAUNIMO ROMANUOSE
Magistro baigiamasis darbas
Taikomosios anglų kalbotyros studijų programa, valstybinis kodas 62404H123 Filologijos studijų kryptis
Vadovė e.prof.p.dr. Milda Danytė ______(parašas) (data)
Apginta______(Fakulteto dekanė) (parašas) (data)
Kaunas, 2011
TRANSLATION STRATEGIES FOR CULTURE-SPECIFIC ITEMS IN THE LITHUANIAN VERSIONS OF FOUR BRITISH AND CANADIAN NOVELS FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
By Asta Venskūnienė
Department of English Philology Vytautas Magnus University Master of Arts Thesis Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Milda Danytė May 2011
Table of Contents
SANTRAUKA SUMMARY
1. INTRODUCTION……..……………………………………………………………………….1
2. TERMS FOR TRANSLATION STRATEGIES………………………………………….….3
3. CULTURE-SPECIFIC ITEMS IN THE LITHUANIAN TRANSLATIONS OF FOUR BRITISH AND CANADIAN NOVELS: THE IMPORTANCE OF CSIs AND TRANSLATION STRATEGIES USED BY THE FOUR TRANSLATORS………..6
3.1 The Importance of References to Nature and the Art of Emily Carr in Katherine Holubitsky’s Alone at Ninety Foot…………………..……………………...... 6
3.2 Ugnė Vitkutė’s Lithuanian Translation of Alone at Ninety Foot: Translation Strategies for Culture-specific Items……………………………………………………..7 3.2.1 The Translation of the Names of Characters…………………………………….…8 3.2.2 The Translation of Geographical Names……………………………………….…..9 3.2.3 The Translation of Plants and Animals…………………………………………....10 3.2.4 The Translation of Food Items……………………………………………………..12 3.2.5 The Translation of Literary and Art References…………………………………14 3.2.6 The Translation of References to School……………………………………….….14 3.2.7 The Translation of Brand Names……………………………………………….…15 3.2.8 The Translation of References to Music and Dancing……………………….…...16 3.2.9 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items………………………………....17 3.2.10 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….19
3.3 The Importance of Food Culture in Norah McClintock’s Hit and Run……………….19
3.4 Regina Šeškuvienė’s Lithuanian Translation of Hit and Run: Translation Strategies for Culture-specific Items……………………………………………………20 3.4.1 The Translation of the Names of Characters……………………………………..21 3.4.2 The Translation of Food Items…………………………………………………….22 3.4.3 The Translation of Geographical Names…………………………………………24 3.4.4 The Translation of References to School………………………………………….25 3.4.5 The Translation of Brand Names…………………………………………………26 3.4.6 The Translation of Currency………………………………………………………27 3.4.7 The Translation of Historical References ………………………………………...27 3.4.8 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items………………………………....28 3.4.9 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….…..30
3.5 The Importance of Clothing, Food Items and Literary References in Jacqueline Wilson’s Double Act………….……………………………………….…..31
3.6 Gabija Ryškuvienė’s Lithuanian Translation of Double Act: Translation Strategies for Culture-specific Items…………………………………………….………32 3.6.1 The Translation of the Names of Characters……………………………………..32 3.6.2 The Translation of Literary References…………………………………………..34 3.6.3 The Translation of Food Items…………………………………………………….35 3.6.4 The Translation of Clothing Items………………………………………………...37 3.6.5 The Translation of Games…………………………………………………………38 3.6.6 The Translation of References to School………………………………………….39 3.6.7 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items………………………………...39 3.6.8 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..41
3.7 The Importance of Furniture Items, Household Goods and Accessories in Mary Norton’s The Borrowers…………………………………………………..….....42
3.8 Viltaras Alksnėnas’ Lithuanian Translation of The Borrowers: Translation Strategies for Culture-specific Items……………………………………………….…...43 3.8.1 The Translation of the Names of Characters …………………………………….44 3.8.1.1 The Translation of the Names of Human Beings…………………………44 3.8.1.2 The Translation of the Names of the Borrowers………………………….45 3.8.2 The Translation of Furniture, Household Goods and Accessories……………...46 3.8.3 The Translation of Food Items…………………………………………………….48 3.8.4 The Translation of Literary and Music References……………………………...49 3.8.5 The Translation of Foreign Language References……………………………….50 3.8.6 The Translation of Historical References…………………………………………51 3.8.7 The Translation of Proverbial Sayings……………………………………………52 3.8.8 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items………………………………...52 3.8.9 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..54
4. STATISTICAL INFORMATION ON THE TRANSLATION STRATEGIES USED IN HIT AND RUN, ALONE AT NINETY FOOT, THE BORROWERS AND DOUBLE ACT………………..……………………………………………………………..…55
6. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………….….…....59
7. APPENDICES: Appendix 1: Plot Summaries of the Four Novels…………………………………….….….61 Appendix 2: Culture-specific Items in the Four Novels and in Their Lithuanian Translations………………………………………………………………….... 63 Appendix 2A: Culture-specific Items in Katherine Holubitsky’s Alone at Ninety Foot and in the Translation by Ugnė Vitkutė..………………...63
Appendix 2B: Culture-specific Items in Norah McClintock’s Hit and Run and in the Translation by Regina Šeškuvienė…………….………..…..70
Appendix 2C: Culture-specific Items in Jacqueline Wilson’s Double Act and in the Translation by Gabija Ryškuvienė…………..……...………76
Appendix 2D: Culture-specific Items in Mary Norton’s The Borrowers and in the Translation by Viltaras Alksnėnas…………...…...…………81
LIST OF REFERENCES…………………………………………………..…………….…..88
SANTRAUKA
Šiame magistro darbe analizuojamos keturių vertėjų strategijos perteikiant kultūrines realijas keturiuse Didžiosios Britanijos ir Kanados jaunimo romanų vertimuose į lietuvių kalbą. Tai -Katherine Holubitsky romanas „Vienatvė prie Devyniasdešimties Pėdų tvenkinio“, Nora McClintock romanas „Pabėgęs iš įvykio vietos“, Jacqueline Wilson - „Mes - dvynės!“ bei Mary Norton - „Skoliniautojai“. Šiuose romanuose rasta daug įvairių kultūrinių realijų, kurios atspindi paauglių gyvenimą ir jiems svarbius dalykus. Kultūrinių realijų vertimas analizuojamas taikant Eirlys E. Davies strategijas. Šiai analizei atrinktos tos kultūrinių realijų grupės, kurios atlieka svarbų vaidmenį atskleidžiant romanų temas bei atvaizduojant pagrindinius veikėjus. Vertimo strategijų statistinių duomenų suvestinė padeda aiškiau suvokti keturių lietuvių vertėjų naudojamas strategijas. Darbą sudaro penki skyriai ir du priedai. Pirmame skyriuje pristatomas darbo tikslas ir analizės objektas - trumpai apibūdinamas kultūrinių realijų vertimas keturiuose Didžiosios Britanijos ir Kanados romanuose jaunimui. Antrame skyriuje paaiškinamos sąvokos, naudojamos kultūrinių realijų vertimo analizei. Trečią skyrių sudaro aštuoni poskyriai. 3.1, 3.3, 3.5 ir 3.7 poskyriuose pristatomos kai kurios svarbios kiekvieno romano kultūrinių realijų grupės, o 3.2, 3.4, 3.6 ir 3.8 poskyriuose aptariamos kultūrinių realijų vertimo strategijos kiekviename romane. Pastarieji poskyriai dar suskirstyti pagal kultūrinių realijų grupes. Ketvirtame skyriuje pateikiama keturių vertėjų strategijų statistinė informacija. Penktame skyriuje pateikiamos išvados, apibendrinančios pagrindines šio darbo idėjas. Pirmajame priede pateikiamos keturių romanų santraukos, o antrajame, kurį sudaro keturios dalys, yra pateikiami visų kultūrinių realijų, rastų keturiuose romanuose, sąrašai su nurodytomis vertimo strategijomis. Taip pat pridedamas naudotos literatūros sąrašas.
SUMMARY
This thesis analyses the translation strategies for culture-specific items (CSIs) in the translations by four different Lithuanian translators of four British and Canadian novels for young people, Alone at Ninety Foot (2001) by Katherine Holubitsky, Hit and Run (2003) by Norah McClintock, Double Act (1996) by Jacqueline Wilson and The Borrowers (1952) by Mary Norton. All these novels have a great variety of culture-specific items, often reflecting the lives of children and adolescents and issues that are important to them. The analysis of translation of culture-specific items is based on the strategies suggested by Eirlys E. Davies, while the categories of culture-specific items that are chosen for deeper discussion are those of a higher importance for the characters or themes of the novel. Statistical analysis of the strategies helps to form a clearer picture of the strategic choices preferred by each of the four Lithuanian translators. The present work is divided into five sections and has two appendices. Section One introduces the purpose of the work and provides some information about the object of analysis: the translation of cultural references in four British and Canadian novels for young people. Section Two explains the terminology used for the analysis of the translation of culture-specific items. Section Three is divided into eight sub-sections: 3.1, 3.3, 3.5 and 3.7 discuss the importance of some categories of culture-specific items in each novel, while sub-sections 3.2, 3.4, 3.6 and 3.8 present the analysis of translation strategies by four Lithuanian translators for CSIs in each novel. The latter four sub-sections are further divided according to the categorization of culture-specific items. Section Four provides statistical information on the translation strategies used by all four translators. Section Five, the conclusion, summarizes the main ideas presented in this work. Appendix One provides plot summaries of the four novels. Appendix Two, which has four parts, provides lists of all the culture-specific items found in the four novels with the strategies used. A list of references is also included.
1. INTRODUCTION
The specific issues related to the translation of children’s literature are widely discussed and arouse debate among translation specialists. Culture-specific items (CSIs) or, as Christina Schaffner and Uwe Wiesemann call them “realia”, that appear in children’s literature are a particularly significant part of such discussions (Schaffner and Wiesemann 2001: 33). As Irma Hagfors states, “the use of [c]ulture-bound elements […] is one way of demonstrating not only into which culture the story is set but also creating an atmosphere that reflects the values prevalent in that culture and period of time” (Hagfors 2003: 118). In this way these realia perform the function of familiarizing target readers with foreign cultures and enriching their knowledge of places or historical periods that they may not be aware of. Even though some children may not be interested in other cultures, still there are many who indeed are curious about foreign places and customs. However, some translators prefer to ignore the educational function of culture-specific items and translate them so that they become more familiar to the target readers, thus giving priority to the entertainment nature of the literary work. As a result, according to Irma Hagfors, “[d]epending on the choice of global and local translation strategies, translated children’s literature can be either a means of bridging cultural differences or of obscuring them” (Hagfors 2003: 125). In dealing with the translation of culture-specific items there are many theorists who suggest a great variety of terms. The main discussion, however, is centered on whether to keep the translation closer to the source text, so that the target reader is aware that the text is foreign by encountering culture-specific items that are foreign or whether to adapt the translation by replacing CSIs with ones more familiar to the target readers. Lawrence Venuti calls the first strategy “foreignization” and the second, “domestication” (Venuti in Baker 2001: 240-244). There are different aims of translating children’s literature which may determine a translator’s choice of one of the two strategies. One of the aims, according to G te Klingberg, “must simply be to make more literature available to children” which “justifies a close adherence to the original text” (Klingberg 1986: 10). Another aim, as Klingberg states, is to broaden children’s “international outlook and understanding” (Klingberg 1986: 10). In this case, deletion or the changing of foreign references in the target text is uncalled for, since this kind of translation would not expand the child’s knowledge. On the other hand, there are goals which may encourage a translator to adapt the target text, omitting or changing foreign references to ones more familiar to children. One of these goals is to provide the young reader with, as Klingberg states, “a text they can understand”, while another is to “contribute to the development of the reader’s set of values” (Klingberg 1986: 10), which may cause changes in source-culture values to those of the target culture. 1
Thus, the general purpose of the thesis is to analyze the translation strategies used for culture-specific items in specific texts from children’s literature and to find out whether contemporary Lithuanian translators tend to foreignize or domesticate more when translating culture-specific items for this audience. In order to do this, the work of four different Lithuanian translators has been chosen, and all their translations of culture-specific items categorized according to a single system. In this way, a general comparison based on statistical data can be made. Four British and Canadian novels for young people and their Lithuanian translations have been chosen for analysis: Ugnė Vitkutė’s translation of Alone at Ninety Foot (2002), Regina Šeškuvienė’s translation of Hit and Run (2005), Gabija Ryškuvienė’s translation of Double Act (2004), and Viltaras Alksnėnas’ translation of The Borrowers (2002). The analysis is carried out following the system of terms created by Eirlys E. Davies. All four novels are similar in that they depict the everyday lives of children and teenagers. Alone at Ninety Foot (2001) by Katherine Holubitsky is about a fourteen-year-old Canadian girl, Pamela, who has trouble coping with her mother’s suicide. After this tragedy she feels upset and lonely and no one can comfort her. It is only gradually and, especially, following an honest conversation with her father that Pamela manages to find peace. Similarly, Hit and Run (2003) by Norah McClintock is a novel depicting the life of a fifteen-year-old Canadian boy, Mike, who lost his mother in a hit-and-run accident. Now Mike investigates the case together with his history teacher, a former police officer, Riel. Double Act (1996) by Jacqueline Wilson is about ten- year-old British twins, Ruby and Garnet, who are very close despite the fact that they have very different personalities. Their relationship is shaken when their father, several years after the death of his wife, finds a new girlfriend and Garnet wins a scholarship for an expensive boarding school. Finally, The Borrowers (1952) by Mary Norton differs from the other three novels because of its setting in the past, reflecting the late Victorian era. The story depicts the life of miniature people, the Borrowers, who live under the floor of an English manor and steal various goods from the rooms upstairs in order to survive. A thirteen-year-old girl, the Borrower Arriety, becomes friends with a boy who lives in the house, which eventually results in the disruption of her family’s peaceful life. Culture-specific items appearing in all these novels refer to the everyday lives of children and teenagers and issues that are important to them, such as school, food and clothes. As is discussed in later sections, some categories of CSIs are of greater importance than others, depending on the thematic concerns of each novel. All the culture-specific items in each novel have been collected and categorized: the complete lists are given in the appendices. In each case the translation strategy is also indicated. However, because of restrictions of space, since four novels and four different translators are being considered, not all the categories of culture-specific items in each translation are discussed in detail;
2 a very brief analysis of those not discussed is provided in sections called “The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items”. Emphasis is instead given to the categories which seem the most important or most interesting for each novel. Section Two discusses the terms for translating strategies offered by Eirlys E. Davies. Section Three analyzes culture-specific items found in the four novels: it considers the importance of certain categories of CSIs and looks at the translation strategies for CSIs used by the four Lithuanian translators. This section is divided into eight sub-sections. Sub-section 3.2 examines the strategic choices by Ugnė Vitkutė in the translation Alone at Ninety Foot. Sub-section 3.4 discusses the translation strategies for culture-specific items in Regina Šeškuvienė’s translation of Hit and Run. Sub-section 3.6 presents the translation strategies for culture-specific items used by Gabija Ryškuvienė in her translation of Double Act, while Sub-section 3.8 looks at the strategies used by Viltaras Alksnėnas in The Borrowers. These sub-sections are further divided according to the categorization of culture-specific items. Moreover, each of these sub-sections is preceded by ones that discuss the importance of some categories of culture-specific items in each novel. Section Four provides comparative statistical information on the translation strategies used by all four translators. Section Five, the conclusion, generalizes the main ideas presented in this work.
2. TERMS FOR TRANSLATION STRATEGIES
In this thesis, the terms for strategies used by Eirlys E. Davies are the basis for analyzing the Lithuanian translations of four English-language children’s novels. If Davies’ strategies for culture- specific items are compared with those of other theorists, it can be noticed, as Milda Danytė states, that “[t]hey have an advantage of being abstract and simple in formulation” (Danytė 2006: 204). Davies identifies seven strategies which are applied in the translation of culture-specific items, using the Harry Potter books as examples: preservation, addition, omission, globalization, localization, transformation and creation (Davies 2003: 72-89). If they are placed on a scale between foreignization and domestication, according to Vilma Čičelytė, “the closest strategy to foreignization is preservation”, whereas “transformation and creation stand closest to domestication” (Čičelytė 2006: 28). In this section, all the examples for strategies are those of the author of this thesis, unless otherwise indicated. They are taken from the children’s novels under discussion. The strategy of preservation is probably the easiest choice that can be made by the translator, but not always the best: it means an exact reproduction of the original word or words.
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According to Davies, this strategy is used when the translator has to deal with “an entity which has no close equivalent in the target culture”, in which case he/she “may simply decide to maintain the source text term in the translation” (Davies 2003: 72-73). Looking at Davies’ analysis of some specific cases of preservation in children’s literature, it is clear that this strategy does not always render the source text in a meaningful way (Davies 2003: 73-75). Some words that are preserved might be difficult for children to interpret, or they might fail to perceive their connotation. As Javier Franco Aixelá points out, this strategy “involves in many cases an increase in the exotic or archaic character of the CSI, which is felt to be more alien by the target language reader because of its linguistic form and cultural distance” (Aixelá 1996: 61). Still, when used in the translation of proper names, this strategy will retain the authors’ intended effect. An example provided by Davies is the name of Harry Potter himself, which remains preserved in many translations of the novels (Davies 2003: 75). However, according to Davies, “[w]hen simple preservation of the original CSI may lead to obscurity […] the translator may decide to keep the original item but supplement the text with whatever information is judged necessary”: Davies calls this strategy addition (Davies 2003: 77). Aixelá specifies that when this kind of information is given in the text, it is an “intratextual gloss”, giving the example of “St. Mark” translated by adding a word in the target text, “Hotel St. Mark” (Aixelá 1996: 62). On the other hand, as Davies further explains, “there is […] a danger that such additions may hold up the narrative or burden the reader with irritating detail” (Davies 2003: 77). She also states that translators need to have a good knowledge of the target culture in order to decide exactly what additional information should be included (Davies 2003: 78). Aixelá also refers to an “extratextual gloss”, an explanation outside the text in the form of a “footnote, endnote, glossary, commentary / translation in brackets, in italics” (Aixelá 1996: 62). In this way the terms intratextual and extratextual addition can also be used. The third term, omission, is the strategy of leaving out a culture-specific item when a translation solution seems impossible. As Davies states, this strategy might be applied when a translator cannot find an adequate equivalent to transfer the original meaning. For instance, in Regina Šeškuvienė’s Lithuanian translation of Norah McClintock’s Hit and Run, the phrase “listening to music from a boom box” (McClintock 2003: 54) is translated as “klausėsi muzikos” (McClintock 2005: 71) where “a boom box” is omitted. Omission is also used in cases when the translator decides that too much time and effort is required in order to find a solution, which “does not seem justified” (Davies 2003: 80). On the other hand, according to Davies, frequent use of omission could result in a “quite considerable loss of characterization” and a negative effect on the overall impact of the text on the readers (Davies 2003: 82). A fourth strategy, that of globalization, according to Davies, is “the process of replacing culture-specific references with ones which are
4 more neutral or general” (Davies 2003: 83). For instance, in Regina Šeškuvienė’s translation of Hit and Run the question “Soda?” (McClintock 2003: 107) is translated more generally as “Nori ko nors atsigerti?” (McClintock 2005: 134). One of the most common kinds of strategies for translating culture-specific items is localization, meaning that, as Davies states, “instead of aiming for ‘culture-free’ descriptions, they [translators] may try to anchor a reference firmly in the culture of the target audience” (Davies 2003: 83). For instance, in the translation of Hit and Run Regina Šeškuvienė uses localization when translating the word “cupcakes” (McClintock 2003: 18) as “keksiukai” (McClintock 2005: 27) which are well-known to the Lithuanian audience. Nevertheless, as Davies explains, inconsistency can occur “if elements associated with the target culture are inserted into a frame centered in the source culture” (Davies 2003: 84). Proper names in literature are often localized either in phonetic and morphological adaptation or, in a higher degree of localization, by replacing a name with one more typical of the target language (Davies 2003: 85). A lower kind of localization is used when certain endings are added to indicate masculine or feminine names, for example, “Peter” as “Peteris”, whereas a higher kind is to translate “Peter” as “Petras”, the Lithuanian translation of the Biblical name. A more drastic strategy of translation in Davies’ system is transformation. As she explains, this is when a culture-bound reference is changed so that it “could be seen as an alteration or distortion of the original” (Davies 2003: 86). As Davies points out, transformation is most often used in translating the titles of books or films. For instance, the title of the novel by J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, is translated in Lithuanian as “Rugiuose prie bedugnės”, which refers to a passage in the novel but is different in meaning. According to Davies, such changes are made according to “a translator’s or editor’s judgment of their intended audience’s tastes, aptitudes and capacities” (Davies 2003: 87). Finally, one of the least common translation strategies is creation. Davies explains that in this case translators create “CSIs not present in the original text” (Davies 2003: 88). For instance, in Gabija Ryškuvienė’s translation of Double Act, “toasted teacakes” is rendered as “skrudintos bandelės su arbata” (back translation: toasted buns with tea) even though the original CSI does not include the phrase “with tea”. Eirlys E. Davies’ terms offer a clear way of classifying different strategies of translating culture-specific items. By using a single system rather than terms from different theorists, it is easier to compare the work of different translators in a statistical way. In addition to the seven strategies used for analysis, errors in translations are also pointed out.
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3. CULTURE-SPECIFIC ITEMS IN THE LITHUANIAN TRANSLATIONS OF FOUR BRITISH AND CANADIAN NOVELS: THE IMPORTANCE OF CSIs AND TRANSLATION STRATEGIES USED BY THE FOUR TRANSLATORS
The four novels analyzed in this thesis include a great variety of culture-specific items which are divided in certain categories and translated by four Lithuanian translators using a variety of translation strategies. Overall, these novels deal with the everyday lives of children and adolescents; therefore, they have a number of recurring categories such as character names, food items, geographical places, nature, references to school, literature and nature, all issues that are important to this age group. However, certain novels include categories of CSIs that cannot be found in the others. Furthermore, each novel includes one or more categories of CSIs that are more significant than the others in revealing the major themes or characters of the book. Thus, prior to looking at the translation strategies used by the four Lithuanian translators in each novel it is worth discussing some of these significant categories. This section is divided into eight sub-sections: 3.1, 3.3, 3.5 and 3.7 discuss the importance of some categories of culture-specific items in each novel, while sub- sections 3.2, 3.4, 3.6 and 3.8 present the analysis of translation strategies for CSIs by four Lithuanian translators in each novel.
3.1 The Importance of References to Nature and the Art of Emily Carr in Katherine Holubitsky’s Alone at Ninety Foot
Katherine Holubitsky’s Alone at Ninety Foot stresses the inner conflict of the main character, fourteen-year-old Pamela, whose mother has committed suicide by jumping from a bridge into deep gorge in Lynn Canyon Park, a place where she and her daughter often went together. From the very beginning of the novel Holubitsky introduces the distinctive nature of Lynn Canyon, a wild natural reserve in the province of British Columbia. Pamela feels unhappy among people; instead, her memories of her mother bring her close to nature. A tragic event in which a neighbor’s daughter is lost in the canyon helps Pamela to realize that they all are “victims, and maybe, in a way, heroes, of this terrible, beautiful place” (Holubitsky 2001: 173). Thus, culture-specific items related to nature, especially geographical names, plants and animals play a significant role in the novel. Paradoxically, despite the suicide, the only place where Pamela never feels lonely is Lynn Canyon Park, because here “life is happening everywhere around you” (Holubitsky 2001: 4). This is exactly why she also loves the paintings of the Canadian artist Emily Carr (1871-1945), whose work depicting nature is referred to several times in the novel.
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Even though at first her paintings seem “dark and haunting” (Holubitsky 2001: 4), they have life in them. Several times Pamela mentions her copy of the Carr painting “Mountain Forest” because she sees her mother and dead sister in it. Thus, references to Emily Carr not only emphasize her relationship to nature and people she loves, but also reveals her state of mind. In one dream she and Emily Carr sit in the forest and work, Pamela beading fabric and Carr painting, “only stopping to comment now and again on the color of a lady-slipper […]. Communicating in silence through [their] crafts” (Holubitsky 2001: 11). When she is in Lynn Canyon, Pamela often thinks of her mother, who taught her to love nature. They would often go for a walk in the forest, “picking salmon- and huckleberries along the way” (Holubitsky 2001: 6). Her mother “would break off root licorice from the moss that grows on the vine maples and peel it for [Pamela] to try” (Holubitsky 2001: 6). Pamela’s close relationship to nature is also stressed by the use of geographical names. One of her hobbies is to bring back a piece of nature from the place she visits; for instance, she has “water from The Lost Sea, this cool lake deep in the caves outside Knoxville” (Holubitsky 2001: 7). In general, then, though most of the cultural realia depicted in the novel refer to Pamela’s everyday middle-class life, her inner self is closely connected to nature and the memories it has for her.
3.2 Ugnė Vitkutė’s Lithuanian Translation of Alone at Ninety Foot: Translation Strategies for Culture-specific Items
The present section examines the strategies for culture-specific items used by Ugnė Vitkutė in her Lithuanian translation of Alone at Ninety Foot. The culture-specific items that appear in this novel can be classified into eleven categories. As has been said, there are many references to distinctive elements of nature such as plants and animals as well as geographical names. Besides, the categories of cultural references such as the names of characters, food items, references to school, music and dancing, literature and art as well as brand names reveal the specifics of everyday teenage school life in Canada today and help readers to understand the main character better. Thus, these eight categories are chosen for the discussion. The section is divided into eight sub-sections according to the subject categorization of culture-specific items. In addition, Sub-section 3.2.9 briefly discusses few cases of unusual strategic choices for translating CSIs which are found in the categories that have not been chosen for the discussion. This sub-section also discusses translation strategies of CSIs that do not belong to any category mentioned. The conclusion provides a statistical summary of the kinds of strategies used.
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3.2.1 The Translation of the Names of Characters
There are many names of characters mentioned in the novel because Pamela often refers to her school life by speaking of her classmates, teachers and other people. The majority of the names are ordinary English names like Carl Jenkins (1) and Danielle Higgins (3). Besides, Katherine Holubitsky uses references to famous real people like the artist, Emily Carr (6) and to television characters like Mr. Bean (7). Moreover, Holubitsky uses names she invents, for instance, the nickname Wally the Whiz (8). In addition to people’s names, there are also some domestic animal names mentioned in the novel; for instance, that of a dog Lupus (5). In total there are 67 names, which are most commonly translated by localization.
Table 1 The Translation of the Names of Characters
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Carl Jenkins, 10 Karlas Dženkinsas, 15 Low Localization 2. Tony Lasserman, 31 Tonis Lesermenas, 32 Low Localization 3. Danielle Higgins, 9 Danielė Higins, 14 Low Localization 4. Pamela Mary Collins, 1 Pamela Merė Kolins, 7 Low Localization 5. Lupus (dog’s name), 83 Lupusas, 77 Low Localization 6. Emily Carr, 3 Emilija Kar, 9 Low Localization/ Addition 7. Mr. Bean, 19 Kaip karvė ant ledo, 23 Omission/Transformation 8. Wally the Whiz, 40 Proto Gumbas, 40 Transformation
In her translation of character names, Ugnė Vitkutė uses a low degree of localization in 63 instances (see Appendix 2A, Table 1 for the full list). She phonologically adapts the names and adds appropriate endings to indicate gender. For instance, she adds case endings to the first names and surnames of male characters, as in Karlas Dženkinsas (1) and Tonis Lesermanas (2). However, female names are translated differently. As Milda Danytė points out, “[f]or Lithuanian translators the common practice is to add case endings only to the first name of a female character” (Danytė 2006: 208). This practice is also observed in Vitkutė’s translation, where Danielle Higgins (3) is rendered as Danielė Higins and Pamela Mary Collins (4) as Pamela Merė Kolins. Moreover, Vitkutė most often uses localization when rendering the names of domestic animals; for instance, a dog’s name, Lupus (5), is translated as Lupusas. To translate the proper names of characters, Vitkutė uses addition in nine instances, of which seven cases are extratextual gloss. According to Milda Danytė, “preliminary research suggests that footnoting is rapidly becoming outdated in Lithuanian practice” (Danytė 2006: 207). Yet there are quite a few footnotes used in Vitkutė’s translation. Her footnotes are usually short and 8 provide just basic information about an important person or place. For instance, when translating Emily Carr (6) as Emilija Kar, Vitkutė adds a short footnote explaining that she is a famous Canadian artist and writer. In this category, omission is used only once, as is seen in Example 7: the name, Mr. Bean, is replaced by a proverbial saying, “kaip karvė ant ledo” (back-translation: like a cow on ice) in the Lithuanian translation. The reference to Mr. Bean is used to describe a gym teacher who “looks like Mr. Bean on the dance floor”. Even though the British comic Mr. Bean is a well-known character for the Lithuanian audience including children, Vitkutė omits the name and instead uses a well- known expression by Lithuanians which fits the context of indicating an awkward person. As shown in Example 8, Vitkutė uses transformation to translate invented names. “Wally the Whiz” is a nickname given by the pupils to their mathematics teacher who is intelligent but strange. Vitkutė transforms the nickname into “Proto Gumbas” which is commonly used by Lithuanian pupils to make fun of someone very smart. Even though the meaning of the two phrases differs, the Lithuanian translation does not distort the significance of this nickname and creates the same effect as in the source text, that of a school atmosphere where nicknames are common.
3.2.2 The Translation of Geographical Names
The novel is set on the west cost of Canada; therefore, most of geographical names may not be familiar to readers who are not Canadian or at least North American. Pamela mentions many geographical places because one of her hobbies is to “bring back a living piece of the place [she has] been” (Holubitsky 2001: 7). Thus, she lists the places she has visited and the things she has brought: for instance, “I have a jar of Atlantic Ocean, which tastes the same as the Pacific. […] I have red earth from Red Rock Park near Medicine Hat” (Holubitsky 2001: 7). The names of the oceans would be familiar to readers all over the world, while the other two places are very specifically Canadian. In total there are 41 geographical names mentioned in the source text (see Appendix 2A, Table 2 for the full list).
Table 2 The Translation of Geographical Names
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Vancouver, 2 Vankuveris, 8 Localization 2. Lynn Canyon Park, 2 Lino kanjono parkas, 8 Localization 3. Atlantic Ocean, 7 Atlanto vandenynas, 12 Localization 4. Tennessee, 7 Tenesio valstija, 12 Localization/Addition 5. Medicine Hat, 7 Medisin Hetas, 12 Low Localization/
9
Addition 6. Horseshoe Bay, 36 Pasagos įlanka, 36 High Localization 7. Lighthouse Park, 8 Švyturio parkas, 13 High Localization 8. Ninety Foot, Title page Devyniasdešimt Pėdų Transformation tvenkinys, Title page
When translating geographical names, Ugnė Vitkutė most commonly uses localization. It is used when translating the names of countries, towns, parks, islands, seas, oceans, and other geographical names. As Examples 1 to 3 show, Vitkutė translates “Vancouver” (1) as “Vankuveris”, “Lynn Canyon Park” (2) as “Lino kanjono parkas”, and “Atlantic Ocean” (3) as “Atlanto vandenynas”, the latter being a well-known geographical name. In some cases Vitkutė adds an intratextual gloss to explain for the Lithuanian child readers that a certain name refers to an ocean, a state, a river or a valley. For instance, “Tennessee” (4) is translated as “Tenesio valstija”. Intratextual addition is used in five instances in this category of CSIs. Some geographical names are descriptive and meaningful. When dealing with such names, Vitkutė most often uses a high degree of localization to convey the meaning. For example, “Horseshoe Bay” (6) is translated as “Pasagos įlanka” and “Lighthouse Park” (7) is rendered as “Švyturio parkas”. However, “Medicine Hat” (5) which is also meaningful, is translated as “Medisin Hetas”. The literal translation of this geographical name is “medicininė kepuraitė”, which does not sound similar to the name of a town to a Lithuanian child. Besides, for those who have not heard of this town before, Vitkutė uses an extratextual addition (a footnote) to explain that it is a town situated in southwest Canada. Transformation is used three times: for instance, “Ninety Foot” (8) is rendered as “Devyniasdešimt Pėdų tvenkinys”. As explained at the beginning of the novel, “Ninety Foot” is a “natural pool” (Holubitsky 2001: 2), whereas “tvenkinys” in Lithuanian refers to a pond made by human beings. This transformation somewhat distorts the meaning because Katherine Holubitsky is drawing a picture of wild nature in Canada where no human being has intervened.
3.2.3 The Translation of Plants and Animals
Often the nature in North America is unique and distinct from that of Europe. Pamela loves nature and spends a lot of time by the Ninety Foot pool because it is the only place where she finds comfort. References to nature are meaningful in the novel because, in Pamela’s memories of her deceased mother, they would often walk in the forest picking berries and observing plants and animals. On the other hand, Ninety Foot is a dangerous place where many people have disappeared; their deaths are sometimes linked to predatory animals which are also mentioned in the novel. In total there are 21 culture-specific items which belong to this category. 10
Table 3 The Translation of Plants and Animals
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Douglas fir, 6 Didieji pocūgiai, 11 Localization 2. Grizzlies, 56 Pilkieji lokiai, 55 Localization 3. Yellow skunk cabbage, 6 Skunko kopūstas, 11 Omission/Localization 4. Basset hound, 121 Basetų veislė, 109 Localization/Addition 5. Lady-slipper, 11 Orchidėja, 16 Globalization 6. Vine maple, 9 Vijokliai, 14 Transformation
Ugnė Vitkutė uses already established translations for plant and animal names, although the majority of them would hardly convey any meaning to young readers. Even though some of these plants grow in Lithuania, they are rarely found so that they are not well-known by Lithuanian child readers. Localization is used when dealing with the translation of 14 plant and animal names (see Appendix 2A, Table 3 for the full list). For instance, “Douglas fir”, (1) which is translated by Lithuanian equivalent, “didieji pocūgiai”, is probably not well known among the Lithuanian audience. In addition, some of the animals mentioned in the novel breed only in North America, while others can be also met in Lithuania. For instance, grizzlies (2) are a kind of bear found only in North America, but Lithuanian child readers have seen them on television shows or in books. Vitkutė translates these as “pilkieji lokiai” by using a Lithuanian equivalent. Vitkutė uses omission only once: this is shown in Example 3, where she translates “yellow skunk cabbage” as “skunko kopūstas” by omitting the “yellow” color. The name of this plant does not mean much to the Lithuanian audience because it does not grow in Lithuania. According to Greg and Sue Speichert, the name “comes from the musky odor released when the leaves or flowers are crushed” (Speichert and Speichert 2008: 128). The name of the plant refers to the North American animal, skunk, which produces an unpleasant smell. Skunks, on the other hand, may not be well known to Lithuanian children; therefore, this kind of translation may not convey an intended effect. When Pamela admits she “didn’t think the yellow skunk cabbage smelt like a skunk” (Holubitsky 2001: 6), it may not be clear to the Lithuanian child readers what she means. When translating a breed of a dog, the “basset hound” (4) as “basetų veislė”, Vitkutė uses an intratextual addition, which appears twice in the translation of this category of CSIs. Even if she translated the phrase just as “basetas”, it would be clear to the child readers from context that it refers to a breed of dog. Further, globalization is used twice: a variety of orchid, a “lady-slipper” (5), is translated simply as “orchidėja”. In her dream Pamela discusses the color of the lady-slipper with Emily Carr. Lithuanian child readers are probably not aware of the varieties of orchids; however, rendering this just as “orchidėja” does not indicate that, as explained in Collins English Dictionary (2003), it has “reddish or purple flowers”. 11
According to G te Klingberg, “a true rendering of flora and fauna contributes to the understanding of the foreign environment. […] The general rule must be that natural concepts should be retained, not replaced by others more common in the country of the target language” (Klingberg 1986: 40). However, this is not always the case in Vitkutė’s translation. She uses transformation in five cases: for example, “vine maple” (6) is rendered as “vijokliai” which is a different kind of plant. Vine maple, as George Shenk describes, “usually matures at 30 ft” and “it is green-barked, has trunks that partly trail on the ground before arising tortuously” (Schenk 1991: 88). In the novel, Pamela says she is “a hundred feet tall with arms and legs dangling like a vine maple” (Holubitsky 2001: 9) in such a way expressing her dissatisfaction with her changing body shape. A true rendering of vine maple may not mean anything to the Lithuanian child readers so that the intended effect would be lost. In any event, Vitkutė uses a more familiar and general category of plant in order to communicate the message effectively.
3.2.4 The Translation of Food Items
Like all cultures, Canadians have their own specific food items and dishes which may be unfamiliar to the Lithuanian audience. Food in this novel often serves as a part of socializing. Moreover, Pamela connects food to her mother: she recalls the food they used to eat together on their days out. She also describes the food they had at their block parties. In all there are 23 food items mentioned in the source text (see Appendix 2A Table 4 for the full list). Ugnė Vitkutė uses a variety of translation strategies when dealing with this category of CSIs.
Table 4 The Translation of Food Items
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Blintzes stuffed with cheese, Lietiniai su sūriu, 67 Localization 72 2. Maui ribs, 72 Havajietiški šonkauliukai, 67 Localization/Addition 3. Chili, 35 Pupelių ir mėsos troškinys, 36 Globalization 4. Nuts’ n’ Bolts, 58 Nuts’ n’Bolts, 55 Preservation 5. Tiramisu, 42 Tiramisu, 41 Preservation/Addition 6. Marshmallows, 72 Zefyrai, 67 Transformation 7. Pink hamburger, 26 Rausvas mėsainis, 29 Partial Mistranslation
In ten cases Vitkutė uses localization, as in Examples 1 and 2. She uses a Lithuanian equivalent for “blintzes stuffed with cheese” (1), translating it as “lietiniai su sūriu”. According to Tilde Computer Dictionary, blintz is a “thin pancake folded around a filling and fried or baked”, which is very
12 similar to “lietiniai”, a dish well known to all Lithuanians. The next strategy, addition, is used in the translation of seven food items, most often in cases where the CSIs need some explanation. As in Example 2, Vitkutė combines localization with addition when translating “Maui ribs” (2) as “Havajietiški šonkauliukai”. Since young readers may not know what place Maui refers to, Vitkutė provides additional information by using the term, Hawaii, instead, which is more familiar to Lithuanian children. Globalization is used in six cases, as in Example 3, where “chili” is rendered as “pupelių ir mėsos troškinys”. As indicated in Stephanie Anderson’s recipe book, this dish also includes other ingredients: onions, garlic, pepper, tomato and chili powder (Anderson 2007: 13). However, Vitkutė avoids giving a detailed explanation of the dish because it would not help the child readers to imagine it and would slow down the narrative. Next, Vitkutė uses preservation four times in her translation of food items. “Nuts’ n’ Bolts” (4) and “Tiramisu” (5) are preserved in the target text. “Nuts’ n’ Bolts”, a salted mixture of pretzels, wheat squares and oat pillows (“Nuts n’ bolts Snack Mix Classic Original” 2011), is not sold in Lithuania and would not be understood by the child readers. By contrast, “Tiramisu”, is explained in a footnote. When the book was translated in 2002, Lithuanians were not familiar with this dessert; however, in recent years it has become popular in Lithuania. Therefore, it can be assumed that the child readers are now familiar with the dessert, and a footnote is no longer necessary. In two cases Vitkutė uses transformation, which changes the meaning of an item radically. In Example 6, “marshmallows” do not mean the same as “zefyrai”. The basic ingredients in marshmallows, as found in Nancy Bagget’s recipe book, are gelatin, light corn syrup, cane sugar, vanilla extract and water. More than that, they are toasted on a bonfire (Bagget 2005: 346-347). “Zefyrai”, on the other hand, are made of fruit puree, the white of an egg, sugar and gelatin (“Zefyrai” 2003-2011) and are not meant for toasting. Although these food items are different, they have in common that they are sweets. Finally, three cases of mistranslation have been found in Vitkutė’s translation of food items. “Pink hamburger” (7) is rendered as “rausvas mėsainis”, which does not make any sense in the Lithuanian version of the novel. In the scene in which Pamela tries to persuade her friend Joanne that smoking is unhealthy, Joanne confronts her by listing much more unhealthy activities such as “eating pink hamburger and petting a rabid dog” (Holubitsky 2001: 27). A more understandable translation of this CSI can be “žalias mėsainis”, which would be clear for the child readers.
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3.2.5 The Translation of Literary and Art References
This category of culture-specific items includes the titles of cartoons, novels, magazines, the name of a painting and other items related to literature and art. In total there are 13 references, the majority of which are translated by localization.
Table 5 The Translation of Literary and Art References
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001 1. Family Circus,140 “Šeimyninis cirkas”, 124 Localization 2. Lord of the Flies, 9 “Musių valdovas”, 13 Localization/Addition 3. Piggy, 48 Pigis, 47 Localization 4. YM, 133 Žurnalas YM, 118 Preservation/Addition
Localization is used in eleven instances (see Appendix 2A, Table 5 for the full list). It is not likely that the cartoons mentioned in the source text are known by Lithuanian child readers. Ugnė Vitkutė uses localization when translating their titles: for example, Family Circus (1) is rendered as “Šeimyninis cirkas”. In a different case, Example 2 shows that Vitkutė uses already established names for the titles of novels available in Lithuania. For example, the title of the novel Lord of the Flies has an established translation, “Musių valdovas”. Many Lithuanian children have read the novel; however, Vitkutė still provides additional information in a footnote which indicates its author. A character in the novel, Piggy (3), on the other hand, is translated as “Pigis”, even though Aleksandra Dantaitė’s Lithuanian translation of this character’s nickname is “Kriuksius” (Golding 2010: 12). In addition to footnotes, Vitkutė uses an intratextual gloss in three cases. For instance, when translating “YM” (4) as “žurnalas YM”, she adds “žurnalas” (back-translation: magazine) to indicate a specific kind of publication. Without this explanation it would not be very clear what the name refers to. This example also shows an instance of preservation (“YM” is left as in English), which is used only once in this category of CSIs.
3.2.6 The Translation of References to School
The plot in the novel is primarily based on events that take place at school. According to Diane E. Papalia and Sally Wendkos Olds, school is the second place after home where adolescents spend most of their time (Papalia and Olds 1990: 575). Therefore, eleven references to school appear in the novel, which include school subjects, the grading system and extra-curricular activities.
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Table 6 The Translation of References to School
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. English class, 1 Anglų kalbos ir literatūros Localization/Addition pamoka, 7 2. Homeroom, 84 Klasė, 78 Globalization 3. Social dance, 15 Pramoginių šokių pamoka, 19 Transformation 4. Report card, 16 Baigimo diplomas, 19 Mistranslation
Ugnė Vitkutė uses localization in five instances; most often when translating school subjects (see Appendix 2A, Table 8 for the full list). Besides, localization is often combined with addition: for instance: “English class” (1) is translated as “anglų kalbos ir literatūros pamoka”, even though the source text does not indicate that the subject includes literature. Addition is used three times in this category. Furthermore, globalization is used once, as in Example 2: “homeroom” is rendered as “klasė”. According to Collins English Dictionary (2005), “homeroom” is “a room in a school used by a particular group of students as a base for registration, notices, etc.” Therefore, the Lithuanian translation of this CSI is too general and does not convey the exact meaning of it to the Lithuanian child readers. Vitkutė uses transformation twice: for example, she renders “social dance” (3) as “pramoginių šokių pamoka”, even though “social dancing”, according to Daniel Pittman, means “Ballroom, Latin or Country and Western” dancing (Pittman 1996-2011). There is no Lithuanian equivalent for social dancing as a whole, so that Vitkutė uses a variety of dance which Lithuanian child readers are familiar with. Finally, mistranslation is observed three times: in Example 4, the term “report card” is rendered as “baigimo diplomas”. According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, a “report card” is “a written statement about a pupil’s [...] work and behaviour”. However, “baigimo diplomas” is a high school certificate given at the completion of all studies. The two documents are totally different, which may confuse the readers.
3.2.7 The Translation of Brand Names
There are five brand names used by Katherine Holubitsky in her novel. Ugnė Vitkutė preserves all of them in the target text and in some cases adds information to explain these CSIs.
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Table 7 The Translation of Brand Names
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Nike, 148 Nike, 131 Preservation 2. Kleenex, 15 Vienkartinės Kleenex Addition/Preservation servetėlės, 19 3. MG sports car, 35 MG sportinis automobilis, 36 Preservation/Localization
As Example 1 shows, the popular brand “Nike” is preserved in the target text (see Appendix 2A, Table 9 for the full list). The Lithuanian target readers are well familiar with this brand name; therefore, no explanation is needed. In two cases Vitkutė uses an intratextual addition to explain the brand names. For example, she translates “Kleenex” (2) as “vienkartinės Kleenex servetėlės”. The source text implies that Canadian people use the word “Kleenex” when they refer to any kind of paper tissues. In the novel, Pamela uses the term metaphorically when she realizes that her classmate Danielle “uses people like Kleenex, then tosses them aside when she is finished with them” (Holubitsky 2001: 15). Lithuanian child readers may not be aware of the name of this brand, though it is sold in Lithuania; thus, an explanation is needed, as otherwise the sentence would not make sense. In Example 3, Vitkutė uses preservation and localization when translating “MG sports car” as “MG sportinis automobilis”. Localization is used only once in this category of CSIs.
3.2.8 The Translation of References to Music and Dancing
There are thirteen references related to music and dancing in the source text (see Appendix 2A, Table 10 for the full list). Music plays a major role in most adolescents’ lives; therefore, it is not surprising that quite a few references to music appear in the novel. Almost all the names of music groups that are mentioned in the novel are known world-wide and, Lithuanians are also probably familiar with the names of dances mentioned.
Table 8 The Translation of References to Music and Dancing
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. “California Dreamin”, 71 “Kalifornijos sapnas”, 66 Localization 2. Cha-cha, 156 Ča ča, 137 Localization 3. Metallica, 156 Metallica, 137 Preservation 4. The Wallflowers, 116 Grupė The Wallflowers, 104 Preservation/Addition 5. The box step (a kind of Bokso žingsniai, 26 Mistranslation dance step), 22
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Ugnė Vitkutė uses localization in seven instances when dealing with references to music and dancing. “California Dreamin” (1) is a popular song which is certainly known by Lithuanian adults, but may not be known by children. However, in this case Vitkutė translates the name of a song simply as “Kalifornijos sapnas” without adding any explanation. Localization is also used when translating the names of dances such as “cha-cha” (2) which is rendered as “ča ča”. The names of dances have established translations which are known by Lithuanian children. Preservation is used when dealing with the translations of four music groups. As shown in Example 3, the name of the world-wide known group “Metallica” is preserved in the target text. Most young people know the group, so Vitkutė does not provide any additional information about it. On the other hand, “The Wallflowers” (4) may not mean anything to Lithuanian children. Here Vitkutė uses preservation for the group name in the target text and indicates that it is a music group, “grupė ‘The Wallflowers’ ”. In addition to these strategies, two instances of mistranslation have been noticed. “The box step” (5) is translated literally as “bokso žingsniai”. “The box step” refers to a dance step in the novel. However, translation “bokso žingsniai” dos not make any sense to the reader, because “boksas” refers to a sport.
3.2.9 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items
In addition to eight categories discussed, there are three others that have not been mentioned since they do not play such a significant role in the novel as others. These include names of institutions and buildings, units of measurement and games. However, it is worth to mention few instances of unusual strategic choices made by Ugnė Vitkutė when translating two cultural references belonging to these categories (see Appendix 2A, Tables 6, 7 and 11 for the full lists).
Table 9 Translation of Games and Names of Institutions and Buildings
Katherine Holubitsky Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy (ENG) 2001
1. Twister, 143 Domino, 127 Mistranslation 2. Boutique on Robson, 153 Robson universalinės Preservation/Transformation parduotuvės brangių moteriškų drabužių skyrius, 135
In her translation of games, Vitkutė renders the name of a game, “Twister”, (1) as “domino”, which is not very successful, as these are two very different games. As can be seen from the picture in Tim Walsh’s book, “Twister” is an action game played on the floor and involves intertwining people’s arms and legs (Walsh 2005: 206). Dominos, on the opposite, is an intellectual tile game. Because 17
“Twister” is not commonly played among Lithuanians, Vitkutė chooses a game that is well-known by Lithuanian children. Yet, at the same time she misses a chance to introduce the games that are played by Canadian children to the young Lithuanian readers. When dealing with the category of names of institutions and buildings, Vitkutė uses various strategies to translate these CSIs. As shown in Example 2, she combines preservation with transformation when rendering “boutique on Robson” as “Robson universalinės parduotuvės brangių moteriškų drabužių skyrius”. “Robson” is preserved in the target text; however, Vitkutė’s suggested explanation that it is a department store, transforms the meaning. Instead, this is “Vancouver’s most famous shopping street set in the heart of downtown Vancouver” (“Robson Street: Shop, Dine, Discover”). Moreover, “boutique”, according to Collins English Dictionary (2003), is a small shop “selling fashionable clothes and other items”; thus, the translation distorts the meaning. In addition to the categories discussed, there are 13 culture-specific items in Alone at Ninety Foot that do not fit into any specific category.
Table 10 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Lordy, lordy, guess who’s Nejau, nejau tau Localization forty? 40 keturiasdešimt jau? 40 2. Dreadlocks, 94 Susuktos juodaodžių kasytės, Addition 86 3. Hip waders, 123 Žvejo batai, 110 Globalization 4. The world is our oyster, 85 Ateitis mūsų rankose, 78 Transformation 5. One foot on the banana Bėgo kiškis per dirvoną ir Mistranslation peel... 40 palindo po sijonu, 40
Vitkutė uses localization in six cases when translating these culture-specific items. For example, the proverbial saying, “lordy, lordy, guess who’s forty?” (1) is used by Jenn when talking about her age. Vitkutė translates this saying as “nejau, nejau tau keturiasdešimt jau?” and renders the effect of the English pun by rhyming words in Lithuanian. Vitkutė adds information when translating “dreadlocks” (2) as “susuktos juodaodžių kasytės”. Although this English word is well-known to a young Lithuanian audience, Vitkutė uses an explanation because there is no Lithuanian equivalent for this word. Addition is used in four instances (see Appendix 2A, Table 12 for the full list). Furthermore, globalization is used twice: for example, “hip waders” (3) is rendered as “žvejo batai”. “Žvejo batai” are not necessarily hip-high
18 boots; they can be any rubber shoes. On the other hand, this culture-specific item is not very important in the novel, so that the approximate translation does not affect the meaning much. Two instances of transformation have been found: for instance, the saying, “the world is our oyster” (4) is rendered as “ateitis mūsų rankose”. In the novel the saying is used quite a few times, so that it is important to convey the true meaning to young readers. In this case Vitkutė uses a Lithuanian saying which is used often and is close to the meaning of the saying in the source text. Finally, a case of mistranslation has been observed when Vitkutė translates the saying “one foot on the banana peel...” (5) as “bėgo kiškis per dirvoną ir palindo po sijonu”. Pamela uses the saying to make fun of Jenn, suggesting that she is getting old. However, the Lithuanian saying has a different meaning and, as a result, does not make much sense in the target text.
3.2.10 Conclusion
To sum up, Ugnė Vitkutė uses a variety of strategies when dealing with culture-specific items in the Lithuanian translation of Alone at Ninety Foot; however, localization is the dominant strategy. It is used in 175 instances in the translation of 239 CSIs (73.2%). This strategy is applied in the translation of all categories of culture-specific items, but most often it used in the translation of character names, geographical names, plants and animals, literary and art references as well as units of measurement. Addition is the second most commonly used strategy appearing in 47 cases (19.7%); 13 cases are extra-textual addition. It is often used for the translation of character names, geographical names, food items, names of institutions and buildings as well as literary and art references. The next strategy, preservation, is used in 21 cases (8.8%), most often in the translation of names of institutions and buildings, brand names and food items as well as references to music and dancing. Further, transformation can be noticed in 19 instances (7.9%) when translating plants and animals, character names and geographical names. Next, globalization is used 12 times (5%), most often when rendering references to food as well as plants and animals. Omission is used 3 times (1.3%) in different categories of CSIs. Finally, mistranslation occurs in 12 cases (5%) most often when rendering references to food and school.
3.3 The Importance of Food Culture in Norah McClintock’s Hit and Run
Norah McClintock’s novel Hit and Run is also set in Canada, but in the big city of Toronto. Of all the cultural realia mentioned in Hit and Run, food culture plays one of the most important roles. The protagonist, Mike, is a fifteen-year-old boy whose mother was killed in a car accident, a tragedy which is sharpened by the fact that Mike has no other relatives except for his uncle. Food or
19 its absence always reminds him of his mother and how good she was at cooking. Without her, nothing is the same: “[n]o aroma of roast chicken, or meatloaf cooking in the oven” (McClintock 2003: 51). As Humphrey Carpenter states, “food and kitchen are often used as symbols of security in children’s literature” (Carpenter in Hagfors 2003: 122). As a result, Mike does not feel secure or cared for after the death of his mother, for his uncle, who has little sense of responsibility, does not cook at all. Very rarely can Mike find food in the refrigerator, so that he is often hungry: “I closed the fridge and opened a cupboard. Sugar Pops. I shook the box. Half full. A jar of now-completely- scraped-out peanut butter. A box of crackers. And a bunch of cans - Beefaroni, baked beans, spaghetti” (McClintock 2003: 20). Food is also associated with the theme of becoming mature. An episode in which Mike prepares food himself shows that he is growing up and is able to take care of himself. However, an incident in which he and his friends steal baked goods from a truck suggests that he is still quite immature, especially since he does this only because his friends want to: now he loses his part-time job and girlfriend. Later in the novel, Mike’s teacher, Mr. Riel is depicted preparing food several times. He worries about Mike, as is revealed in several scenes where he eats or prepares food together with the boy. Preparing food together shows closeness between the characters: in this story this indicates that Mike is being cared for again. “Supper was good”, Mike declares in the closing chapter of the novel, implying that he is comfortable in his new home, and with Mr. Riel, now his foster father (McClintock 2003: 232).
3.4. Regina Šeškuvienė’s Lithuanian Translation of Hit and Run: Translation Strategies for Culture-specific Items
In Hit and Run Mike lives with his uncle, Billy, since the death of his mother. Billy, who is only ten years older than Mike, prefers partying with his friends rather than ensuring that there is food at home. Gradually, Mike starts getting into trouble and his history teacher, Riel, is worried about him. Mike is caught stealing goods from a bakery truck just because his friend, Vin, initiates the crime. Even though, according to Gerald R. Adams and Michael D. Berzonsky, “friends […] influence adolescents, particularly in the initiation of risky or problem behavior” (Adams and Berzonsky 2003: 336), Mike does not initiate crimes himself and feels uneasy when participating in this robbery. Later, Mike finds out that Riel is a former police officer who investigated his mother’s accident. Consequently, Riel offers help in finding out what really happened to his mother, which in turn leads to uncovering unpleasant details about Billy and his friends. After Billy’s death, Mike feels miserable and lonely without having anyone to turn to. Finally, after resolving the case of his mother’s death, Riel becomes Mike’s foster parent.
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This section analyzes the strategies for culture-specific items used by Regina Šeškuvienė in her Lithuanian translation of Hit and Run. Culture-specific items that appear in the novel can be classified into eleven categories, of which the largest category is the names of characters. Since the story takes place in Toronto, Canada, there are many geographical names mentioned such as the names of streets, parks and neighborhoods. References to food form the second largest category and, as has been mentioned, play a special role in the novel. These categories as well as those of brand names, currency, references to school and history contribute much to the meaning of the novel and help readers to understand Mike’s problems better. Therefore, these seven categories have been chosen for analysis. This section is divided into seven sub-sections according to subject categorization of culture-specific items. In addition, Sub-section 3.4.8 discusses some examples of strategic choices of CSIs which belong to the categories that are not discussed. This sub-section also looks at the translation strategies for the CSIs that do not belong to any category. The conclusion provides a statistical summary of the kinds of strategies used.
3.4.1 The Translation of the Names of Characters
This category of culture-specific items is the largest: there are 56 characters named in the novel. The majority of the names are ordinary names such as Dan Collins (1). In addition, Norah McClintock refers to famous people like Marilyn Monroe (4), and to sportsman Alomar (7). Moreover, she uses a reference to a character in an animated television series, Bart Simpson (8). The most commonly used strategy for the translation of the character names is a low degree of localization. In all localization is used in 55 cases.
Table 1 The Translation of the Names of Characters
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Dan Collins, 23 Denas Kolinsas, 32 Low Localization 2. Kathy, 3 Keitė, 10 Low Localization 3. Martha Stewart, 75 Marta Stiuart, 95 Low Localization 4. Marilyn Monroe, 23 Merlina Monro, 33 Low Localization 5. Mr. McGill, 5 Ponaitis Makgilas, 11 High Localization 6. Johnny, 224 Joniukas, 277 High Localization 7. Alomar, 2 Beisbolo žaidėjas Alomaras, 9 Localization/Addition 8. Bart Simpson, 220 Simpsonai, 270 Globalization
According to Christiane Nord, “in fictional texts there is no name that has no informative function at all” (Nord 2003). As Nord further states, names indicate whether a person is male or female; they 21 can also indicate a person’s age or their geographical origin. Thus, to convey information provided in the source text, in her translation of character names Regina Šeškuvienė phonologically adapts them and applies other linguistic alterations necessary for the Lithuanian language. For instance, to indicate a male character, Šeškuvienė adds case endings to the first name and surname: Dan Collins (1) is translated as Denas Kolinsas. On the other hand, when dealing with the names of female characters she adds case endings only to the first name; for instance, Kathy (2) is translated as Keitė and Martha Stewart (3) as Marta Stiuart where the surname is only adapted phonologically (see Appendix 2B, Table 1 for the full list). The name of famous actress, Marilyn Monroe (4), has an established Lithuanian equivalent, Merlina Monro; therefore, Šeškuvienė uses this translation. It is worth to mention that Šeškuvienė also adapts titles according to context, as in Example 5: Mr. McGill is translated as “ponaitis” Makgilas instead of “ponas” by using a high degree of localization. This kind of translation provides a reader with information about the age of a person: this indicates that he is a boy. Example 6 shows still different use of localization: Johnny is rendered as Joniukas by a high degree of localization because Šeškuvienė uses a Lithuanian name instead of translating it as Džoniukas. Addition appears only once in this subject area, as shown in Example 7, where Alomar is translated as “beisbolo žaidėjas” Alomaras. Šeškuvienė uses intratextual addition to explain that he is a baseball player, as otherwise the Lithuanian child readers may not understand who this person is. Globalization is also used once, where a well-known fictional character, Bart Simpson (8), is translated generally as Simpsonai. This strategic choice, however, provides false information to the reader about a character in the novel, Lew, who “idolize[s] Marilyn Monroe and Bart Simpson” (McClintock 2003: 220). Thus, he admires not the whole Simpson family, but, specifically, Bart Simpson who, according to Longman Dictionary, is “clever but lazy and does not like school”; Lew similarly never liked school.
3.4.2 The Translation of Food Items
The theme of food reccurs often in the novel: Mike frequently tells what he eats or remembers what he used to eat when his mother cooked for him. His uncle Billy does not prepare food for Mike and he is often hungry: “My stomach rumbled. I’d had a doughnut and a cartoon of chocolate milk for breakfast, and grabbed a burger and fries at Square Boy for lunch. But that was hours ago” (McClintock 2003: 17). In few episodes, however, Mike prepares food by himself, which signals his maturity. In all there are 43 food items found in the novel which are translated by using various strategies.
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Table 2 The Translation of Food Items
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Chicken fingers, 25 Vištienos piršteliai, 36 Localization 2. Wontons, 25 Virtiniai su mėsa, 36 Localization/Addition 3. A slice of toast, 42 Riekė duonos, 57 Localization/Omission 4. Chocolate-coated chocolate Šokoladiniai pyragai glaistyti Localization/Creation cakes with cream inside, 55 šokoladu ir pertepti šokoladiniu kremu, 72 5. Crackers, 110 Traškūs sausainukai, 138 Globalization 6. Peanut butter, 20 Šokoladinis sviestas, 29 Transformation Peanut butter, 163 Šokoladinis riešutų sviestas, 202 7. Root beer, 9 Alus, 16 Mistranslation
Regina Šeškuvienė uses localization in 23 cases, as in Example 1: “chicken fingers” is rendered as “vištienos piršteliai”. This kind of translation is clear for the Lithuanian child readers even though this food item is not commonly eaten by them. Lithuanian children are familiar with “fish fingers”; therefore, this helps them to understand what “chicken fingers” are. As shown in Examples 2 to 4, localization is sometimes used with other strategies such as addition, omission and creation. For instance, “wontons” (2) which, according to Tilde Computer Dictionary, are “Chinese dumpling[s] filled with spiced minced pork” is rendered by a Lithuanian equivalent, “virtiniai su mėsa”. Šeškuvienė adds a short explanation “su mėsa” (with meat) because dumplings in Lithuania are made with various fillings. Intratextual addition is used three times in this subject area. One case of omission has been found and is shown in Example 3: “a slice of toast” is translated as “riekė duonos” (slice of bread) without implication that it is toasted. Even though this kind of translation does not affect the meaning in the novel, Šeškuvienė misses a chance to explain the Canadian food tradition to young readers. Furthermore, the use of localization and creation is shown in Example 4: “chocolate-coated chocolate cakes with cream inside” is rendered as “šokoladiniai pyragai glaistyti šokoladu ir pertepti šokoladiniu kremu”. Šeškuvienė uses localization to translate the whole phrase; however, she creates the word “šokoladinis” in “pertepti šokoladiniu kremu” whereas the phrase in the source text does not include this word. On the other hand, this instance of creation does not cause major changes to the meaning of the food item because the created word is hardly noticeable. Globalization has been found in six instances: for example, “crackers” (5) is translated as “traškūs sausainukai” (see Appendix 2B, Table 2 for the full list). “Cracker”, according to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, is a “thin dry biscuit, typically eaten with cheese” whereas Šeškuvienė generalizes the item without describing it in detail. Further, transformation is used
23 thirteen times, as in Example 6, where “peanut butter” is rendered as “šokoladinis sviestas” and later as “šokoladinis riešutų sviestas”. In her translation Šeškuvienė chooses a dessert which is preferred by Lithuanian children. On the other hand, a Lithuanian equivalent for “peanut butter”, which is “riešutų sviestas”, may be used successfully since Lithuanian children are familiar with this food item. In addition to the strategies discussed, mistranslation occurs twice in the translation of this category of CSIs. A serious case of mistranslation is shown in Example 7, where “root beer” is translated as “alus”. “Root beer”, as explained in Longman Dictionary, is a “sweet gassy non- alcoholic drink made from the roots of various plants”. As a result, the translation of the episode where Mike’s friend, Sal, is drinking root beer is not correct, providing the Lithuanian child readers with a false impression of young adolescents in Canada drinking beer as a matter of course.
3.4.3 The Translation of Geographical Names
Since the novel is set in the Danforth neighbourhood of Toronto, there are many references to street names, parks and neighborhoods because Mike often walks down the streets of Toronto, mentioning the places he passes: “From there I headed west, trudging past dozens of bars and restaurants until I reached the Bloor Viaduct. I walked across it, over the Parkway and the river, and kept on hiking until I hit Yonge Street” (McClintock 2003: 7). There are also other countries mentioned in the novel since some of Mike’s friends have different ethnic backgrounds. In all there are 25 culture- specific items in this category and most of them are translated by localization (see Appendix 2B, Table 3 for the full list).
Table 3 The Translation of Geographical Names
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Toronto, 11 Torontas, 18 Localization 2. Greenwood, 106 Grynvudas, 132 Low Localization 3. Logan, 57 Logano gatvė, 74 Localization/Addition 4. Queen Street, 142 Queen gatvė, 177 Preservation/Localization 5. Simcoe, 96 -, 121 Omission 6. The Bloor Viaduct, 7 Bloor Viaduct parko alėja, 14 Mistranslation 7. Parkway, 7 Bloor Viaduct parko alėja, 14 Mistranslation
Localization is used in 22 instances, as shown in Example 1: “Toronto” is rendered as “Torontas” by using the established translation in Lithuanian. In addition, there are some meaningful names such as “Greenwood” (2) which is translated by a low degree of localization as “Grynvudas”, without rendering the meaning. A meaningful translation, on the other hand, “žalias miškas”, may 24 confuse the Lithuanian child readers because this does not sound like a geographical name. In one case Šeškuvienė uses an intratextual addition to explain a geographical name: “Logan” (3) is translated as “Logano gatvė” where she adds an extra word to indicate that it is a street, since the Lithuanian child readers may not understand. Example 4 shows an instance of preservation combined with localization which is used in the translation of five names of streets and parks; for example, “Queen Street” is rendered as “Queen gatvė”. Šeškuvienė preserves “Queen” and uses localization for the “street”. Omission has been found once in this subject category, in the translation of “Simcoe” (5). On the other hand, this strategic choice does not affect the target text greatly as opposed to mistranslation which occurs when rendering two CSIs. As indicated in Examples 6 and 7, two different geographical names, “The Bloor Viaduct” and “Parkway” are combined in the Lithuanian translation and rendered as “Bloor Viaduct parko alėja”, thus resulting in mistranslation.
3.4.4 The Translation of References to School
There are 15 references to school found in the novel, which mostly include school subjects. Mike does not like to go to school; as a result, he is not very successful in any of the subjects. Moreover, Mike does not see any reason to study: “I didn’t care about school. It was stupid. History was history, who cared about it? What was I going to do with algebra and geometry? What did chemistry matter to my life? And what was the deal with French, anyway?” (McClintock 2003: 53).
Table 4 The Translation of References to School
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Geometry, 53 Geometrija, 69 Localization 2. English, 22 Anglų kalba, 31 Localization/Addition 3. Science, 89 Fizikos pamokos, 113 Transformation 4. Report card, 52 Galutinių vertinimų lapas, 69 Partial Mistranslation
The most commonly used strategy for the translation of references to school is localization which is used in eleven cases. The Lithuanian child readers are familiar with the majority of school subjects mentioned because they are taught in Lithuanian schools. Thus, the use of localization, as in Example 1, where “geometry” is rendered as “geometrija” makes translation clear for them. Besides, Šeškuvienė uses an intratextual gloss in two cases in order to render the names of school subjects as they are used in Lithuanian schools: “English” (2) is translated as “Anglų kalba” by adding a word “kalba” (language).
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Transformation has been found in two instances: “science” (3) is rendered as “fizikos pamokos” (see Appendix 2B, Table 5 for the full list). In an explanation of “science” provided by Collins English Dictionary (2003), it is “the systematic study of the nature and behaviour of the material and physical universe, based on observation, experiment, and measurement”. Therefore, this includes more than just physics, as suggested by Šeškuvienė. Even though this case of transformation does not affect the meaning in the novel significantly, Šeškuvienė misses a chance to introduce Lithuanian children to the subjects taught in Canada. Finally, mistranslation occurs twice in this subject area, as indicated in Example 4: a “report card” is rendered as “galutinių vertinimų lapas”. The discussion on this CSI has already been carried out in the analysis of translation strategies in Alone at Ninety Foot, Section 3.2.6.
3.4.5 The Translation of Brand Names
There are ten brand names mentioned in the novel which refer to cars and sportswear. The majority of brand names appear in the episode where Mike is walking in the neighborhood of rich people where his girlfriend, Jen, lives. He describes the people whose sneakers “are always the latest styles and the best brands – Adidas, Nikes, Reeboks” and whose cars are “as upscale as the houses – Jeeps and Beamers and Lexuses” (McClintock 2003: 73). Mike feels uncomfortable staying in this area because he feels inferior to all these people.
Table 5 The Translation of Brand Names
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Toyota, 69 “Toyota”, 88 Preservation 2. Beamer, 73 “Beamer”, 93 Mistranslation 3. Adidas, 73 “Adidas”, 93 Preservation 4. Nikes, 73 “Nike”, 93 Preservation
Nine brand names are preserved by Regina Šeškuvienė (see Appendix 2B, Table 6 for the full list). As in Example 1, she uses preservation of the names of cars such as “Toyota”, a well-known make of a car for Lithuanians. However, preservation of the name “Beamer” (2) is not correct since this, according to The New Partridge Dictionary of Slang, is slang for “BMW”. “Beamer” does not exist as a brand name in Lithuania and does not mean anything to young readers. Examples 3 and 4 show preservation of the names of sportswear brands such as “Adidas” and “Nike”, respectively. Since these brand names are well-known by Lithuanian children, preservation of these names does not cause any problems for them to understand the references.
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3.4.6 The Translation of Currency
In all there are ten culture-specific items found in this category. References to money are frequently used by Mike because he often lacks it: “[…] my appetite had returned. I dug in my pockets. A loonie, a couple of quarters and a bunch of pennies” (McClintock 2003: 173). When dealing with these CSIs, Regina Šeškuvienė uses various strategies.
Table 6 The Translation of Currency
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Five hundred bucks, 201 Penki šimtai baksų, 247 Localization 2. A loonie, 173 Vienas doleris, 214 Localization/Addition 3. Dollars and cents, 199 Pinigai, 246 Globalization 4. Nickel, 183 Centas, 227 Mistranslation
Three times currency is translated by using localization (see Appendix 2B, Table 7 for the full list). As in Example 1, “five hundred bucks” is rendered as “penki šimtai baksų”. It is worth to note that “bucks” is translated as “baksai”, retaining the colloquial style of the source language. Example 2 indicates a case of addition which is used twice: “a loonie” which, according to Collins English Dictionary (2003), is slang for a Canadian dollar coin, is translated as “vienas doleris” where “vienas” (one) is added. On the other hand, the translation, “doleris”, would be quite clear for the Lithuanian child readers as well. Globalization has been found four times: for example, “dollars and cents” (3) is rendered as “pinigai”. After Billy’s death, his friend, Dan, is discussing the funeral plans with Mike, explaining that “[t]hese things, like most things, all come down to dollars and cents” (McClintock 2003: 199). This instance of globalization is almost invisible because Dan means just money in general. Moreover, two cases of mistranslation appear in this subject category. For instance, “nickel” (4), which, according to Tilde Computer Dictionary, is a coin worth five cents, is translated as “centas”. Mike says, “Boy, if I had a nickel for every time someone had said that about me lately, I’d have, well, a nickel” (McClintock 2003: 183). Even though the meaning of the two words differs greatly, the translation does not cause drastic changes to meaning.
3.4.7 The Translation of Historical References
Mike’s history teacher, Mr. Riel, becomes a major figure in his life, helping him solve the mystery of his mother’s death and eventually becoming Mike’s foster father. However, at first Mike dislikes
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Riel because he is very strict. Five references to history appear in the episode where Mike sits in history class listening to a lecture about “the settlement of Canada’s west” which he finds boring since there are “no Indian wars, no cattlemen versus farmers conflicts, no Wyatt Earp or Billy the Kid” (McClintock 2003: 58). These references are culture-specific because they refer to Canada and the United States of America and are probably not known to Lithuanian child readers.
Table 7 The Translation of Historical References
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Billy the Kid, 58 Mažasis Bilis, 76 Localization 2. The settlement of Canada’s Kanados vakarinės pakrantės Localization/ Partial west, 58 apgyvendinimas, 75 Mistranslation 3. Wyatt Earp, 58 Vajetas, 76 Localization/Omission
Regina Šeškuvienė uses localization when translating all culture-specific items in this category: as in Example 1, she translates Billy the Kid as Mažasis Bilis. Billy the Kid is not known to young Lithuanian people since this, according to Oxford Guide, is “the popular name for William H Bonney […], a US outlaw […] in the Wild West”. In order to make a historical reference more understandable for Lithuanian readers, Šeškuvienė could have used a short explanation indicating that this person was a criminal. In one case Šeškuvienė uses localization and partial mistranslation, as shown in Example 2: “the settlement of Canada’s west” is rendered as “Kanados vakarinės pakrantės apgyvendinimas” by adding an intratextual gloss, “pakrantė” (coast). This is incorrect: the “west” that is settled does not go as far as the Pacific coast.1 Later, Šeškuvienė uses localization along with omission in one instance as indicated in Example 3, where Wyatt Earp is translated as Vajetas. She phonologically adapts the first name and omits the surname. Considering that the name does not mean anything to the Lithuanian readers, a short explanation identifying the historical person would be helpful for the Lithuanian child readers to understand the episode in the novel better.
3.4.8 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items
The previous analysis covers seven categories of culture-specific items out of eleven. The categories that have not been discussed include names of institutions and buildings, games, references to literature and television as well as references to music. In order to show the use of various translation strategies used by Regina Šeškuvienė in these categories, a few examples are provided (see Appendix 2B, Tables 4, 8, 9 and 10 for the full lists).
1 Information about this historical reference was provided by Dr. Milda Danytė 28
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Table 8 The Translation of Literary and Music References Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Snow White’s nasty nasty Baisioji Snieguolės pamotė, 45 Localization stepmother, 33 2. Cruella deVil, 33 Cruella deVil, 45 Preservation 3. Roll the bones. Take a “Judink kaulus, gaudyk protą”, Mistranslation chance (words of a song), 54 70
As in Examples 1 and 2, Šeškuvienė uses localization and preservation when dealing with literary references. When talking with Jen’s mother on a telephone, Mike imagines her “looking like Cruella deVil or Snow White’s nasty, nasty stepmother” (McClintock 2003: 33). Here, both fictional characters are familiar to young Lithuanian readers; therefore, they can easily imagine Jen’s mother. “Snow White’s nasty nasty stepmother” (1) is translated by localization, whereas Cruella deVil (2) is preserved in the target text. A case of mistranslation has been found; in Example 3, the words of a song, Roll the bones. Take a chance, played by a Canadian rock band, “Rush” are translated as “Judink kaulus, gaudyk protą”. The song is not known by the Lithuanian child readers since this music group is not popular in Lithuania. Šeškuvienė’s translation is not correct or even similar to the words in the source text. “The bones” refer to dice, so even a literal translation, “Mesk kauliukus, rizikuok” would make more sense to child readers. In addition to the categories mentioned, there are 14 culture-specific items in the novel that do not belong to any of them.
Table 9 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Pick-your-own-farms, 19 Savitarnos ūkiai, 27 Localization 2. 911, 137 911, 171 Preservation 3. Billy Ray Cyrus cut, 205 Plaukai iš priekio buvo trumpi, Omission/Addition o ant pakaušio ilgi – kvailas kirpimas, 253 4. Toaster oven, 187 Duonos skrudintuvas, 232 Transformation 5. Screen door, 43 Stiklinės durys, 58 Partial Mistranslation
Localization is used in six cases, as in Example 1: “pick-your-own-farms” is translated as “savitarnos ūkiai”. Even though this kind of farm is not common in Lithuania, the translation is
29 clear for children readers. Preservation has been found in four instances, as in the translation of emergency number “911” (see Appendix 2B, Table 12 for the full list) (2). This instance of preservation should not cause confusion to young Lithuanian readers because this emergency number is known by Lithuanians. Example 3 shows the use of omission and addition: “Billy Ray Cyrus cut” is rendered as “plaukai iš priekio buvo trumpi, o ant pakaušio ilgi – kvailas kirpimas”. Since the Lithuanian child readers are not familiar with the American country music singer, Billy Ray Cyrus, they have not seen his hairstyle. If the phrase were translated literally, it would lose the intended effect by McClintock; thus, Šeškuvienė omits the name of a singer and adds an intratextual gloss in order to render the CSI meaningfully. Both omission and addition are used twice in the translation of this category of CSIs. Transformation has been found once: a “toaster oven” (4) is rendered as “duonos skrudintuvas”. “Duonos skrudintuvas” is just a toaster, whereas Lithuanian equivalent for “oven” is “orkaitė” meaning that it is not the same as a toaster. Finally, the “screen door” (5) is partially mistranslated as “stiklinės durys”. As explained in Tilde Computer Dictionary, “screen door” is “a door that is a screen to keep insects out of a building”; therefore, it is not a glass door as suggested in Šeškuvienė’s translation.
3.4.9 Conclusion
To sum up, Regina Šeškuvienė uses a variety of strategies when dealing with culture-specific items in the Lithuanian translation of Hit and Run. In all there are 219 culture-specific items in the novel. The most commonly used strategy is localization which has been found in 146 instances (66.7%), most often in the translation of the names of characters, geographical names, food items, references to school and games. Preservation is the second strategy in terms of frequency and has been found in 25 cases (11.4%) in the translation of brand names, names of institutions and buildings as well as geographical names. Furthermore, transformation is used in 23 instances (10.5%) when translating food items and names of institutions and buildings. The next strategy, addition, has been found in 18 cases (8.2%), most commonly in the translation of names of institutions and buildings and references to food. Besides, globalization is used 13 times (5.9%) when translating food items and currency, whereas omission is used 9 times (4.1%) most often in the translation of references to music. Creation has been found once (0.5%) when translating a food item. Finally, mistranslation occurs in 12 cases (5.5%) when translating food items, geographical names, references to school and currency.
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3.5 The Importance of Clothing, Food Items and Literary References in Jacqueline Wilson’s Double Act
As in Alone at Ninety Foot and Hit and Run, the protagonists’ mother in Jacqueline Wilson’s Double Act is also dead. The story focuses on two ten-year-old British twin girls, Ruby and Garnet, who are very close but very different in character. Ruby is the dominating twin, always dictating to Garnet what to do. Garnet, on the opposite, is quiet and often does not get a chance to express her own opinion because she usually acts according to Ruby’s command. Their lives are shaken by the fact that several years after the death of their mother, their father is dating a woman named Rose. The twins, especially Ruby, do not accept her as a member of their family. As the child psychologists Diane E. Papalia and Sally Wendkos Olds state, “because of losses to death or divorce, children […] may be afraid to trust and love. Children’s loyalties to absent or dead parents may interfere with forming ties to the stepparent” (Papalia and Olds 1990: 487). Throughout the book the twins revolt against their stepmother by acting rude to her. A major crisis in the story takes place when Garnet, who is more intellectual, gets the chance to leave Ruby and attend an upper- class boarding school, Marnock Heights. At this point the twins have a serious quarrel. This is not surprising, since as Barbara Schave Klein explains, “separation from each other is an especially difficult problem for twins because they share a deep and intense bond” (Klein 2003: 105). For Garnet and Ruby, as for many other pre-teen twins, the issue of suitable clothing is very important. Therefore, this category of CSIs plays a special role in the perception of their relationship: “We had frilly frocks in summer and dinky pleated skirts in winter, and Gran knitted too - angora boleros that made us itch, and matching jumpers and cardis for the cold” (Wilson 1996: 5). Later, when they have an argument, one twin, Ruby, starts to dress differently to show that their relationship as twins is under tension. Food references are also quite important to the plot because the girls often refer to their family relationships with their loving grandmother or the stepmother whom they do not like: “now we have this awful woman living with us, our dad’s girlfriend, and she’s into health foods so it’s bye-bye Coco Pops, hello muesli – all this oat and bran that makes your face ache munching” (Wilson 1996: 112). After their grandmother moves out, the girls miss the food she used to make: “‘No more roast potatoes with special crispy bits and Christmas pud with little silver charms and traffic-light jelly, red and yellow and green,’ Ruby wailed” (Wilson 1996: 37). Recurring food references emphasize the twins’ contrasting feelings towards their grandmother and stepmother. However, in the closing section, in which Garnet is about to leave for a boarding school, Rose cooks “chicken and chips, Garnet’s favourite” (Wilson 1996: 180), which is a sign that their relationship is getting better.
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References to literature also play an important role in the book because they tell a great deal about the twins and their different personalities, as Ruby herself explains: “Garnet likes old books too – stuff like Little Women and What Katy Did and all those E. Nesbit books” (Wilson 1996: 8). Ruby, on the contrary, prefers “true stories about flashy famous people. Actors and actresses” (Wilson 1996: 8). Garnet, unlike Ruby, uses references from literature in her speech, which shows her greater sophistication. This category of CSIs appears often in the novel, showing Garnet’s similarity to her father Richard, who also loves books and who later buys a bookshop: “Dad reads great fat books too, but they’re not modern, they’re all classics – Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy” (Wilson 1996: 7). Thus cultural references in Wilson’s novel are strongly connected to differences between the two girls and the people they like or dislike.
3.6 Gabija Ryškuvienė’s Lithuanian Translation of Double Act: Translation Strategies for Culture-specific Items
This section looks at the translation strategies for culture-specific items used by Gabija Ryškuvienė in her Lithuanian translation of Double Act. Cultural references that appear in this novel can be divided into ten categories. As usual, the names of characters form the largest category. Moreover, references to food, clothes, school and games, which are important for children, appear often in the novel. In addition, Wilson uses some literary references because Garnet and her father both like to read. This section is divided into six sub-sections according to the categories just mentioned. Moreover, Sub-section 3.6.7 looks at the translation of some CSIs which belong to the categories not chosen for the discussion. In addition, this sub-section includes analysis of culture-specific items that do not belong to any specific subject.
3.6.1 The Translation of the Names of Characters
In total there are 38 people named in the novel. The majority of them have traditionally English names like Georgina (3) and Richard (4). Some references are to famous people, for instance, Charles Dickens (6). In addition, Jacqueline Wilson uses names she invents, like Ferret-Face (8) and Rosy Ratbag (9) (see Appendix 2C, Table 1 for the full list). Such invented names or other phrases are common in the novel because these are nicknames used typically by school-age children. Gabija Ryškuvienė translates most of the names using localization; this strategy occurs in 36 instances.
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Table 1 The Translation of the Names of Characters
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Ruby, 1 Rubi, 4 Low Localization 2. Garnet, 1 Garnet, 4 Low Localization 3. Georgina, 186 Džordžina, 188 Low Localization 4. Richard, 18 Ričardas, 20 Low Localization 5. Jeremy Treadgold, 69 Džeremis Tredgoldas, 70 Low Localization 6. Charles Dickens, 7 Čarlzas Dikensas, 9 Low Localization 7. Sarah Crewe, 45 Sara, 47 Low Localization/ Omission 8. Ferret-Face, 175 Šeškaveidis, 177 High Localization 9. Rosy Ratbag, 95 Sena Ragana Rouzė, 96 Transformation
As Examples 1 to 7 show, most of the times Ryškuvienė uses a low degree of localization for the translation of character names. However, some of the names have semantic meaning, such as Ruby (1) and Garnet (2). In Ryškuvienė’s Lithuanian translation these names are translated as Rubi and Garnet, respectively, without any indication to gem stones. The meaning of the names is important here, because ruby and garnet jewels are both red, thus indicating the physical similarity of the girls. Moreover, a ruby is very bright red, which also reflects the dominant and extraverted personality of the twin Ruby, who is very lively and full of mischief, as opposed to her quieter sister Garnet. Unfortunately, as Eirlys E. Davies states, “a straightforward translation of the meaningful element(s) of a name may actually lead to a loss of communicative effect” (Davies 2003: 76) which happens in the translation of these two names. Ryškuvienė does not convey the meaning associated with these names of jewels to the reader. Other names, such as Georgina (3), Richard (4) and Jeremy Treadgold (5), are translated as Džordžina, Ričardas and Džeremis Tredgoldas, respectively. Ryškuvienė also uses a low degree of localization by phonologically adapting the names and adding Lithuanian endings to the first names and surnames depending on gender. The name of the well-known writer Charles Dickens (6) has an established translation in Lithuanian, Čarlzas Dikensas; therefore, Ryškuvienė uses this name in her translation. There is one instance of omission in Ryškuvienė’s translation of character names. Sarah Crewe (7) becomes just Sara in Lithuanian translation; however, this does not produce any major changes in the meaning. Sarah Crewe is the protagonist of the novel A Little Princess and is only mentioned once by Garnet. A high degree of localization is used mostly when translating invented meaningful names, such as “Ferret-Face” (8) which is rendered as “Šeškaveidis”. If it were translated phonologically, the word would mean nothing to the readers; therefore, Ryškuvienė uses the Lithuanian equivalent in the target text.
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On the other hand, transformation is used twice when translating some of the other invented names, such as Rosy Ratbag (9) which becomes Sena Ragana Rouzė in Lithuanian text. A back translation of Rosy Ratbag would be “Rožė žiurkių maišas” which does not sound very natural in Lithuanian and lacks alliteration. Therefore, Ryškuvienė uses “ragana”, which is a more common word used when talking negatively about a stepmother in Lithuanian fairytales. In order to create an even more negative emphasis, Ryškuvienė adds the adjective “sena”. In her translation “Ragana Rouzė” also alliterates as in the source text. Even though the meaning of the two phrases in source and target texts differ, the effect that Wilson wants to convey is accomplished in Ryškuvienė’s translation.
3.6.2 The Translation of Literary References
Jacqueline Wilson uses 14 literary references in her book. Some of them refer to the classics of children’s literature, such as Little Women by Louisa May Alcott. These references play an important role in the story because one of the twins, Garnet, likes reading “old books” (Wilson 1996: 8). Their father Richard is also very fond of books, which is not true about Ruby, who complains: “We’ve got piles and piles of books in every room and you have to zig-zag around them carefully or you cause a bookquake” (Wilson 1996: 6). The books mentioned in the novel include titles of American as well as British writers, which are probably not well known to most Lithuanian children. Gabija Ryškuvienė uses a variety of strategies when dealing with this category of culture- specific items.
Table 2 The Translation of Literary References
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Little Women (Louisa May “Mažosios moterys”, 10 Localization Alcott book), 8 2. Beano annual (a popular “Byno” metinis žurnalas, 68 Localization/Addition British children’s comic), 67 3. The Guardian (British Guardian, 91 Preservation national newspaper), 90 4. The Twins at St Clare’s (Enid “Dvynukės Šventosios Klaros Transformation Blyton book), 8 n internatinėje mokykloje”, 10 5. Bill and Moon, 65 “Mėnulis ir skatikas”, 66 Mistranslation
Ryškuvienė uses localization in eight cases (see Appendix 2C, Table 2 for the full list). For instance, Little Women (1) is translated as “Mažosios moterys”. The Lithuanian translation may or may not mean anything to the Lithuanian child readers as this novel has been translated into 34
Lithuanian. On the other hand, this is a chance for them to become familiar with the titles of classics of English children’s literature. The next strategy, addition, is used once: “Beano annual” (2) which, according to Oxford Guide, is a popular British children’s comic, is rendered as “ ‘Byno’ metinis žurnalas” by adding a word “žurnalas” (magazine) to make it easier for the Lithuanian child readers to understand. Furthermore, Ryškuvienė uses preservation once, as in translating the title of the British national newspaper The Guardian (3). The newspaper is also known in Lithuania among adults, although it is probably not known or relevant to the child readers. On the other hand, this is how Ryškuvienė makes readers familiar with some aspects of British culture. Transformation is used in three cases, as shown in Example 4. Enid Blyton’s book The Twins at St Clare’s is translated as “Dvynukės Šventosios Klaros internatinėje mokykloje”, where the word “internatinė” is added in the target text. It is mentioned earlier in the novel that St Clare’s is a boarding school; however, “internatas” implies a different meaning in Lithuania. St Clare’s boarding school is described as an upper-class and expensive place to study at, whereas “internatas” is usually a place for children with special needs or ones who do not have parents. Mistranslation appears in two cases, as indicated in Example 5, where Bill and Moon2 is translated as “Mėnulis ir skatikas”. The Lithuanian translation refers to the novel by William Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence. However, Wilson uses a pun which refers to “Mills and Boon”, a British publisher of romance novels. Ruby makes fun of the lady “who wanted all Bills and Moons” (Wilson 1996: 65) meaning that she was looking for the love novels. This joke is hardly possible to understand to a non-native speaker, thus resulting in mistranslation.
3.6.3 The Translation of Food Items
Food is quite important for twins because very often it is associated with their beloved grandmother or with their stepmother Rose, whom they do not like. The food that Grandmother makes is always tasty, but Rose’s food, on the opposite, arouses negative emotions in the girls. When the twins in the audition are asked what they eat, Garnet wants to tell about “Rose’s garlic crumble and how it not only tasted absolutely disgusting, but people ducked and dodged for days afterwards whenever [the twins] breathed in their direction” (Wilson 1996: 113). Out of 22 food items mentioned in the source text, 15 of them are translated using localization (see Appendix 2C, Table 3 for the full list).
2 I am grateful to Dr. Milda Danytė for pointing out this play of words 35
Table 3 The Translation of Food Items
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Yorkshire pudding, 14 Jorkšyro pudingas, 17 Localization 2. Chinese takeaway, 174 Kiniškas maistas, 176 Localization/Omission 3. Toasted teacakes, 128 Skrudintos bandelės su arbata, Localization/Creation 130 4. Chipolatas, 36 Dešrelės, 38 Globalization 5. Kit Kat, 187 “Kit Kat”, 189 Preservation 6. McDonald’s beefburgers, Sumuštiniai su jautiena iš Transformation 128 “McDonalds”, 130 7. Chicken and chips, 180 Višta ir bulvių traškučiai, 182 Partial Mistranslation
For example, Yorkshire pudding (1) is a British dish, made, as explained in Oxford Guide, “by baking a mixture of flour, eggs and milk in fat, usually in separate pieces like small cakes”. Gabija Ryškuvienė translates this CSI as “Jorkšyro pudingas” even though this means nothing to the child readers. Still, a more detailed explanation of the dish would not be helpful because it is difficult for children to imagine the dish without seeing or tasting it. In a few cases Ryškuvienė combines localization with other strategies such as omission and creation. In Example 2, “Chinese takeaway” is rendered as “kiniškas maistas” where “Chinese” is localized, while “takeway” is partly omitted by translating it just as “maistas” (food). In Example 3, localization is used along with creation: “toasted teacakes” (3) is rendered as “skrudintos bandelės su arbata”. “Toasted” is localized, whereas “teacake” is translated by using creation. According to Tilde Computer Dictionary, this is a “flat cake made from a raised dough with raisins usually eaten toasted and buttered”. Thus, the description does not imply that it is necessarily eaten with tea. Omission and creation are used in one instance each. Three times Ryškuvienė uses globalization in this category of CSIs. For instance, the twins want to go to their grandmother’s for Christmas and have cranberry sauce, little chipolatas and other tasty food that she makes. Chipolatas (4) is translated as “dešrelės”, even though these are not the simple sausages that Lithuanian children may think of. Instead, a chipolata, according to Collins English Dictionary (2003), is “a small sausage in a narrow casing” which is popular in Britain. This kind of globalization, on the other hand, does not affect the meaning very much because children in both cultures generally like sausages so that a detailed description of this food item is not necessary in this case. Ryškuvienė uses preservation only twice, for example, when translating the brand name Kit Kat (5). This kind of chocolate bar is popular among Lithuanian children so preservation of the name does not cause any problems for the young readers. Further, two instances of transformation
36 have been found observed, as in Example 6: “McDonald’s beefburgers” is rendered as “sumuštiniai su jautiena iš ‘McDonalds’”, even though a beef burger which is well-known by Lithuanian children is not a sandwich. Finally, a partial mistranslation occurs once, as indicated in Example 7. Here, chicken and chips is translated as “višta ir bulvių traškučiai”, even though chips in British English refer to “skrudintos bulvytės” rather than “traškučiai”, as they do in American English. As a result, this translation sounds a bit odd because these two food items are not commonly eaten together.
3.6.4 The Translation of Clothing Items
Clothes take a special place in the story because they are significant to children and especially to the twins, which is evident in Ruby’s monologue. “Gran made all our clothes too. That was awful. […] But our clothes made us a laughing stock at school, though some of the mums said we looked a picture” (Wilson 1996: 4; italics in original). For the girls, part of being twins means to wear the same clothes. Gabija Ryškuvienė uses a variety of strategies to translate eight clothing items.
Table 4 The Translation of Clothing Items
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Hockey boots, 182 Žolės riedulio batai, 184 Localization/Addition 2. Doc Martens, 89 “Doc Martens” batai, 90 Preservation/Addition 3. Bolero, 5 Liemenė, 7 Globalization 4. Quilty jacket, 64 Dygsniuotas švarkas, 65 Partial Mistranslation
Localization is used three times (see Appendix 2C, Table 5 for the full list). For instance, Ryškuvienė translates “hockey boots” (1) as “žolės riedulio batai”. As stated in Oxford Guide, “in Britain hockey refers to field hockey”; therefore, Ryškuvienė emphasizes that by adding a word “žolės” (grass) which is a Lithuanian equivalent for field hockey. However, Lithuanians are more familiar with ice hockey, so this kind of translation enriches their knowledge of British sports. Preservation is used once when translating “Doc Martens” (2) as “ ‘Doc Martens’ batai”. Ryškuvienė adds that these are shoes, because the brand name is not known for Lithuanian children. However, some meaning associated with the shoes is lost. Doc Martens are sports shoes and, as Oxford Guide explains, a “special feature of them is a ‘cushion of air’ under the foot to make them more comfortable to wear”. The target readers are left unaware of the precise kind of shoes that Ruby is talking about. Further, Ryškuvienė uses globalization two times, as shown in Example 3, where “bolero” is translated as “liemenė”. Even though these two words are similar in meaning,
37 technically, as stated in Collins English Dictionary (2003), a bolero is a “a kind of short jacket not reaching the waist, with or without sleeves and open at the front”. Itchy angora boleros are mentioned by Ruby when she describes the kind of clothes their grandmother used to sew or knit for them, so an added explanation may be helpful for the child readers to understand how the twins dress. Unfortunately, not all Ryškuvienė’s strategic choices work well. She mistranslates two times, for instance, she renders “quilty jacket” (4) as “dygsniuotas švarkas” where the translation distorts the meaning. “Dygsniuoti” means to stitch pieces of fabric together before sewing a garment. In the novel, the lady who comes to complain about the bookshop is wearing a quilty jacket; thus, the translation does not make much sense to the child readers. The more understandable translation would be “švarkas su pašiltinimu”.
3.6.5 The Translation of Games
Games are essential part in children’s lives, so that it is not surprising that quite a few games are mentioned in Double Act. Very often the games that are played by children in specific cultures differ and may even be unique to that culture, thus making them difficult to translate in such a way that the target readers would understand. Jacqueline Wilson’s work is not an exception because the games mentioned in the book are culture-specific to England and are not well known in Lithuania.
Table 5 The Translation of Games
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Cricket, 122 Kriketas, 124 Localization 2. Lacrosse, 122 Lakrosas, 124 Localization 3. Happy Families (card game), Lošėm kortomis, 183 Globalization 181
In total there are six games that appear in the novel (see Appendix 2C, Table 7 for the full list). “Cricket” (1) is translated as “kriketas” by using localization which has been found in four instances. Similarly, “lacrosse” (2) is rendered as “lakrosas” by an already existing Lithuanian equivalent in. Lacrosse is not commonly played in Lithuania, so that children might not have even have heard about it. The games mentioned are those played at expensive private boarding schools, so that Ruby is excited about going to Marnock Heights boarding school and playing these games. Again, Gabija Ryškuvienė’s strategic choice helps the Lithuanian readers learn something about British culture.
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Globalization is used twice by Ryškuvienė: for example, she translates the card game “Happy Families” (3) just as “lošėm kortomis”. This game, as explained in Oxford Guide, includes special “cards with pictures of members of various families on them”. The twins play this card game together with their father and stepmother Rose, which annoys Ruby because she does not feel that Rose is a family member. Therefore, Ruby considers the game as “daft” (Wilson 1996: 181).
3.6.6 The Translation of References to School
There are eight references to school mentioned in the novel, most of them being school subjects (see Appendix 2C, Table 8 for the full list). Garnet warns Ruby that at Marnock Heights they will have to study all these subjects, not just play games. She gives a list of subjects they will study, geometry and Latin being the hardest.
Table 6 The Translation of References to School
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Geometry, 124 Geometrija, 126 Localization 2. Latin, 124 Lotynų kalba, 126 Localization/Addition 3. Technology,124 Matematika, 126 Transformation
Gabija Ryškuvienė uses localization seven times: for example, she translates “geometry” (1) as “geometrija”, because this school subject is taught in Lithuanian schools as well. When translating “Latin” (2) Ryškuvienė uses an intratextual addition and translates this as “lotynų kalba”, the way it is commonly used by Lithuanians. This strategy has been found twice in this subject category. Further, Ryškuvienė uses transformation once as indicated in Example 3, where “technology” is rendered as “matematika”. Mathematics is a different subject than technology; therefore, a more suitable translation would presumably be “technikos ir taikomieji mokslai” as suggested by Tilde Computer Dictionary, even though this subject is not taught in Lithuanian schools.
3.6.7 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items
In addition to six categories of culture-specific items discussed, there are four other categories in the novel: geographical names, plants and animals, names of institutions and buildings as well as currency and measurement units (see Appendix 2C, Tables 4, 6, 9 and 10 for the full lists). Even though these kinds of cultural references are not central in the novel, some examples of strategic choices by Gabija Ryškuvienė are worth pointing out.
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Table 7 The Translation of Names of Institutions, Measurement Units and Animals
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Oxfam shop, 6 Oksfamo parduotuvė, 8 Localization 2. Half-stone, 78 Tona, 79 Transformation 3. Gerbil, 123 Žiurkėnas, 125 Transformation
When translating “Oxfam shop” (1) as “Oksfamo parduotuvė”, Ryškuvienė does not explain that it is a shop where, as explained in Oxford Guide, “new and second-hand clothes, books, etc. are sold to raise money for the charity”. This is quite important in the story because the twins’ father buys his books which are not new, “but old dusty tomes from book fairs and auctions and Oxfam shops” (Wilson 1996: 5). In this case the message by Jacqueline Wilson is not conveyed to Lithuanian readers. A case of transformation is shown in Example 2, where “half-stone” is rendered as “tona”. The meaning is distorted because the twins’ stepmother Rose says that she “put on a good half- stone” (Wilson 1996: 78) which is just over three kilograms in metric measures. Ryškuvienė exaggerates translating it as a ton, which may incline the reader to think that Rose put on a great deal more weight. Another case of transformation is used in the category of plants and animals: for instance, “gerbil” (3) is rendered as “žiurkėnas”. The Lithuanian equivalent for “gerbil” is “smiltpelė”; however, Lithuanian children may not be aware of this animal. Therefore, Ryškuvienė keeps closer to the target culture and translates it as a hamster, a pet that is kept at home by many Lithuanian children. There are also other culture-specific items in Double Act that do not belong to any specific category. In all there are eleven items which are translated by using various strategies.
Table 8 Translation of Other Culture-specific Items
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Halloween pumpkin, 61 Moliūgas per Helovyną, 62 Localization 2. Victorian, 64 Viktorijos laikų, 65 Localization/Addition 3. Sunnylea Productions, 91 Sunnylea Productions, 92 Preservation 4. Sellotape, 90 Lipni juostelė, 91 Globalization 5. Car boot sale, 15 Sendaikčių mugė, 18 Omission/Transformation
Ryškuvienė uses localization three times when dealing with these CSIs. As shown in Example 1, she translates “Halloween pumpkin” as “moliūgas per Helovyną” (see Appendix 2C, Table 11 for
40 the full list). Celebration of Halloween is becoming common in Lithuania; therefore, it is clear to the Lithuanian child readers how a Halloween pumpkin looks like. Further, two instances of addition have been found; for instance, “Victorian” (2) is rendered as “Viktorijos laikų”. On the other hand, this is not a complete translation because the phrase commonly used by Lithuanian people is “Karalienės Viktorijos laikų”. The next strategy, preservation, is used three times, as in Example 3, where “Sunnylea Productions” is transferred into Lithuanian without any changes. Ryškuvienė does not add any explanations; on the other hand, it is clear form the context in the novel that this company produces films. Further, globalization is used once, where “Sellotape” (4) is translated as “lipni juostelė”. Ryškuvienė uses globalization because this brand name may not mean anything to the Lithuanian child readers, whereas “lipni juostelė” explains the item. Finally, Ryškuvienė uses transformation and omission when translating “car boot sale” (5) as “sendaikčių mugė” which does not mean the same. According to Oxford Guide, car boot sale is popular in Britain: it is “an informal market, often in a field, where people sell things from the backs of their cars”. Ryškuvienė omits significant information that belongings are sold from the boots of cars. Moreover, it is important to emphasize that this is not just an ordinary fair, as Ryškuvienė renders it, but a market where people sell used belongings which they no longer want (Oxford Guide). Transformation has been found in four cases, whereas omission is used twice.
3.6.8 Conclusion
To sum up, Gabija Ryškuvienė uses a various strategies when dealing with culture-specific items in the Lithuanian translation of Double Act. According to calculations, the most commonly used strategy is localization which occurs in 97 instances (72.4%) out of 134. This strategy is used in the translation of all categories of culture-specific items, but most often when translating the names of characters, names of institutions and buildings, currency and measurement units as well as references to food, literature and school. Transformation is the second most commonly used strategy found in 15 instances (11.2%), most often in the translation of literary references, the names of characters and references to food. The next strategy in terms of frequency is addition. Intratextual addition is used in 12 cases (9%) when translating clothing items and references to school. Globalization is used nine times (6.7%) when translating CSIs related to food, games and clothes. Further, Ryškuvienė preserves seven CSIs (5.2%) which belong to references to food and literature as well as clothing items. Next, omission has only been found four times (3%) when dealing with the names of characters and references to food. Furthermore, creation has been found
41 once (0.7%) in the translation of a food item. Finally, mistranslation occurs in seven cases (5.2%) when translating references to literature and clothing.
3.7 The Importance of Furniture Items, Household Goods and Accessories in Mary Norton’s The Borrowers
The story takes place in late 19th and early 20th century England, depicting the lives of the miniature people, the Borrowers, who live under the floor of an English manor. The manor house, once full of people, is now almost empty with only few human beings living in it. For the Borrowers the only way to survive is to “borrow” various household goods and adapt them to their needs. The protagonist, an adventurous thirteen-year-old girl, the Borrower Arriety, who lives together with her mother and father is told that “[u]pstairs is a dangerous place” (Norton 1952: 49) and the most terrifying thing that could ever happen is to be seen by a human being. After some time Pod, Arriety’s father, takes her for the first borrowing trip where she is seen by a boy who is temporarily staying at the house. Arriety becomes friends with the boy, who later brings various goods from the doll’s house to the Borrowers. After Mrs. Driver, the cook, understands where the goods are disappearing, she calls the rat catcher meaning that the Borrowers have to flee the manor house. However, the boy breaks a grating for them to escape. There is a major category of culture-specific items in Mary Norton’s The Borrowers that does not appear in other three novels under analysis yet which plays a crucial role in the readers’ perception of this story. Because the setting is in the past, in an old manor house, the frequent use of furniture items, household goods and accessories form the single largest category of CSIs: these provide a detailed picture of lives in the late Victorian era. Furthermore, the story is focused on the Borrowers, who steal and adapt human objects for their needs. Thus, the function of this category of CSIs is to show how certain objects that belong to human beings are used for different purposes in lives of the Borrowers, a procedure which is amusing. For instance, “[t]hey kept the fuel, assorted slack and crumbled candle grease, in a pewter mustard pot and shoveled it out with the [mustard] spoon” (Norton 1952: 19), besides, they “bathed in a small tureen, which once had held pate de foie gras” (Norton 1952: 21). Mary Norton provides many details describing the little world of the Borrowers for whom every “borrowed” item is a big treasure. Some items mentioned by Norton are alien not only to the Lithuanian but also, probably to the contemporary British child reader. For instance, items such as candle-snuffers (Norton 1952: 148), coal scuttles (Norton 1952: 142) or oil lamps (Norton 1952: 132) are old fashioned household goods not used nowadays. On the other hand, the great number of such CSIs and the detailed descriptions of their use in the lives of the Borrowers give a full picture
42 of their household. With the help of these details Norton takes the reader back in time, portraying real Victorian life through the miniature people. All these details of setting in the house create the specific nature of the Borrowers’ worldview, tiny people for whom every object is very significant.
3.8 Viltaras Alksnėnas’ Lithuanian Translation of The Borrowers: Translation Strategies for Culture-specific Items
The Borrowers takes the readers to a fantasy world which is in the past, a setting that makes the novel very culture-specific. Therefore, the CSIs that appear in the novel reflect the late Victorian era and play a significant role in the novel. The initial audience for Mary Norton’s novel is British children of nine to twelve years of age; therefore, many items referring to the Victorian era, such as household goods, furniture and others mentioned in the story are unfamiliar to the Lithuanian child readers. These form a very large category of CSIs in the novel because the whole story takes place at home, an environment which is important to children, whereas the world outside the house is portrayed as dangerous and unknown. For the children of this age group, as child psychologists Wyndol Furman and Duane Buhrmester state, “home is still the most important part of their world, and the people who live there matter the most” (Furman and Buhrmester in Papalia and Olds 1990: 473). The Borrowers live in their tiny little world, where there are just three of them. As a result, the family is at the centre and home is very important for the child Arriety, although her childish curiosity drives her to know the undiscovered world outside the house. This part of the thesis analyzes the translation strategies for culture-specific items used by Viltaras Alksnėnas in his Lithuanian translation of The Borrowers. The novel includes many culture-specific items, among which furniture items, household goods and accessories form the largest category. This category and some others such as the names of human beings, the names of the Borrowers, food items, references to literature and music, foreign language references, historical references and proverbial sayings play an important part in the novel since they contribute to the understanding of the Victorian era. Section 3.8 is divided into seven sub-sections according to the categories mentioned. Sub- section 3.8.1 further divides the names of characters into the names of human beings and those of the Borrowers. In addition, Sub-section 3.8.8 discusses the treatment of some CSIs that belong to categories not discussed and analyzes the translation strategies of those cultural references that do not belong to any category. The conclusion provides calculations of the instances of strategies used.
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3.8.1 The Translation of the Names of Characters
The names of characters in the novel play a significant part because they add a great deal to the environment and the general setting of the story. In total there are 34 names mentioned in the novel. Mary Norton uses two main categories for these names in her novel: names which belong to the Borrowers, and names which belong to human beings. The names of human beings are usually the ones that exist in a real world and some of them are meaningful. In all there are 15 names of human beings mentioned in the novel and the majority of them are translated by using a low degree of localization. Almost all the names of the Borrowers, on the other hand, are invented by Norton and the majority of them have a distinct meaning. In the translation of 19 Borrower names, the most commonly used strategy is a high degree of localization.
3.8.1.1 The Translation of the Names of Human Beings
As mentioned, Viltaras Alksnėnas translates most of the names of human beings by using a low degree of localization, phonologically adapting the names and adding appropriate grammatical ending to indicate gender. The strategy of localization is used in the translation of 12 names. Three other names are either mistranslated or rendered by transformation.
Table 1 The Translation of the Names of Human Beings
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Kate, 1 Keitė, 8 Low Localization 2. Rich William, 179 Ričas Viljamas, 179 Low Localization 3. William Shakespeare, 18 Viljamas Šekspyras, 22 Low Localization 4. Mercy Lavinia Bump, 18 Malonė Lavinija Bumpt, 23 High Localization 5. Rosa Pickhatchet, 15 Roza Pikečet, 22 Low Localization 6. General Tom Thumb, 18 Vyriausiasis Nykštukas, 22 Mistranslation 7. Ernie, 177 Ernis, 177 Transformation
In Examples 1 and 2, Kate (1) is translated as Keitė and Rich William (2) as Ričas Viljamas by phonologically adapting the names so that they sound more Lithuanian to the child readers (see Appendix 2D, Table 1 for the full list). As Example 3 indicates, the names of well-known people like William Shakespeare have standardized translations in many cultures, as in this case Viljamas Šekspyras in Lithuanian. Some of other names, like Mercy Lavinia Bump (4) have partial semantic meaning, which Alksnėnas attempts to convey in the target text by translating it as Malonė Lavinija Bumpt. Moreover, translating “Bump” as “Bumpt” adds humor suited to the meaning of the name.
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However, some of the names, for instance, Rosa Pickhatchet (5), which is also meaningful, are translated only using a low degree of localization without giving an attempt to render their meaning. Meaningful names can tell a great deal about the characters of the story, while this is not always conveyed by Alksnėnas to the Lithuanian reader. Although Rosa Pickhatchet is not a main character in the story and is only mentioned once, Mary Norton names this character in order to portray her as a rude and grumpy person by using the word “hatchet”. Unfortunately, the amusing effect that Norton creates with the name of this character is lost in the Lithuanian translation where the name is only adapted phonologically as Roza Pikečet, not suggesting any meaning to the Lithuanian readers. There are two instances where Alksnėnas mistranslates the names. General Tom Thumb (6) is translated as Vyriausias Nykštukas, which changes the real meaning. General Tom Thumb, according to James G. Mundie, was a midget, a real person (Mundie 2003-2010). However, Vyriausias Nykštukas sounds like a dwarf in a fairy tale. As a result, this translation by Alksnėnas does not convey the right meaning in the Lithuanian version of the story and the desired meaning is lost. Furthermore, one instance of transformation is observed, where Ernie (7) is rendered as Ernis. Ernie is a diminutive of Ernest; however, Alksnėnas translates the name as Ernis instead of Ernestukas which would be an equivalent for the source text.
3.8.1.2 The Translation of the Names of the Borrowers
Almost all the names of the Borrowers in the story are not usual English names and suggest meaning. Overall, Viltaras Alksnėnas makes a good attempt at preserving the meaning when translating descriptive names; however, this is not true in all cases. The family names of the Borrowers depend on their living places. Therefore, it is essential to convey the true meaning of these names in order to become familiar with the environment that the story takes place in. Thus, the family names such as The Broom-Cupboard boys (2), The Boot-Racks (3) and The Rain-Barrels (5) would have no meaning to the target reader if they were translated phonologically. Moreover, as Maria Tymoczko states, “the presence of many unfamiliar names […] in a translation brings with it the risk of communication overload and may unbalance the information load of the entire text” (Tymoczko 1999: 225). Therefore, Alksnėnas considers the importance of translating meaningful names in a way that they communicate to the Lithuanian child readers.
Table 2 The Translation of the Names of the Borrowers
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Homily, 7 Namilė, 14 High Localization 45
2. The Broom-Cupboard boys, Šepetinių-Bufetinių High Localization 54 berniūkščiai, 59 3. The Boot-Racks, 90 Avalyniai, 93 Globalization 4. Eggletina, 7 Egletina, 14 Low Localization 5. The Rain-Barrels, 90 Lietvamzdiniai, 93 Transformation 6. A family called Linen-Press, Linaspaudžiai, 50 Mistranslation 46
As previously stated, most of the meaningful names are translated by using a high degree of localization, as in Examples 1 and 2 (see Appendix 2D, Table 2 for the full list). Homily (1) is translated as Namilė suggesting that the character often stays at home. Even though the word “homily” means a sermon, the Lithuanian translation, Namilė, describes the character better. The Broom-Cupboard boys (2) is translated as Šepetinių-Bufetinių berniūkščiai, which reflects the true meaning of the source name and is clear to the children readers. The Boot-Racks, as Example 3 indicates, is translated as Avalyniai, by globalization. The name Avalyniai (back translation: the Footwear), does not actually explain their exact living place of the family, which is quite important in the story. Globalization is used twice by Alksnėnas in the translation of this category of CSIs. Not all the names of the Borrowers are meaningful. For instance, Eggletina (4) does not have a meaning and is translated as Egletina just by omitting one “g” in order to avoid, as Tymoczko suggests, “unusual phonological sequences” (Tymoczko 1999: 225). These names are translated by using a low degree of localization which has been found four times in this subject category. Two meaningful names are translated by transformation, as in Example 5, where the Rain-Barrels (5) is rendered as Lietvamzdiniai. This kind of translation distorts the meaning: a barrel is translated as a pipe. This causes a little confusion because there is another family in the novel called The Rain-Pipes and the translations of both family names sound the same in Lithuanian translation. A case of mistranslation appears when Alksnėnas gives a name a different meaning, as in Example 6. He translates a family called Linen-Press as Linaspaudžiai, even though the meaning of both names differs greatly. “Linai” is flax; however, “linen” refers to sheets, table cloths and similar items. Thus, Linaspaudžiai means a press for flax, whereas a linen-press is a cabinet for storing linen. This instance of mistranslation distorts the meaning, thus resulting in wrong perception of character names and their living place by child readers.
3.8.2 The Translation of Furniture, Household Goods and Accessories
As previously mentioned, culture–specific items related to furniture, household goods and accessories play a particularly important role in the novel. Mary Norton uses many references to the Victorian era, including furniture and various household goods with which child readers are not 46 familiar. In all there are 58 CSIs in this category, showing that the novel is rich in details which are important in describing the household in past time. As a result, an accurate translation of these culture-specific items is very important, so that the Lithuanian child reader understands the foreign culture. As G te Klingberg states, “building, home furnishings […] are facets of the foreign environment which ought to be retained, if the translation is meant to give a better understanding of this environment” (Klingberg 1986: 36).
Table 3 The Translation of Furniture Items, Household Goods and Accessories
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Musical snuffbox, 42 Muzikinė tabakinė, 45 Localization 2. Cachou box, 154 Dėžutė gaivinamiesiems Localization/Addition žirneliams laikyti, 156 3. Mustard spoon, 19 Šaukštelis, 24 Globalization 4. Scullery, 21 Indauja, 26 Transformation 5. Sitting room, 1 Darbui skirtas kambarys, 8 Partial Mistranslation
Viltaras Alksnėnas uses localization in 40 cases when dealing with this category of CSIs (see Apendix 2D, Table 3 for the full list. “Musical snuffbox” (1) which Lithuanian children are not familiar with, is rendered as “muzikinė tabakinė”. It is probably difficult for the Lithuanian children to imagine what this item looks like, but Mary Norton describes it as being made “of gold filigree” and having “the little bird which fl[ies] out of it” (Norton 1952: 85); she also lists the tunes that it plays. In some cases Alksnėnas uses two strategies when translating one CSI. As Example 2 shows, he uses localization and intratextual addition when translating “cachou box” as “dėžutė gaivinamiesiems žirneliams laikyti”. Although additional information makes the translation long, it explains the item clearly to child readers thus helping them to understand the CSI better. In this category of CSIs addition is used in 12 instances while globalization is used twice, as shown in Example 3, where “mustard spoon” is rendered as “šaukštelis”. “Mustard spoon” implies that it is a special spoon for mustard, whereas Alksnėnas generalizes it by translating the CSI simply as a “spoon”. Ten instances of transformation have been found, as shown in Example 4: “scullery” is translated as “indauja”. “Scullery”, according to Illustrated Oxford Dictionary, is a small kitchen or room at the back of a house for washing dishes. “Indauja”, however, is a dresser; therefore, the meaning is lost as well as the readers’ understanding of the foreign environment. Finally, mistranslation is observed in five instances, for example, “sitting room” (5) is rendered as “darbui skirtas kambarys” even though “sitting room” is meant for relaxation or general use. As a result,
47 this case of mistranslation provides the child readers with false information about the foreign culture.
3.8.3 The Translation of Food Items
Food is important for the Borrowers as a means for survival; therefore, it plays a significant role in the novel. Since the Borrowers eat the same food as human beings, the Lithuanian child readers have a chance to become familiar with British food. However, stealing it from the kitchen upstairs is always described as a challenging task for the miniature people; thus food is cherished a lot. Homily, Arriety’s mother, rebukes her for ruining a potato, “Do you realize […] that your poor father risks his life every time he borrows a potato?” (Norton 1952: 14) In total there are 23 culture- specific food items mentioned in the novel. When translating these CSIs Viltaras Alksnėnas uses a variety of strategies; however, localization is the dominant strategy (see Appendix 2D, Table 5 for the full list).
Table 4 Translation of Food Items
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Tart, 141 Vaisinis pyragas, 143 Localization 2. Egg sauce, 178 Kiaušininis padažas, 178 Localization 3. Muffin, 46 Bandelė, 50 Transformation 4. Sillabub, 46 Pieniškas punšas, 50 Localization/Addition 5. Shinbone, 84 Avienos kulninė, 87 Creation/Localization 6. Fine Old Pale Madeira, 9 “Puikioji senoji madera”, 16 Localization/Omission 7. Crumpet, 46 Pyragėlis, 50 Globalization 8. Pate de foie gras, 21 Pate de foie gras, 26 Preservation
9. Anchovy toast, 45 Skrudintas ančiuvis, 49 Partial Mistranslation
As Examples 1 and 2 show, Viltaras Alksnėnas uses localization 12 times; for instance, when translating “tart” (1) as “vaisinis pyragas” and “egg sauce” (2) as “kiaušininis padažas“. Even though a “tart” may look a bit different than “vaisinis pyragas” since this, according Collins English Dictionary (2003) is “a pastry case often having no top crust, with a sweet filling of fruit, jam, custard, etc.”, both items still mean the same. An “egg sauce” (2) is not a familiar food item for the Lithuanian children. Even though they do not know how it looks or tastes, the translation provides children with new information about the British food tradition. This kind of translation confirms G te Klingberg’s statement that “[i]n translation deletion and change should […] be avoided. The translator should tell what the characters really eat and drink” (Klingberg 1986: 38).
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Unfortunately, not all food items are rendered in a way Klingberg suggests. Alksnėnas uses transformation in five cases, as shown in Example 3. Here, “muffin” is rendered as “bandelė”; whereas this food item is known as “keksiukas” in Lithuania. Further, addition is used twice, as indicated in Example 4: “syllabub” is rendered by an explanation, “pieniškas punšas”. Even though this kind of drink is not common in Lithuania, additional information helps the Lithuanian child readers to understand the CSI. In addition, one instance of creation has been found: “shinbone” (5) is translated as “avienos kulninė”. In the novel, Arriety tells the boy about her father’s uncle who “had a little boat which he rowed round in the stockpot” and “once he was nearly shipwrecked on a chunk of submerged shinbone” (Norton 1952: 84). The word “avienos” is created since it is not mentioned in the source text. Translating “shinbone” just as “kulninė” would not make much sense to child readers; as a result, Alksnėnas creates the word to make the text more understandable. Alksnėnas uses omission once, for instance, “Fine Old Pale Madeira” (6) which Great- Aunt Sophy, a bedridden old lady, often drinks is translated as “Puikioji senoji Madera”, by omitting the word “Pale”. This instance of omission does not cause major problems for the Lithuanian child readers. However, some additional information explaining that it is wine would be helpful for them. Furthermore, globalization is used in three instances, as indicated in Example 7: a “crumpet” is rendered as “pyragėlis”. A “crumpet”, according to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, is “a small flat round cake” which is “not sweet and [is] usually eaten with hot butter”. In this instance Alksnėnas misses a chance to familiarize Lithuanian child readers with the British food. The name of a French product “pâté de foie gras” (8) is preserved in the target text which may confuse the Lithuanian child readers. In the novel, the Borrowers “bathed in a small tureen, which once held pâté de foie gras”. These French words mean nothing to young readers; moreover, Alksnėnas does not indicate that it is a food product. Even though the meaning of this food item is not very important here, a short explanation, as provided in Collins English Dictionary (2003), that this is a smooth paste made from the goose liver, would help the child readers to understand the tradition of British food better. Finally, two cases of partial mistranslation have been found: “anchovy toast” (9) is rendered as “skrudintas ančiuvis” which actually means that it is a backed anchovy. A more suitable translation could be “skrudinta duona su ančiuviais”.
3.8.4 The Translation of Literary and Music References
There are eight references to literature and music in the novel which add a great deal to the perception of English culture at the Victorian era. Arriety has her own library; thus, literature is important to her. The books she reads might arouse curiosity in the Lithuanian child readers.
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However, as can be observed by the following examples, strategic choices used by Viltaras Alksnėnas in this subject category do not always work well.
Table 5 The Translation of Literary and Music References
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Tom Thumb Gazetteer of the “Nykštukų pasaulio Mistranslation World, 102 geografijos vadovas”, 104 2. Clementine, 42 (tune that “Klementina”, 45 Localization snuffbox played)
Four references to literature are mistranslated: for instance, Tom Thumb Gazetteer of the World (1) is rendered as “Nykštukų pasaulio geografijos vadovas”. According to Longman Dictionary, Tom Thumb is “a character in a fairy tale who was only as big as a person’s thumb”; therefore referring to a very small person. Thus, Tom Thumb does not mean “nykštukas” but rather indicates a very small size of a book. The tune “Clementine” (2) is translated as “Klementina”, but this does not mean much to young Lithuanian readers because most of them probably do not know that this refers to, as stated in Oxford Guide, a popular old song in the United States of America. Alksnėnas uses localization to translate the name of a song of the former times. He uses localization four times in this subject category (see Appendix 2D, Table 7 for the full list).
3.8.5 The Translation of Foreign Language References
There are five foreign language references which are translated by preservation. All these cultural references are Spanish and refer to the names of Cuban cigars which are written on the banners, fixed on Arriety’s ceiling.3
Table 6 The Translation of Foreign Language References
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. “Garantizados”, 58 “Garantizados”, 62 Preservation 2. “Superiores”, 58 “Superiores”, 62 Preservation
Viltaras Alksnėnas preserves all the names (see Appendix 2D, Table 8 for the full list) without giving any additional information to the readers. It might be assumed that the words are alien to the Lithuanian as well as the British child readers. On the other hand, the meaning of the words is not
3 I am grateful to Dr. Milda Danytė for explaining the reference 50 very important in the novel since these references are mentioned only briefly.
3.8.6 The Translation of Historical References
There are eight references to historical events mentioned in the novel. Probably the Lithuanian child readers are not familiar with the majority of events that Mary Norton refers to in her novel. However, historical references are quite important because they give insight into some main events in North American history, thus enriching the reader’s knowledge. Unfortunately, Viltaras Alksnėnas does not always render these references.
Table 7 The Translation of Historical References
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. The battle of Waterloo, 9 Vaterlo mūšis, 16 Localization 2. Edwardian hair, 106 Karaliaus Edvardo laikų Localization/Addition šukuosena, 108 3. Cameronian Colors in -, 103 Omission Glasgow Cathedral, 1885, 100
In Example 1, “the battle of Waterloo” is rendered as “Vaterlo mūšis” by localization, which is used five times in this subject category. In the novel, the battle of Waterloo is depicted in the oil painting which hangs in the schoolroom in the manor house. The significance of the historical event to British people makes it important to render the CSI meaningfully. Alksnėnas uses an established translation for the historical event, assuming that most Lithuanian readers are familiar with it. Addition is used twice: for instance, “Edwardian hair” (2) is rendered as “Karaliaus Edvardo laikų šukuosena”. Additional information is necessary in this case because if the phrase were translated literally as “Edvardiški plaukai”, the translation would not make much sense to child readers. Unfortunately, there is a group of historical references that Alksnėnas omits, as in Example 3 (see appendix 2D, Table 9 for the full list). The “Cameronian Colors in Glasgow Cathedral, 1885” is mentioned in Arriety’s diary; however, Alksnėnas omits the whole reference. It can be argued that such historical references are not major events in the history of England; therefore, Alksnėnas omits instead of translating them.
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3.8.7 The Translation of Proverbial Sayings
There are four proverbial sayings mentioned by Mary Norton. They appear in Arriety’s “favorite Bryce’s Tom Thumb Diary and Proverb Book” which includes “a saying for each day of the year” (Norton 1952: 18).
Table 8 The Translation of Proverbial Sayings
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. “Make Hay while the Sun Kalk geležį, kol karšta, 104 Transformation Shines”, 101 2. “Make Not a Toil of your “Vienam vargas, kitam Mistranslation Pleasure”, 101 džiaugsmas”, 104
When dealing with proverbial sayings, Viltaras Alksnėnas uses transformation in two cases; however, he mistranslates the other two sayings. As shown in Example 1, the saying, “Make Hay while the Sun Shines”, is transformed into a well-known Lithuanian one, “Kalk geležį, kol karšta”. The target readers know the saying well; therefore, Alksnėnas renders the source text meaning in an understandable way. On the contrary, the saying, “Make Not a Toil of your Pleasure” (2), is mistranslated as “Vienam vargas, kitam džiaugsmas”. Since it is difficult to find a saying with a similar meaning in Lithuanian, Alksnėnas uses the one with a different meaning, which results in mistranslation.
3.8.8 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items
Out of ten categories into which culture-specific items in this novel can be classified, three have not been brought under discussion since they do not play a significant part for the characterization of the novel. These categories include geographical names, plants and animals as well as units of measurement and currency (see Appendix 2D, Tables 4, 6 and 10 for the full lists). However, in order to show various strategies used by Viltaras Alksnėnas in his translation of these categories, some examples can be analyzed.
Table 9 The Translation of Plants and Currency
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Beechnut, 193 Buki riešutai, 191 Partial Mistranslation 2. The half-crown, 97 Pusė kronos, 101 Localization
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3. The florin, 97 Šilingas, 101 Transformation
A case of mistranslation occurs when Alksnėnas renders “beechnut” (1) as “buki riešutai”. A “beechnut”, according to Collins English Dictionary (2003), is “the small brown triangular edible nut of the beech tree” and an established Lithuanian translation for this, as found in Didysis Anglų- Lietuvių kalbų žodynas, is “buko riešutas”. Even though the Lithuanian child readers may not be aware of this plant, it would make more sense to use the established translation since the word “riešutas” (nut) is clear enough. Alksnėnas uses different strategies when translating currency. As shown in Example 2, “the half-crown” is rendered as “pusė kronos” by the use of localization. However, “the florin” (3) is transformed as “šilingas”. “The half-crown”, according to Collins English Dictionary (2003), is “a British silver or cupronickel coin worth two shillings and a sixpence (now equivalent to 12 ½ p)”. The Lithuanian equivalent is “pusė kronos”; however, this is not used by Lithuanian people and is unfamiliar to young readers. “The florin”, as explained in Collins English Dictionary (2003), is “a former British coin, originally silver and later cupronickel, equivalent to ten (new) pence”. This is transformed as “šilingas”, whereas the Lithuanian equivalent for this is “florinas”. In the novel, these coins are used by the Borrowers as plates: the father uses the half-crown one, while the mother and Arriety eat from the florin ones. Thus, it is important to know how big the coins are in order to understand the meaning of the episode. Unfortunately, the translation of former currency does not communicate the desired meaning to the Lithuanian readers, because they are not familiar with former British coins. It is quite possible, however, that most English-speaking children today would also not know what the coins look like. Next to various categories of culture-specific items examined, there are 14 CSIs in the novel that do not belong into any category discussed. Alksnėnas translates these by using different strategies.
Table 10 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Irish point-to-point, 117 Airijos kliūtinės žirgų lenktynės, Localization/Addition 118 2. Golliwog, 132 Lėlė baidyklė, 134 Globalization 3. Vicar, 15 Vikaras, 22 Transformation 4. Turkish bloomers, 103 Moteriškos sportinės kelnės, 105 Mistranslation
“Irish point-to point” (1), a branch of sports that is not very popular in Lithuania is rendered as “Airijos kliūtinės žirgų lenktynės” in the Lithuanian version. Thus, Alksnėnas uses localization and
53 adds information to make the CSI clear to young readers. Localization has been found five times, whereas addition is used three times (see Appendix 2D, Table 12 for the full list). Further, in Example 2, the “Golliwog” may not be understandable for the young Lithuanian readers because they are not familiar with, as explained in Longman Dictionary, “an old-fashioned child’s toy […] with black face […] and black hair standing out round its head”. In order to communicate the message effectively, Alksnėnas uses globalization and translates this as “lėlė baidyklė”. The next strategy, transformation, is used in five instances: for instance, “vicar” (3), is translated as “vikaras”. “Vicar”, according to Tilde Computer Dictionary, is “a clergyman appointed to act as priest of a parish” in the Church of England. “Vikaras”, on the other hand, as stated in Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, is an assistant of a church dean; thus the meaning differs greatly. Finally, mistranslation occurs three times: “Turkish bloomers” (4) is rendered as “moteriškos sportinės kelnės”. “Bloomers”, as stated in Tilde Computer Dictionary, are “underpants worn by women”; thus the Lithuanian translation is not correct.
3.8.9 Conclusion
Viltaras Alksnėnas uses various strategies when translating culture-specific items in the Lithuanian translation of The Borrowers. According to calculations, localization is the most common strategy used by Alksnėnas which has been found in 125 instances (65.1%) out of 192. This strategy is used in translations of almost all categories of CSIs; however, most often it is used in the translation of character names, furniture items and household goods, plants and animals, food items and geographical names. Transformation is the second most often used strategy by Alksnėnas which is used in the translation of furniture items and household goods, food items and character names. The strategy is used in 27 cases (14.1%). The next strategy, addition, is used in 21 instances (10.9%) and is more frequently observed in the translation of furniture items and household goods as well as references to food and history. Globalization is used in nine instances (4.7%), most often in the translation of food and furniture items. A less commonly used strategy, preservation, has been found in six instances (3.1%), most often in the translation of foreign language references and food items. Omission is rarely used: it has been found in four cases (2.1%) when translating food items and references to history. Creation has been found once (0.5%) in the translation of a food item. Finally, mistranslation occurs in 21 cases (10.9%) and is more frequently noticed when rendering furniture items and household goods as well as references to literature and music.
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4. STATISTICAL INFORMATION ON THE TRANSLATION STRATEGIES USED IN HIT AND RUN, ALONE AT NINETY FOOT, THE BORROWERS AND DOUBLE ACT
The total number of culture-specific items in all four novels analyzed in this thesis is 784. Even though translations of the novels were carried out by four different Lithuanian translators, certain fundamental similarities can be seen in their work: localization proves to be the most commonly used strategy by all of them. Creation, on the other hand, is the least commonly used strategy in the translations of the four novels.
Figure 1 Statistical Information on the Translation Strategies Used in Hit and Run, Alone at Ninety Foot, The Borrowers and Double Act
80.0% 69.3% 70.0% 60.0% 50.0% 40.0% 30.0%
20.0% 12.5% 10.7% 7.5% 10.0% 5.5% 6.6% 2.6% 0.4% 0.0%
n n n n n o n o tion io o tio i o ti at a iss la rvati reati s Addi rm e n s baliz Om C re o stra Localization nsfo P i Gl M Tra
The extent to which localization dominates as a strategy is evident in Figure 1. However, to have a clearer picture, Table 1 provides both numbers of cases and relative percentages for each strategy in each novel. Since a number of the CSIs are translated with the use of more than one strategy, the percentage totals more than 100%.
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Table 1 Statistical Information on the Translation Strategies Used in Hit and Run, Alone at Ninety Foot, The Borrowers and Double Act
Hit and Run Alone at The Double Act Total Ninety Foot Borrowers Total number of 219 239 192 134 784 CSIs Localization 146 (66.7%) 175 (73.2%) 125 (65.1%) 97 (72.4%) 543 (69.3%) Addition 18 (8.2%) 47 (19.7%) 21 (10.9%) 12 (9%) 98 (12.5%) Transformation 23 (10.5%) 19 (7.9%) 27 (14.1%) 15 (11.2%) 84 (10.7%) Preservation 25 (11.4%) 21 (8.8%) 6 (3.1%) 7 (5.2%) 59 (7.5%) Globalization 13 (5.9%) 12 (5%) 9 (4.7%) 9 (6.7%) 43 (5.5%) Omission 9 (4.1%) 3 (1.3%) 4 (2.1%) 4 (3%) 20 (2.6%) Creation 1 (0.5%) - 1 (0.5%) 1 (0.7%) 3 (0.4%) Mistranslation 12 (5.5%) 12 (5%) 21 (10.9%) 7 (5.2%) 52 (6.6%)
According to these figures, localization occurs in 543 instances (69.3%). It can be observed in the translation of all categories of CSIs, though most commonly it is used in the translation of the names of characters, geographical names, plants and animals, food items, references to literature and school as well as units of measurement. In each Lithuanian translation discussed, the number of instances of localization proves to be by far the greatest. Considering the strategies available to a translator, when placed on a scale between foreignization and domestication, localization appears to be somewhere in the middle, although slightly closer to foreignization. This suggests that translations made according to this strategy tend to be neither fully culturally adapted nor left completely foreign for target readers.
Preservation Localization Transformation Creation
Foreignization Domestication Addition Globalization Omission
In other words, by using localization so heavily, a translator can remain fairly close to the source text yet still making the reading of the target text easy for readers. Addition is the second most commonly used strategy, found in 98 cases (12.5%). However, the number of examples of addition differs among the four translators, though, in general, it can be stated that Lithuanian translators often choose to add an extra explanation to clarify a certain CSI that seems important or difficult to them. As a result, the frequent use of addition reminds the readers that the text is foreign. The greatest number of intratextual or extratextual additions is found
56 in Ugnė Vitkutė’s translation of the Canadian novel Alone at Ninety Foot which has 47 (19.7%). Only in Vitkutė’s translation can one find a number of footnotes with extra information about people, literary references or geographical places. Other translators tend to use addition far less and prefer intratextual addition when they do use it. In terms of frequency, the next strategy is transformation, which is used in 84 instances (10.7%). Most often transformation is used in the translation of references to food and the names of characters. It is especially common in Viltaras Alksnėnas’ translation of The Borrowers where it appears 27 times (14.1%), in part because the historical nature of the novel means that there are many CSIs foreign to Lithuanian child readers. The use of transformation shows that a translator is moving towards domestication by finding Lithuanian equivalents of culture-specific items. However, a problem here is that such equivalents are not always well-chosen and may distort the meaning or not convey the effect intended by the original author. For example, in the Lithuanian translation of The Borrowers, Viltaras Alksnėnas translates “decanter” (Norton 1952: 9) as “butelis”, which transforms the meaning and does not reflect the Victorian era properly. As can be seen in Table 1, preservation is used in 59 cases (7.5%). Preservation of foreign references such as brand names, names of institutions and buildings and references to food reminds the reader that the text is foreign. In many cases, however, preservation is used along with intratextual addition which helps child readers to understand certain CSIs. For instance, children can understand that “YM” (Holubitsky 2001: 133) is a magazine (“žurnalas ‘YM’ ”) and that “Doc Martens” (Wilson 1996: 89) is a shoe brand (“ ‘Doc Martens’ batai”). In these cases the effect of the foreign is softened. Viltaras Alksnėnas very rarely uses preservation in his translation because preserving some of the old-fashioned Victorian objects mentioned in this text, which are not used today, would only confuse child readers. Most commonly this strategy is used by Regina Šeškuvienė, appearing 25 times (11.4%) in her translation of Hit and Run. Another strategy, globalization, has been found in 43 (5.5%) cases. Most often globalization is used in the translation of references to food. Since culturally-specific food items, especially those made of several ingredients, are often difficult to translate, translators tend to globalize some of them, usually still succeeding in conveying the general effect. For instance, “custard” (Norton 1952: 194) is translated by Viltaras Alksnėnas as “saldus kremas” without indicating the milk and egg ingredients, which in this case is not really necessary. Besides, explaining the real consistency of custard, as well as the exotic nature of some other food products, could result in the story being overloaded with too many details, thus distracting children’s attention from the plot. Omission is used rarely by all four translators, appearing only in 20 cases (2.6%) in a variety of CSI categories such as character names, food items and historical references. The
57 majority of omissions of CSIs, or parts of them, are not problematic: for instance, “a slice of toast” (McClintock 2003: 42), is translated by Regina Šeškuvienė as “riekė duonos” without indicating that the bread is toasted. Although this instance of omission does not affect the meaning greatly, in other cases omission does result in the loss of important cultural information. For instance, when translating “boot-fair” (Wilson 1996: 7) as “sendaikčių turgus”, Gabija Ryškuvienė omits the fact that here people are selling their goods, as explained in Oxford Guide, “from the backs of their cars”, which is unique to British culture. The greatest number of examples of omission, 9 (4.1%), has been found in Šeškuvienė’s translation of Hit and Run. Creation is the least commonly used strategy by Lithuanian translators; it has been found only 3 times (0.4%) in the translation of references to food. On a scale between foreignization and domestication, creation is the closest to domestication, thus indicating that the Lithuanian translators avoid full cultural adaptation. In addition to Eirlys E. Davies’ seven translation strategies, mistranslation has been noticed in all four works by the Lithuanian translators. Sometimes mistranslation affects the reader’s overall understanding of the story when a sentence or even a whole paragraph makes no sense in relation to the plot. For instance, in a scene in Alone at Ninety Foot where a teacher teaches pupils a dance, Ugnė Vitkutė fails to produce the right equivalent. Katherine Holubitsky creates a humorous effect in this episode: the main character, Pamela, is annoyed watching her teacher waltzing and refuses to believe that he is multitalented. She says, “Who does he think he is? If he starts to moonwalk, I’m out of here” (Holubitsky 2001: 19). Ugnė Vitkutė’s translation is, “jei ims čia vaidinti pasivaikščiojimą po Mėnulį, aš dingsiu”. Vitkutė misses the reference to Michael Jackson; therefore, not only is the humorous effect lost, but also the whole sentence does not make any real sense (“Dance Moves – moonwalk and more” 2002). Mistranslation has been noticed in 52 instances (6.6%), most often in Viltaras Alksnėnas’ translation of The Borrowers. The frequent use of localization and low use of globalization, omission, transformation and creation implies that Lithuanian translators are faithful to the original texts. Even though there are cases of mistranslation, they do not influence the overall effect created by the original authors and the meaning of the novels is still conveyed. As Riitta Oittinen states, “[w]hen a text lives on in the target-language” meaning that “it is accepted and loved through the translation, the translator of such a text has achieved loyalty to the author of the original” (Oittinen 2000: 84). The four translations are easy and interesting to read and are informative as well as entertaining, thus proving faithfulness to the original authors.
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5. CONCLUSION
Considering that translation of children’s literature in general arouses discussion among translation specialists such as G te Klingberg and Eirlys E. Davies, it is not surprising that there is no unanimous opinion about how to treat culture-specific items in children’s literature. The main concern, however, is whether to keep translation closer to foreignization or move towards domestication, using the terms introduced by Lawrence Venuti. In this thesis the application of Davies’ terms for seven strategies commonly used by translators for cultural references allows generalizations to be made, as well as comparisons among the four Lithuanian translations. Further, classifying CSIs according to their subject matter helps to clarify which categories are more significant than others for the plot, themes and characterization of the novels. Given that all the novels depict lives of children and adolescents, there are many categories that can be found in two, three or even all four novels. Since the number of CSIs differs in all categories and some of the novels include categories that cannot be found in the others, it is difficult to be precise in distinguishing the categories of CSIs for which certain strategies are more commonly used. Still, some conclusions can be drawn. The completion of statistical information on the strategic choices made in the four translations reveals that localization is the most commonly used strategy by the four translators, whereas the least commonly used strategy proves to be creation. According to calculations, the strategy of localization is used 69.3% of all cases. Even though this strategy can be noticed in the translation of almost all categories of CSIs, most often it is used when rendering the names of characters, geographical names, plants and animals, food items, references to literature and school as well as units of measurement. The next strategy in terms of frequency is addition which occurs 12.5% of the time. Most often this strategy appears in the translation of references to food and school, as well as for the names of institutions and buildings. These Lithuanian translators tend to use intratextual addition, whereas extratextual addition is only found in Ugnė Vitkutė’s translation of Alone at Ninety Foot. Transformation comprises 10.7% of all cases and is the third most commonly used strategy. Even though it is used in a variety of categories, transformation is more frequently observed in the translation of names of characters and references to food. A less frequently used strategy is preservation, which totals 7.5%. Most often it is observed in rendering brand names, names of institutions and buildings and references to food. Another strategy, globalization, is used even less and comprises 5.5%. This strategy occurs in various categories of CSIs; however, globalization of food items is clearly noticeable in all four translations. These Lithuanian translators rarely use omission: it appears in only 2.6% of the cases in the
59 translation of character names, food items and historical references. The last strategy, creation, is used very rarely (0.4%) when rendering food items. In addition to Davies’ seven translation strategies, mistranslation has also been noticed in different categories of CSIs and forms 6.6%; it is more frequent when rendering food items, references to school and literary references. The analysis of the strategic choices of these Lithuanian translators leads to the conclusion that they tend to slightly foreignize their translations because of their heavy use of localization. On the other hand, this implies that the Lithuanian versions are neither fully culturally adapted nor left completely foreign. The use of such strategies as addition and preservation reminds young readers that the text is foreign and provides them with certain information about British and Canadian cultures. However, strategies such as globalization, omission, transformation and creation often make the four novels easier to understand, in turn allowing young readers to enjoy the novels. Therefore, it can be seen that Lithuanian translators tend to retain the informative function as well as the desire to entertain. Even though there are quite a few instances of translations errors found in all four novels, they cause only momentary confusion and do not affect the plot or general meaning of the novels to a great extent. Finally, the strategic choices analyzed also suggest that, in general, Lithuanian translators tend to be loyal to the authors of the novels discussed, since their translations convey the intended meaning and effect by the original English language authors.
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6. APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Plot Summaries of the Four Novels
Katherine Holubitsky, Alone at Ninety Foot
Pamela Mary Collins, a fourteen-year-old Canadian girl living in British Columbia, has trouble coping with her baby sister’s death when, just a little later, her mother commits suicide. Now Pamela feels different from her classmates: she is lonely and finds it difficult to have friends because no one can really understand her pain. Moreover, she spends a great deal of time alone at the gorge in Lynn Canyon because this is the only place where she finds peace. This is also the place where Pamela and her mother used to take long walks and observe nature, and, paradoxically, where her mother committed suicide. The loss of her mother affects Pamela greatly: she cannot make her mind up about her future life and is afraid to make decisions without her mother; therefore, she feels a deep inner turmoil. Her father is now dating his third girlfriend since his wife’s death, a banker named Jenn. Pamela does not like her at first; however, after some time she finds Jenn trustworthy. Besides, they have common interests: they both admire the paintings of a Canadian artist and writer, Emily Carr. Then a tragic event in which a neighbor’s daughter is lost in the canyon shakes Pamela and makes her understand that many people can be victims of Lynn Canyon. Later, too, Pamela is cheered by her father’s idea of buying her a puppy which becomes a great companion for her walks in the canyon and provides an excuse for a boy she likes to approach her. Finally, when one of Pamela’s classmates makes insulting remarks about her mother and her, Pamela stands up for herself and then has a more open conversation with her father, which makes both of them feel better. Gradually, Pamela finds her way to inner peace surrounded by people whom she trusts.
Norah McClintock, Hit and Run
A fifteen-year-old Canadian boy, Mike, lives in Toronto with his uncle after his mother, Nancy, died in a car accident four years ago. His uncle Billy, who is only ten years older and who works as a garage mechanic, prefers partying rather than ensuring that there is food at home. Mike, on the other hand, is working part-time at a grocery store and even asks the owner for more hours in order to earn more money. However, Mike skips classes and does not do his homework because he sees no reason to study. This problem is followed by a more serious one where Mike is caught stealing goods from a bakery truck. As a result, his problematic behavior makes Mike’s history teacher, Riel, worry about him. Soon Mike finds out that Riel is a former police officer who investigated his
61 mother’s accident. After some conversations with Riel, Mike starts doubting that his mother’s death was just an accident. Consequently, Riel offers Mike help in finding out what really happened to his mother. This evokes a strange reaction in Billy who insists on forgetting about the case. Later, after Billy confesses that he took apart the car that killed Nancy without knowing that it was the same car, he is found dead at home. Further, Billy’s friends, Dan and Lew, offer that Mike spend few days at their place where he finds evidence proving that they were involved in a robbery at Mr. Juhn’s place where Nancy worked as an accountant, and are guilty of his murder. Seconds before Riel finds Mike in Dan and Lew’s garage, they confess to Mike about killing her mother in a hit and run incident because she saw the same evidence. Finally, after the case is solved, Riel becomes Mike’s foster parent.
Jacqueline Wilson, Double Act
Ruby and Garnet, ten-year-old British identical twin girls live with their father and grandmother since their mother is dead. Even though the twins are very close, they are very different in character and have different interests: Garnet likes to read old books while Ruby dreams of becoming a movie star. Ruby is the dominating twin, always dictating to Garnet what to do. Garnet, on the opposite, is quiet and often does not get a chance to express her own opinion because she usually acts according to Ruby’s commands. Their lives are shaken by the fact that, several years after the death of their mother, their father is dating a woman named Rose. The twins revolt against Rose by acting rude to her. Later, after the twins’ father loses his job, they all move to a new living place while the grandmother moves elsewhere. The twins, however, are not happy with their new home: they are not excited about their father’s bookshop, nor about their new school. One day Ruby reads an advertisement which invites twin girls to take part in a television serial. Despite Garnet’s unwillingness, the twins secretly go to London for the audition where Garnet fails to show any acting abilities. A major crisis in the story takes place when Garnet gets the chance to leave Ruby and attend an upper-class boarding school, Marnock Heights. At this point the twins have a major argument which is resolved just before Garnet leaves.
Mary Norton, The Borrowers
The story takes place in late 19th and early 20th century England, depicting the lives of the miniature people, the Borrowers, who live under the floor of an English manor. The manor house, once full of people, is now almost empty with only few human beings living in it. For the Borrowers the only way to survive is to “borrow” various household goods and adapt them to their needs. A thirteen- year-old girl, the Borrower Arriety, who lives together with her mother and father, is not allowed to go upstairs because she could be seen by human beings. Once, Pod, Arriety’s father, comes back 62 from his borrowing trip terrified that he was seen by a boy who is temporarily staying at the house. After some time, however, Pod takes Arriety for her first borrowing trip where she is also seen by the boy. Arriety becomes friends with the boy who later brings her family various goods from a doll’s house. After Mrs. Driver, the cook, understands where the goods are disappearing, she calls the rat catcher, meaning that the Borrowers have to flee the manor house. However, the boy breaks a grating for them to escape.
Appendix 2: Culture-specific Items in the Four Novels and in Their Lithuanian Translations
Appendix 2A: Culture-specific Items in Katherine Holubitsky’s Alone at Ninety Foot and in the Translation by Ugnė Vitkutė
Table 1 The Translation of the Names of Characters
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. April, 5 Aprilė, 10 Low Localization 2. Lilly, 96 Lilė, 88 Low Localization 3. Lynette, 35 Linetė, 35 Low Localization 4. Marie, 80 Marija, 75 Low Localization 5. Susie, 137 Siuzana, 121 Low Localization 6. Pamela Mary Collins, 1 Pamela Merė Kolins, 7 Low Localization 7. Joanne Robertson, 9 Džoana Robertson, 14 Low Localization 8. Shauna Whittaker, 20 Šona Viteiker, 23 Low Localization 9. Darla Miller, 20 Darla Miler, 24 Low Localization 10. Mandeep Gill, 25 Mandipa Džil, 28 Low Localization 11. Sarah McMurtry, 28 Sara Makmatri, 30 Low Localization 12. Linda Yip, 31 Linda Jip, 32 Low Localization 13. Danielle Higgins, 9 Danielė Higins, 14 Low Localization 14. Krissy Marshall, 45 Krisė Maršal, 44 Low Localization 15. Jennifer Reid, 34 Dženiferė Reid, 35 Low Localization 16. Mrs. Dalrymple, 18 Ponia Dalrimpl, 22 Low Localization 17. Ms. Turner, 19 Panelė Terner, 23 Low Localization 18. Mrs. Lofts, 20 Ponia Lofts, 24 Low Localization 19. Ms. Lazarenko, 40 Panelė Lazarenko, 40 Low Localization 20. Mrs. Zimmerman, 61 Ponia Zimerman, 58 Low Localization 21. Mrs. Grewal, 119 Ponia Griuval, 107 Low Localization 22. Nana Jean, 16 Močiutė Džina, 20 Low Localization 23. Aunt Andrea, 96 Teta Andrėja, 88 Low Localization 24. Wilson, 54 Vilsonas, 60 Low Localization 25. Steve, 72 Styvas, 67 Low Localization 26. Ben, 74 Benas, 69 Low Localization 63
27. Devon, 97 Devonas, 88 Low Localization 28. Richard, 103 Ričardas,94 Low Localization 29. Ken,103 Kenas, 94 Low Localization 30. Carl Jenkins, 10 Karlas Dženkinsas, 15 Low Localization 31. John Robbel, 20 Džonas Robelis, 23 Low Localization 32. Danny Kim, 20 Denis Kimas, 23 Low Localization 33. Tony Lasserman, 31 Tonis Lesermenas, 32 Low Localization 34. Danny Kim, 31 Denis Kimas, 32 Low Localization 35. Mike Ortega, 31 Maikas Ortega, 32 Low Localization 36. Matt Leighton, 47 Metas Leitonas, 46 Low Localization 37. Ben Bremnar, 81 Benas Bremnaras, 76 Low Localization 38. Randy Carlyle, 95 Rendis Karlailas, 86 Low Localization 39. Justin Randall, 109 Džastinas Rendelas, 98 Low Localization 40. Rudy Lantz, 115 Rudis Lanzas, 104 Low Localization 41. Landon Farquharson, 58 Lendonas Farkuharsonas, 55 Low Localization 42. Shakespeare, 9 Šekspyras, 14 Low Localization 43. Freddy Krueger, 110 Fredis Kriugeris, 99 Low Localization 44. Mr. Bartell, 1 Ponas Bartelis, 7 Low Localization 45. Mr. Spinelli, 83 Ponas Spinelis, 77 Low Localization 46. Mr. Overhand, 70 Ponas Overhendas, 65 Low Localization 47. Mr. Robertson, 72 Ponas Robertsonas, 67 Low Localization 48. Mr. Cruikshank, 118 Ponas Krikšankas, 107 Low Localization 49. Mr. Jones, 119 Ponas Džonsas, 107 Low Localization 50. Uncle Sean, 96 Dėdė Šonas, 88 Low Localization 51. Uncle Nick, 96 Dėdė Nikas, 88 Low Localization 52. The Adlers, 72 Adleriai, 67 Low Localization 53. Swat (dog’s name), 48 Svotas, 46 Low Localization 54. Lupus (dog’s name), 83 Lupusas, 77 Low Localization 55. Carol Sanchez, 30 Karolina Sančez, 32 Low Localization/Addition 56. Emily Carr, 3 Emilija Kar, 9 Low Localization/Addition 57. Robert Frost, 19 Robertas Frostas, 23 Low Localization/Addition 58. Matt Damon, 22 Metas Deimonas, 26 Low Localization/Addition 59. Dennis Rodman, 26 Denisas Rodmenas, 28 Low Localization/Addition 60. Jason Priestly, 55 Džeisonas Pristlis, 53 Low Localization/Addition 61. Leonardo diCaprio, 72 Leonardas Di Kaprijus, 68 Low Localization/Addition 62. Jakob Dylan, 143 Džekobas Dylanas, 127 Low Localization/Addition 63. Prince (cat’s name), 41 Katinas Princas, 41 Low Localization/Addition 64. Mr. Bean, 19 Kaip karvė ant ledo, 23 Omission/Transformation 65. Mr. Clean, 123 Ponas teisuolis, 111 Transformation 66. B.B. (dog’s name), 124 Bėbė, 111 Transformation 67. Wally the Whiz, 40 Proto Gumbas, 40 Transformation
Table 2 The Translation of Geographical Names
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Cates Park, 7 Keitso parkas, 13 Localization 2. Lynn Canyon Park, 2 Lino kanjono parkas, 8 Localization 3. Lynn Creek, 2 Lino upokšnis, 7 Localization 4. Atlantic Ocean, 7 Atlanto vandenynas, 12 Localization 64
5. The Capilano River, 64 Kapilano upė, 60 Localization 6. Knoxville, 7 Noksvilis, 12 Localization 7. Florida, 7 Florida, 12 Localization 8. Paris, 65 Paryžius, 61 Localization 9. State of Montana, 72 Montanos valstija, 67 Localization 10. Saudi Arabia, 104 Saudo Arabija, 94 Localization 11. Germany, 104 Vokietija, 94 Localization 12. Japan, 104 Japonija, 94 Localization 13. Richmond, 124 Ričmondas, 111 Localization 14. Vancouver, 2 Vankuveris, 8 Localization 15. Sanibel Island, 7 Sanibelo sala, 12 Localization 16. Granville Island, 79 Grenvilio sala, 73 Localization 17. Ucluelet (district), 90 Uklueletas, 90 Localization 18. Okanagan (valley), 90 Okanaganas, 83 Localization 19. Lynn Canyon, 2 Lino kanjonas, 7 Localization 20. Burrad Inlet, 80 Burardo įlanka, 74 Localization 21. Lynn peak, 51 Lino viršūnė, 49 Localization 22. Port Coquitlam, 98 Kokvitlemo uostas, 89 Localization 23. Ross Road, 83 Roso kelias, 77 Localization 24. Borneo, 22 Borneo, 26 Localization 25. Tennessee, 7 Tenesio valstija, 12 Localization/Addition 26. Lonsdale, 80 Lonsdeilo slėnis, 75 Localization/Addition 27. Hoskins, 90 Hoskinso kelias, 83 Localization/Addition 28. British Columbia, 51 Britų Kolumbija, 49 Localization/Addition 29. Medicine Hat, 7 Medisin Hetas, 12 Low Localization/Addition 30. Pacific, 7 Ramusis vandenynas, 12 High Localization/Addition 31. The Lions, 80 Liūtų upė, 74 High Localization/Addition 32. Lighthouse Park, 8 Švyturio parkas, 13 High Localization 33. Red Rock Park, 7 Raudonosios Uolos parkas, 12 High Localization 34. The Lost Sea, 7 Prarastoji jūra, 12 High Localization 35. North Shore, 80 Šiaurinė pakrantė, 74 High Localization 36. Horseshoe Bay, 36 Pasagos įlanka, 36 High Localization 37. Marine Drive, 35 Pajūrio kelias, 36 High Localization 38. Mountain Highway, 90 Kalnų greitkelis, 83 High Localization 39. Ninety Foot, Title page Devyniasdešimt Pėdų Transformation tvenkinys, Title page 40. Mount Seymour, 46 Seimoro kalnai, 44 Transformation 41. Grouse Mountain, 80 Tetervino kalnas, 75 Transformation
Table 3 The Translation of Plants and Animals
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Douglas fir, 6 Didieji pocūgiai, 11 Localization 2. Root licorice, 6 Saldymedžio šaknis, 11 Localization 3. Wild holly, 6 Laukinis bugienis, 11 Localization 4. Junipers, 94 Kadagiai, 86 Localization 5. Cedar, 6 Kedras, 11 Localization 6. Grizzlies, 56 Pilkieji lokiai, 55 Localization 7. Cougar, 46 Puma, 44 Localization 65
8. Gull, 56 Kiras, 53 Localization 9. Gazelle, 87 Gazelė, 81 Localization 10. Mollusk, 126 Moliuskas, 113 Localization 11. Skunk, 6 Skunkas, 11 Localization 12. Spruce, 11 Kanadinė eglė, 16 Localization/Addition 13. Basset hound, 121 Basetų veislė, 109 Localization/Addition 14. Yellow skunk cabbage, 6 Skunko kopūstai, 11 Omission/Localization 15. Cottonwood, 169 Tuopa, 148 Globalization 16. Lady-slipper, 11 Orchidėja, 16 Globalization 17. Arbutus leaf, 8 Viržio lapas, 13 Transformation 18. Salmon berries, 6 Avietės, 11 Transformation 19. Vine maple, 9 Vijokliai, 14 Transformation 20. Sand dollar, 7 Jūrų ežys, 13 Transformation 21. Vulture, 46 Maitvanagis, 44 Transformation
Table 4 The Translation of Food Items
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001 1. Blintzes stuffed with cheese, Lietiniai su sūriu, 67 Localization 72 2. Punch, 149 Punšas, 132 Localization 3. Pop, 153 Limonadas, 136 Localization 4. Mango salad, 39 Mangų mišrainė, 39 Localization 5. Raisin pudding, 15 Razinų pyragas, 19 Localization 6. Maui ribs, 72 Havajietiški šonkauliukai, 67 Localization/Addition 7. Apple crisp, 100 Traškus obuolių pyragas, 91 Localization/Addition 8. Chips, 58 Bulvių traškučiai, 55 Localization/Addition 9. Pumpkin-pecan cake, 90 Moliūgų ir riešutų pyragas, 83 Localization/Globalization 10. Fish and chips, 36 Žuvis su skrudintom bulvėm, Globalization/Localization 36 11. Nuts’ n’ Bolts, 58 Nuts’ n’Bolts, 55 Preservation 12. Tiramisu, 42 Tiramisu, 41 Preservation/Addition 13. Pringles, 143 Pringles traškučiai, 127 Preservation/Addition 14. Kahlua, 10 Kahlua likeris, 14 Preservation/Addition 15. Nachos, 111 Meksikietiški kukurūzų Addition/Globalization traškučiai, 100 16. Cheezies, 58 Sūrio traškučiai, 55 Globalization 17. Chili, 35 Pupelių ir mėsos troškinys, 36 Globalization 18. Pepperoni, 153 Pipirinė dešra, 135 Globalization 19. Marshmallows, 72 Zefyrai, 67 Transformation 20. Orange crush, 10 Apelsinų sultys, 14 Transformation 21. Hamburger Helper, 65 Mėsainis, 61 Mistranslation 22. Whiskey and soda, 35 Viskis su soda, 35 Partial Mistranslation 23. Pink hamburger, 27 Rausvas mėsainis, 29 Partial Mistranslation
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Table 5 The Translation of Literary and Art References
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Piggy, 48 Pigis, 47 Localization 2. Dracula, 55 Drakula, 52 Localization 3. Family Circus (Cartoon), “Šeimyninis cirkas”, 124 Localization 140 4. Bizarro (Cartoon), 140 “Keistenybės”, 124 Localization 5. FoxTrot (Cartoon), 140 “Fokstrotas”, 124 Localization 6. Overboard (Cartoon), 140 “Už borto”, 124 Localization 7. Group of Seven, 86 Septynių grupė, 80 Localization 8. “Mountain forest”(Emily “Kalnų giria”, 49 Localization Carr’s painting), 51 9. Lord of the Flies, 9 “Musių valdovas”, 13 Localization/Addition 10. Anne of Green Gables (Lucy “Ana iš Žaliastogių”, 48 Localization/Addition Maud Montgomery’s book), 50 11. The Vancouver Sun, 139 Laikraštis “Vankuverio saulė”, Localization/Addition 123 12. YM, 133 Žurnalas YM, 118 Preservation/Addition 13. Cosmo, 77 Žurnalo Cosmopolitan viršeliai, Addition 72
Table 6 The Translation of Names of Institutions and Buildings
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Hotel Vancouver, 175 “Vankuverio” viešbutis, 152 Localization 2. Troll’s, 36 Trolio užeiga, 36 Localization/Addition 3. Argyle, 47 Argailio mokykla, 46 Localization/Addition 4. The Art Galery, 79 Meno galerija, 74 Localization 5. Elementary school, 95 Pradinė mokykla, 86 Localization 6. Park Royal Shopping Centre, Karališkojo parko parduotuvių High Localization 77 pasažas, 71 7. The Winter club, 90 Žiemos klubas, 83 High Localization 8. Earl’s, 78 “Grafo” restoranas, 73 High Localization/Addition 9. Westview Safeway, 47 Westview Safeway, 46 Preservation 10. Fairweather’s, 12 Firmos Fairweather skyrius, Preservation/Addition 16 11. Bishop’s, 65 Bishop’s restoranas, 61 Preservation/Addition 12. Holt Renfrew, 153 Holt Renfrew parduotuvė, 135 Preservation/Addition 13. Boutique on Robson, 153 Robson universalinės Preservation/ parduotuvės brangių moteriškų Transformation drabužių skyrius, 135 14. United Church, 120 Bažnyčia, 108 Globalization 15. Junior high, 64 Pagrindinė mokykla, 60 Mistranslation 16. Senior high, 73 Aukštoji mokykla, 68 Mistranslation
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Table 7 The Translation of Units of Measurement
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Quarter-mile, 2 Ketvirtis mylios, 8 Low Localization 2. Ninety feet, 2 Devyniasdešimt pėdų, 7 Low Localization 3. Thousand miles, 3 Tūkstantis mylių, 8 Low Localization 4. Billion dollars, 6 Milijardas dolerių, 11 Low Localization 5. Twelve-inch, 13 Dvylika colių, 18 Low Localization 6. Nineteen miles, 46 Devyniolika mylių, 45 Low Localization 7. Forty feet, 49 Keturiasdešimt pėdų, 47 Low Localization 8. Twenty yards, 56 Dvidešimt jardų, 53 Low Localization 9. A hundred and sixty feet, 29 Šimtas šešiasdešimt pėdų, 31 Low Localization/Addition 10. Five-foot-two, 85 Metras penkiasdešimt septyni, High Localization 78 11. Six inches, 90 Penkiolika centimetrų, 83 High Localization 12. Twenty-mile, 14 - , 18 Omission
Table 8 The Translation of References to School
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. The Debate Club, 61 Diskusijų klubas, 57 Localization 2. Girl Guide troop, 72 Skaučių būrys, 67 Localization 3. English class, 1 Anglų kalbos ir literatūros Localization/Addition pamoka, 7 4. French, 28 Prancūzų kalbos pamoka, 30 Localization/Addition 5. English, 8 Anglų pamoka, 13 Localization/Addition 6. Homeroom, 84 Klasė, 78 Globalization 7. Social dance, 15 Pramoginių šokių pamoka, 19 Transformation 8. Social studies, 70 Visuomenės mokslai, 65 Transformation 9. Ninety-five percent (mark), Devyniasdešimt penki balai, Partial Mistranslation 70 65 10. Fifteen percent, 70 Penkiolika balų, 66 Partial Mistranslation 11. Report card, 16 Baigimo diplomas, 19 Mistranslation
Table 9 The Translation of Brand Names
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Nike, 148 Nike, 131 Preservation 2. Toyota, 149 Toyota, 131 Preservation 3. MG sports car, 35 MG sportinis automobilis, 36 Preservation/Localization 4. Kleenex, 15 Vienkartinės Kleenex Preservation/Addition servetėlės, 19 5. Paper-Mate, 113 Rašiklis su užrašu Addition/Preservation Paper-Mate, 102
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Table 10 The Translation of References to Music and Dancing
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Vancouver Symphony Vankuverio simfoninis Localization Orchestra, 85 orkestras, 79 2. “California Dreamin” “Kalifornijos sapnas”, 66 Localization (a song), 71 3. Swing, 130 Svingas, 116 Localization 4. Fox trot, 156 Fokstrotas, 137 Localization 5. Cha-cha, 156 Ča ča, 137 Localization 6. Tango, 156 Tango, 138 Localization 7. Polka, 156 Polka, 138 Localization 8. Metallica, 156 Metallica, 137 Preservation 9. Red Hot Chili Peppers, 156 Red Hot Chili Peppers, 137 Preservation 10. Radiohead, 156 Radiohead, 137 Preservation 11. The Wallflowers, 116 Grupė The Wallflowers, 104 Preservation/Addition 12. Moonwalk (a kind of dance Pasivaikščiojimas po mėnulį, Mistranslation step), 19 23 13. The box step (a kind of Bokso žingsniai, 26 Mistranslation dance step), 22
Table 11 The Translation of Games
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. Pool, 150 Biliardas, 133 Localization 2. Pictionary, 59 Pictionary, 56 Preservation 3. Balderdash, 59 Balderdash, 56 Preservation 4. Twister, 143 Domino, 127 Mistranslation
Table 12 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items
Katherine Holubitsky (ENG) Ugnė Vitkutė (LT) 2002 Strategy 2001
1. SIDS (Disease), 5 SKMS, 11 Localization 2. UFO, 21 Ufonautai, 23 Localization 3. Lordy, lordy, guess who’s Nejau, nejau tau Localization forty? 40 keturiasdešimt jau? 40 4. Bucks, 77 Doleriai, 72 Localization 5. Night of the Living Dead, Filmas “Gyvų numirėlių Localization/Addition 117 naktis”, 106 6. Block party, 75 Vakarėlis mūsų rajone, 70 Localization/Addition 7. Dreadlocks, 94 Susuktos juodaodžių kasytės, Addition 86 8. Barbecue, 72 Vakarėlis, kurio metu kepdavo Addition mėsą ant rėmo, 67 9. Hip waders, 123 Žvejo batai, 110 Globalization 69
10. Bush party, 10 Pasilinksminti, 14 Globalization 11. Bean bag, 10 Plastiko rutuliukų pagalvėlė, Transformation 15 12. The world is our oyster, 85 Ateitis mūsų rankose, 78 Transformation 13. One foot on the banana Bėgo kiškis per dirvoną ir Mistranslation peel... 40 palindo po sijonu, 40
Appendix 2B: Culture-specific Items in Norah McClintock’s Hit and Run and in the Translation by Regina Šeškuvienė
Table 1 The Translation of the Names of Characters
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Billy, 1 Bilis, 7 Low Localization 2. Vin, 1 Vinas, 7 Low Localization 3. Mikey, 3 Mikis, 10 Low Localization 4. Sal, 9 Selas, 16 Low Localization 5. Frank, 11 Frenkas, 18 Low Localization 6. Michael, 14 Maiklas, 23 Low Localization 7. Mike, 15 Maikas, 23 Low Localization 8. Robert, 26 Robertas, 37 Low Localization 9. Tom, 29 Tomas, 41 Low Localization 10. Steve, 29 Styvas, 41 Low Localization 11. Stephen, 29 Styvenas, 41 Low Localization 12. Patrick, 41 Patrikas, 55 Low Localization 13. John, 62 Džonas, 80 Low Localization 14. Gus, 69 Gasas, 89 Low Localization 15. Barrie, 195 Beris, 240 Low Localization 16. Jonesy, 183 Džonsis, 227 Low Localization 17. Rembrandt, 127 Rembrantas, 159 Low Localization 18. Einstein, 129 Einšteinas, 161 Low Localization 19. Vin–Vincent-Taglia, 10 Vinas-Vincentas Taglija, 17 Low Localization 20. Salvatore San Miguel, 10 Salvatoras San Migelis, 17 Low Localization 21. Dan Collins, 23 Denas Kolinsas, 32 Low Localization 22. Lew Rhodes, 23 Lū Rodesas, 32 Low Localization 23. Thomas Manelli, 31 Tomasas Manelis, 42 Low Localization 24. Conan O’Brien, 160 Konanas O’Brajanas, 199 Low Localization 25. William James Wyatt, 188 Viljamas Džeimsas Vajetas, Low Localization 233 26. Barry Bonds, 217 Beris Bondsas, 268 Low Localization 27. Arthur Sullivan, 228 Arturas Sulivanas, 278 Low Localization 28. Mister Riel, 5 Ponas Rylis, 11 Low Localization 29. Mr. Scorza, 8 Ponas Skorza, 15 Low Localization 30. Mr. Morrison, 35 Ponas Morisonas, 47 Low Localization 21. Mr. Gianneris, 35 Ponas Džianeris, 47 Low Localization 32. Detective London, 175 Detektyvas Londonas, 217 Low Localization 33. Detective Jones, 175 Detektyvas Džonsas, 217 Low Localization 70
34. Constable Carlson, 59 Konsteblis Karlsonas, 77 Low Localization 35. Constable Torelli, 59 Konsteblis Torelis, 77 Low Localization 36. Kathy, 3 Keitė, 10 Low Localization 37. Jen, 12 Džena, 19 Low Localization 38. Nancy, 27 Nensė, 37 Low Localization 39. Maria, 35 Marija, 48 Low Localization 40. Melinda, 124 Melinda, 155 Low Localization 41. Carla, 45 Karla, 59 Low Localization 42. Eileen, 80 Eilyna, 101 Low Localization 43. Melissa, 80 Melisa, 101 Low Localization 44. Martha Stewart, 75 Marta Stiuart, 95 Low Localization 45. Margaret Phillips, 189 Margaret Filips, 233 Low Localization 46. Marilyn Monroe, 23 Merlina Monro, 33 Low Localization 47. Mrs. Hayes, 12 Ponia Heis, 19 Low Localization 48. Mrs. Jhun, 13 Ponia Džūn, 20 Low Localization 49. Ms Rather, 44 Ponia Rater, 58 Low Localization 50. Mrs. McNab, 110 Ponia Maknab, 138 Low Localization 51. Dr. Susan Thomas, 232 Daktarė Siuzana Tomas, 287 Low Localization 52. Mr. McGill, 5 Ponaitis Makgilas, 11 High Localization 53. Tommy, 31 Tomukas, 43 High Localization 54. Johnny, 224 Joniukas, 277 High Localization 55. Alomar, 2 Beisbolo žaidėjas Alomaras, 9 Localization/Addition 56. Bart Simpson, 220 Simpsonai, 270 Globalization
Table 2 The Translation of Food Items
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. A doughnut, 17 Spurga, 26 Localization 2. Chocolate milk, 17 Šokoladinis pienas, 26 Localization 3. Burger, 17 Mėsainis, 26 Localization 4. Parmesan cheese, 19 Parmezano sūris, 28 Localization 5. Cupcakes, 18 Keksiukai, 27 Localization 6. Sugar pops, 20 Saldūs kukurūzai, 29 Localization 7. Chicken fingers, 25 Vištienos piršteliai, 36 Localization 8. Apple pie, 42 Obuolių pyragas, 57 Localization 9. Broccoli, 53 Brokoliai, 69 Localization 10. Coke, 55 Kola, 71 Localization 11. Walnut cakes, 26 Graikinių riešutų pyragėliai, Localization 36 12. Hot dogs, 42 Dešrelės, 56 Localization 13. Granola, 98 Javainiai, 123 Localization 14. Lemon cakes, 55 Citrininiai pyragai, 72 Localization 15. Miniature apple pies, 55 Mažulyčiai pyragėliai su Localization obuoliais, 72 16. Miniature cherry pies, 55 Mažulyčiai pyragėliai su Localization vyšniomis, 72 17. Sugary cereals, 98 Saldūs dribsniai, 123 Localization 18. Meatloaf, 51 Netikras zuikis, 67 High Localization 19. Chips and dip, 125 Bulviniai traškučiai su padažu, Localization/Addition 71
156 20. Brownies, 55 Šokoladiniai pyragėliai, 72 Localization/Addition 21. Wontons, 25 Virtiniai su mėsa, 36 Localization/Addition 22. A slice of toast, 42 Riekė duonos, 57 Localization/Omission 23. Chocolate-coated chocolate Šokoladiniai pyragai glaistyti Localization/Creation cakes with cream inside, 55 šokoladu ir pertepti šokoladiniu kremu, 72 24. Crackers, 110 Traškūs sausainukai, 138 Globalization 25. Big Mac and fries, 8 Didelis mėsainis su bulvytėm, Globalization 14 26. Beefaroni, 18 Makaronai su jautiena, 26 Globalization 27. Pork chops, 18 Kiauliena, 27 Globalization 28. Baked beans, 19 Troškintos pupelės, 28 Globalization 29. Soda, 107 “Nori ko atsigerti?”, 134 Globalization 30. Single-serving apple pies, 57 Maži pyragėliai su obuoliais, Transformation 74 31. Dried spaghetti, 20 Sausi spagečiai, 29 Transformation 32. Lemon tarts, 55 Citrininiai tortai, 72 Transformation 33. Butter tarts, 55 Sviestiniai tortai, 72 Transformation 34. Egg rolls, 25 Įdaryti kiaušiniai, 36 Transformation 35. Angel food cake and devil’s Pyragaičiai su juodu ir baltu Transformation food cake, 55 glaistu, 72 36. Peanut butter, 20 Šokoladinis sviestas, 29 Transformation Peanut butter, 163 Šokoladinis riešutų sviestas, Transformation 202 37. Coleslaw, 42 Rauginti kopūstai, 56 Transformation 38. Coffee cakes, 55 Keksai, 72 Transformation 39. Meat sauce, 20 Troškinta mėsa, 29 Transformation 40. Meat patty, 173 Pyragėlis su mėsa, 214 Transformation
41. Chocolate chip cookies, 55 Šokoladiniai sausainukai, 72 Transformation 42. Root beer, 9 Alus, 16 Mistranslation 43. Pop, 98 Kukurūzų spragėsiai, 123 Mistranslation
Table 3 The Translation of Geographical Names
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Danforth, 7 Danfortas, 14 Localization 2. Guatemala, 10 Gvatemala, 17 Localization 3. Toronto, 11 Torontas, 18 Localization 4. Chinatown, 14 Kinų kvartalas, 22 Localization 5. Little Korea, 14 Mažoji Korėja, 22 Localization 6. Canada, 28 Kanada, 39 Localization 7. Quebec, 53 Kvebekas, 69 Localization 8. Bangladesh, 73 Bangladešas, 94 Localization 9. India, 73 Indija, 94 Localization 10. Vancouver, 139 Vankuveris, 174 Localization 11. Coxwell, 142 Coxwellis, 177 Localization 12. North America, 158 Šiaurinė Amerika, 196 Localization 72
13. Cosburn, 171 Cosburnas, 213 Localization 14. Danforth Avenue, 3 Danforto Aveniu, 9 Localization 15. Greenwood, 106 Grynvudas, 132 Low Localization 16. Woodbine, 171 Woodbinas, 213 Low Localization 17. Logan, 57 Logano gatvė, 74 Localization/Addition 18. Bay Street, 33 Bay Streetas, 45 Preservation/Localization 19. Queen Street, 142 Queen gatvė, 177 Preservation/Localization 20. Forest Hill, 87 Forest Hill’as, 109 Preservation/Localization 21. High Park, 87 High parkas, 110 Preservation/Localization 22. Yonge Street, 7 Yonge gatvė, 14 Preservation/Localization 23. Simcoe, 96 -, 121 Omission 24. The Bloor Viaduct, 7 Bloor Viaduct parko alėja, 14 Mistranslation 25. Parkway, 7 Bloor Viaduct parko alėja, 14 Mistranslation
Table 4 The Translation of Names of Institutions and Buildings
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Academy of Motion Picture Mokslo ir kino akademija, 11 Localization Arts and Sciences, 5 2. Catholic school, 54 Katalikų mokykla, 71 Localization 3. Payless, 73 “Mokėk mažiau”, 94 Localization 4. Ford plant, 101 Fordo gamykla, 127 Localization 5. Community college, 216 Bendruomenės koledžas, 266 Localization 6. East General, 139 Rytų Centrinė ligoninė, 173 Localization/Addition 7. Shoppers Drug Mart, 114 “Shoppers Drug Mart”, 143 Preservation 8. Square Boy, 17 “Square Boy”, 26 Preservation 9. Carrot Common, 73 “Carrot Common”, 93 Preservation 10. Sunnybrook hospital, 171 Sunnybrook ligoninė, 213 Preservation/Localization 11. Monarch Park, 181 Monarch pramogų centras, 224 Preservation/Addition 12. Eaton Centre, 7 Eaton prekybos centras, 14 Preservation/Addition 13. 7-Eleven, 55 Gastronomas, 71 Globalization 14. The Girls’ Athletic Mergaičių gimnastikos Transformation Association, 121 asociacija, 151 15. Detective Office in Traffic Kelių tarnyba kriminalinėje Transformation Services, 91 policijoje, 115 16. Buildings […] low-rises, 128 Namukai […] žemi, 160 Transformation
17. Centre of Forensic Sciences, Kriminalinių nusikaltimų Transformation 94 tyrimų tarnyba, 119 18. Children’s Aid, 179 Vaikų globos tarnyba, 222 Transformation
Table 5 Translation of References to School
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Math, 7 Matematika, 14 Localization 2. History, 7 Istorija, 14 Localization 3. Music, 7 Muzika, 14 Localization 73
4. Gym, 7 Kūno kultūra, 14 Localization 5. Algebra, 53 Algebra, 69 Localization 6. Geometry, 53 Geometrija, 69 Localization 7. Chemistry, 53 Chemija, 69 Localization 8. School yearbook, 65 Mokyklos metraštis, 84 Localization 9. D-minus, 58 D su minusu, 75 Localization 10. English, 22 Anglų kalba, 31 Localization/Addition 11. French, 53 Prancūzų kalba, 69 Localization/Addition 12. Science, 89 Fizikos pamokos, 113 Transformation 13. Health class, 37 Žmogaus pažinimo pamoka, Transformation 50 14. Report card, 52 Galutinių vertinimų lapas, 69 Partial Mistranslation 15. Homeroom, 35 Popamokinė veikla, 47 Mistranslation
Table 6 The Translation of Brand Names
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. BMW, 74 “BMW”, 95 Preservation 2. Impala, 158 “Impala”, 197 Preservation 3. Toyota, 69 “Toyota”, 88 Preservation 4. Jeeps, 73 “Jeep”, 93 Preservation 5. Adidas, 73 “Adidas”, 93 Preservation 6. Nikes, 73 “Nike”, 93 Preservation 7. Reebocks, 73 “Reebock”, 93 Preservation 8. Lexuses, 73 “Lexus”, 93 Preservation 9. Jaguar, 205 “Jaguar”, 252 Preservation 10. Beamers, 73 “Beamer”, 93 Mistranslation
Table 7 The Translation of Currency
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Million-dollar, 211 Milijonas dolerių, 260 Localization 2. Five hundred bucks, 201 Penki šimtai baksų, 247 Localization 3. A loonie, 173 Vienas doleris, 214 Localization/Addition 4. Quarters, 173 Monetos po dvidešimt penkis, Addition 214 5. Pennies, 173 Centai, 214 Globalization 6. Bucks, 196 Pinigai, 242 Globalization 7. Big bucks, 200 Nemaža sumelė, 246 Globalization 8. Dollars and cents, 199 Pinigai, 246 Globalization 9. Nickel, 183 Centas, 227 Mistranslation 10. Loons and […] toons, 8 Baltos ir rudos monetos, 14 Partial Mistranslation
74
Table 8 The Translation of Games
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Soccer, 181 Futbolas, 225 Localization 2. Baseball, 2 Beisbolas, 8 Localization 3. Bridge, 74 Bridžas, 95 Localization 4. Poker, 74 Pokeris, 95 Localization 5. Ping-pong, 74 Stalo tenisas, 95 Localization 6. Pool, 74 Pulas, 95 Localization 7. Hockey, 202 Ledo ritulys, 249 Localization/Addition 8. Pinball, 74 Kiniškas bilijardas, 95 Localization/Addition 9. Road hockey, 18 Ledo ritulys ant asfalto, 26 Transformation 10. Shooting hoops, 54 Žaidė aklą vištą, 71 Transformation
Table 9 The Translation of References to Literature and Television
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Dennis the Menace, 3 Baisusis Denisas, 10 Localization 2. Charlie’s Angels, 101 Čarlio angelai, 126 Localization 3. Simpsons Simpsonai, 143 Localization 4. “Open Sesame”, 37 “Sezamai, atsiverk”, 50 Localization 5. Snow White’s nasty nasty Baisioji Snieguolės pamotė, 45 Localization stepmother, 33 6. Cruella deVil, 33 Cruella deVil, 45 Preservation 7. Fifties sitcoms, 202 Šešto dešimtmečio komedijos, Addition/Globalization 249
Table 10 The Translation of References Related to Music
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. The Sound of Music, 35 “Muzikos garsai”, 47 Localization 2. Sale at HMV, 39 Didysis kompaktinių Omission/Addition plokštelių išpardavimas, 53 3. Boom box, 54 -, 71 Omission 4. Rush (music group), 54 -, 70 Omission 5. Golden oldies station, 182 Auksinių kolekcijų dainos, Transformation 225 6. Roll the bones. Take a chance “Judink kaulus, gaudyk Mistranslation (words of a song), 54 protą”, 70
75
Table 11 Translation of Historical References
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Indian wars, 58 Indėnų karai, 76 Localization 2. Cattleman versus farmers Fermerių ir gyvulių augintojų Localization conflicts, 58 konfliktas, 76 3. Billy the Kid, 58 Mažasis Bilis, 76 Localization 4. The settlement of Canada’s Kanados vakarinės pakrantės Localization/ west, 58 apgyvendinimas, 75 Partial Mistranslation 5. Wyatt Earp, 58 Vajetas, 76 Localization/Omission
Table 12 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items
Norah McClintock (ENG) Regina Šeškuvienė (LT) 2005 Strategy 2003
1. Thanksgiving, 221 Padėkos diena, 272 Localization 2. Little League, 217 Mažoji lyga, 268 Localization 3. Hyacinth, 13 Hiacintas, 21 Localization 4. Pick-your-own-farms, 19 Savitarnos ūkiai, 27 Localization 5. Recliner, 43 Atlošiamas krėslas, 57 Localization 6. Twenty-five feet - eight Aštuoni metrai, 191 Localization meters, 153 7. 911, 137 911, 171 Preservation 8. SUV, 74 “SUV”, 95 Preservation 9. General Motors Impala, 94 “General Motors Impala”, 119 Preservation 10. Nintendo system, 2 Nintendo kompiuterinių Preservation/Addition žaidimų sistema, 8 11. Billy Ray Cyrus cut, 205 Plaukai iš priekio buvo trumpi, Omission/Addition o ant pakaušio ilgi – kvailas kirpimas, 253 12. Oscar night, 5 -, 12 Omission 13. Toaster oven, 187 Duonos skrudintuvas, 232 Transformation 14. Screen door, 43 Stiklinės durys, 58 Partial Mistranslation
Appendix 2C: Culture-specific Items in Jacqueline Wilson’s Double Act and in the Translation by Gabija Ryškuvienė
Table 1 The Translation of the Names of Characters
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Ruby, 1 Rubi, 4 Low Localization 2. Garnet, 1 Garnet, 4 Low Localization 3. Rose, 18 Rouzė, 20 Low Localization 4. Opal, 18 Opalė, 20 Low Localization
76
5. Judy, 72 Džudė, 73 Low Localization 6. Bobbie, 78 Bobi, 79 Low Localization 7. Isabel, 111 Izabelė, 113 Low Localization 8. Georgina, 186 Džordžina, 188 Low Localization 9. Jamilla, 187 Džamilė, 189 Low Localization 10. Lucy, 187 Liusi, 189 Low Localization 11. Pat, 111 Pet, 113 Low Localization 12. Garnet Barker, 82 Garnet Barker, 82 Low Preservation 13. Miss Jeffreys, 131 Panelė Džefris, 133 Low Localization 14. Miss Debenham, 69 Panelė Debenhem, 70 Low Localization 15. E. Nesbit, 8 E. Nesbit, 10 Low Localization 16. Beatrix Potter, 44 Bytriks Poter, 46 Low Localization 17. Enid Blyton, 91 Enida Blaiton, 92 Low Localization 18. Marilyn Monroe, 38 Merilina Monro, 40 Low Localization 19. Richard, 18 Ričardas, 20 Low Localization 20. Rick, 39 Rikas, 41 Low Localization 21. Albert, 154 Albertas, 155 Low Localization 22. Brian, 175 Brajenas, 177 Low Localization 23. Jeremy Treadgold, 69 Džeremis Tredgoldas, 70 Low Localization 24. Charles Dickens, 7 Čarlzas Dikensas, 9 Low Localization 25. Thomas Hardy, 7 Tomas Hardis, 10 Low Localization 26. Shakespeare, 135 Šekspyras, 137 Low Localization 27. Mr. Baines, 97 Ponas Beinsas, 99 Low Localization 28. Jerry, 175 Džeris, 177 Low Localization 29. Mam’zelle, 106 Madmuazelė, 108 Low Localization/ Addition 30. Sarah Crewe, 45 Sara, 47 Low Localization/ Omission 31. Big Blobby, 61 Didysis Tešlius, 62 High Localization 32. Jeremy Blob, 84 Tešlius Džeremis, 84 High Localization 33. Mickey Mouse, 38 Peliukas Mikis, 40 High Localization 34. Donald Duck, 38 Antulis Donaldas, 40 High Localization 35. Ferret-Face, 175 Šeškaveidis, 177 High Localization 36. Dumbo Debenham, 86 Kvailė Debenhem, 87 High Localization 37. Miss Arty-Farty Show –Off, Panelė Pamaiva Rašytoja Transformation 55 Niekų Paistytoja, 56 38. Rosy Ratbag, 95 Sena Ragana Rouzė, 96 Transformation
Table 2 The Translation of Literary References
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Little Women (Louisa May “Mažosios moterys”, 10 Localization Alcott book), 8 2. What Katy Did (Susan “Ką nuveikė Keitė”, 10 Localization Coolidge book), 8 3. A Little Princess (Frances “Mažoji princesė”, 47 Localization Hodgson Burnett book), 45 4. Bible, 65 Biblija, 66 Localization 5. Noah’s Ark, 72 Nojaus laivas, 74 Localization 77
6. The Railway Children “Geležinkelio vaikai”, 79 Localization (movie according to E. Nesbit book), 78 7. The Famous Five stories “Garsiojo penketuko” serija, Localization (Enid Blyton), 186 188 8. Beano annual (a popular “Byno” metinis žurnalas, 68 Localization/Addition British children‘s comic), 67 9. The Guardian (British Guardian, 91 Preservation national newspaper), 90 10. The Twins at St Clare’s “Dvynukės Šventosios Klaros Transformation (Enid Blyton book), 8 internatinėje mokykloje”, 10 11. Sweet Valley Twins (Francine “Dvynukės iš Mielojo slėnio”, Transformation Pascal book), 8 10 12. Girl’s Own (a British story “Tikros merginos”, 130 Transformation paper), 128 13. Bill and Moon, 65 “Mėnulis ir skatikas”, 66 Mistranslation 14. Schools in Abbeys and Abei, Šalė ir Tauerio Mistranslation Chalets and mokyklos, 154 Towers, 152
Table 3 The Translation of Food Items
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Salt –and-vinegar flavour Druskos ir acto skonio Localization crisps, 2 traškučiai, 4 2. Yorkshire pudding, 14 Jorkšyro pudingas, 17 Localization 3. Roast beef, 25 Jautienos kepsnys, 27 Localization 4. Apple pie and cream, 26 Obuolių pyragas su grietinėle, Localization 28 5. Muesli, 112 Javainiai, 114 Localization 6. Coco Pops, 112 Šokoladiniai javainiai, 114 Localization 7. Jam sandwiches, 112 Sumuštiniai su uogiene, 114 Localization 8. Garlic crumble, 113 Česnakų apkepas, 114 Localization 9. Bamboo shoot, 177 Bambuko ūglys, 179 Localization 10. Cranberry sauce, 36 Spanguolių padažas, 38 Localization 11. Chestnut stuffing, 36 Kaštainių įdaras, 38 Localization 12. Sprouts, 167 Briuselio kopūstai, 169 Localization 13. Toast, 56 Pasiskrudinti duonos, 57 Localization 14. Chinese takeaway, 174 Kiniškas maistas, 176 Localization/Omission 15. Toasted teacakes, 128 Skrudintos bandelės su arbata, Localization/Creation 130 16. Kit Kat, 187 “Kit Kat”, 187 Preservation 17. Cadbury’s Milk Tray, 7 “Cadbury” pieniškas šokoladas, Preservation/ 9 Globalization 18. Chocolate fudge, 79 Šokoladukas, 80 Globalization 19. Chipolatas, 36 Dešrelės, 38 Globalization 20. Christmas pud, 37 Kalėdų pudingas, 39 Transformation 21. McDonald’s beefburgers, Sumuštiniai su jautiena iš Transformation 128 “McDonalds”, 130 78
22. Chicken and chips, 180 Višta ir bulvių traškučiai, 82 Partial Mistranslation
Table 4 The Translation of Names of Institutions and Buildings
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. The Red Bookshop, 56 Raudonasis knygynas, 58 High Localization 2. Do-it-Yourself Store, 57 “Pasidaryk pats” parduotuvė, 58 High Localization 3. Fashion House, 3 Mados namai, 5 Localization 4. Cussop (school name), 135 Kjusopas, 137 Localization 5. Oxfam shop, 6 Oksfamo parduotuvė, 8 Localization 6. A building society, 169 Statybos fondas, 171 Localization 7. Stage school, 167 Mokykla, kurioje dėstoma Localization/Addition vaidyba 169 8. Marnock Heights, 122 Marnoko Kalvų mokykla, 124 Localization/Addition 9. Paperchase, 186 Kanceliarijos prekių parduotuvė, Globalization 188 10. Boarding school, 167 Internatinė mokykla, 169 Transformation 11. The Infants, 13 Pradinė mokykla, 15 Mistranslation
Table 5 The Translation of Clothing Items
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Gymslip, 109 Klostytas sarafanas, 111 Localization 2. Clarks clodhopper shoes, Sunkūs “Klarko” batai, 172 Localization 170 3. Hockey boots, 182 Žolės riedulio batai, 184 Localization/Addition 4. Doc Martens, 89 “Doc Martens” batai, 90 Preservation/Addition 5. Bolero, 5 Liemenė, 7 Globalization 6. Wellies, 58 Auliniai batai, 59 Globalization 7. Lumberjack shirts, 39 Medkirčio marškiniai, 40 Partial Mistranslation 8. Quilty jacket, 64 Dygsniuotas švarkas, 65 Partial Mistranslation
Table 6 The Translation of Currency and Measurement Units
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. £20, 168 20 svarų, 170 Localization 2. £600, 169 600 svarų, 171 Localization 3. £100, 169 100 svarų, 171 Localization 4. £50, 169 50 svarų, 171 Localization 5. A fiver, 98 Penki svarai, 100 Localization 6. Miles, 55 Šimtai mylių, 56 Addition/Localization 7. Half-stone, 78 Tona, 79 Transformation
79
Table 7 The Translation of Games
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Hockey, 122 Žolės riedulys, 124 Localization/Addition 2. Lacrosse, 122 Lakrosas, 124 Localization 3. Cricket, 122 Kriketas, 124 Localization 4. Rounders (game), 126 Ritinis, 128 Localization 5. Snap (card game), 181 Lošėm kortomis, 183 Globalization 6. Happy Families (card Lošėm kortomis, 183 Globalization game), 181
Table 8 The Translation of References to School
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. History, 124 Istorija, 126 Localization 2. Goemetry, 124 Geometrija, 126 Localization 3. Arithmetics, 138 Aritmetika, 140 Localization 4. General knowledge, 138 Bendros žinios, 140 Localization 5. Sixth-form college, 135 Šešta klasė, 138 Localization 6. English, 124 Anglų kalba, 126 Localization/Addition 7. Latin, 124 Lotynų kalba, 126 Localization/Addition 8. Technology, 124 Matematika, 126 Transformation
Table 9 The Translation of Geographical Names
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. London, 3 Londonas, 5 Localization 2. Hineford, 57 Hinefordas, 58 Localization 3. Gorselea, 131 Gorselėja, 133 Localization 4. Sussex, 131 Saseksas, 133 Localization 5. Newlake Street, 91 Njuleiko gatvė, 92 Low Localization
Table 10 The Translation of Animals and Plants
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. A porcupine, 89 Dygliakiaulė, 90 Localization 2. Robin, 139 Paukštelis liepsnelė, 141 Localization/Addition 3. Runner beans, 56 Varpytinės pupelės, 57 Partial Mistranslation 4. Gerbil, 123 Žiurkėnas, 125 Transformation
80
Table 11 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items
Jacqueline Wilson (ENG) Gabija Ryškuvienė (LT) 2004 Strategy 1996
1. Halloween pumpkin, 61 Moliūgas per Helovyną, 62 Localization 2. Boot-fair, 7 Sendaikčių turgus, 9 Localization/Omission 3. Victorian, 64 Viktorijos laikų, 65 Localization/Addition 4. “My Bonnie Lies Over the “My Bonnie Lies Over the Preservation/Addition Ocean”, 108 Ocean” (Mano brangusis guli už vandenyno), 110 5. Sunnylea Productions, 91 Sunnylea Productions, 92 Preservation 6. Ma cherrie, oh la la, tres Ma cherrie, oh la la, tres bon, Preservation bon, 106 108 7. Sellotape, 90 Lipni juostelė, 91 Globalization 8. Rosy Ratbag Appreciation Senos Raganos Rouzės mylėtojų Transformation Society, 96 draugija, 98 9. Settee, 119 Sofa, 121 Transformation 10. Vicar, 65 Vikaras, 66 Transformation 11. Car boot sale, 15 Sendaikčių mugė, 18 Omission/ Transformation
Appendix 2D: Culture-specific Items in Mary Norton’s The Borrowers and in the Translation by Viltaras Alksnėnas
Table 1 The Translation of the Names of Human Beings
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Kate, 1 Keitė, 8 Low Localization 2. Rosa Pickhatchet, 15 Roza Pikečet, 22 Low Localization 3. Nellie Runacre, 177 Nelė Raneikr, 177 Low Localization 4. Mrs. May, 1 Ponia Mej, 8 Low Localization 5. Mrs. Driver, 8 Ponia Draiver, 15 Low Localization 6. Rich William, 179 Ričas Viljamas, 179 Low Localization 7. Crampfurl, 8 Kremferlas, 15 Low Localization 8. Bryce, 18 Braisas, 22 Low Localization 9. Mr. Frith, 9 Ponas Fritas, 16 Low Localization 10. William Shakespeare, 18 Viljamas Šekspyras, 22 Low Localization 11. Mercy Lavinia Bump, 18 Malonė Lavinija Bumpt, 23 High Localization 12. Queen Victoria, 15 Karalienė Viktorija, 21 High Localization 13. Ernie, 177 Ernis, 177 Transformation 14. Great-Aunt Sophy, 8 Teta Sofija, 15 Partial Mistranslation 15. General Tom Thumb, 18 Vyriausiasis Nykštukas, 22 Mistranslation
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Table 2 The Translation of the Names of the Borrowers
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Arriety, 7 Arietė, 14 Low Localization 2. Lupy, 30 Lupė, 34 Low Localization 3. Eggletina, 7 Egletina, 14 Low Localization 4. Uncle Hendreary, 7 Dėdė Hendreris, 14 Low Localization 5. Homily, 7 Namilė, 14 High Localization 6. A Rain-Pipe, 44 Lietvamzdinė, 48 High Localization 7. Pod, 7 Lukstas, 14 High Localization 8. A Clock, 44 Laikrodinis, 49 High Localization 9. The Borrowers, 2 Skoliniautojai, 9 High Localization 10. The Harpsichords, 42 Klavesiniai, 45 High Localization 11. The Sinks, 54 Praustuviniai, 59 High Localization 12. The Broom-Cupboard boys, Šepetinių-Bufetinių High Localization 54 berniūkščiai, 59 13. The Stove-Pipes, 91 Dūmtraukiniai, 94 High Localization 14. The Bell-Pulls, 91 Skambaliniai, 94 High Localization 15. The Overmantels, 42 Lentyniniai, 45 Globalization 16. The Boot-Racks, 90 Avalyniai, 93 Globalization 17. The Rain-Barrels, 90 Lietvamzdiniai, 93 Transformation 18. The Hon. John Garb. Džonai Transformation Studdingtons, 90 Stadlingtonai, 93 19. A family called Linen-Press, Linaspaudžiai, 50 Mistranslation 46
Table 3 The Translation of Furniture Items, Household Goods and Accessories
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. “The breakfast room”, 1 “Pusryčių kambarys”, 8 Localization 2. Night nursery, 8 Vaikų miegamasis, 15 Localization 3. Scullery, 81 Indų plovykla (patalpa), 84 Localization 4. Drawing-room, 38 Svetainė, 42 Localization 5. Damask cushion, 142 Damasto pagalvėlė, 144 Localization 6. Cider press, 20 Obuolių sulčiaspaudė, 24 Localization 7. Meat safe, 12 Šaldyklė mėsai, 18 Localization 8. Bell-pull, 40 Skambučio virvutė, 43 Localization 9. Trinket box, 15 Papuošalų dėžutė, 21 Localization 10. Pillbox, 15 Piliulių dėžutė, 21 Localization 11. Tobacco jar, 43 Tabako dėžutė, 46 Localization 12. Sealing wax, 4 Antspaudų vaškas, 10 Localization 13. Brocade, 118 Brokatas, 119 Localization 14. Musical snuffbox, 42 Muzikinė tabakinė, 45 Localization 15. A hat pin, 4 Skrybėlaičių smeigtukas, 10 Localization 16. Dresden figurines, 148 Drezdeno statulėlės, 150 Localization 17. Whisky decanter, 43 Viskio grafinas, 46 Localization 18. A wire flyswatter, 12 Vielinis musių mušeklis, 18 Localization 19. Stamp box, 15 Pašto ženklų dėžutė, 21 Localization 20. Pewter mustard pot, 19 Alavinė garstytinė, 24 Localization 82
21. Button-boots, 20 Batai su sagutėmis, 25 Localization 22. Blotting paper, 21 Sugeriamas popierius, 25 Localization 23. Tureen, 21 Sriubos dubuo, 26 Localization 24. Feather duster, 40 Plunksninė šluotelė, 40 Localization 25. Oil lamp, 132 Žibalinė lempa, 134 Localization 26. Safety pin, 64 Žiogelis, 67 Localization 27. Brass funnel, 20 Žalvarinis piltuvėlis, 24 Localization 28. Dresser, 138 Bufetėlis, 139 Localization 29. Hob, 19 Priežda, 23 Localization 30. Jet beads, 50 Juodojo gintaro karoliukai, 55 Localization 31. Schoolroom, 8 Pamokų ruošos kambarys, 15 Localization/Addition 32. Wainscot, 11 Medžiu apkalta siena, 17 Localization/Addition 33. Quill pipe cleaner, 43 Plunksnos […] skirtos Localization/Addition pypkėms valyti, 46 34. Clothespin bag, 167 Maišelis nuo skalbinių Localization/Addition spaustukų, 168 35. Cachou box, 154 Dėžutė gaivinamiesiems Localization/Addition žirneliams laikyti, 156 36. Dressing table, 86 Tualetinis naktinis stalelis, 88 Localization/Addition 37. Cupid, 40 Kupidono skulptūrėlė, 43 Localization/Addition 38. Gun room, 81 Medžioklinių šautuvų patalpa, Localization/Addition 84 39. Coal-tar soap, 96 Muilas iš akmens anglių Localization/Addition dervos, 99 40. Coal scuttle, 142 Kibirėlis anglims laikyti, 144 Localization/Addition 41. Settle, 15 Suolas su atrama, 21 Addition 42. Victorian chair, 138 Karalienės Viktorijos laikų Addition/Transformation fotelis, 139 43. Name-tape, 25 Raištelis, 30 Globalization 44. Mustard spoon, 19 Šaukštelis, 24 Globalization 45. French windows, 81 Įstiklintos durys, 84 Transformation 46. Bureau, 38 Komoda, 42 Transformation 47. Scullery, 21 Indauja, 26, Transformation 48. Bolster, 142 Velenėlis pagalvėms atremti, Transformation 144 49. Shoe-scraper, 69 Grandyklė kojoms nusivalyti, Transformation 73 50. Knife machine, 54 Duonos raikytuvas, 59 Transformation 51. Candle-snuffer, 148 Žnyplės žvakių nuodegoms Transformation gnaibyti, 150 52. Decanter, 9 Butelis, 16 Transformation 53. Coal cart, 61 Sunkvežimis su […] anglimis, Transformation 65 54. Eiderdown, 152 Dygsniuota pūkinė antklodė, Partial Mistranslation 154 55. Filigree vanity cases, 148 Filigrano niekučiai, 150 Partial Mistranslation 56. Quilt, 36 Dygsniuota antklodė, 40 Partial Mistranslation 57. Sitting room, 1 Darbui skirtas kambarys, 8 Partial Mistranslation 58. Hassock, 2 Pagalvėlė, 8 Mistranslation
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Table 4 The Translation of Geographical Names
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. London, 1 Londonas, 8 Localization 2. India, 5 Indija, 12 Localization 3. England, 8 Anglija, 14 Localization 4. China, 92 Kinija, 95 Localization 5. North America, 92 Šiaurės Amerika, 95 Localization 6. Ireland, 117 Airija, 118 Localization 7. Taj Mahal, 139 Tadž Machalis, 140 Localization 8. Dresden, 148 Drezdenas, 150 Localization 9. America, 194 Amerika, 192 Localization 10. Africa, 194 Afrika, 194 Localization
11. Leighton Buzzard, 9 Laiton Bazardas, 16 Low Localization 12. Rio harbor, 131 Rio de Žaneiro uostas, 133 Localization/Addition 13. Parkin’s Beck, 93 Tešlainupys, 96 Transformation 14. The British Commonwealth, Didžioji Britanija, 95 Mistranslation 92
Table 5 The Translation of Food Items
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Marmalade, 1 Marmeladas, 8 Localization 2. Tart, 141 Vaisinis pyragas, 143 Localization 3. Egg sauce, 178 Kiaušininis padažas, 178 Localization 4. Christmas pudding, 197 Kalėdų pyragas, 195 Localization 5. Dried figs, 103 Džiovintos figos, 105 Localization 6. Leg of mutton, 141 Avies kulšis, 143 Localization 7. Elderflower tea, 193 Šeivamedžio arbata, 191 Localization 8. Lime tea, 193 Liepžiedžių arbata, 191 Localization 9. Sillabub, 46 Pieniškas punšas, 50 Localization/Addition 10. Toast, 1 Skrudintos duonos riekė, 8 Localization/Addition 11. Shinbone, 84 Avienos kulninė, 87 Creation/Localization 12. Fine Old Pale Madeira, 9 “Puikioji senoji madera”, 16 Localization/Omission 13. Pate de foie gras (food Pate de foie gras, 26 Preservation product), 21 14. Bath Oliver biscuits, 9 Sausainiai, 16 Globalization 15. Custard, 194 Saldus kremas, 191 Globalization 16. Crumpet, 46 Pyragėlis, 50 Globalization 17. Crispy bacon, 106 Kepta kiaulienos šoninė, 108 Transformation 18. Afternoon tea, 46 Saldumynai prie arbatos, 50 Transformation 19. Muffin, 46 Bandelė, 50 Transformation 20. Jelly, 46 Drebučiai, 50 Transformation 21. Cinnamon breadcrumbs, 97 Bandelės su cinamonu Transformation trupiniai, 100 22. Fish pie, 178 Žuvies paštetas, 178 Partial Mistranslation 23. Anchovy toast, 45 Skrudintas ančiuvis, 49 Partial Mistranslation
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Table 6 The Translation of Plants and Animals
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Crocus, 13 Krokai, 19 Localization 2. Azalea bush, 13 Azalijos krūmas, 19 Localization 3. Sandalwood, 21 Santalmedis, 26 Localization 4. Primrose, 73 Raktažolė, 77 Localization 5. Harebell, 77 Apskritalapis katilėlis, 81 Localization 6. Hawthorn, 37 Gudobelė, 41 Localization 7. Chestnut, 193 Kaštainiai, 191 Localization 8. Woodlouse, 75 Vėdarėlis, 79 Localization 9. Kingfisher, 88 Tulžys, 91 Localization 10. Weasel, 52 Žebenkštis, 56 Localization 11. Hips, 193 Erškėtuogės, 191 Localization 12. Sloes, 193 Dygioji slyva, 191 Localization 13. A stoat, 195 Šermuonėlis, 193 Localization 14. Campion, 198 Naktižiedė, 196 Localization 15. Wild garlic, 194 Laukiniai česnakai, 191 Localization 16. Russet apple tree, 188 Obelis, vedanti rausvašonius Localization/Addition žieminius obuolius, 186 17. A minnow, 193 Smulkios žuvelės, 191 Globalization 18. Beechnut, 193 Buki riešutai, 191 Partial Mistranslation
Table 7 The Translation of Literary and Music References
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Bibles, 18 Biblijos, 22 Localization 2. Clementine, 42 (tune that “Klementina”, 45 Localization snuffbox played) 3. God Save the Queen, 42 “Dieve, saugok karalienę”, 46 Localization (tune that snuffbox played) 4. Post-Chaise Gallop, 42 (tune “Fajetonas lekia šuoliais”, 46 Localization that snuffbox played) 5. Tom Thumb Dictionary, 18 “Nykštukų žodynas”, 22 Partial Mistranslation 6. Tom Thumb Gazetteer of the “Nykštukų pasaulio Partial Mistranslation World, 102 geografijos vadovas”, 104 7. Tom Thumb Edition of the “Viljamo Šekspyro komedijų Partial Mistranslation Comedies of William rinkinys nykštukams”, 22 Shakespeare, 18 8. Tom Thumb Diary and “Nykštuko dienoraštis ir Partial Mistranslation Proverb Book, 18 patarlių knyga”, 22
Table 8 The Translation of Foreign Language References
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. “Flor de havana”, 58 “Flor de havana”, 62 Preservation 2. “Garantizados”, 58 “Garantizados”, 62 Preservation 3. “Superiores”, 58 “Superiores”, 62 Preservation 85
4. “Non Plus Ultra”, 58 “Non Plus Ultra”, 62 Preservation 5. “Esquisitos”, 58 “Esquisitos”, 62 Preservation
Table 9 The Translation of Historical References
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Battle of Waterloo, 9 Vaterlo mūšis, 16 Localization 2. Order of the Garter, 18 Keliaraiščio ordinas, 23 Localization 3. North-West Frontier, 5 Šiaurės vakarų frontas, 12 Localization 4. The Victorians, 15 Viktorijos laikų leidėjai, 22 Localization/Addition 5. Edwardian hair, 106 Karaliaus Edvardo laikų Localization/Addition šukuosena, 108 6. Cameronian Colors in - Omission Glasgow Cathedral, 100 7. Niagara passed by C.D. - Omission Graham in a cask, 1886, 101 8. Snowdon Peak sold for - Omission £5,750, 1889, 101
Table 10 The Translation of Units of Measurement and Currency
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Two feet, 18 Dvi pėdos, 23 Localization 2. Inch, 134 Colis, 135 Localization 3. Pound, 166 Svaras, 167 Localization 4. Yards, 198 Jardai, 196 Localization 5. The half-crown, 97 Pusė kronos, 101 Localization 6. The florin, 97 Šilingas, 101 Transformation
Table 11 The Translation of Proverbial Sayings
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. “Talk of Camps but Stay at “Visur gerai, bet namie Transformation Home”, 100 geriausia”, 103 2. “Make Hay while the Sun Kalk geležį, kol karšta, 104 Transformation Shines”, 101 3. “Make Not a Toil of your “Vienam vargas, kitam Mistranslation Pleasure”, 101 džiaugsmas”, 104 4. “You may go farther and fare “Giliau kasi- daugiau rasi”, 23 Mistranslation worse”, 18
Table 12 The Translation of Other Culture-specific Items
Mary Norton (ENG) 1952 Viltaras Alksnėnas (LT) 2002 Strategy
1. Russian yacht, 148 Rusiška jachta, 151 Localization 2. Arctic night, 146 Arkties naktis, 148 Localization 3. Irish point-to-point, 117 Airijos kliūtinės žirgų Localization/Addition 86
lenktynės, 118 4. “Grecian” (satin dress), 147 “Antikinė tunika”, 149 Localization/Addition 5. Oh My Darling, 117 Kavinė “Mano brangioji”, 118 Localization/Addition 6. Golliwog, 132 Lėlė baidyklė, 134 Globalization 7. A nice merry-andrew she’d Kvailai ji atrodys, 152 Transformation look, 150 8. Vicar, 15 Vikaras, 22 Transformation 9. Albert Hall, 92 Alberto salė, 95 Transformation 10. Stale Mate, 117 Kavinė “Senas draugas”, 118 Transformation 11. Memoranda, 18 “Atmintys”, 22 Transformation 12. July sales, 92 Liepos mėnesio aukcionai, 95 Partial Mistranslation 13. A cab, 183 Kebas, 183 Mistranslation 14. Turkish bloomers, 103 Moteriškos sportinės kelnės, Mistranslation 105
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