Folk Elements in Aleksei Balabanov's Brat and Brat 2

Home , Aleksei Balabanov, Brother 2, Bylina, False hero, Vyacheslav Butusov

BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE Article Folk Elements in Aleksei Balabanov’s Brat and Brat 2: A Morphological Analysis

EMILY SCHUCKMAN MATTHEWS, Department of European Studies, San Diego State University, USA; email: [email protected] 64 DOI: 10.1515/bsmr-2015-0024 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE ABSTRACT The article uses Vladimir Propp’s Morphology of the Folk- tale (Морфология сказки, 1928) as a framework to illustrate the way in which Aleksei Balabanov masterfully creates a modern folk tale using classic motifs and structures in his 1997 ﬁ lm Brother (Брат, Russia) and its sequel Brother 2 (Брат 2, Russia, 2000). The paper argues that Brother and Brother 2 are post-Soviet retellings of classic tales of Russian folklore and that Danila is a modern hero, an unlikely saviour of the Russian nation and the Russian soul. Danila’s journey is formulaic, predictable and straight- forward, yet nevertheless makes for a powerfully new take on concepts of Russian nationalism and heroism. The underworld to which our hero must journey is located in the heart of Russia’s ‘Peter’, and possession of the Russian nation and soul are the object of his quest in the volatile post-Soviet period.

Folk and fairy tales illuminate the way. They anticipate the millennium. They ferret out deep-rooted wishes, needs, and wants and demonstrate how they all can be realized. In this regard, folk and fairy tales present a challenge, so within the tales lies the hope of self- transformation and a better world. (Zipes 1979: xi)

The premier of Aleksei Balabanov’s Brother ist adventure, but seemed to refl ect so well (Брат, Russia, 1997) came at a time when their own anxieties about the new realities Russia was in search of a new ‘self’ and, of post-Soviet life. It is not surprising that quite literally, a new national idea. In the the fi lm’s protagonist, Danila, so quickly Kremlin, President Boris Yeltsin pushed his became a cult hero, an emblem of Russian aides to develop this national idea in order nationalism and an embodiment of the to provide a framework for policy and social ‘new Russia’ (Birchenough 2000: 20; Larsen consciousness in the seemingly free-for- 2003: 508–511). Indeed, Danila emerges all environment that marked his tenure. from Aleksei Balabanov’s two blockbuster In 1996, Российская газета even sponsored fi lms Brother and its sequel Brother 2 (Брат a contest for the best ‘national idea’ and 2, Russia, 2000) as the uncontested hero of promised a ten-million rouble prize to the the post-Soviet period.1 victor (Obojski 1996). While Balabanov may not have created his epic in response to any 1 Balabanov’s two fi lms chronicle the adventure-journey politicised appeal, the success of his fi lms of Danila Bagrov (Sergei Bodrov, Jr.). The naïve and mysterious Danila ventures to St. Petersburg to seek can at least, in part, be explained by the na- out his older brother, journeys to the underworld of the tional craving for a post-Soviet hero. In the city’s mafi a and eliminates those who do evil to Russians. In the sequel, he continues his journey in midst of a yet another time of troubles, the Moscow and America where he asserts Russian Russian population was primed to embrace authority and moral superiority, returning home to the Motherland a heroic defender of the country’s a tale that offered them not only an escap- ideals and values.

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In this article, I will argue that one rea- ENGAGING THE FOLK son for the success of Brat and Brat 2, and In his exploration of the role of the folk in Danila’s status as a cult hero, is Balabanov’s the contemporary culture industry, Jack complex and systematic use of folk narra- Zipes notes that historically the folktale tives and structure. The folkloric framework has functioned as a uniting force for a com- of the fi lms not only makes the story famil- munity, ‘bridg[ing] the gap in their under- iar, but contributes greatly to the viewers’ standing of social problems in a language ability to identify on a deeply personal level and narrative mode familiar to the listeners’ with Danila. I will argue that Balabanov not experiences’ (1979: 6). Further, he highlights only includes elements of Russia’s folkloric the dynamic nature of tales as ‘each histori- traditions, as observed by Susan Larsen,2 cal epoch and each community altered the but that his two fi lms actually follow the original folk tales according to its needs distinctive structure outlined by Vladimir as they were handed down over the cen- Propp in his landmark exploration of the turies’ (Zipes 1979: 8). The role of the folk Russian wonder tale, Morphology of the in the production of contemporary culture Folktale (Морфология сказки, 1928) (Propp has become an area of interest for many 1968). I will argue that the very structure of folklorists who are examining the ways in the fi lms’ narratives brings the folk to the which popular culture incorporates folk- forefront, allowing viewers to contextualise loric elements to better engage audiences. Danila’s quest in the broader spectrum of Peter Narváez and Martin Laba describe Russian heroism and history. In addition folklore and popular culture as ‘interde- to offering a structural analysis of the fi lm pendent categories of cultural activity in based on Propp’s morphology of the folk- modern society’ (1986: 7). They also offer an tale, I will look at the ways in which the use explanation of the folklore-popular culture of the folktale formula in the 1990s fi ts an relationship that resonates with Propp: ‘of- important historical pattern of Russian fer a means of rendering experience intel- cultural productions, particularly during ligible and graspable through recognizable times of confrontation with the West and forms that are both pleasing aesthetically the advent of new social and political reali- and relevant in a social interactional sense’ ties. I will also examine the ways Balabanov (Narváez, Laba 1986: 2). This understanding infuses his hero with the historicism, patri- of the importance of folkloric infl uence on otism and epic qualities of the heroes found audience reception and understanding of a in another category of Russian tales, the specifi c narrative is applicable not only to bylina (былина, epic). This blending of genres forms of mass media but to popular cinema. allows Balabanov to create a character that Several folklorists have begun to look at the resonates on multiple levels with an audi- role of folklore in fi lm, or ‘fi lmic folklore’ as ence deeply connected to its literary and described by Juwen Zhang (Sherman, Koven folkloric past. 2007: 1). The use of the folk in contemporary contexts is not a new phenomenon, particularly during times of social volatility. 2 Larsen discusses the importance of the ‘folk’ in The integration of the folk into cultural her seminal 2003 article, noting that ‘Balabanov productions is particularly evident through- created a fairy tale for post-Soviet audiences’ (2003: 508). However, an in-depth assessment of the folk out Russia’s history. Gary Cox notes that as structure of the fi lm is not the main focus of her early as the 17th century it was common article which instead highlights the importance of Brat in defi ning post-Soviet masculine identity. In her for authors to use the fairy tale formula dissertation, Ira Österberg offers an analysis of Brat, to defi ne their heroes, particularly their incorporating Propp’s morphology. She condenses all 31 functions into the fi rst fi lm, fi nding just 27 ‘Russianness’, in the face of the onslaught (Österberg 2006: 10) and does not extend her analysis of Western values. This technique, Cox to Brat 2. She and I differ in our interpretations of the roles of Hoffmann, the assigning of morphological steps continues, ‘enabled contemporary readers and identifying the primary goal of Danila’s quest. to connect their hopes for the future with Österberg does not include signifi cant exploration of the bylina or bogatyr in her study. their memories of the past’ (1980: 87). He

66 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE argues that this folk plot structure became the post-sots’ engagement with ‘traditional increasingly popular in the country and was cultural models’ (2004: 376). Expanding on ‘virtually standard for all prose tales’ (Cox Lipovetsky’s observations, Olga Mesropova 1980: 91). describes the ways in which fairy tale sub- The tradition of engaging folklore in plots ‘serve as the narrative core’ of the im- literature continued into the 19th and 20th mensely popular female-centred detective centuries. Numerous scholars have identi- novels written by Daria Dontsova (Mesropo- fi ed these trends in literary productions by va 2008: 113). authors such as Fyodor Dostoevsky, Nikolai Like the cultural productions dis- Gogol, Nikolai Leskov and Alexander Push- cussed above, the Brat fi lms cinematise kin.3 Katerina Clark notes that the practice people’s fears during a time of political of utilising the trope of the ‘folk-epic hero’ and social upheaval. At the heart of Brat’s existed in part so authors could ‘appropri- success is its ability to resonate so deeply ate the semantic overtones of the medieval with its audience and to unite a commu- text; authors hoped in this way to conjure nity. Viewers’ comments about the fi lm on up the lionhearted hero who helps his fel- internet-based fi lm forum Kinopoisk.com low men (a bogatyr) or the truly dedicated illustrate the intense connection they feel champion of the faith (a saint)’ (1981: 50). In with the themes explored in the fi lm and her seminal exploration of the Soviet novel, with Danila. User ‘truten’ notes: ‘This fi lm Clark highlights the ways in which writers, cannot be analysed. You can only feel and journalists and politicians employed the breathe it. It is simply about me, about us, ritual of the folk to create socialist realist specifi cally about those of us from the heroes which would resonate strongly with 1990s.’ Another user, ‘axm3d’ sees the time- Russia’s history and reading audiences lessness of the fi lms: ‘The fi lm is not for just alike. She further notes that the inclusion of one generation. The Brat fi lms will be seen the folk not only helped defi ne heroes in the for a long time because the themes covered thirties and forties, but helped to ‘convey in them are, more than ever, relevant today.’ the new sense of reality’ (Clark 1981: 151). Numerous contributors comment specifi - In his survey of Russian popular culture, cally on Danila’s importance in the broader Richard Stites also focuses on the impor- context of Russian identity. User ‘Directorr’ tant role folklore played in the 1930s, with explains: ‘It is not for nothing that the fi lm a particular focus on the use of folklore to is called Brat. Even though he is on screen, spur Russian nationalism during times of Danila Bagrov is like a brother to us. He has signifi cant upheaval (Clark 1981: 71). become one of us and a loved one to all in In the contemporary context, Mark the country. He embodies the desires of Lipovetsky identifi es the ways postmodern- millions of our fellow citizens in terms of ist writers and fi lmmakers draw on those good and evil, order and decency, and about very socialist realist tropes to defi ne ‘post- what is lacking in our daily lives.’ Finally, sots’ heroes. He notes that fi lmmakers often user ‘Nabby1404’ casts the Brat fi lms in the recycle socialist realist mythology not to context of Russian folkloric legends: ‘I would reveal the genre’s ‘absurdity or violence’, call this fi lm a legend – maybe not a global but to please ‘the middle-aged generation one, but defi nitely a Russian one. Indeed, for whom Socialist Realism is more associ- the fi lm absolutely refl ects our life without ated with childhood memories’.4 Though he exaggeration; it shows our relationship with draws a clear line between the didacticism one another and with those around us.’ (Ki- of socialist realism and the ambiguity of nopoisk.com) the post-sots works, Lipovetsky highlights Through viewers’ comments, we see that, for many, Danila refl ects the country’s 3 For a good overview of this topic, see Wigzell (2001: 41). national values and embodies traits typi- Also see Clark 1981: 46–67. cally associated with conceptions of what 4 To illustrate his thesis, Lipovetsky (2004: 358) examines another Balabanov fi lm, War (Война, Russia, 2002). it means to be a ‘hero’. One critic has noted

67 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE that Danila has become a ‘real folkloric PROPP character’ on par with other iconic Russian In 1928 Vladimir Propp published Morphol- popular culture heroes such as Shtirlitz ogy of the Folktale in which he proposed and Sukhov (‘Последний герой’ 2002). These that an entire class of tales can be defi ned characters served to unite disparate groups by their common structure based on thirty- of Russians during times of upheaval – a one ‘functions’ and the actions of seven diffi cult task that Danila’s character man- dramatis personae. While the title of Propp’s ages to accomplish with apparent ease. book suggests a broader focus, he applies Due to its immense popularity, Birgit his morphological analysis specifi cally to Beumers classifi es Brat as a ‘blockbuster’, the Russian wonder tale (or the ‘fairy tale’) a denotation given to fi lms that reach a high which he defi nes as ‘those tales classifi ed level of popularity and mass appeal. She by Aarne under numbers 300–749’ (1968: notes that one of the very reasons fi lms 19). While a concise defi nition is never fully often achieve such success is because they offered by Propp, he provides the following rely on folk culture in order to re-establish defi nition of the wonder tale based on his ‘a known order’ (Beumers 2003: 445). Bala- analysis of tales in Afanas’ev’s collection: banov’s use of the folk in Brat (and later Brat 2) offered its weary audience a familiar A wondertale begins with some formula and a predictable narrative. Dis- harm or villainy done to someone cussing the importance of ritual and form … or with a desire to have some- in mass culture of the Soviet period, Clark thing … and develops through the notes that they ‘provide a kind of shap- hero’s departure from home and ing force to the energies that are most encounters with the donor, who powerfully broad in the society; they are a provides him with a magic agent focusing lens for cultural forces’ (1981: 9). that helps the hero fi nd the ob- Indeed, Danila’s journey as allegory for the ject of the search. Further along, country’s post-Soviet transition is in part the tale includes combat with an achieved in the fi lms’ attempts to defi ne adversary, a return, and a pursuit. Russian heroism and identity in the face of (Propp 1984: 102) the onslaught of Western materialism felt by Russians in the 1990s (represented in Propp’s work has been infl uential not only the fi rst fi lm by the presence of American in analysing Russian wonder tales, but has music, McDonalds and US dollars and in been successfully utilised by scholars to the second by America itself). Balabanov analyse the structure of other categories accomplishes this by creating two fi lms, of tales and folk tales of cultures different and a hero, that are stylistically Western, than Russia’s (Lesinskis 2010: 41). but also distinctively Russian. Thus, in iden- Propp’s thirty-one ‘functions’ are tifying with the fi lm(s), the viewer can be described as denoting ‘the action of the reassured in his own daily struggles with character from the point of view of its sig- the changes brought to Russia via the West nifi cance for the progress of the narrative’ – he can both embrace and reject aspects (1968: 74). Each of these functions unfolds of Westernism and Russianism in an effort in specifi c order, one out of another with to defi ne a third course for the post-Soviet ‘logical and artistic necessity’ (Propp 1968: era (Hashamova 2007: 58). Ultimately, Da- 64). All functions are given a brief defi nition nila not only fulfi ls his individual quest of and a corresponding notational sign. In an fi nding his ‘self’ and a place in the broader effort to narrow the scope of the functions, social consciousness, but also achieves the each can be subdivided according to its goal of slaying Russia’s modern-day drag- specifi c manifestation. For example, the ons (the Chechen, the mafi a boss and the fi rst major function, ‘Absentation’, is given American businessman) and rescuing the the sign ‘β’, but can be subdivided into β1 Motherland. (‘Person Absenting himself can be a mem-

68 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE ber of the older generation’); β2 (‘An intensi- famous bogatyr, a larger than life charac- fi ed form of absentation is represented by ter who embodies the Russian spirit and the death of the parents’); β3 (‘Sometimes has endured in the cultural mindset as the members of the younger generation absent quintessential model of Russian heroism. themselves’) (Propp 1968: 26). The dramatis Referring to the importance of the bylina personae play essential roles in the de- and its heroes in the Russian literary imagi- velopment of the tale’s narrative and are nation, Faith Wigzell notes: often ‘stock’ characters, given little depth or nuance. The seven personae identifi ed So well-known is the bylina in by Propp are: the hero, villain, donor, helper, Russia today that its language princess, dispatcher and false hero (Propp forms a distinct sub-code of lit- 1984: 79). erary Russian and as such may appear in all manner of literary THE BYLINA works. No less important are the Before turning to a Proppian analysis of heroes, though here it is not so Brat and Brat 2, I will examine the ways much the fi gures themselves who in which Balabanov’s depiction of Danila are the inspiration for literary draws on the hero-characterisation in Rus- characters as the qualities they sia’s rich folk tradition. Danila’s character embody, which are seen as quin- fi ts well the defi nition of what E. M. Melet- tessentially Russian: patriotism, insky calls the ‘low hero’ of the wonder tale strength, endurance and great who ‘occupies an inferior social position, is capacity for drink. (2001: 41) poorly dressed (a quality Danila’s brother points out early on when he orders him to Katerina Clark notes that socialist realist buy to new clothes), is scorned by those discourse during the 1920s and 30s drew around him, and appears lazy and simple- heavily upon the image of the bogatyr to de- minded. However, he unexpectedly performs fi ne contemporary heroes, fi rst in the pages heroic feats, or receives the support of mag- of Правда and then in novels: ‘The new man ic forces and thus attains the goals of the of action was not likened to a frontiersman tale’ (Meletinsky 1975: 236). Propp’s more … but to the mythical knight of the Russian technical description of the hero easily ap- oral epic or bylina, the bogatyr … bogatyr plies to Danila: ‘The hero of the fairy tale is heroes abound in mid-twenties novels’ that character who either directly suffers (1981: 74). from the action of the villain in the compli- As several scholars have noted, Bala- cation, the one who senses some kind of banov makes the allusion to the bogatyri lack, or who agrees to liquidate the misfor- prominent with the display of a tapestry tune or lack of another person’ (1984: 50). of Viktor Vasnetsov’s well-known painting While this somewhat generic description Богатыри, depicting the three most fa- could be applied to a wide variety of tales, I mous of this class of hero: Ilya Muromets, believe it resonated particularly deeply with Dobrynya Nikitich and Alesha Popovich a 1990s Russian audience eager for a hero- astride their loyal steeds (Larsen 2003: model for that tumultuous era. 507). (Figure 1) Though their analyses do Even more than the ‘low hero’ of the not elaborate on this particular descriptive wonder tale, the bogatyr (богатырь) of the aspect of Danila’s character, Jennifer Day Russian bylina is ideally suited for a modern and Mark Lipovetsky specifi cally link Danila retelling of the Russian epic as the bogatyri with the bogatyr and Evgenii Margolit calls (plural) are ‘the standard bearers of the idea Danila ‘an authentic knight’ (Day 2005: 620; of Russia’s invincibility, the people’s guard- Липовецкий 2000: 58; Марголит 1998: 59). ians and protectors’ (Volodarsky 1979: 164). By hybridising the wonder tale and the The byliny (plural) are the epic tales from bylina, Balabanov is able to merge the struc- Russia’s past. The hero of the bylina is the tural clarity, entertaining journey-adventure

69 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE plot and simplicity of the wonder tale with other folkloric tropes which both compli- the hero-imagery and historical engagement their structure and further familiarise ment of the bylina in a way that is extremely the audience with the narrative. The name potent for audiences. While the wonder tale ‘Danila’ stands out immediately to a con- and bylina genres are indeed categorised temporary audience as anachronistic – a as distinct and separate, Propp himself moniker that evokes the ‘Prince Danila’ or recognised that wonder tales ‘are not a part ‘Danila the Luckless’ of the folk world.5 This inseparable’ from other types of tales, and anachronism is highlighted by the hero’s that ‘plots often migrate from genre to genre’ fi rst appearance in the fi lm: an ancient (1968: 79). In particular, Propp notes that the castle which serves as the backdrop for wonder tale is apt to absorb elements from a music video shoot. (Figure 2) The set- legend and the bylina (1968: 93). Alex Alex- ting evokes a medieval past populated by ander argues that similarities in ‘structure knights and damsels in distress. As is typi- and content’ of the two genres indicate that cal of the simplicity of the folk narrative, the the ‘bylina evolved from the fairytale’ (Alex- viewer is given few details about Danila’s ander 1973: 7). Byliny are classifi ed along background: he is physically non-descript, many different lines, with those that overlap lacks the complexity of a fully-developed with the wonder tale often labelled as the character and views the world in good/bad ‘fairy-tale type’ (Alexander 1973: 14). In a (us/them) binaries. collection of fairy tales, V. Bazanova includes Trebling, another prominent feature fi fty nine tales under the sub-heading of the wonder tale, is prominent in both ‘Byliny of the fairy-tale type’ (Базанова 1958: fi lms. In the fi rst, Danila commits three 519–520). She notes that these tales ‘in hits prior to his fi nal shootout with Kruglyi their thematic relationship greatly remind (he kills three men in this scene); he goes one of fairy tales’ (Базанова 1958: 5). three times to the music store to search for Like the bogatyr, Danila’s status is Nautilas CDs; and there are three women in often a complicated blend of qualities tradi- the story (his mother, Sveta and Kat). In the tionally deemed ‘good’ and ‘bad’. Lipovetsky second fi lm, he and his two friends visit the has characterised him as a ‘kind-hearted banya (баня, sauna) with three women; he killer with the face of a child’, a defi nition in develops relationships with three women line with what Propp describes as the com- (Saltykova, Lisa Jeffrey and Dasha); he is plex nature of bogatyr morality (Липовецкий involved in three murders; and the action 2000: 55). Propp notes, ‘[i]n epic poetry all takes place in three cities (Moscow, New basic heroes are good and embody national York and Chicago) (Larsen 2003: 506). ideals. Nevertheless, their behaviour is sometimes at variance with contemporary A PROPPIAN READING ethics … The hero is the one that wins, ir- OF BRAT AND BRAT 2 respective of the means, especially if he Film scholars have also turned to Propp to defeats a stronger opponent’ (1968: 28). analyse the structure of narrative cinematic Like the bogatyr, Danila is ‘good’ at his core, productions. Scholars who utilise Propp’s despite the fact that his black and white framework have noted a distinctive similar- value system often leads to immoral acts. ity between the formulaic outline offered by The softer aspects of Danila’s character, Propp and the universal narrative structure drawn from the endearing wonder tale hero, of classical Hollywood cinema productions along with his ultimate victory over a much stronger enemy, help to make his heroism 5 ‘Danila’ appears in other folk works. Alexander notes: appealing and ultimately acceptable. ‘The commonest fi rst name is Ivan, though others, such as Danilo, Fedor, and Fedot, appear’ (1973: 26). The instances in folktales include ‘Prince Danilo’ (see OTHER FOLKLORE IN BRAT Chadwick 1964: 173), ‘Danilo Lovchanin’ and ‘Danilo The Brat fi lms not only engage with the Ignatevich and Maikhaylo Danilovich’ (see Magnus 1967: 93, 110), and ‘Danilo the Luckless’ (see Balina et folk on a structural level, but include many al. 2005: 79–84).

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FIGURE 1. FIGURE 2.

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(Lesinskis 2010). Peter Wollen’s seminal 1976 ing that scholars too readily apply uniquely article on Hitchcock’s North by Northwest Russian models of the wonder tale to Hol- was one of the fi rst to apply Propp to fi lm lywood fi lms. He sees it as unreasonable to (Wollen 1982). Subsequently, numerous fi lms believe that ‘a method derived for the analy- such as Adrian Lyne’s Fatal Attraction (USA, sis of oral narratives of a pre-feudal era 1987), Howard Hawks’s To Have and Have hold good for a modern medium developed Not (USA, 1944) and Brian De Palma’s Carrie in a capitalist economy and a mass society’ (USA, 1976) have been assessed according (Bordwell 1988: 11). While Bordwell makes to Propp’s morphology (Hala 1992, Fell 1977, important points about the application of Alexander 1979). These scholars have found Propp to such an indiscriminate range of Propp’s framework to provide useful insight cinematic and television productions, the into the macro-structure of a fi lm, add- wide use of Propp in fi lm analysis and the ing another level of dimension to their fi lm insights gleaned from the Proppian critiques analysis. Annette Kuhn has noted that Prop- noted above illustrate the utility of this ap- pian functions can serve to explore and dif- proach (Lesinskis 2010). Scholars such as ferentiate between the story and plot in the Peter Wollen and Jim Hala successfully il- fi lm (Lesinskis 2010: 42). In Eugénie Zvonk- lustrate that a structural analysis of a fi lm ine’s Proppian analysis of Kira Muratova’s can reveal important details such as pat- The Sentimental Policeman (Чувствительный terns of action, stock functions of charac- милиционер, Russia, 1992), she argues that ters and narrative organisation that provide the director’s use of the folk allows Muratova another layer of meaning to fi lms. Examining to ‘detach herself from the characters’ inner Brian De Palma’s Carrie through a Proppian world’ (Zvonkine 2007: 144). This observation lens and connecting audience reception to is particularly relevant to the Brat fi lms as the narrative’s folkloric roots, Russian folk- their rich cultural insights derive not from lorist Alex Alexander notes that ‘one of the complex and three-dimensional characters, reasons for [the fi lm’s] immense popularity but from the circumstances and conditions is that it is a fairy tale’ (1979: 282). in which they function. Janis Lesinskis also Bordwell’s criticism also carries less notes the Propp is particularly helpful in or- weight when applied to a Russian fi lm – ganising ‘social ruptures’ and ‘anxieties’ – an fully steeped in the appropriate cultural observation relevant to the Brat fi lms, which context that he sees lacking in non-Russian were produced during the volatile decade fi lms. The persistent use of the folk in con- following the collapse of communism (Lesin- temporary Russian cultural productions skis 2010: 65–66). also indicates the usefulness of viewing The application of Propp is not without Balabanov’s fi lms through a Proppian lens. controversy. Opponents of Propp are critical In terms of the Brat fi lms, their affi nity with of the widespread use of his structural out- a Western style of blockbuster fi lmmak- line, which was based on only a small class ing and intense engagement with Russian of Russian tales. They also note the short- cultural traditions, values and narrative comings of structural approaches which genres, makes Propp’s work particularly strip texts of their details to focus only on relevant as an analytical tool. stock structural elements that could be end- lessly manipulated to almost any text (Chat- BRAT man 1980: 15–17). Finally, feminist, post- The dramatis personae in Brat are: Danila colonialist and linguistic scholars have noted (hero); Kruglyi (villain); World War II veteran the problems associated with reductionist (donor); Hoffmann and Kat (helpers); Sveta elements in Propp’s approach which limit (princess); Mother (dispatcher); and Viktor the agency of both characters and audience (false hero). In both Brat fi lms, the charac- within a ‘closed text’ (Lesinskis 2010: 38). ters are often called by their nicknames (i.e. David Bordwell is particularly critical of the Chechen; Kruglyi [Roundy]; Nemets [the the use of Propp in fi lm analysis, emphasis- German]; Tatarin [the Tatar]; the Fascist),

72 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE which reinforces their roles as stock char- function (γ2). Rather than the hero receiving acters whose primary purpose is to assist in an interdiction not to do something, he is the hero’s journey. Yana Hashamova notes instead ordered to complete a task (‘bring that in Brat 2, as in the fi rst fi lm, characters breakfast out into the fi eld’) or go some- ‘lack individuality or psychological sub- where (‘take your brother to the woods’) stance and are presented on the screen as (Propp 1968: 27). The fulfi lment of this com- ciphers’ (2007: 51). mand then substitutes as the violation of In addition to a continuity of functions the interdiction. Thus, Danila’s interdiction and dramatis personae, Propp notes other is delivered by his mother who orders him to features of the wonder tale. Most important seek out his brother in St. Petersburg. are the tale’s ‘auxiliary’ functions, or the The next four functions (‘reconnais- ‘elements upon which the course of the ac- sance (ε)’; ‘delivery (ζ)’; ‘trickery (η)’; and tion is built’, but that are not essential for ‘complicity (θ)’) establish the villain and de- the plot development (Propp 1968: 71). In pict his illicit actions (‘villainy (Α)’). The for- the Brat fi lms, there are several events in mer functions mark the end of the prologue Danila’s quest that are important, but nev- portion of the tale while the fi fth launches ertheless asides to the primary trajectory of the story’s action. Kruglyi, or Roundy the fi lm. For example, in Brat, Danila’s en- (named for his bald, round head), is a mafi a counter with the Chechen men on the tram; leader and the unquestionable villain of the party he attends with Kat; Sveta’s rape; Brat. He speaks almost entirely in proverbs, and his obsession with the musical group infusing the fi lm with the familiar language Nautilus Pompilius (Larsen 2003: 505; of the folk, the ‘Zhili byli’ (‘Жили-были’, ‘Once Österberg 2006: 49–52). These scenes have upon a time’), of the traditional tale. received attention from scholars who rightly The functions involving the villain point out their signifi cance to the fi lms’ ne- are fulfi lled in one of the opening scenes gotiation of the central issues of ‘patrimony, in which Viktor negotiates a fee to mur- paternity and patriotism’ (Larsen 2003: 494). der Kruglyi’s enemy, the Chechen, a mafi a I also believe that these auxiliary events in boss who controls the local rynok (рынок, the fi lm represent Balabanov’s fi lmmaking market).6 As with the interdiction, the re- creativity – the real sites for exploring his connaissance function in Brat takes the auteur style and stand out even more in the inverted form (ε2) marked by ‘the intended fi lm given the formulaic structure of the victim question[ing] the villain’ (Propp 1968: narrative. While the auxiliary events in Brat 28). Viktor demands Kruglyi pay him twenty provide the fi lm’s important cultural insight, thousand dollars for the hit and that he those in Brat 2 are not only fewer in number, deliver half of the cash up front. The subse- but carry much less symbolic weight. quent reaction is also inverted (‘information Propp notes that all tales begin with an gathering evokes a corresponding answer ‘initial situation’ (α) in which the future hero (ζ2)’) when Kruglyi responds by agreeing to and members of his family are enumerated. Viktor’s terms. (Figure 3) However, his reti- In Brat, this is established by the series of cence betrays both his mistrust of Viktor brief episodes, each introducing a member and his plan to eliminate him once the hit of the family or Danila himself, each termi- is complete. This action fulfi ls the villain’s nating with a cut to black. Also established ‘employing other means of deception (η3)’ during these introductory scenes are the to appease the intended victim (Viktor). fi rst, second and third functions: ‘Absen- tation (β)’; ‘Interdiction (γ)’; and ‘Violation 6 It is signifi cant that the fi rst ‘dragon’ Danila is tasked to slay is given the epithet, ‘The Chechen’. Several of the Interdiction (δ)’. Brat contains two scholars have observed that in the traditional bylina absences marked by the ‘death of a parent (and even the wonder tale), the foreign enemy, most 2 notably a Chechen or Tatar, is the intended target for (β )’ (Danila’s father) and a ‘missing mem- the hero to destroy. America (Westernisation) also ber of the younger generation (β3)’ (Viktor). looms large as an allegorical enemy in Brat and becomes the literal foreign enemy to be defeated in The interdiction is an inverted form of this Brat 2 (Blakey 1923: 528).

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Viktor’s commitment to carrying out the She also notes that this tension between hit fulfi ls ‘θ’ (‘the victim submits to decep- the individual and the collective is not sim- tion and thereby unwittingly helps his en- ply at the heart of socialist realist novels, emy’) (Propp 1968: 30). Viktor departs from but is ‘one of the key binary oppositions in Kruglyi’s offi ce unaware of the peril he has Russian culture’ (Clark 1981: 20). placed himself in while Kruglyi commands Balabanov is able to resurrect this his men to keep an eye on Viktor, with the quest for consciousness, for integration implication that he will be punished for his into something broader than the self in his insubordination. This declaration fulfi ls ‘an portrayal of Danila’s journey from isolated, order of a murder’ (A13). The subsequent directionless boy to national hero, sur- functions will shift the focus of the narra- rounded by ‘brothers’ and others devoted to tive back to the hero. the homeland.7 His lack of connection and The next phase of the journey consciousness initiates several subplots (launched by ‘A’), begins with the demon- in the fi lm including Danila’s relationship stration of the hero’s lack of, or desire for, with his moral adviser Hoffmann, his friend something (a). These lacks or desires will Kat and lover Sveta. These elements of the be liquidated at the end of the quest. Propp fi lms’ plot are strongly associated with the (1968: 36) emphasises that the hero either adolescent’s ‘desire to follow other models sets out searching specifi cally to fi ll these for identifi cation but at the same time be voids or that the lack is revealed in the his/her unique self’ (Hashamova 2007: 48). process of the quest. Balabanov, adher- In addition to the more complex lack ing to the latter model, provides the viewer explained above, Danila is also lacking a with several motivations for Danila’s quest. bride and a kingdom, common motivat- While Danila’s lack of a father launches his ing forces in the wonder tale. His search initial quest for his brother, and serves as a for these two things serves as a subtext catalyst for the action of the fi lms, this task throughout both fi lms and is ultimately re- is essentially completed early in the fi lm solved in Brat 2 when he books a date with when he locates Viktor, indicating that his the pop icon Irina Saltykova and returns to journey is about something larger. Danila’s Russia, a kingdom which has had its glory abandonment of Viktor at the end of the restored thanks in part to Danila’s heroic fi rst and second fi lms further indicates that actions in America. the ‘Brat’ or ‘Bratstvo’ (‘Братство’, ‘brother- After the hero’s lack is exposed, the hood’) that Danila is searching for is more next function for Propp is the ‘media- symbolic than genetic. tion’ or ‘connective incident’ (B) in which a Perhaps the more important lack Da- misfortune is made known or the hero is nila seeks to fi ll is his lack of human con- approached with a request or command nection, or place in the world: he is a young and is then dispatched. Brat contains two man in search of his ‘self’. This defi cit of variations of this function. The fi rst, ‘Misfor- human connection in the chaotic 1990s tune is announced (B4)’, takes place when is something that many Russian viewers Viktor pleads with Danila to help him with could closely identify with. Clark notes that the murder of the Chechen, explaining that the paths of heroes in Soviet novels often not only is his life in danger if the Chechen focused on leading them toward social inte- runs the market, but that all Russians will gration and were framed around negotiating be ‘smothered’ if the Chechen continues the tension between the individual and the to operate. This is followed by ‘The Hero is collective. She describes this tension as the dispatched directly (B2)’ when Viktor sends ‘spontaneity/consciousness dialectic’, which casts spontaneity as a ‘primitive social form’ 7 Susan Larsen (2003: 511) highlights the more focused on the individual while ‘conscious- complex aspects of Danila’s understanding of this ness’ is the ultimate force operating in the national consciousness, emphasising the link to the Stalin era ‘Great Family’ collective rooted in ‘best interests of society’ (Clark 1981: 16). patrilineal masculinity.

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FIGURE 3. FIGURE 4.

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Danila to carry out the assassination of the creature attempts to destroy hero’ (D8); and Chechen (Propp 1968: 37). ‘B’ marks a criti- ‘hero is shown a magical agent which is of- cal point in the narrative: ‘the arrival of the fered for exchange’ (D10) (Propp 1968: 40). hero’ (Propp 1968: 36). Though the viewer The donor occupies an important role in the encountered the future hero in the prologue, wonder tale as he provides the hero with the his role is confi rmed during this phase. magical agent that will help him complete Danila emerges at this point as the undis- his quest. In Brat, the donor is the unlikely puted hero of the tale while Viktor’s heroic character of the drunken, wiry old veteran possibilities are quickly negated when he who lives in the communal apartment in deceives his younger brother, thus becom- which Danila plots his fi rst hit. (Figure 4) ing the tale’s ‘false hero’. The next functions, The choice of this withered alcoholic as the ‘Beginning counteraction (C)’ and ‘departure donor also provides commentary on the (↑)’ are fulfi lled when Danila accepts Viktor’s fate of even the ‘greatest generation’ of men pleas for him to undertake the murder of in post-Soviet Russia and the reduction of the Chechen and departs to fulfi l this prom- these heroes of old to peddlers of weapons ise (Propp 1968: 39). for the new generation of killer-heroes. The It is typically during the ‘departure (↑)’ fi rst time he enters the apartment where stage of the tale that the hero will come into the old man lives, Danila is shown the gun contact with two signifi cant personae: the that will eventually serve as the magical helper and the donor. It is thus appropriate agent (D10) that will allow him to complete that at this point Danila receives assis- his ultimate task: slaying Kruglyi. tance from Hoffmann and meets the future After Danila kills the Chechen, he is donor (the World War II veteran). Though shot by Kruglyi’s hostile men (D8). The sec- Danila has already encountered Hoffmann, ond function (E) is fulfi lled when Danila the fi rst time he employs him in the helper ‘survives the test (E1)’ by successfully car- capacity is to fi nd an apartment to use as rying out the hit on the Chechen for Viktor a base camp for his counteraction against and shooting one of Kruglyi’s men, thus the Chechen. While the helper can aid in saving himself ‘from an attempt on his life the hero’s quest in multiple ways, Propp by employing the same tactics used by his notes that his most important attribute is adversary’ (E8) (Propp 1968: 42–43). In the ‘his prophetic wisdom’ (Propp 1968: 83). Brat fi lms, the ‘DE’ grouping, the process of Hoffmann is indeed Danila’s moral anchor.8 being tested and surviving, repeats itself six His wisdom is offered early in the fi lm when times (trebling) until Danila is fi nally able he advises Danila to beware of the dangers to obtain the magical agent. He has two of the city. He warns: ‘The city? The city is sets of trials (each made up of three parts): an evil force. And the larger the city, the the fi rst represented by the three rounds stronger it is. It sucks one in. Only the strong of murder he commits before fi nally assas- can extricate oneself from it.’ Though Danila sinating Kruglyi and the second set of trials ultimately succumbs to the city, Hoffmann associated with his quest for social connec- appears frequently, offering guidance, wis- tion. The latter three (the excursion to the dom and advice at critical junctures in the club with Kat; the party attended by Nau- hero’s quest. tilus’ lead singer Vyacheslav Butusov; and The next three functions of the tale: Sveta’s rape) represent some of the most ‘The fi rst function of the donor’ (D); ‘hero important auxiliary functions in the fi lm.9 reacts’ (E); and ‘Provision or receipt of a magical agents’ (F) can also be grouped. 9 Kat is an involuntary helper who shows the hero the path to the underworld. She lures Danila off of his path, Brat offers multiple versions of the fi rst introducing him to acid, taking him to a Western- function ‘D’: ‘hero is tested’ (D1); ‘hostile oriented club, then to an after-party where she sleeps with him and steals his wallet. This party is about sex, drugs and American music which are all repulsive 8 Österberg (2006: 12–13) provides interesting analysis of to Danila (though he willingly participates in the former the character as an allusion to the German wonder tale two). His negative attitude reinforces his ethnocentric author, E. T. A. Hoffmann. and nationalist affi nities.

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These trials are pivotal subplots for the plished as a ‘direct result of his preceding fi lm’s action and opportunities for Bala- actions (K4)’. The acquisition of the suitcase banov to make his artistic mark, but they do full of money also makes Danila very rich, not signifi cantly infl uence the trajectory or thus satisfying, ‘utilization of the magical outcome of Danila’s quest. It is ultimately agent to overcome poverty (K6)’. the initial encounter with the donor that Despite having just slain the dragon, makes it possible for Danila to fulfi l the Danila’s journey is not complete. He warns next function, ‘F’, when he purchases the Viktor to leave town, to return to their gun from the old man for two hundred dol- mother in order to avoid retaliation. He him- lars (‘F4: the agent is sold and purchased’) self prepares to leave town – fi rst returning (Propp 1968: 44). (‘↓’) to Sveta’s apartment to rescue her. It The next function, ‘spatial transference is here that Danila encounters her angry (G)’, is carried out when, after reconfi gur- husband who attempts to start a fi ght with ing the old man’s gun and ammunition into Danila and banish him from the apartment a more compact and deadly tool, Danila is (‘pursuit (Pr)’). After shooting her husband, transferred to Viktor’s home. Here he ‘climbs but failing to lure Sveta away, Danila leaves a stairway (G5)’ and enters the apartment. the apartment, walks to the edge of the Danila then participates in a ‘struggle’ in city and, emerging from a snowy forest, is which the ‘hero and villain engage in direct picked up by a passing truck driver (‘rescue combat (H)’ (Propp 1968: 51). Danila has (Rs)’) (Propp 1968: 56). a shootout with Kruglyi and his men, kill- Many tales end here, with the hero ing all but one bodyguard. The murder of returning home after having completed his Kruglyi achieves ‘victory (I)’ (Propp 1968: 53). quest. However, as Propp observes while Specifi cally, the murder before the villain ‘a great number of tales end on the note has a chance to draw his weapon, satisfi es of rescue from pursuit … this is far from ‘I5’ (‘villain is killed without a preliminary always being the case. A tale may have fi ght’). In a rare instance of the functions another misfortune in store for the hero: a falling out of order, Danila obtains Kruglyi’s villain may appear once again’ (Propp 1968: briefcase fi lled with American dollars and 58). The new adventure is launched by is thus ‘branded’, receiving a contemporarily another villainous act, prompting a ‘move’ appropriate suitcase full of money instead (Propp 1968: 59). For Propp, the second tale of the folkloric ‘ring or a towel (J2)’ to mark essentially repeats the functions of the fi rst his victory (Propp 1968: 54). Propp’s next through the function ‘G’ (‘the hero is brought function, ‘[i]nitial misfortune or lack is liqui- or transported to the location of the object dated’ (K), marks the peak of the narrative. of the quest’), at which point a new set of Danila liquidates the lack of a father-fi gure functions follows (Propp 1968: 59). by rescuing Viktor and affi rming their broth- There are several elements at the erly bond. (Figure 5) This task is accom- end of Brat which predict that Danila will continue his adventures. The most obvious A stark contrast is drawn between the party Danila is his physical departure for Moscow. The follows Butusov into and the one at the club. Here he confronts a part of Russian culture from which he forest represents the symbolic site of tran- stands removed, but is drawn to. Danila silently sition in the folk tale and the long, isolated observes the young Bohemians relaxing in an intellectual’s apartment – singing Russian songs and road Danila and the driver navigate marks playing the guitar. He is a detached voyeur, mesmerised a clear shift away from the gleaming water- by the appeal of this very ‘Russian’ cultural experience (Larsen 2003: 507). ways of St. Petersburg. Morphologically, at After Sveta’s rape, Danila fi nds her intoxicated in her the end of Brat, Danila has not completed kitchen, bloodied and singing. He does not comfort her and his one emotional outburst stems from wounded the heroic cycle as he has not liquidated pride, not empathy. For him, Sveta represents the many of his lacks. Specifi cally, his journey motherland: her defi lement is the country’s and delivers a blow to both his masculinity and his status as hero – of self-discovery is not yet complete as he a fall from grace that is emphasised, as Larsen notes, still seems to lack any real consciousness by the ‘Bogatyri’ tapestry in the background of the rape scene (2003: 507). or human connection. By the end of the fi lm,

77 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2015 / VOLUME 3 / ARTICLE he has become distanced from Hoffmann. The villain in the second fi lm emerges This distance is reinforced when Danila at- as an American, Mr. Mennis, who is con- tempts to give his wise helper a stack of ducting shady business in Moscow with an Kruglyi’s dollars, indicating his failure to equally corrupt Russian banker. Mennis is connect with Hoffmann’s values. He fails to linked with a group of Ukrainian mafi a men establish a lasting connection with Kat who who are not only producing snuff fi lms in gladly accepts the money Danila offers her which Russian girls are raped and killed and skips out of the McDonalds where they on camera, but are extorting money from have met immediately after the transfer. Mitya’s brother, an NHL player in Chicago. Danila also leaves Viktor, sending his broth- Mitya, a guard at the bank, pleads with his er back to the provinces. Finally, he lacks boss to discuss his brother’s issues with a bride, the result of his inability to rescue Mennis – a plea for which he is murdered. Sveta. These outstanding lacks strongly Mitya’s death serves as the catalyst for indicate that another cycle of adventure is Danila’s second adventure-quest, sending essential to affi rm his heroism. him to America to take on the Ukrainian mafi a. BRAT 2 Danila departs for America only after a As Propp indicates is typical of wonder dramatic fi re fi ght with the Moscow-based tale sequels, the fi rst part of Brat 2 follows gangsters, aided in his pursuit by Ilya and closely the formula of the fi rst fi lm. Instead the recently arrived Viktor. The three obtain of stumbling into a music video shoot, Da- their cache of weapons from the Fascist, a nila walks onto the set of a television com- wiry young man who believes that Russia is mercial; the opening scene of Brat in which in a constant state of war (a mantra Danila Danila’s mother extolls Viktor’s virtues is re- embraces). After successfully defeating the placed with her chastising Viktor and prais- gangsters, Danila and Viktor acquire fake ing Danila (she orders the elder son to Mos- documents (magical objects) and set off for cow); Danila’s background is still mysterious America. – while he now admits to serving in Chechn- Danila’s arrival in the United States ya, he makes the dubious claim that he is a marks the ‘move’, which Propp notes is medical student. His appearance and naïve common in the wonder tale when a second schoolboy attitude remain intact, though he journey is begun by the hero (Propp 1968: leads a more public life, appearing on tel- 58). As the fi rst of the sequel’s functions, evision to discuss his heroic military service ‘the hero, unrecognized arrives home or in with his two buddies. These friends, Ilya and another country (o)’ indicates, Danila’s ar- Mitya, establish Danila as part of a trio (tre- rival in New York goes unnoticed as he eas- bling) and reinforce his nationalistic, rather ily avoids the group of thugs waiting for him than biological, understanding of ‘brother- in Chicago, his expected destination (Propp hood’. As in Brat, the roles of the dramatis 1968: 60). The appearance of the hero in the personae are occupied by archetypal char- new kingdom is followed by the next mor- acters whose actions serve to reinforce Da- phological step, ‘unfounded claims (L)’, in nila’s heroic quest. The dramatis personae which the false hero presents himself (Propp in Brat 2 are: Danila (hero); Mr. Mennis, the 1968: 60). Viktor immediately reaffi rms this American (villain); the Fascist (donor); Ilya role. His adventures are increasingly distant and Lisa Jeffrey10 (helpers); Dasha and Irina from Danila’s and serve as a comic foil to his Saltykova (princesses); Mitya (dispatcher); brother’s high-morality quest. Unfortunately, and Viktor (false hero). though entertaining on some level, Viktor’s character becomes irrelevant to the second 10 A recent interview with the actress Lisa Jeffrey, who fi lm’s main plot, his adventures degenerat- plays a character by the same name in Brat 2 reveals her understanding that the fi rst fi lm was ing until he becomes the fool, a stereotyped so successful because Danila’s character ‘ha[d] come hybrid between a ‘New Russian’ Al Capone to encapsulate their need for a new heroic icon’ (White 2014). and the corner pimp.

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FIGURE 5. FIGURE 6.

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Upon Danila’s arrival in Brighton Beach, avenges his friend’s murder by ascending he is duped by a Russian car salesman the fi re escape of the skyscraper in which who sells him a lemon which leaves him Mennis works, sharing a shot of vodka with stranded in Pennsylvania. In another paral- him and then reclaiming the money ex- lel with the fi rst fi lm, Danila is picked up by torted from his friend’s brother. (Figure 7) In an amiable truck driver, Ben, who takes him a monologue delivered to the terrifi ed busi- under his wing and drives him to Chicago. nessman, Danila describes his guiding mor- Once there, he offers to further help Danila al principle. Asking Mennis rhetorically from by ‘getting him a girl’. Danila refuses the offer where he draws his power, Danila says that only after he realises that the prostitute who he believes that power is in the truth (‘sila v approached their truck, the bald-headed pravde’, ‘ сила в правде’) and that whoever is Marilyn, is actually a Russian woman, Da- correct/truthful is the most powerful. Da- sha. Horrifi ed by the presence of a Rus- nila contrasts this belief with what he sees sian woman turning tricks on the streets of as the American conviction that the source Chicago, especially under the control of an of power is money. This moment of the fi lm, African-American pimp, Danila is compelled indeed Danila’s quote, ‘sila v pravde’, is one to rescue her. Though Danila has journeyed of the most cited of the fi lm with multiple to America to avenge Mitya’s death and aid YouTube clips devoted to capturing Danila’s his brother, it is the rescue of Dasha11 that philosophical declaration. The quote, along becomes the primary goal of his quest and with images from the fi lm, also appears in represents the next morphological step, ‘dif- several internet memes and on fan posters. fi cult task (M)’ (Propp 1968: 60). After the killing of Mennis and her own Unlike the detailed functions in the rescue, the previously cynical Dasha ac- fi rst portion of the hero’s journey, those knowledges and praises Danila’s heroism, defi ned by Propp in the second are much fulfi lling the next function ‘recognition (Q)’. broader, often unconcerned with the steps The subsequent function, ‘false hero or vil- along which tasks are completed, focus- lain is exposed (Ex)’, is fulfi lled when Dasha ing instead on the big picture achievement identifi es Viktor an ‘ass’ (kozel, козел), un- of goals. Thus, it is already in the next step worthy of Danila’s loyalty (Propp 1968: 62). of the morphology that the ‘diffi cult task’ His false heroism is reinforced when he is is resolved in ‘N’ (‘solution’) (Propp 1968: arrested (for murdering a mafi a man) after 62). After several encounters with Dasha’s a standoff with the police. As Viktor cowers pimp and a repetition of Danila’s methodi- in an abandoned house, Danila and Dasha cal weapon-making process featured in simply stand amid the crowd of onlookers. the fi rst fi lm (this time he crafts a gun us- This time Danila does not forgive Viktor for ing just an old chair) (Figure 6), he rescues his recklessness, but instead watches the Dasha, shooting down her captor and his action passively. Lipovetsky notes that cohorts in a stairwell. Danila also resolves Danila abandons Viktor largely because his other task: avenging Mitya’s death and the older brother has been taken in by the reclaiming his brother’s money – Danila has perceived American value of selfi shness and little interest in the latter. The fi lm includes worship of money (Липовецкий 2000: 57). the resolution of this task as an aside, The last three functions in the fi lm: subordinating it to Dasha’s rescue. Never- ‘transfi guration (T)’; ‘punishment (U)’; and theless, empowered with the ‘truth’, Danila ‘wedding (W)’ verge on the absurd (Propp 1968: 62). In order to elude the mafi a, Da- 11 The prostitute rescue plot is a resurrection of nila and Dasha don disguises at the airport. 19th and early 20th century tropes. Unlike in most of those stories, Danila is successful in his attempt to Enlisting Ben’s help, the two emerge from a ‘save’ Dasha and return her to the safety of shiny 1930s era Rolls Royce in their attire Russia, affi rming his masculinity and Russia’s superiority. Lipovetsky (2000: 59) observes that Dasha from the same decade. Danila wears a fedo- is reminiscent of the fallen women characters from ra, double breasted suit and wide tie while Soviet literature who, fi nding themselves in the capitalist West, were forced into prostitution. Dasha dons a bobbed wig and thick fur coat.

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FIGURE 7. FIGURE 8.

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These new markedly conspicuous garments a legitimate, if not admired, heroic ethos in somehow manage to conceal their identities Russia, reinforcing the values his character from the thugs awaiting them in the termi- promotes: patriarchy, violence and the exter- nal, allowing them to whisk past the bum- mination of anyone who is not ‘nashi’ (‘наши’, bling Ukrainians and through security. These ‘ours’). Hashamova observes that the amoral costumes also fulfi l function ‘T3’ (‘the hero elements of Danila’s character are framed puts on new garments’) (Propp 1968: 63). by the director simply as a part of the tran- ‘U’ (‘Villain is punished’) is satisfi ed sition process, part of Danila’s adolescent when Dasha, told that she cannot return to angst, thus redefi ning extreme violence as America because she violated the terms of ‘acceptable and even necessary’ (Hashamo- her visa, extends her middle fi nger to the va 2007: 48). Cox saw the same combination fl ight agents as she boards the Moscow- of an avoidance of didactics and embracing bound Aerofl ot plane. Her graphic signal of heroic models in the 17th and 18th cen- of disdain for America is the punishment turies: the readers ‘wanted entertainment delivered not only to the fl ight crew, but the … Yet … this group sought a literary cultural country itself. America is held responsible hero, a fi gure who could represent their own for every amoral act that occurs within its hopes for success in an exaggerated, but not borders including Dasha’s traffi cking into the altogether unrealistic, way’ (Cox 1980: 86). sex trade, the fl ourishing of the mafi a, and In the Brat fi lms, Danila offers a fl awed, the worship of money. ‘America’ is revealed as yet relatable hero, who not only promotes the primary villain of both fi lms, defeated at Russian values, but whose journey offers a last when Danila rescues Dasha, symbolical- black and white interpretation of the world ly saving Russia and returning to his home- and an escapist adventure to an audience land (rodina, родина) as not only the bearer steeped in the ambiguity and unpredictability of moral superiority and truth, but with his of a rapidly changing post-Soviet landscape. potential bride awaiting him (he makes a Like the heroic, but not always good bogatyr, date with Irina Saltykova via cell phone as Danila is embraced as an unquestionable he boards the plane) (‘W’) (Hashamova 2007: hero. The audience seems to admire, or at 55). (Figure 8) It is only upon the completion least understand, him precisely because he of this fi nal function that Danila’s quest, be- is wary of ‘others’, puts America in its place gun in the chill of St. Petersburg, is complete. and seeks to protect Russian ideals and new models for Russian masculinity (Hashamova CONCLUSION 2007: 48; Larsen 2003: 493). A sign that the Balabanov’s fi lm reinforces the folkloric value system promoted by the fi lms still reso- associations with its hero not only through nates with a contemporary Russian audience plot details, allusions and familiar tropes, was revealed in a recent interview with cur- but with a narrative structure rooted in rent President Vladimir Putin. Discussing the Russia’s folk traditions. This multi-faceted crises facing the country, particularly Russia’s approach to supporting the fi lm’s narrative position vis-à-vis the West, Putin, without with a framework that adheres so closely making any explicit reference to the Brat to Propp’s makes the fi lm even more acces- fi lms, reassured his audience that ‘[w]e sible and historically relevant to viewers. It are stronger because we are right. Power is is not only the casting of the folkloric hero in the truth [‘сила в правде’]’ (‘Интервю’ 2014). that is important in Brat, but the narra- This almost verbatim reiteration of Danila’s tive morphology itself which so effectively monologue (delivered by Balabanov’s hero frames the fi lms’ messages about Russia’s just prior to exterminating the American identity, past, present and future. businessman, a metonym for America itself) The lack of judgment passed on Danila is a key example of the continued relevance in the fi lms liberates the Brat fi lms from So- of Balabanov’s fi lms and also of the echo viet didactics, but nevertheless allows their chamber of politics, popular culture and na- hero’s actions to be interpreted as part of tionalist speech in contemporary Russia.

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