Philippine Journal of Science 150 (4): 611-623, August 2021 ISSN 0031 - 7683 Date Received: 18 Jan 2021

Waste Profile and -to-Energy Conversion Potential of Medical, Hazardous Industrial, and Electronic Residual in Metro Manila, Philippines

Ferdinand Manegdeg1,4,5, Analiza Rollon2,4,5, Eduardo Magdaluyo Jr.3, Florencio Ballesteros Jr.2,5, Louernie de Sales-Papa5, Eligia Clemente3,5, Emma Macapinlac2, Roderaid Ibanez1, and Rinlee Butch Cervera3,4,5*

1Department of Mechanical Engineering 2Department of Chemical Engineering 3Department of , Metallurgical, and Materials Engineering 4Energy Engineering Program 5Environmental Engineering Program College of Engineering, University of the Philippines Diliman Quezon City 1101 Philippines

Waste disposal is an important issue that needs to be addressed, not only for health and environmental reasons but also for its social and economic impacts. Three important waste streams that contribute to the growing amount of wastes generated come from medical, industrial, and electronic residual wastes. These residual wastes are usually just being dumped or disposed of in sanitary . Apart from finding solutions to these environmental waste problems, these wastes can be a possible source of energy that can support our energy sustainability. In this study, three different waste streams, medical, industrial, and electronic wastes in Metro Manila – the capital region in the Philippines – were profiled and investigated for their potential as waste-to-energy (WTE) feeds. The daily generation, types of wastes, and heating values were studied. The total generated daily waste for medical wastes, hazardous industrial wastes, and residual electronic wastes that have a potential for WTE was about 143,834 kg/d or about 52,500 tons/yr. Its total energy potential was about 4,727 GJ/d. These large amounts of residual WTE feeds can potentially support daily energy needs, as well as mitigate problems associated with the typical disposal of these hazardous and residual wastes.

Keywords: , , medical waste, waste disposal, waste-to-energy

INTRODUCTION become increasingly visible in streets, private and public lands, rivers, lakes, beaches, coastal areas, and even Environmental problems and socio-economic impacts offshores. Mismanaged solid wastes may have been due to mismanaged wastes are some of the big issues causing declining health, contamination of soil and water and concerns, especially in developing countries. As a due to degradation of illegally dumped solid waste, and consequence, littered and illegally dumped solid wastes declining tourism due to visible littered wastes (Rushton *Corresponding Author: [email protected] 2003). One of the reasons for mismanaged solid wastes

611 Philippine Journal of Science Manegdeg et al.: Profile and Energy Conversion Potential Vol. 150 No. 4, August 2021 of Wastes in Metro Manila, Philippines is the lack of solid waste disposal facilities. Apart from and coefficient of energy efficiency of an incinerator for environmental concerns, in the Philippines – for example medical waste combustion from a certain hospital facility. – the increasing demand for energy and energy security Similarly, Singh and Khosla (2017) reported and focus is also one of the important issues that the Philippine their study on the comparative performance of materials of government needs to address. Hence, there is a crucial medical waste incinerators. The profile of medical waste need to manage and build facilities that can reduce wastes and compositional study were also not reported. Manegdeg volume and at the same time taking advantage to utilizing et al. (2020) reported medical waste characterization the energy from waste to generate electricity that can and electricity generation using pyrolyzer-rankine cycle; support the energy supply. however, the scope of the study was only limited to specialty hospitals in one particular city. On the other hand, there WTE is considered as one of the sustainable means of are also very limited reports for the WTE potential of and promising technologies for future hazardous industrial wastes (Eddine and Sallah 2012; Lupa renewable energy sources (Kothari et al. 2010; Kumar and et al. 2011). Eddine and Sallah (2012) reported the use of Samadder 2017; Eddine and Sallah 2012). Common WTE commercial and industrial waste in energy recovery systems technologies such as , pyrolysis, and gasification in the UK; however, no waste profiling was done and only typically utilize municipal solid wastes as raw material feed reported the energy generation potential taken from waste (Kumar and Samadder 2017; Tan et al. 2015; Agaton et al. samples at waste management sites. And for residual 2020). Moreover, wastes feed such as agricultural or biomass electronic wastes as potential feed for WTE, there are none wastes are also considered as potential renewable energy feed published yet up to date to the best of our knowledge. sources (Kothari et al. 2010). However, in order to realize and sustain further this WTE as a future renewable energy In this study, waste profiling and characterization of source, other potential wastes are needed. medical, hazardous industrial, and electronic wastes were conducted in Metropolitan Manila, Philippines. The waste Apart from municipal solid wastes, other major wastes that generation and profile for each of these waste streams were have potential as WTE feed sources are those coming from investigated and its potential as feed for WTE. medical facilities, hazardous wastes from industries, and different residual electronic wastes. Most of the residual wastes from these waste streams, after segregation and treatment, usually just end up in storage facilities – or MATERIALS AND METHODS worst – in landfills. For medical wastes, for example, the global wastes generated surge and increase manifolds during the COVID-19 pandemic, which adds up to our Medical Wastes Analysis and Characterization waste problems (Sarkodie and Owusu 2020; Klemes et In this study, guided by the categories from the Department al. 2020). Hazardous industrial wastes, on the other hand, of Health (DOH) Memorandum No. 2012-0012 and the such as paints and used oils and grease after treatment just 2019 National Health Facility Registry listing in the end up also in storage facilities or in landfills. Moreover, Philippines, the total number per medical facility category for electronic wastes – after segregating and recovering the was first obtained. There are five major medical facility recyclable materials – the residual electronic wastes also categories – namely, general hospitals, specialty hospitals, are just being disposed of in landfills. These three different stand-alone facilities, rural health centers, and barangay wastes streams – instead of adding to environmental waste health centers. Within the database of the category, the problems – may have potential benefits as a WTE feed, selection of the sampling sites had been randomized, which can help not only in managing these wastes but also with certain consideration that the samples had been to provide alternative source and energy supply support. dispersed throughout the metropolis. This was to ensure that representation of a wide distribution of populations There are various reports on the waste management, and various districts will be presented in the study. In this treatment, or disposal technologies for medical wastes report, only general hospitals and those specialty hospitals (Zhao et al. 2009; Cai and Du 2020; Caniato et al. 2016; were considered. Rural health centers and barangay health Khan et al. 2019; Hong et al. 2018; Jang et al. 2006; Nema centers were also investigated; however, initial studies and Ganeshprasad 2002); however, only very limited from these facilities showed varying and very minimal reports were published on the potential of medical waste daily wastes. Stand-alone facilities such as dialysis centers for WTE so far (Bujak 2009; Singh and Khosla 2017; and dental clinics were also excluded. Manegdeg et al. 2020). Bujak (2009) reported the energy efficiency of an incinerator for medical waste; however, For the sampling sites, different hospitals were first classified no detailed profiling and elementary composition of in accordance to DOH Memorandum No. 2012-0012, medical wastes were provided, and the study was focus which classifies medical facilities under various categories mainly on the experimental analysis of useful energy flux – each based on their general function, bed capacity, service

612 Philippine Journal of Science Manegdeg et al.: Profile and Energy Conversion Potential Vol. 150 No. 4, August 2021 of Wastes in Metro Manila, Philippines capabilities, and training hospitals. According to functional types from all the hospitals were segregated and weighed capacity, general hospitals may be classified based on their according to the waste material. This method was applied bed capacities, which are ranked from Level 1 to Level 4 due to the constraints and protocol of the hospitals involved. hospitals. These levels account for their capacity to treat On the other hand, for infectious waste – due to health patients based on their needs – from simple to complex hazards – only the estimation was done on the types and treatments. Specialty hospitals are sub-categories also quantity via visual inspection of the waste bag. The weight considered in the functional capacity category. of the waste bag was determined using a weighing balance. Further verification on the reliability of this approach was Waste profiling from the randomized different hospital done through laboratory weighing of clean samples and sites was conducted during the pre-COVID-19 pandemic multiplied by the respective number of the samples during between November 2019 up to February 2020. Three the inspection, including some correction factor to account hospitals for Levels 1 and 2, three hospitals for Levels 3 for other matters such as dirt, moisture, and among others and 4, and four specialty hospitals were considered as the that added up to the actual weight. Heating values of sampling sites wherein the last three specialty hospitals general medical waste were compared from literature values were taken with reference to our previous study (Manegdeg (Sharuddin 2016; Erdincler and Visilind 1993) and those et al. 2020). These hospitals account for about 6% of medical wastes that were infectious were obtained using the total general and specialty hospitals in Metropolitan a bomb calorimeter by using a representative clean waste Manila. The data collection involved sending a request to material sample since literature values are not available. a particular hospital and meeting with a control officer to discuss pertinent data and outcomes for the data collection in their facility. Appropriate health protocols Industrial Wastes Analysis and Characterization were observed during the collection of waste materials For hazardous wastes, only the collection of secondary by wearing proper personal protective equipment. Daily data was conducted due to legal and safety restrictions gathering of data on the general and infectious wastes in handling these kinds of wastes. The hazardous was done and lasted for eight days. On both waste types, waste types were based on Chapter 2 (Classification of all bags of the same waste type generated within the day ) of the Department of Environment were weighed to obtain the total weight. Total generated and Natural Resources (DENR) Administrative Order waste per day in a facility was obtained from the hospital (DAO) No. 2010-22. This list classifies hazardous wastes waste data weighed every day after collection, and then into 56 types based on a combination of industry source, the daily average was taken for the eight-day generation. main constituents, and the kind of medium the waste is To identify the individual weights per waste material, three contained in. The final list of waste types, as shown in bags of the total bag number per day of the general waste Table 1, was selected using the inclusion and exclusion

Table 1. Hazardous waste types for WTE (DENR–EMB DAO 2013-22). Class Description Waste number F. Inks/ Dyes/ Pigments/ Paint/ Resins/ Latex/ Adhesives/ Organic Solvent-based Includes all solvent-based wastes that also meet one or more of F601 the subcategories Inorganic pigments Includes all wastewater treatment sludge from the production of F602 inorganic pigments H. Organic wastes Grease wastes Includes all grease wastes generated from establishments such H802 as industrial, commercial, and institutional facilities I. Oil Used or waste oil Used industrial oil, including sludge I101 Vegetable oil, including sludge I102 Tallow I103 Oil-contaminated materials I104 M. Miscellaneous wastes Pharmaceuticals and drugs Expired pharmaceuticals and drugs stocked at producers’ M503 and retailers’ facilities that contain hazardous constituents harmful to the environment such as antibiotics, veterinary and phytopharmaceuticals, among others

613 Philippine Journal of Science Manegdeg et al.: Profile and Energy Conversion Potential Vol. 150 No. 4, August 2021 of Wastes in Metro Manila, Philippines criteria. Inclusion criteria for hazardous waste types are was used in the selection of junk shops. Proportionate those hazardous wastes that have prior literature to support stratified sampling was initially done with a sampling their use in waste to energy technologies while those percentage of about 3%. Then, to finally determine the excluded are hazardous waste types such as medical and respondents, convenience sampling was employed on the hospital wastes, electronic wastes, hazardous wastes that junk shops within the quadrants or the strata. Proportionate do not have clearly defined constituents, hazardous wastes stratified sampling was chosen to proportionate the size of that have known chlorinated components, and hazardous the number of junk shops in the quadrants when viewed wastes that have constituents belonging to the DENR against the total number of junk shops. It also provides Priority Chemicals List. better precision than a simple random sample of the same size. Convenience sampling was then chosen due to the Based in DAO 2013-22, also known as the Revised concealing of information by some LGUs on the junk Procedures and Standards for the Management of shops in their cities or municipalities, thus restricting the Hazardous Waste (Revising DAO 2004-36) – which use of proportionate stratified random sampling. provided a procedural manual for the technical requirements and standards for generators of, transporters The data gathering of this research started with the of, and TSD (treatment, storage, and disposal) facilities application of the sampling procedures to the profiled for hazardous waste under Section 2 on the classification e-waste handling facilities to determine which of the of all hazardous wastes – the following types viable for facilities will be considered sampling sites. The chosen waste to energy conversion were considered. facilities were then contacted or visited on-site to request the facility to take part in the study. The communication Due to the dangers that hazardous wastes pose to human between the researchers and the sampling sites included health, actual waste accounting in industrial settings was the rationale (purpose, objectives, significance of the study, not done. Instead, self-monitoring report (SMR) data – scope, and limitations) and the general methodology of which contain the quarterly generation of hazardous waste the research. Once the facility agreed on taking part in the in Metro Manila from the 1st quarter of 2017 to the 4th study, the people who are in charge or are knowledgeable quarter of 2019 – were obtained from the Environmental with the facilities’ electronic waste management were Management Bureau (EMB). The average yearly generation first interviewed about the specifics of the facilities’ was used in subsequent analyses. Hazardous waste types e-waste flow. The involved personnel was asked about the that have not been used in WTE applications based on processes involved in the facilities’ daily operations, from prior literature were not included. The calorific value of the reception of the electronics up to its waste disposal, the selected waste types was taken from known literature which involved the residual wastes. The facilities then values for a specific industrial waste material (Muniz 2003; accomplished the eight-day residual waste data collection Trabelsi 2018; El-Mekkawi 2020; Balcik-Canbolat 2017; forms. Data gathering was facilitated by using two data Barişçi and Salim Öncel 2014; Filippis 2012). collection forms that allowed the researchers to evaluate the performance of the facilities in gathering e-waste Electronic Wastes Analysis and Characterization materials from sources through their For electronic wastes (e-wastes), there are basically two schemes prior to and during the eight-day data gathering facilities that handled these wastes: 1) TSD facilities and period. The first form allows the researchers to obtain 2) junk shops. According to Metro Manila Solid Waste information pertaining to the operation of the sample Management Report, a lot of junk shops are not registered facilities. This includes the usual waste stream flow of with the local government unit (LGU) (Varey et al. 2003). e-waste materials, as well as cash flow from buying and Given this amount of undocumented junk shops, the profiled selling of dismantled products. The second form focuses junk shops in the metropolis were only limited to those which on obtaining relevant information related to the inflow are registered with their respective LGUs. On the other hand, and outflow of pertinent materials or appliances, as well for TSD facilities, the DENR lists a total of 24 TSD facilities as the outflow of residual waste materials being collected in Metro Manila as of January 2020. Of these 24, only two by waste collectors for dumping to landfills. Similar to are facilities that handle both classifications of hazardous medical waste, the daily generated waste was averaged wastes that are from electronics wastes. from the eight-day data collection. The characterization of the electronic residual wastes started with the segregation To sample the junk shops in Metropolitan Manila, the by material or component type and the identification of metropolis was first divided into quadrants – namely, the specific e-waste it was originally from. The residual north, east, west, and south quadrants – which was based on samples were also weighed to determine their weight the Oplan Metro Yakal Plus of the Metro Manila Disaster relative to that of their e-waste source. The material type Risk Reduction and Management Council (Varey et al. of the residuals was then identified, and heating values 2003). In this study, a combination of sampling techniques were taken using a bomb calorimeter.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Materials are considered infectious wastes if they have pathogens and have enough to cause diseases. These may include but are not limited to the following: clinical Medical Waste Generation and Waste Profile laboratory instruments and materials containing bodily Medical waste is defined as any waste material in solid or fluids or those in contact during clinical procedures such liquid form generated or produced by diagnosis, treatment, as catheters and tubing. or immunization of human beings or animals, medical research, pathological testing, and waste from minor or Figure 1a shows an example of the HCW handling for scattered sources (DOH 2012). The waste management infectious waste and non-biodegradable general waste, manuals given by the DOH discussed types of healthcare as stated in the DOH Healthcare Waste Management wastes (HCWs) produced by the medical facilities and Manual (DOH 2012). For infectious medical wastes, the guidelines to proceed with its handling, treatment, and flowchart shows that treatment of these waste can either storage. There are several categories or types of HCWs be done on-site or off-site; however, these wastes still such as: 1) non-hazardous or general, 2) infectious, 3) ends up and disposed of after treatment. On the other sharps, 4) pathological and anatomical, 5) pharmaceutical, hand, for non-biodegradable and non-recyclable general 6) chemical, and 7) radioactive wastes. Among these types waste, these wastes are directly collected, transported, and of medical wastes, the focus was on the medical waste disposed of in landfills. generation for general and infectious wastes. The waste profiles of general and infectious wastes General wastes are comparable to domestic wastes. This before the COVID-19 pandemic are shown in Figures type of waste does not pose a special handling problem 1b and c. Figure 1b shows that there were ten general or hazard to human health or to the environment. General waste material types found on medical facilities – wastes can include both recyclable and non-recyclable namely, the low-density polyethylene (LDPE) plastics, materials. Such materials for recyclables involve paper textiles, plastic cups, cans, PS, glass, polyethylene and plastic products while non-recyclable wastes include terephthalate (PET) plastics, high-density polyethylene wastes such as polystyrene (PS) based materials. (HDPE) plastics, papers, and rubber. Based on the chart,

Figure 1. Medical waste stream and waste profile: a) flowchart of infectious and general (non-biodegradable and non-recyclable) wastes; b) daily general waste; c) daily infectious waste.

615 Philippine Journal of Science Manegdeg et al.: Profile and Energy Conversion Potential Vol. 150 No. 4, August 2021 of Wastes in Metro Manila, Philippines the top four types of general waste generated from general wastes or material types generated were similar, medical facilities are the PETs (34.9%), papers (22.5%), but the amount of the wastes generated varied depending cans (12.2%), and LDPE plastics (10.4%). Other waste on how large the hospital was. Moreover, the production of materials gathered from these facilities were commonly infectious wastes can vary between general and specialty used materials such as rubber, glass, PS, and textiles. hospitals due to function. On the other hand, for infectious medical wastes, only an estimation of infectious waste material composition Hazardous Industrial Waste Generation and Waste was done in the study as infectious waste materials Profile are dangerous even when exercising caution. For Metropolitan Manila has the highest number of this study, estimation was done by peeking through manufacturing industries in the Philippines. At 19,291 the waste container. Figure 1c shows the waste facilities, the capital region hosts 17% of the country’s composition generated for infectious wastes. From total number of factories and manufacturing plants (PSA these estimations, diaper, gloves, and masks comprised 2018). The government categorizes establishments based the highest contribution in the amount of infectious on the number of employees. There are currently four wastes generated. For the WTE feed, only combustible categories – namely, micro, small, medium, and large waste materials were included in the calculation for the enterprises – which correspond to establishments having total generated daily waste for energy potential, thus 1–9, 10–99, 100–199, and more than 200 employees, excluding non-combustible wastes such as glasses and respectively. These industries are the main source of cans. The total generated daily combustible medical hazardous industrial wastes. wastes in Metropolitan Manila were about 41,174 Figure 2 shows the flowchart of the collection, transport, kg/d and about 33,732 kg/d for general and infectious treatment, and disposal of hazardous wastes based on medical wastes, respectively, with a total of about the TSD facility category. Category A covers facilities 74,906 kg/d. This total medical wastes generated per that perform onsite treatment and disposal of hazardous day was obtained based on the average gathered data wastes. These facilities also employ treatment methods from the hospitals. from Categories B–E and G. Category B covers facilities In general, the total medical waste characterization was that utilize thermal methods transforming the physical based on all waste sources gathered from the hospitals to and chemical characteristics of the hazardous wastes get the total composition of the waste stream. Although prior to disposal. Category C covers facilities that collect hospitals differ in function and capacity, the majority of the hazardous waste for final disposal to sanitary

Figure 2. Collection, transport, treatment, and disposal of hazardous wastes based on the TSD facility category.

616 Philippine Journal of Science Manegdeg et al.: Profile and Energy Conversion Potential Vol. 150 No. 4, August 2021 of Wastes in Metro Manila, Philippines or surface impoundments. Category D covers facilities the industrial plants and from the Philippine Statistics that employ the and reprocessing of hazardous Authority (PSA). The bulk of the average daily generated wastes. It includes recovery of materials such as used waste from the studied industrial wastes was attributed to oil, solvents, metals, etc. It also reprocesses materials for I101 (61.6%), which are wastes coming from petroleum fuel to energy. Category E covers facilities that conduct refining operations and manufacturing plant wastes such chemical treatment methods such as encapsulation and as used industrial diesel and lubricants. The total industrial immobilization transforming the physical and chemical hazardous wastes generated from these types of wastes characteristics of hazardous wastes prior to disposal. were about 59,300 kg/d. Category F covers facilities that store hazardous wastes prior to thermal or chemical treatment, disposal, or export. Electronic Wastes Generation and Waste Profile Category G covers facilities that conduct the draining of E-wastes or waste electrical and electronic equipment is PCB oil and dismantling of PCB-containing equipment defined as any end-of-life equipment that is dependent prior to treatment and disposal (DAO 2013-22). on electrical currents or electromagnetic fields in order to For the hazardous industrial wastes, eight types were work properly (Grant et al. 2013). There are basically three considered from the 56 hazardous waste types excluding domestic sources of e-wastes: households, institutions, and the medical and electronic wastes and based on the industries (Yoshida et al. 2016) that are handled by the following screening criteria: hazardous wastes that do two major sectors of e-waste handling facilities: the TSD not have clearly defined constituents, those that have facilities and junk shops. The general e-waste management known chlorinated components, and those that have and disposal flow is shown in Figure 4. constituents belonging to the DENR Priority Chemicals TSD facilities typically cater to private individuals, List. The hazardous industrial wastes profile is shown businesses, and companies. They usually handle industrial in Figure 3. The data from this figure were gathered and e-waste as well as e-waste coming from institutions. These analyzed based on the SMRs submitted to DENR by

Figure 3. Hazardous industrial wastes profile. The total generated hazardous industrial waste that has potential as energy feed is about 59,342 kg/d.

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Figure 4. General E-waste disposal management.

entities contract TSD facilities to collect, treat, and dispose stored, treated, recycled, reprocessed, or disposed of of their waste safely. Since they do not entertain walk-in (DAO 92-29), while junk shops are defined as the waste collection and trading like other facilities such as buyers of the coming from dismantlers (Yoshida junk shops, e-waste inflow is not regular but rather on a et al. 2016). Electronics in e-waste handling facilities job-order basis. After dismantling electronic equipment, are dismantled and different components are sorted. In salvaged metal and plastic components are shipped off to this study, e-waste components are classified as either private melting companies. TSD facilities dispose of their recyclable or residual. Recyclable components are those residual waste in the general waste collection care of the plastic and metal components that are sold to recycling local government. and smelting companies. These also include electronic components that are typically repaired and reused by Junk shops, on the other hand, mainly handle household private buyers. Anything that could not be repurposed or e-wastes coming from local residential areas. Junk shops recycled is considered a residual component of e-waste. with higher buying capital may participate in auctions For the purpose of waste to energy conversion, only the done by companies, which puts them in competition residual components of e-waste are considered. with TSDs. E-waste may be sourced by members of the community, also known as dismantlers, that collect waste TSDs and junk shops reported an average amount of door-to-door. However, due to the relatively small volume 103.06 kg of e-waste per day per facility, which composed of e-wastes brought by dismantlers daily, the junk shops of recyclable and residual components weighing 81.62 kg accumulate scraps and e-wastes prior to selling to the and 21.60 kg, respectively, as shown in Figure 5a. Daily consolidators. Metal and plastic components, on the other e-waste collection was estimated at 120,168 kg – made hand, are taken by private melting companies; electronic of 95,052.86 kg of recyclable components and 25,115.10 parts are auctioned off to private buyers while residual kg of residual components. This amounts to at least a waste is transported to landfills. This, of course, may not total of about 43,880 metric tons of e-wastes – made of always be the case since some e-waste still directly makes 34,709 metric tons of recyclable components and 9,171 it to landfills, which calls for more stringent policymaking. metric tons of residual components – each year in Metro Illustrated in Figure 4 is the general waste flow for both Manila alone. facilities. The figure indicates the sources of e-waste (blue), the handling facilities (red), actions done (yellow), Since TSDs mainly handle e-waste from institutions and and products. industries while junk shops handle those coming from households, it is expected that the type of e-waste they From the flowchart, TSD facilities and junk shops are collect would differ. However, due to recent developments the facilities that process e-waste. Essentially, TSDs are where a private recycling group having similar practices the facilities where hazardous wastes are transported, to junk shops has just been established as a TSD facility

618 Philippine Journal of Science Manegdeg et al.: Profile and Energy Conversion Potential Vol. 150 No. 4, August 2021 of Wastes in Metro Manila, Philippines in Metro Manila, the waste types are not so different. purposes. Taking out the non-combustible components, Illustrated in Figure 5c are the different types of e-waste the composition of a possible feedstock coming from in kg in a typical e-waste handling facility in a day. It a daily influx of e-waste for a single waste to energy can be seen that refrigerators, air conditioning units, and conversion facility is composed of 79.5% of polyurethane, old box-type television sets make up the most of e-waste 11.5% ABS, and 9.0% of PVC, as seen in Figure 5b. collected based on weight with each being collected at about 21.95, 13.51, and 13.47 kg/d, respectively. Each Heat Maps and Energy Potential of Medical, e-waste type was dismantled and the residual components Industrial, and Electronic Wastes were determined. From the dismantled e-waste, as shown Figure 6 shows the daily waste generation heat maps in in Figure 5a, 79.1% are recyclable while 20.9% are those Metro Manila for medical, hazardous industrial waste, and residual e-wastes that will be disposed of and end up in residual e-wastes. Quezon City, which is the largest city in landfills. On the other hand, the residual components of Metropolitan Manila, showed the highest amount of daily the different e-waste types can be classified according to generated wastes among the other cities. Based on these material type, which was found to be materials made up heat maps, a possible potential WTE facility can be built. mostly of polyurethane, ABS, PVC, and non-combustibles. From the 21.6 kg of residual e-waste collected every day Table 2 revealed the daily generated wastes for the three in each facility, 58.2% are not combustible as these are waste streams, potential combustible waste compositions, main components made from glass. The remaining 9.0 kg and their energy potential. The total energy potential for that is combustible may be valuable for energy conversion each waste stream was calculated by multiplying the

Figure 5. E-waste profiles: a) average weight (kg) of residual and recyclable components of each e-waste handling facility per day; b) composition of the daily average residual wastes; c) average total weight (kg) of different types of e-waste per day per facility.

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Figure 6. Heat maps of daily generated wastes in Metropolitan Manila, which have the potential for WTE: a) medical, b) hazardous industrial, and c) residual e-wastes.

Table 2. Daily generated wastes profile and energy potential of medical, hazardous industrial, and residual electronic wastes. Waste stream Total waste generated in Component Average calorific value, Total energy potential, Metro Manila (kg/d) composition/ material HHV (MJ/kg) GJ/d (Metro Manila) type (weight %) General medical waste 41,174 LDPE (12.2%); 29.3 1,208 PP (11.6%); PS (9.2%); PET (40.3%); HDPE (0.1%); paper (26.6%) Infectious medical waste 33,732 Diaper (46.4%); 23.6 788 syringe (1.9%); storage aids (7.1%); mask (10.9%); gloves (18.3%); dressing (15.4%); Residual electronic waste 9,585 Polyurethane (87.4%); 25.5 244 UBS (12.6%) Hazardous industrial 59,342 F601 (3.6%); 41.9 2,487 waste F602 (4.2%); H802 (11.5%); I101 (61.6%); I102 (5.9%); I103 (0.01%); I104 (3.8%); M503 (9.2%); Total 143,834 – – 4,727

average calorific value with the total waste generated. gasoline or 160,000 kg of charcoal for such daily energy The generated daily wastes in Metropolitan Manila for potential (i.e. gasoline with 46.4 MJ/kg HHV, charcoal medical, industrial, and residual electronic wastes that with about 29.6 MJ/kg HHV). From this energy-from- have a potential for WTE were about 143,834 kg/d (143 waste potential, an estimation of its electricity generation tons), which has an energy potential of about 4,727 GJ/d. potential by conventional pyrolysis is about 45 MW/d. This is approximately comparable to about 127 m3 of fuel With this electricity generation potential, if modular WTE

620 Philippine Journal of Science Manegdeg et al.: Profile and Energy Conversion Potential Vol. 150 No. 4, August 2021 of Wastes in Metro Manila, Philippines can be built, this can already help and support some of in sanitary landfills, can already add to about 52,500 tons the electricity needs in the metropolis. The appropriate annually. The total daily energy potential of the three waste and viable type of WTE technologies that can utilize streams was about 4,727 GJ/d. Future study may include these waste feeds – considering as well potential hazards the formulation of enabling policies and the environment and mitigation measures, and the details of the electricity in order to realize WTE as alternative waste disposal and generation potential (e.g. pyrolysis) – will be reported potential of medical, hazardous industrial, and residual elsewhere. In addition, financial and economic feasibility electronic wastes for WTE. and socio-economic impacts for a WTE technology will be reported and discussed in a different paper. Thus, with the efforts and push for non-coal energy generation, such potential energy-from-waste can be viable support to ACKNOWLEDGMENTS existing renewable energy sources in addition to helping This project is financially supported by the Philippine solve the lack of disposal facilities – as well as problems Senate Committee on Energy and the Energy Research associated with the generated wastes coming from medical, Fund of the Office of the Vice-President for Academic hazardous industrial, and residual electronic wastes. Since Affairs, University of the Philippines Diliman. The authors waste streams from medical wastes, hazardous industrial also would like to acknowledge the research assistance wastes, and residual electronic waste – will be almost of Jan Carlo Palomares, Christine Mae Macalisang, Jessa similar to other cities. Except for the generated amount Hablado, Pearl Diamansil, Ricardo Sirot Jr., Vince Carlo of these wastes depending on the number of facilities or Garcia, Vince Roi Alvarez, Steven Peabody, Anjanette industries in a particular city, the waste profiling and the Canales, Nivard Elijah Daliva, and Gin Mig Gallardo. feasibility of utilizing these wastes into useful energy can be a source of reference information and other cities may consider the WTE technology as a means for waste disposal and energy source. REFERENCES In this study, the following are recommended for waste AGATON CB, GUNO CS, VILLANUEVA RO, profiling and future studies of the three investigated waste VILLANUEVA RO. 2020. Economic analysis of streams: 1) inclusion of smaller health facilities, such waste-to-energy investment in the Philippines: a real as barangay and rural health centers, and other stand- options approach. Applied Energy 275: 115265. alone facilities such as dental clinics can be investigated since the scope in this study was limited to the hospital BALCIK-CANBOLAT C, OZBEY B, DIZGE N, facilities as they produce the most significant amount of KESKINLER B. 2017. Pyrolysis of Commingled wastes; 2) for e-waste, due to informal economy nature Waste Textile Fibers in a Batch Reactor: Analysis of of junkshop facilities, only registered junkshops were the Pyrolysis Gases and Solid Product. International considered as unregistered junkshops may increase the Journal of Green Energy 14(3): 289–294. daily residual e-waste generated and subject for further BARIŞÇI S, SALIM ÖNCEL M. 2014. The Disposal of investigation; and 3) direct investigation can be pursued Combed Cotton Wastes by Pyrolysis. International for waste generation by industrial facilities that produce Journal of Green Energy 11(3): 255–266. hazardous wastes. The analysis may be able to further characterize their residual output to accurately check what BUJAK J. 2009. Experimental study of the energy waste materials are being produced in certain industries efficiency of an incinerator for medical waste. Applied and their potential for WTE. Energy 86: 2386–2393. CAI Z, DU CC. 2020. Thermal plasma treatment of medical waste. Plasma Chemistry and Plasma Processing. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11090-020- CONCLUSION 10119-6 The waste profiles and WTE potentials of medical, CANIATO M, TUDOR TL, VACCARI M. 2016. hazardous industrial, and residual electronic wastes Assessment of health-care waste management in in Metro Manila, Philippines were investigated. The humanitarian crisis: a case study of the Gaza Strip. generated daily residual wastes for medical wastes Waste Management 58: 386–396. composed of general and infectious wastes were about 74,906 kg, hazardous industrial wastes were about 59,342 DE FILIPPIS P, DE CAPRARIIS B, SCARSEELLA M, kg, and residual electronic wastes were about 9,585 kg. VERDONE N. 2012. Energy Recovery from Unused These residual wastes, if just being dumped or disposed of and Expired Medicines. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment. 163: 125–133.

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