EUROPEAN BULLETIN OF HIMALAY AN RESEARCH

Number 5 1993

CONTENTS

REVIEW ARTICLE Stepping onto the Public Arena· Western Social Anthropology on Development Processes in Nepal : Joanna Pfaff-Czamecka ...... I

ARCHIVES Ne palese Archives of the Depanment of Ethnomusicology in the Musee de I'Honune (Paris, 1960-1975): Mireille Helffer & Anne de Sales ...... 24

TOPICAL REPORTS Economic Development. Panicipalion, and Decentralization in Nepal: Bruno KnaJl ...... 26 European Researchers affiliated with Tribhuvan University: Manga!a Shreslha ...... 29 SlmkiJJin 5ahitya and the Democraticisation of Nepali Literature: Michael Hull ...... 32

INTERVIEW Reneclions of a Plant-hunter in Nepal: An lmerview with Dr. Tinha Bahadur Shrestha: Charles Ramble ...... 34

RESEARCH REPORTS Geomorphological Studies in the Bagmati Valley. south of Kathmandu - Using Remote Sensing Techiques: Roben Kostka ...... 41 The Ruins of an Early Gunmg Settlement: Mark Temple ...... 43 Investigations on the Intensity of Weathering of Soils developed from Glacial and Glado-fluvial Deposits and their Relation to the Glacial History of Central and Easter Nepal: M. Kemp. A. Sieben. R.Bli umler. W.Zech & H. Heuberger ...... 47

NEWS Conferences: The Problem of National Identity of Ethnic Groups and National Integration: A Seminar Repon: Manin Gaenszle ...... 55 TIle Himalayan Forum at SOAS: Michael Hull ...... 56 Project: Himalaya-talenproject - "Himalayan Language ProjeCl" : George van Dricm ..... 56 Symposia: Bhutan : A Traditional Order and the Forces of Change, SOAS: Michael HUll ...... 57 ANNOUNCEMENTS REVIEW ARTICLE Conference: 14th Annual Conference of lhe Linguistic Society of Nepal : Stepping into the Public Arena Manfred G.Treu ...... 59 Western Social Anthropology on Development Processes in Ex.hibition: Nepal Building the Bridges to lhe Third World: A Toni-Hagen Exhibition Joanna Pfaff·Czamecka in Cologne: Susanne vcn der Heide ...... 60 Bourliaud, J., Oobremez, J.-F. and F. author, quoted in a prominent place a CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS ISSUE ...... 61 Vigny (eds.) 1990. Societes rural~s d~s Nepalese colleague's opinion on the NOTES TO CONTRmUTORS Andes el de I'Himolayo. Grenoble: Western contributions to date: "foreign Versants . scholars have done research with no relevance to Nepal i society formany years". Dobremez, J.-F. (eds.) 1986. us collines As is the case wilh all fundamentalism, iI is du Nepal central: icosystimes, structures impossible to argue with such a critic. sociall!.f et systemes agroires (2 Vols). However, a reply is necessary in order to Paris: INRA . continue what has been established over four decades (as apparent from Onta's Gilmour, D.A. and R.J. Fisher 1991. anicle as well) : a dialogue between bo!h Villagers, Forests and Foresters. rile "camps". Philosoph),. Process and Practice of Such a dialogue is all the more impor. Community Forestry in Nepal. Kathmandu : tant, since. accord ing to Himal. the Western Saha)'ogi Press. social anthropology of Nepal faces to some extent the same problems !hat are encoun­ Justice.J. 1986. Policies. Plans, &: People. tered by our Nepalese colleagues educated Berkeley: UCP. wilhin Western traditions : the enormous critical debate about epistemologica l and Seddon, D. 1987. Nepal. A State of Poverty. elhical issues concerning the Western New Delhi : Vikas, representation of the "o!her" and the Western control of discourses on the Zivctz. L. 1992. Private £nlreprise and the representation of truth about the other - a Stale in Modern Nepal. Madras: OUP. debate going on in India for instance through the project of "Subahem Studies" (2) - has And selected works listed in the bibliog· fmally reached the public forum in Nepal. raphy. The critical voice in 1Iimal has not (yet?) been raised by the "objects" of After ten days of Nepalese and Western anthropological inquiries. These basically scholars listening to each other on lhe remain silent within the scientific realm, occasion of two conferences on recent though not entirely: in OClOber 1992 Alan processes in the Nepalese society held in Macfarlane presented a revealing paper in Kathmandu in September 1992 (1). lhe Oxford about Gurung activi slS' involvement periodical Hima/ pointed out in its review a in his and Sarah HafTisson's project to "schism that grew between some forei gn and translate PignMe's Les Gumng (1%6) into Nepali research camps". While stressing lhe Eng lish. While in Nepal. and laler by fax. he urgency perceived by Nepalese scholars to was re pealed ly asked to add comments upon address lhe issues of lhe socioeconomic specific passages of the book in which the development of the country and to attack former "objects" of inquiry felt local problems lhrough, for instance, misrepresented. Those whom we study in app lied research. Pratyoush Onta, lhe the course ofour research show an intcrest in 2 3 the way !hey are described. We may expect institutions formerly taken for granted are changing circumstances new "holy cows" emergence of a fruitfu l and complex that these kinds of queries will come up in being fundamentally questioned. In th is are coming into existence. and a substantial development debate within the social public more and more. process the Nepalese and Western share of Nepalese people lack access to the anthropology of Nepal. Some of the results Our Nepalese colleagues increasingly experiences differ. I do not know how many public sphere, except when they are targt!ts presented by the geographers. economists ask uncomfonable questions about !heirrole of my Western colleagues have been facing ofinterventions designed by experts who are and political scientists who havecomributed wi!hin scientific. governmental and donor the same problem I had when in Spring 1987 putting forward their specific world views to our knowledge wiU also be discussed. institUlions. fearing that so far !heir work has I was prevented from presenting some and (pre)conceptions about their objects. Since deep and long ·Iasting personal. and, 10 basically benefited the funding agencies and critical fmdings from the field in "Development" or "societal change" is to a a lesser degree. institutional relationships !hemselves. They are in a double-role since Kathmandu because I wanted to talk about large extent a process of emerging andlor between Nepalese and Western scholars the ongoing societal process affects their things "that could not be". Still. the political changing links between societal have significantly structured the social living and working circumstances. At !he system has not interfered with my research subsystems. Viewed from the socio- anthropology of Nepal , it is also impossible same time. as experts. they have some!hing (or so I believe), and it seems that it has not anthropological perspective concerned in to avoid quoting our Nepalese colleagues. to say about !he fonn of !his change. affected the research of other Western the first place with local societies, it is most Given my ende.avor to present some of the Realizing !hat all over the world scholars. even if many were careful not to peninent to understand how these are most recent publications. there will be no intelligentsia tends to associate wi!h ra ise. for instance. the issue of ethnicity in increasingly being "embedded" in larger space to do justice to the earlie r contribu­ "power", solutions are sought to find a way public. But why then does the Western societal systems (s uch as the state). Even tions by Ch. von Filrer-Haimendorf, J.T. out of this predicament. Many call for research lack. with few exceptions, critical though some social anthropologists dread HilChcock, Ph, Sagant, L. Rose, J. Sacherer. applied and action research. and. as analyses of the political system or of the the mere idea that their research could relate P. Caplan, A, Manzardo, D. Messerschmidt. mentioned, claim to abandon !he traditional politico-economic relations? Did we follow to "development" at all. it is a new area for P. Blaikie, J. Cameron, upon which present social anthropology as pursued mainly by the "rule of hospitality" thal demands Ihat our inquiries to conceptualize links where research is based to a large degree. (5) Western scholars. I cannot agree with the we do not crilicize the host? But who are ou r partly incompatible world views. visions, At present, a growing number of social basic imperative demanding that all hosts? knowledge and technologies, systems of anthropologists. who are otherwise involved scientific research be immediately useful, 'The gap between our genuine concern production and circulation. and authority in ·'traditional" research, occasionally turn nor do 1 agree with the complaint that from afar, and our Nepalese colleagues' patterns meet and often collide. It is then our to development issues, probably because Western scholars have yet to contribute any daily confrontation with Nepal's societal tas k, in my view, to bring our knowledge these, such as in the fonn of deve lopment knowledge about peninent societal conditions. even if they are by and large in into the development debate in order 10 projects, make themselves particularly processes in Nepal. On the contrary, I shall privileged positions, is best demonstrated counterbalance the wide-spread tendency in noticeable in the field. Thai such encounters try 10 indicate lhe scope of Western research by the book Nepal. Perspectives on the development discourse 10 reduce often result in embarrassment and doubt is on "development", understood as a Cominuity and Change edited by Kamal P. "traditional" life-styles to socio-cultural testified in Todd T. Lewis's review anicle on comprehensive process of societal change, Malla, thal was published JUSt before Spring factors that "Iag behind". It is equally Foreign Aid Processes in the Kathmandu while our direct cooperation with donor 1990. (3) Several Nepalese social scientists essential to understand the nature of power Valley (1986). He describes his experience inst itutions will only be a minor iss ue . The who contributed to th is book were ri sking relations involved in the process of "lifting with the world of development workers and relationship between theory and practice their pri vileges in the fight against the out" social relations from local contexts of their projects as "extremely valuable but (e.g .• in the form of action research) will former "establisrunent" long before the interaction and their "resuucturing across ultimately disillusioning" (1986: 168). cenainly be an imponant topic in futu re "Movement" had broken into open. None of indefinite spans of lime-space" (4), Most social anthropologists. Nepalese and encounters between the Nepalese and their the critical Western publications can be so especially by the media of money and foreign. will agree with him that "the time Western colleagues. The criticisms raised full of metaphors, allusions and texts­ expen systems. should long be past when projects can be are a welcome and a much needed between-the-lines like several anicles in this naive about socio-cultural realities or send opponunity to assess our role in collection. 1. Social anthropology and socio-cullural in amateurs to design and implement critical understanding the nature of Nepalese Though the introduction of the multi­ factors efforts involving human survival"' (ibid.). development. party-system and decentralisation efforts This review is meanllO discuss some of the TIle need to promote this perspecti ve It is no coincidence that the debate on fonn pan of the substantial societal issues which have constituted Western will be the Lt;tmotiv of this re view. the contribution of social sciences to transfonnation in Nepal, tremendous research on societal processes in Nepal, the However. I suggest that we abandon the tenn Nepalese development was only brought to problems persist, as do striking inequalities. results of which were published after 1985. "socio-cultural" which increasingly is the public after the Nepalese citizens won The emergence of differentiated public fora. Only a small ponion of the existing applied to Nepal's peoples andlor local the battle against the political establishment especially in urban areas. is in itself a signof publications could be "digested" here, but I societies in the "development" jargon. in Spring 1990. This debate is to be seen in change and a new field of orientation for hope to be able to sketch some imponant While a few years ago it was essential to the context of the democratization process, those who come here to do research on areas of inquiry and to point out several bring the tenns "social" and "cultural" into in the course of which many values and societal change, However, under the apparent deficiences which prevent the the debate, nowadays thi ~ simplifying 4 , phraseology disguises the complexity of used in planning health programmes?". For different levels of the planners' and is, not surprisingly, resented by human organisation to which any Justice, the reason lies in the nature of the implementors'hierarchy. The description of deve lopment expens? Development expens intervention must pay attention. The oppo­ Nepalese and international institutions this hierarchy, the cooperation between the are working under tremendous time­ sition between "development" and "socio­ involved, or rather in the bureaucratic Nepalese government and the donor constraints (imposed by the system). cuhural factors", ovenly orcovenly present cultures in which planning and agencies (including constraints prevenling seeking encompassing solutions. whereas in many publications and project implementing take place. I agree with the it), the analysis of the impact of the we insist that realities of societal life are documents. conceals two crucial facts. author that her study contributes to the much international health policy upon Nepal, as complex, hardly quantifiable, and to some Firstly, "development" is (or has) a culture needed new anthropology "dealing with one well as the examples given about the degree unique. Justi ce suggests that anthro­ as well. notwithslallding some expens' of the major institutions now influencingour planning and implementation process pologists' approach to the planning process insistence that the Western rationality lives - the multinational organization, with reaching down to the villages are, however, is different from that 10 gathering underlying the technical cooperation is its own goals and culture" (1989: 5). Havi ng revealing. It is interesting 10 see, for infonnation (1989: 139). This is cenainly a "beyond culture". As Burghan points out in been herself exposed to the complex system instance. which ranks within the valid point. bUI, besides the ethical issue, it his anicle on health development. "the of donor agencies, Justice is able to show the government are supposed to communicate entails funher practical problems. Let me health planner sees himself as a scientist, or interfaces between governmental and donor with which ranks within the donor agencies come back to the basic question towards the as a purely rational administrator, whose agencies and the "people", and she discusses (and with whom not), or how failures are end of this review, and turn now to two own cultural background (be it Nepalese or the possible role social scientists could play deemed to occur when the government is examples from the field of medical anthro· foreign) does not impinge on his own in facilitating the "meeting" process. While under pressure to dispose of funds and when pology. which cast more light upon the issue decision-makjng. 11 is other people. lacking reflecting about this task. Justice describes advisors are eager to produce quick results. of how to collect infonnation about local professional knowledge, who are influenced the difficulties of social anthropologists There is also an interesting section on the societies (see also a small collection of by 'cultural faclO rs '" (1988: 207. my italics). interested in "modem issues": "One advisor bureaucratic culture rooted in Nepalese anicles in Contributions 10 Nepalese Secondly. the above-mentioned opposition repeatedl y asked me why I was studying traditions which fits well into Dor Bahadur Studies. vol. 4. a special issue on narrows down the scope of human agency. planners and the planning process instead of Bista's findings (published later) discussed anthropology. health and development. People at the "bonom end" of the studying kinship. as other anthropologists in his Fatalism and Development. Besides 1916). development hierarchies are not just did. ( ... ) Ironically. knowledge of Nepali suggesting that the social anthropology of Linda Stone (1986) also inquires into embedded within specific social or cultural kinship networks could have increased Nepal should take up research on Primary Health Care (PHC). She shows that systems but have to make rational choices. advisors' underslallding of decision making international and national institutions, and there is also a gap between written intentions for instance as economic or political agents­ within the government. In addition to joking that development speciali sts listen to social (that contain vague notions) and the actual a fact that has often been neglected orplayed questions about why I did nOI cany a big anthropologists - the major value of lhis procedures. Though this project emphasizes down in the development discourse so far. It stick as Margaret Mead did, I was most publication lies in repealed attempts to "community participation" (by now a is our task 10 challenge faulty stereotypes frequently asked what 'my group' was. analyse the links between the "recipients" or tremendously widespread tenn in project that are often repeated in public. How the When I replied, 'the Depanment of Health', "targets" of development projects and documents), the author is doubtfu l whether Nepalese people are presented in the public or bealth planners'. the conversation usually individuals and institutions of the Nepalese this aim was really achieved. She argues that is crucial. for, as Pigg remarks in her stopped" (1989: 136). Similar questions and international administration. the project encountered problems for three innovati ve anicle on social representations come from some social anthropologists as Obviously, this well-written book is reasons in Nepal: I. "PHC fails to appreciate and development in Nepal: "Images of well. primarily addressing planners and imple­ villagers' values and their own perceived villages and village life accompany the A wealmess of the book is thal the mentors; in Justice's eyes, the "dosage" of needs. In panicular, PHC is organized promotion of development ideals" (1992: author does not define what is meanl by cultural and social issues depends appar­ primarily to provide health education, 491). social and cultural "realities" (she never antly on what expens can digest; here I whereas villagers value modem curative That the culture of development should talks about societal divisions. conflicting would have liked the author to go into more services and feel little need for new health become a new area of anthropological interests etc.), and that she does not give a detail. A widespread dilemma becomes knowledge. 2. PHC views rural Nepali inquiry. was recently argued by Judith comprehensive account as to which apparent here: what is obvious to social culture only pejoratively as a barrier to Justice. Her book Policies, Plans, and elements in the "receivers" social life and anthropologists is not known to the majority health education. Alternatively, local People. Foreign Aid and Health Develop­ world view condition their attitudes towards of those in charge of projects, who usually cultural beliefs and practices should be ment (1986) focusses on the Integrated modem preventive and healing processes. come from other disciplines, and, vice viewed as resources to facilitate Community Health Programme which was Her section on "villagers' response to versa, academic scholars know little about dissemination and acceptance of modem gradually transfonned into Primary Health services" is far too shon to bridge this gap. the constraints of bureaucratic processes. health knowledge. 3. In attempting to Care. Central to this book is the question: whereas other "socio-cultura l" factors How. is cooperation then possible? How is it incorporate Nepal's traditional medica l "how comes that infonnation on social and named throughout the book penain basically possible, especially since. as Justice argues. practitioners into the programm. PHC has cultural 'realities' (sic! ,!PC] is generally nOI to attitudes of the project personnel at our scarcely intelligible scientific language mistakenl y assumed thal rural clienlS 6 7 passively believe in and obey traditional increasingly opening up in both the applied Institute were briefly sketched in Number 2 knowledge, and secondly in order to practitioners. In fact, clients play active and the theoretical comext; studies on ( 1991 ) of this Bulletin. Several anicles on banslate project objeclives into the "local " roles and are themselves in control (If the problems of development cooperation Nepal are included in an imponant reader on cultural nOtions. therapeutic process" (1986: 293). (transfer and translation of knowledge; sustainable mountain agriculture (Jodha/ Ramble and Chapagain point to "world Stone indicates here how little is power relations involved) could contribute Banskota/ Pratap 1992) that includes a large views in action". 'I1l;is topic is taken up by known on the donor side about people's to the theoretical framework in the variety of topics in two volumes two other social scientists who have worked actual knowledge. perceptions and attitudes. anthropological field. To my knowledge, ("Perspectives and Issues" and "Mountain in Eastern Nepal (Andrew Russel's PhD. This deficiency is matched by the paucity of however, no comprehensive attempts mat Fanners' Strategies and Sustainability thesis on the concept of environment within scientific data on "everyday" issues, such as build upon the recent anthropological theo· Implications"). This collection is certainly the Vakha communily has, however, not yet productive practices or usages within the ries (6) have been published on related of.interest to social scientists. However, one been published). Klaus Seeland has household, Burgha" (1988) is a rare excep­ phenomena in Nepal, and Nepalese might even suspect that it is symptomatic presented several anicles in which he tion. He inquires into the cultural examples and related concepts have not that social anthropologists were not invited explores the notion of "environment" as knowledge of hygiene and sanitation that he found entry into the broader theoretical 10 participate. 1be fact that they were not. shaped by nature, society and religiousness sees as the basis for health developmem in debate. !'lar be seen, among other things, as an (1990: 5, see also 1986). He inquires into Nepal. He concentrates mainly on the Similar concerns emerge in the broad mdlcator of many "hard-core" scientists' external fa ctors (for instance the innux of complex issue of "water": on the criteria field of scientific studies on the natural suspicion about our objectives. methods and Hindu agriculturalists) affecting the people use to evaluate drinking water, environment as conceptualized and shaped approaches. changes in environmental perception among classification of water·sources; fonns of by people. It is a rather recent area of inquiry Several social scientists have inquired Tibeto-Bunnan speaking groups who are domestic storage of water, indigenous in Himalayan research. to pay attention to into people's roles (8) in natural resource not only increasingly exposed 10 new fonns methods of water lreaunent; and knowledge environmental knowledge, to people's management. For instance, Anis Dani and of production, and hence 10 new fonns or of water-related diseases. Whilediscussing perceptions of environmem; and to forms Gabriel Campbell (1986) presented a interaction with nalure, bul also to new the adequacy of local knowledge of hygiene , of management of natural resources. (7) document on people's participation in cultural values displayed by the powerful Burgbart examines the notion of "culture" The majority of the contributions so far watershed management in the Himalayan immigrants. In this conlext he asks how that guides development interventions (see stem from neighbouring discipl ines area. The discussion of management is "cu ltural nOlions of environment shape also above). While addressing the problem (geography, biology, agronomy, ecology, accompanied by the analysis of people's patterns of social reaclion 10 environmental of gelling planners to translate their economics) whose findings are being perceptions of local resource value. resource degradation" (1990: I). and seeks to concerns imo the understanding of local published, for instance. in the American renewability, resource security, resource establish the reasons for social erosion in people, he stresses that policies cannot be periodical "Mountain Research and use management. and resource equity (1986: rural communities of South Asia. SeeJand's successfull y implemented and taken up by a Developmem" (but it is then not surprising 35). Another interesting document, meant anicles are rather rare allempts of people if they do not acquire some positive that anthropological research has yet 10 to contribUle anthropological knowledge to theoretizing on factors underlying cultural meaning in tenns of their local culture. But reach an interesting level of theorising). A a large development project, was produced change, and of examining how cultural the process of acquiring some mutual useful collection of geographical by Charles Ramble and Chandi P. change relates to environmental i s.~ues . understanding is impeded by the cultural approaches to "indigenous environmental Chapagain (1990) in collaboration with complexity. including the fact that "cultural management and adaptation" and to Woodlands Mountain Institute's Makalu. Despite what has been said about suspi ­ knowledge" is unevenly distributed accross "conservation and human resources" is pre· Ba,,?n Conservation Project (Sagarmatha cions about social sciences among '·hard. the culture. Also: "One might ( ... ) learn the sented in No. I in Vol. 10, 1990 with two Nauonal Park). The first pan of this core" sciemists. interdiSCiplinary allempts tenns of the debate or the criteria by which shon introductions by the social document is a careful examination of the regarding the relationship of man and nature something is evaluated, but one cannot anthropologists Don Messerschmidt and existing literature on society and culture in in NepaUHimalayas are on the increase. fonnalize common knowledge for it is LindaStone. Extensiveresearchwasdoneat the project region (seldom do project Two French books result from such context bound: not merely by the purpose of the Institute of Geography at Giessen: documents present digests of existing cooperation. The first one, Ul collinl!l d!l the action (e.g. to decontaminate well water) among recent publications are Perdita scientific data; there is a widespread Niptll ctmtral: icoryslemes, structures but also by Ihe persons who are negotiating Pohle's inquiry into the ethnobotany in tendency 10 produce data compilations sociales et systemes agroires, consisting of the solution" (1988: 208-8). While Manang district (1990); Ulrike Muller­ anew). Then follows a discussion of the two volumes ("Paysagesel societes dans les describing the imeraction between medical BClker's research on social and economic Sherpas' and the Rais' attitudes to nature and collines du Nepal" and "Milieux et activites doctors and Maithili women (Terai) causes of the overexploitation of natural nature conservation with some practical dans un viUagenepaJais") is the outcome or a Burghart also warns: "cullural resources in Gorkha (1990), or Willibald suggestions how to cooperate with the local prolonged (9) multidisciplinary research misunderstandings occur, despite the fact Haffner's anicle on the use of ecological population. firstly in order to understand carried out by ecologists, geographers, that everyone speaks the same language" potentials in Gorkha district (1986). The their social relationships and cultural anthropologists and agronomist... . Several (ibid.: 210). Here, a fascinating area is activities of the Bemese Geographical systems and to learn from the amassed of the articles included were even written by • 9 inlerdisciplinary teams. It is a very dense of changes in productive fonns that occured ships between state measures and mountain zonation model. derived from publicati on. comprising important data, here, provides a comprehensive picture of a peasant societies). The comparison is biogeography, has been widely used as a identifying relevant areas of inquiry. and small territorial unit. however not very far-reaching. and mis vehicle for characleril.ing man's imprint on aiming at enlarging the conceptual Again, this book pays aUenlion to the volume is ramer a collection of papers on me mountain landscape (1986: 185). This framework . even though descriplions complexity caused by the tremendous different topics than a form of dialogue, model renects successful human adaptation prevail. Since the team concentrated upon climatic. natural and socio-cu Itural diversily lacking a concluding effort to conceptua1iu and manipulation of the great range in one area surrounding the village Satme in in a mountain environment. Its value also what is specific to the mountains. Its main environmental conditions found in Nuwakot district situated at ahitudes lies in slJ'e.Ssing me importance of pastu­ value lies in initiating comparative research. mountain habitats. Allan proposes an between 1400 and 4000 meters. it was ralism and the interconnectedness between (10) a1temate model that takes into consideration possible to give a rounded picture of the pastoralism and agriculture. while usually The social anthropologists who the tremendous changes in productive relations between man and environment research puts too much emphasis on contributed the Himalayan examples all practices and expanding markets which while pointing to a striking ecological and agriculture and the social relations based concentrate on the question how sptJC!!! can arose in the mountains (Alps, Andes, and the cullural variation even within such a 5maU upon it (plains perspective). The be conceptualiud by social science, and Himalayas) through road, track and bridge research unil. 1lte authors describe. in the thoroughness of this book may not be what kind of "local" categories there are. construction: 'ihe altitudinal zonati on firsl volume, the natural environment of the appealing to development pr.!ctitioners. Gerard Toffin discusses different spatial model is no longer suitable for surrounding area. me local population Jean-Franr;ois Dobremel., the editor, insists levels of social morphology among the characteril.ing mountain ecosystems . now groups (comprisinga very interestingeihno· that this research project does nOI aim at any Tamangs of Ankhu Khola, which intersect that human activity is directed to new historical account ofTamang chiefdoms that practical problems of development: rather it with spatial divisions given by forms of motoriud transportation networks linked to existed in this area before me Gorkha seeks to answer scientific questi ons. Still, technological adaptation in the production a wider political economy and no longer conquest - written by G. Toffin, C. Jest. D. the findings of this book are certainly process. Marie L..ecomte-Tilouine gives an dependent on altitude" (ibid.). In AlIan's Blamont). the diversity of agricultural valuable to development agencies. The interesting account of perceptions through model the "plains" where there are societal systems, factors for diffe rentiation of agra­ results of the project have also been which space is being taken "apan" by a Centres (political-administrative centres, pastoral systems, and lhe variety and scope published in various article collections and Magar society in Gulmi district. By giving a market centres) are increasingly of local and regional eXChanges. The second other books. and, according to the editor, list of toponyms, the author stresses that encroaching upon the mountains. volume concenlrates on Salme village and they have been communicated to Nepalese symbolic dichotomies do not necessarily Even though Allan points 10 discusses the foresl resources and their colleagues and officials through seminars. coincide with physical barriers. Claiming environmental degradati on as a exploilalion, me ethnography and However, one may ask how the contents of that "the village does not exist", Philippe consequence of enhanced access, his demography of me local Tamang society, this book can be disseminated to those Ramirel. discusses the lack of homology of analysis of market forces imegl1!ing agricultural practi ces and potentials as well within me Nepalese and the Western administrative units with "coheren!" units mountain economies is far too enthusiasti c. as husbandry techniques. audience who are not nuent in French (and which are given by natural features . There is no mention of the everlasting The study area comprises several the same question pertains to a bulk of economic or social reasons etc. 'These three debates in social sciences (e.g., me disparate eco·zones. Denis Blamont fi rst publications written in Nepali. German, shon articles are imaginative and dependency-models, applied to Nepal by distinguishes IWO types: I, mountain Norwegian, etc.). Wim ththuge amounts of stimulating allempts to compare differing various Nepalese scholars as well as by P. production in a cold and dry milieu "development"-money pouring into Nepal, perspectives (e.g., of the local people vs. of Blaikie, J. Cameron and D. Seddon) aooul (prominence of pastoralism with high !:C:tting up an excellent library on social government officials or of scientists) of the the nature of me potential integration mounlain pastures, besides agriculture and research. containing abstracts of same (?) phenomena. processes. While infrastructutal trade), and 2. tropical mountain area with publications that were written in other development (expanding network of intensive agricu hu r.!1 production. Two languages than English, would be a compar· 2. Space-time, economy, demography communication and transpon) brings about intermediary forms are added: 3. a hwnid atively modest project. Introducing the spatial perspective leads me crucial changes in the producti ve system and and moderate mountain production system lbe second French publication to two attempts done outside social sciences in the circulating process, accessibility may (prominence ofpasloralism. but with a large concentrates on Socieles rural!!!s des Andes and to think about me nature of development enhance the economic marginality in a forest area and the possibility to practice et de J'Himalaya. and thus stresses the fact processes in the Himalayas. How does the periphery ratherthan reduce it - even though more intensive agriculture), and 4. an that there is something specific to the fact that the mountain environment some sections of the populalion may take intermediary fonn between 2. and 3. with mountain environment that needs to be conditions relationships in space and time, advantage of new opponunities. Inquiries dependency upon rice agriculture and pasto­ explored. It is a promising attempt at affect the processes of change? The about causes and consequences of market ralism at the same time. The detailed bringing to light several interesting geographer Nigel AlIan compares two expansion in the dislinct Himalayan envi· examination of the interdependence differences between Andean and H imalayan models of mountains. and argues that new ronment constitute a new field of interest. between different forms of production habitats and societies (different qu antities of models are needed to conceptualize lbe renowned Indian economist within and between·various zones as well as spaceal people'sdisposal: different relation- "mountain development". The altitudinal Narpat Jhoda presents an alternative model 11 10 including center-periphery and all concentrate upon class inqualities. Nancy of mountain development (1992). He 10 the issues he: raises, such as the scope of circulationist models. models based upon l..evine (1988) presents one of the rare begins his inquiry by establishing mountain human adaptation under diverse conditions the modernization theory). ahemative contributions on economic and po .....er specificities. (11) The major characteristics (sec Dobremez 1986 discussed above). the strategies of (sustainable) mountain relations in areas with scarcely monetized of the mountains are their inaccessibility, in most mteresting question is how development. political economy relations. economies. (13) Lcvine concentrates on the sense of poor communication and marginality can be defUlCd in a positive way: gender relations (including inequalities in credit systems, indebtedness and poverty in limited mobility; fragility, given by their as autonomy in seeking appropriate access to resources), oppression. poveny. six Hum1a villages. She concludes: "First. geological composition in particular: solutions (including strategies to ~ outwit" integration into theworld economy• linkages debtors and creditors in Humla neither stand marginalilY. and diversity. In this model. ~a the interfering state); as interconnectedness between agriculture, trade and ranged across any pre-existing social or marginal enlilY is the one that counts least In of sociaJ systems, world views and nature industrialisation. govemmental policies ethnic divides, nordo they necessarily come the 'mainstream' situation ( ... ). Several (see Sceland 1990); and as specific (including international pressures). from opposed social groups. Majorloans are entities acquire marginaJ status when they properties of small societal entities to adjust interconnection and conflicts of political. contracted between persons of the same are linked 10 dominant enlities on unequal to emerging opportunities quickly and admmistrative and economic interests. local caste or ethnic group. between have and H tenns • However. "mountains, owing to innovatively (vs. potential sluggishness of and regional exchanges. fonns of have-not of any status. and loans play a their heterogeneity. have several. often large societies (12» - a point that is brieny cooperation (within households and major pan in the village dynamic of narrow but specific 'niches' which are used dealt with by Zivel2. (sce below). communities), the connecti on between the changing economic advantage. Second. by local communities in the course of their And how can wc conceptualize "local micro- and the macro· level of the analysis; indebtedness is grounded at another diversified activities". Helping in this societies" anew'! - Nowadays it is a most governmental and market mechanisms 10 economic level than the monetary economy process art the human adaptation strikingexpcrience to " see~ different worlds enhance welfare, development policies and is more deeply rooted than modem mechanisms as renected through "fonnal coming together in many villages - despite (including impon and export policies, needs for cash". I infer from Lcvine's and infonnal arrangements for management forceful tectonic barriers. While silting in a subsidies. credit supplies), adaptive detailed analysis that indebtedness and the of resources. diversified and inlerlinked remote Bajhangi village. half devoid of male strategies to internal and external pressures. resulting oppression cannot be discussed activities to harness the micro.'niche' of population due to their working as night­ demographic factors, such as migration and merely within class models. Subsequently. specific eco-zones. and crfective use of watcrunen in Bangalore, interviewing a population growth (in relation to the poverty ought 10 be studied also in the upland-lowland interlinkages" (1992: 44- Brahmin priest on Dasain celebrations. and carrying capacity of natural envirorunent. context of conflicts within small social units 46). Jodha's approach to "mountain listening together to news on the Iraq waron and to political economy). conuption and so such as communities and even households. development" is much more cautious than Radio Nepal and the BBC in the breaks. J fonh. The themes of money-lending, fonns of Allan's who advocates opening up was made to realize the simultaneousness of Obviously. not all of the listed provision of ru ral credits, including the mountains to plains' dynamics. In his view, various processes pouring into the place. questions can be the object of socia­ (partly newly emerging) fonns of rotating understanding the rationale: of human Alan Macfarlanc and lndrabahadur Gurung anthropological inquiries. The social credit associations ought to and certainly adaplation mechanisms in the "niche" cometotheconclusion that "the 'village' has aRlhropology of complex societies is in an will be dealt with in studies to come. potentials can help in the search for 10 be conceived of now as essentially everlasting process of defining itself. Many There are not many Western attempts sustainable development. dispe~d" (1990: 34). They argue that of the issues are subjects of economic and to analyse local economies and specific Jodha's model, however, aJso nowadays the Gurungs are reacting wilh a polilological inquiries, but there is no way of ccooomic sectors in the context of the conceptualizes the mounlains from the point good economic sense to external market defining clear-cut professional divisions (changing) national economy (see. e.g., of view of resources. It is again a plains' forces to which they adapt. Having lived on and areas of competence. No doubt. social Schrader 1988). The major Western perspeclive. defining marginality in the hunting and gathering inearJiertimes. "now. anthropology has much to contribute. It is, contribution in this area remains PeasanlS sense of "too far". and "too little". that is. by using the village as a base. they 'hunt and however, striking how little attention and Workers in Nepal (1979) (I4) by pointing out specific deficiencies. It is gather' aJl over the world. but their new Western social anthropologists have paid to Seddon, Blaikie and Cameron, which deals obviously a very different perspective from territory is not the high pastures and thick this vast field so far (e.g., in comparison to with poor peasants. rural anisans. porters. the onc prevailing among the social forests of the nineteenth century. but the the scope of socio-anthropological inquiries agricullural labourers. highway anthropologists who usually strive to streets of Hong Kong. Bombay or Pokhara" on related issues in other developing construction labourers. the urban labour acquire an understanding from the "top of (1990,35). couRlries). force , and small bu siness and petty the mountain". seeking to perceive the world "Mountain development", as Poverty is not frequently discussed by burgeoisie. Recently. Vivienne Kondos. from the point ofview ofthe society studied. conceptualized by Allan and Jodha, draws Western scholars. though it is one of the Indra Ban, and Alex Kondos presented at the Jodha's detailed and differentiated model our anention in the first place to economic, major issues in Nepalese research (e.g., by CNAS/ Sidney-eonference in Kathmandu may then be scen as a point of depanure to demographic and environmental issues C. Mishra). Besides the earlier work of some results from their projcct on Nepal's conceplUalile "mountain development" comprismg such disparate and partly Blaikie/ Cameron/ Seddon. and besides manufacturing industry (sec also A. Kondos from the human actors' perspective. While mtersecting areas as: models of economic several anicles by Stephen Mikesell, which 1987). After several years having passed social anthropologists can contribute much change and emerging linkages (dependency, 12 13 since the much discussed publ ications by the tendency among the successful development was recently compiled at overprimary production through processes, team Blaikie/ Cameron/Seddon,a debate on communities not 10 prevent women from I.CIMOD), 1 was not able to trace such as land fragmentation and the rise of how 10 theoretize on mode(s) of production venturing into business. One of the factors publications which would take up the issues educational and wage-labor opportunities" in Nepal and on the related class relations is preventing the Newars from accumul ation is introduced by Bennettl Acharya and their (ibid.). The report contains a discussion of being carried on by Stephen MikeseU and identified in their reluctance to establish team (CEDA. 1981) in a similarly the complementarity of ethnographic Jamuna Shrestha (1988). economic pannerships within the comprehensive manner. Valuabledata were methods and of quantitative data collection, Whilepoverty is a rare topic in Western community. With regard to the issue of n=cently presented by Kate Gilbert (1992) an overview of recent theoretical research, so is also prosperity. As widely cooperation, it is interesting to see that a who studied intra-family dispute over approaches to demographic transition, and a known, socio-anthropological research strong sense of unity based on cultural and property and labour in Eastern Nepal as well detailed bibliography. ( 17) among upper strata is a difficult endeavour, social grounds may not be matched in the as legal documents (Muluki Ain, 1978-79, In view of its wide reception there is no since. for instance, prosperous economic field: entering into economic Sections on Family Law). Gilbert analyses need to comment extensively upon a recent entrepreneurs are reluctant to talk to relations with members of the same legal provisions for women in comparison comprehensive account on the political strangers about the reasons of their success. community is avoided in order to rule out with the actual practice within the confIDeS economy of social deprivation in Nepal. Laurie Zivetz has succeeded in gaining frictions. Another revealing area ofZivetz's of household and family. As usual, there is a namely David Seddon's Nepal: A Slate oJ access to entrepreneurs from several inquiry is her discussion of "marginality". large gap between existing rights and their Poverty. Afler identifying the rools of communities in Nepal: Newars. Marwaris. While all the groups mentioned are marginal means of enforcement. Even if they know poverty and inequality through the analysis Thakalis, Sherpas, Tibetans as well as to the Nepalese society which is dominated their rights. women are "unable or unwiUing of political and economic change since the Gurungs and Manangis. In her book by high-caste Hindus, each of the to pursue (their) rights through the legal "unification", Seddon examines the scope Privatc Entcrprise and the State in Modern communities studied has been able to system because of the inherent conflicts and the symptoms of the current crisis in Nepal (1992) she explores the emergence advance itself by building links with Nepal's between the legal rights offered to them and Nepal. The deterioration of Ihe natural and evolution of modem enterpreneurship ruling circles, through serving the rulers their own long-tenn self interest as members environment and the population pressures in the context of Nepal's specific problems du ;ng the 19th century, and nowadays of families and workers in a subsistence are seen in the framework of an "essentially (size, lack of local raw materials, lack of th ·ough establishing joint ventures either economy" (1992: 733). hostile social environment in which access to sea-roules, India's political and • ,,;th Nepalese clites or with foreign tn recent years demographic i.s.sue.s, exploitation, oppression and discrimination economic strategy towards Nepal, the ' entrepreneurs, and through bribery: "Social including the wide complex of migration, are pervasive". The analysis of the governmental conlraints upon private enter­ marginality - or, rather, minority status - has were mainly studied by Nepalese scholars economic basis of social inequality and prise). The most interesting secti on of the no: pn=vented Nepal's entrepreneurial (Harka Gurung, Nanda Shrestha, Poonam social deprivation is followed by an inquiry book is the analysis of why the above­ gf') 'ps from co-existing quite successfully Thapa). (16) Among studies on family and into the role of the state. Conservative mentioned minority communities have wiL' the powers·that·be" (1992: 132). household, an international team (Thomas vested interests within the state bureaucracy proved particularly successful in adopting Another area where various Fricke, Dilli Ram Dahal, Arland Thonon, and in the widerpoliticaJ economy, of which an entrepreneurial cuhure, and also how the dimensions of inequality become apparent Willam Axinn and Krishna P. Rimal) has the government fonns pan, are crucial Ncwars' decline as Nepal's foremost are women .studies and studies on gender recently presented a report (Fricke et al. factors deepening the crisis. Seddon entrepreneurial community has come about. relationship.s. Many (female) scholars are 1991), based upon research conducted identifies the role academics as well as In her very vividly written analysis, that is actually conducting research on gender among Tamangs in two areas within the foreign aid agencies should play in often "spiced" with proverbs and anecdotes, relations. female marginality and Kathmandu Valley and within the upper p.oviding effective support for those Zivetz comes to the conclusion that there is marginalization in the process of market Ankhu Khola Valley over 11 months struggling to improve the living and no single fonnula for success in business. expansion. prostituti on, industrial labour in (1987/88). Economicchange is seen bereas working conditions of the Nepalese masses But there are some regularities, such as a the urban context, and women's role in rural one element of transformations in social by presenting sharper and more critical sense of community identity and internal productive systems (the latter topics are organit.ation with implications for family analyses of the Nepalese society (the book cohesiveness; all the communities have being mainly researched by Nepalese relationships. marriage, and fertility. It is, appeared in 1987). Rightly, as we know gained their experiences in trade. and many scholars: Meena Acharya, Hisila Yemi and ~mong othe ~ things, an interesting inquiry now, Seddon identifies fundamental contra­ have evolved internal systems to promote others). One recent area of inquiry is mlo changmg panerns of household dictions that became increasingly apparent business within the community. "Most of women's role in "community forestry" relations in the rural context: "Our in the course of the 80s, and that would these communities have inbuilt sanctions on which will probably provide the most hypothesis is that suppons for high fertility eventually lead to political change. Seddon the accumulation of wealth. However, in exciting data on female collective action. in non-market economies are mediated by concentrales upon the necessary refonns in many cases tlley also place imponance on While in recent years a great variety of family organit.ation through alliance political and administrative OOdies relative Iy ega lilarian social organisation and papers were presented at various building and household fonnation (i ncluding the legal system) as we ll as in a measure of reciprocity within the conferences and seminars, or as project strategies. This organization is undennined governmental procedures. I wou ld have community" (1992: 124). There is also the documems (one bibliography on women and when senior family members lose control prefemd 10 put the emphasis not on the 14 IS

"result" of t!'le struggle as apparent in the agencies) pressures. It is equally imponant "control and management of forests by the development discourse. The authors draw new constitution. but on the process that to examine institutional aspects of people to use them". Besides digesting a upon their experience within the brought about this change: as an indicator of "community life". including the process of large body of recentliterarure on forests and development institutions (especially in the a new societal force emerging in Nepal. a institutional change and institutional forest management in a development well-known Nepal·Australia Forestry highly politicized civil society. innovation with its binding elements (e.g. perspective, the authors are very well Project) pointing oul a tragedy lying in the world views) and discontinuities (such as acquainted with social. economic and fact that substantial development 3. Inlerface between politico-administra­ unequal access to resources), and hence political life in Nepal at various levels of the intervention (measured by the quantity of tive institutions and local societies foons of cooperation and conflict within national hierarchy and are accordingly resources spent) has neither reduced The encompassing processes of local social entities. differentiated in their argumentation. worldwide inequality nor enhanced the infrastructural integration in Nepal through The place where state and people Forests in Nepal are so ubiqu itous that an access of the poor and underprivileged enhanced transpon and communication are, meet, can be located through examining the major societal phenomena can be illustrated social strata to narural resources. They to a large degree. the result of governmental welfare functions of the state, the and analysed with reference to them. discuss the fallacy of elitist approaches measures. At the same time. they provide a (re)allocation and management of economic Accordingly. this publication is a treasure which assume that the modem science and basis for further governmental expansion resources, forms of law and order trove - be it in the sense of leaming from the technology incorporated by the Western and the proliferation of Slate instirutions, maintenance. and endeavours to establish authors, be it in the sense of identifying gaps educated elites are to be imposed upon the through which a large amount of and maintain legitimacy patterns on the one and future areas of inquiry. putative ignorant village people. The development projects are channeled. even to hand, and through understanding individual The book is the outcome of authors criticise the two widespreati the most remOte regions of the country. So and collective action within local societies interdisciplinary cooperation between a development stereotypes: the one far, the governmental expansion to the 75 reacting to, and bringing about, specific forester (Gilmour) and an anthropologist presenting local people as incapable of Nepalese districts (with more than 35 offices state measures on the other, for instance (Fisher), with a short introduction by a sensible resource management and based in every district capital). rationalized through strategies to achieve access to geographer (Jack Ives), and one chapter on contending that people must be educated. by "the State" as decentralisation. has public goods and/or to retain control over "Cost benfit analysis", containing a critical motivated, informed, coerced. "convinced"; enhanced centralisation (there is some collective goods which the state seeks to assessment of economic approaches to and the alternative: the "ancient wisdom"­ indication that the decentralisation process appropriate. e.g. by the nationalization of project evaluation by Neil Byron. view which sees the knowledge and is now gathering momentum). (18) It has forests. 'The Nepalese citi zens' auitude "Community forestry" is the focal point of activities of villagers as a reflection of the manifested itself in increased control over towards the state - that can prove benevolent several crucial debates about the quest for special and inherited wisdom of generations the citizens: maintaining law and order, but also hannful- is ambivalent, all the more multi-disciplinary approaches (and the that enables them to solve every problem if controlling resources, e.g., through land and so because, with the increasing societal preveming constraints), about accepting only they are left alone. 1be approach forest registration and/or nationalization; complexity, the stale cannot redeem its that the profession of specialists is a culture chosen is to assess the scope of existing directing economic change and promoting promise contained in its self-ponrayal as the (against conceptualising science as value­ social mechanisms and technical knowledge welfare through central measures. It is major force ofsoc ietal progress that it strives free), and about power relations (for in local management of forest resources: difficuh to assess the role of governmental to retain. It is important to note, however, instance between the national and local "We then need to recognise and support institutions in effecting societal changes that while many Nepalese citizens try to levels) involved in natural resource what is working and to facitirau: local throughout Nepal. since there are other benefit from what the govemmental system management. The forestry perspective problem solving when things are not going forceful factors involved. Cenainly, a very as a developing agency has to offer, a prevails in the chapters: Ille extent and so well H (11]91: 56). im ponant area where to find its impact is in substantial shareof aClionoccursoutside the imponance of Nepal's forests" and '''Appro­ 1be authors take the diversity within establishing and strengthening existing realm of the state institutions. priate' silviculture"; the sodo­ and among local societies as given. Instead institutional links with local societi es. The Among publications focussing upon anthropological perspective is stronger in of trying to reduce the societal complexity to emerging interaction between social entities the interface between governmental "Community forestry as a social process". a unifying model tht allows one 10 neglect with differing scopes (state vs. community) institutions and "local" societi es, Gilmour "Implementation", and "Political and "idiosyncrasies", they advocate connects world views (including legitimacy and Fisher's Villagers, Forests and institutional context: Can community interventions which are flexible enough to patterns). rationalities. and that differ from Foresters: The Philosophy, Process and forestry work?", while both disciplines are adjust to specific local conditions. The each other power potemials. On the Practice of Community Forestry in Nepal is fruitfully combined in the chapters on knowledge of local societies. as I infer. is empirical level, it is imponant to understand cenainly a most interesting and useful "Indigenous forestry", "Research for translated into action in the sense of making the state in a threefold perspective: state as contribution. This book was written with a community forestry", and "Monitoring and the practitioners aware of di versity, wilhout an autonomous agency; state as a steering practica1 purpose and addresses evaluation" . The issue of the book is compelling them to know every detail. This mechanism: and state as reacting to internal development practioners above all : it is an introduced by showing how the "old" awareness is the basis for designing projects (interest groups) and external (global allempt to elaborate a "holistic approach 10 concept of community forestry has recently that adjust to local conditi ons. politics; impact of international donor- community forestry" that is defined as the become an important "paradigm" in the acknowledging that mcmbers of "local 16 17 societies" are the carriers of the projects, seeking to enlarge meir power base; they most forceful obstacles to the overdU Gilmour and Fisherdo not explicate the moo including me planning process, instead of also deal with the inherent difficulty of development process. However. one is glad dels underlying their analysis (in the fields viewing them as mere "recipients". Arguing making project objectives "public" in the i· 10 credit Dor Bahadur Bista with writing so of new institutional economics, economic against uniformity, Gilmour, Fisher and ni tial stage of development interventions. much on this problem. thus creating room to theories of politics. social organisation, Byron touch on some rather delicate points The sections on the interfaces between address new issues in the future, since: political theory); and I am inclined to concerning me procedures of Nepalese and the state and donor agencies, personified in cultural attitudes are but one factor contrib­ assume that they put too much emphasis on foreign bureaucracies involved: they argue Forest Department officials of different uting to the failures of the political· the state's role in creating societal change. against the need of formal committee weights, and the local societies (ideally not administrative bodies in Nepal. In the The question of the inst itutional structures (users' groups) 10 carry out represented by any leaders) are most context of foresl management in Nepal one channels through which interventions. such projecls, against the overall need to design interesting. Gilmour and Fisher show that would like to have a more comprehensive as knowledge or technology lransfer occur, formal growth/yield models to manage projects are social processes· visible events fina l discussion on institutional limitations is nowadays addressed increasingly by forests, and against the need for cash-flow of policy implementation "around" which acting upon the governmental bodies development theoreticians. (20) The budgets for tree production and the Slate apparatus and aid agencies organize concerned: coordination of foresl protection constitutional change in Nepal has management systems. This may not be their activity. In their analysis. two social and utilization between various ministries additionally reinforced the scienti fic intere st surpri sing to social anthropologists. but in systems (with their own values, norms, and the Planning Commission; legal in political institutions. governmental development practice one rarely encounters institutional arrangements and limitations) inconsistences and problems with legal policies as well as in the process of the Nepa­ the argument that farmers will adopt new meet in various forms and situations. In both enforcement; institutional pressures created lese people's politicization, in the sense of practi ces when and if these make sense to systems, the actors are bound by the by various donor institutions active in this discovering new social and political forces them - regardless of the sophisti cati on of constraints of their own system. (It is area; shifting economic policies and hence active in Nepal at the national andlor local project designs on paper. difficult to collect data on these problems, shifting assessments of the importance of level: "concerned citizens" unde rtaking The farmers discussed are 10 a lesser unless one is himself/herself, like the forest resources in relation to economic action in solving societal problems (e.g., exlent individual household members, and authors, pan of the process.) The authors development: conflicting objectives of the Human RightS Fora): political mobilizati on 10 a large r eXlent local communitieslhat do indicate specific negative stereotypes adm inistrative and the political process (strikes, pro test against governmental not necessarily coincide with any prevalent on both sides. making both respectively (see, e.g., D.R. Panday 1989). measures such as the Tanakpur·issue); administrative boundaries. In recenl publi. "panies" distrustful about each other's Despite pUlling the main emphasis on attempts to define and pursue measures of cations, the collective spirit of local (non­ motives and hindering concened action. the local effortS. the authors attach great self·reSlnlint (especially in vie w of Hindu) communilies emerges as a broad They make important remarks on the importance to governmental bodies. They environmental degradation) (21): and issue, with much hope being put in ils role in devolution of state control over forest point repeatedly to the emerging di lemma of striving for self-assenion in defining and development processes. Gilrnourand Fisher resources in the overall process of the state's power monopoly and the impera· pursuing development objectives (aims, differentiate in this area. Probably hav ing decentralisation (that now finally seems 10 ti ve need for self·restrict ion in the decen­ priorities, forms of implementation and rat ional choice·minded planners in mind, be gening underway). It is indeed tralisation process at the same time. They evaluation). whom they choose to convince, they stress paradoxical that al present the Forest show how powerful members of local The forceful political changes during the importance of social values and norms as Depanment "is being asked to use its societies have succeeded in enlarging their the last decade gave impelus 10 socio· im portant cultural elements that bind authority to give away its authority!". In this power base by establishing links to state anthropologica l inquiries into the political societies toge ther. However mey do not process, District Officers are put into an officials (see also Brauen 1984). Regarding process. Several authors have imaginati vely exaggerate the issue: "community forestry" ambiguous position which they try to exploiL the equity issue, the major role is attached related cultural values 10 political acti on: for is not only about cooperation. but also about for their own benefit; they "have a tendency again to state agencies! But is the stale able instance Martin Gaenszle (1992) points out conflict, about decision-making and to hand over responsibility for management to advocate equity demands? Despite the symbolic imponance of blood sacri fice reaching consensus. as well as about but keep important elements of the having given much evidence to the contrary, as a tribute to the democratic movement . inequality within local communities autlwrity for themselves". the authors believe, for instance, that in the Bert van der Hock (1990) poses the polem. involving different interest groups. (19) The The state's failures in this process are long run radical changes in the attitude of the ical questi on re lating to the political authors give enough examples to demon­ described in the final section. As already institutions and individuals can come about, situation before Spring 1990: "How can it be strate how difficult it is to mobilize done by Justice, the working of the national and that the Ministry of Forest staff will be explained that the ever-changing political collective acti on and what kind of internal bureaucracy is criticized mainly with refer·· able to ensure that forest management plans circumstances, especially of the last two fri ctions prevent cooperation, and how encetothe traditional politicalcuiture. Once allow for the provision of products to all centuries. are accompanied by the successfull y collectives can manage. 1lley more we encounter the chakari-complex. segments of the population. Apparently. pers istence of rituals of an ullerly describe inte mal dynamics by showing. for and the great reluctance of officials to make. Gilmour and Fisher untie the Gordian knot conservative nature?" (1990: 149). The instance. how local ward leaders make decisions. Personal altitudes, as shaped by by expressing their hope in the govenunent democratic movement itself was claims on behalf of their consti tuents, traditional patterns, are certainly among the changing itself. Bul how can that happen? documented (and illustrated) by Bonk ( 1990 18 19 and 1991). and the ~ ..oblem of human solutions. By questioning the adequacy of J. Carter, B. Brower. I.·M. Bjonness. J. Levine (1988). see also the literature on rela­ rights has been recenlly discussed by Westem research. our Nepalese colleagues Kawakita. and others. tions within households, and Kondos/Ban Krlimer (1991). Noc surprisingly. linle "dragged" social anthropology into the (8) It would be very inte~sting to have an (1990). research has been done (or published?) 0;1 public arena. This should remain one of the inquiry into the notion of "people" in publi­ (16) A very useful earlier collection was institutional aspeclS of the government. on "places" where we are 10 continue our cations dealing wilh development. presented in L'Ethnographie, 77-18 (1918). infonnal relationships between political dialogue. (9) Several research phases are distin­ see also R.e . Peet (1918). factions. oron powerful interest groups and guished in the inuodUClion . The main period (17) See also Fricke (1988). Seeley 1988. their action. Alex Kondos's article on Footnotes: was between 1918 and 1983. Gray/Mearns (1989). corruption (1981) is one of the exceptions. (1) a. First National Congress of Soci· (10) The above- nentioned publication by (18)S«. e.g., Kna1l1989; Lindsey 1991. Several articles on ethnicity, identity and ology/Anthropology in Nepal. Structure and Jodhaet al. (1992) also contains several ani­ (19)Gilmour and Fisher rerer here to a large national iOlegnltion have been wrinen by Transition: Society, Poverty and Politics in des on the Andes. See also The Stale ofthe body of socio-antbtopoJogical data on indig­ Western scholm (this issue was abo Nepal. Organised by SociologicaVAnthro­ World's mountains: A Global Report, enous management systems and fonns: see, addressed especially by P.R. Sharma on the pologica\ Society of Nepal (SASON), 4-6 edited by P. Stone (1992). e.g., van FUrer-Haimendorf 1964; Camp­ Nepalese side. see also the "Ethnicity" -issue September 1992. b. The Anthropology of (11 ) These are not necessarily confined 10 ben 1918; Molnar 1981. several publica­ in llimal, 1992) for instance by David Nepal: People, Problems and P~sses . mountain areas but characterize the Hima­ tions by Messerschmidl. There is also an Gellner (\986) and Dedan Quigley (1981) Organised by the University of Sydney and layan features. interesting publication by Ben Campbell on who discuss the nature of Newar ideOlity. CNAS, 1-14 September 1992. (12) See. e.g., Hondrich 1992. cooperative fonns among the Tamang, (22) Manyearlier publications deal with po­ (2) Several Subaltun Smdies. Writings on (13) While going lhrough the Himalayan forthcoming. See also Stone (1989). litical conniClS in villages (see, e.g., South Asian History and Society volumes Rosearch Bulletin XI (1-3), 199 1, I found (20) See, e.g., Long 1988. 81u stein 1977). A recent low-caste auempl have been published by Ranajit Guha since several indications of recent research, such (21) Being a peninent issue in Western to oppose Brahmanic rules was described in 1982 in Oxford University Press, Delhi; for as by J. Fon ier on Land Tenure, Labour democracies as well, see. e.g., Offe 1989. the sem i-documentary film MakiJiby Bieril a good overview see: O'Hanlon, R. 1988. Practices. and a Theory of Multiple Modes (22) See also Kailash issue XV (3-4), 1989, Garlinski. (3) Kinipur: Tribhuvan University. CNAS of Production in Jajarkot district, or M. containing contributions by M. HUll, DJ. • 1989. Came ran: "A Critical Examinalion ofStruc­ Matthews, A. Macfarlane. A.W. Macdo· 1ne inquiry iOlo the ongoing socio­ (4)Giddens 1990: 21. ture and Practice in Nepal's Jajmani system: nald. Ch. McDonaugh. T. Riley-Smith; and political process in Nepal concerns two (5) I have omitted here the names of those EXChange. Domination. and resistence from also Pfafr-Cz.amecka (1989). M. Gaborieau major interrelated topics: the process of scholars whose research is mentioned in this the Perspeetive of Low Castes" (probably 1993. and Anne de Sales, forthcoming. change in Slate-systems and the limits to review. For political change see based upon her field data from 8ajbang). statehood, and the ongoing pol itical process. Rose/Scholz. 1980and several other publica­ Again, the majority of "critical" issues are References in the course of which hidden societal tions by Rose and various collaborators, being brought up by Nepalese scholars al Allan. N.J.R. 1986. Accessibility and deavages and pertinent questions are Goodall (1918), BorgstrtSm (1916, 1980). various American Conferences. See also Altiludinal Zonation Models of Mountains. coming into the open. Nepal faces various Caplan, L. (1915). 80ggs (1982). On ethnic research done by H. Zimolong on power Mountain Research and Development VI specific problems rooted in her traditions, relations, and on elhnic relations and state structure in a Hindu caste society in the (3), 185· 194. the Himalayan environment. and ... Bu.pu.n (1984). Engl;sh (1982. 1985). western Nepalese viUage G. (Gorkha dis­ geopolitical conditions, but also global Manzardo (1985), von FUrer-Haimendorf trict) concentrating mainly on the oppres­ Bista. D. 8. 1991 . Fatalism and Devt/op­ problems, such as the environmental degra­ (1915. 1918, 1981 ). HOfer (1919). March sion of low casteS, and low caste people's men!: Nepal's Struggle for Modern ization . dation, that call for civil action all over the (1919), Gaige (1975. on regionalism). etc. perception of social inequality. Calcul!a: Orient Longman. world. The process of politicization. as On social change see L. Caplan (1910). ( 14) For a critical assessment of the applica­ already mentioned. is accompanied by a crit­ Porfenberger (\ 981), Prindle (1983), etc. tion of the centre-periphery model, as is Blustain, H.S. 1911. Power and Ideology in ica
examination of the existing order and (6) See. e.g., Fardon 1985. done in several publications by P. Blaikie,J. a NepaieSt! Village. Yale University. power images. Therearecommonthemesof (1) While talkingof"environment" it is also Cameran and D. Seddon. see Macfarlane Unpublished. universal importance, such as the critique of imponantto mtnt ion the urban settings (see, (1990) and Mikesell (1988). However, the progress imperative: and the re lated e.g .• Herdick 1988), and human shaping of pointing out theoretical deficiencies of their Boggs. R.K. jr. 1982. The Political Basis of debate on the sociology of knowledge, the the habitat by constructing houses and model is not meant to diminish the impor­ Socioeconomics Development: The Case of function of science, and lhe role of scientistS settlements (e.g. Torrin 1991 / 1981). An tance of their contributions to the political Nepal. HRAF. within the societal order. In the context or important source on the present debates is economy of Nepal in any way. inequalities within the world system, con­ The Himalayan Dilemma by J. Ives and B. (15) But there are many important recent Bonk, T. \990. Dawn of Democracy. nicts among lhose who are pan or the Messerli (1989). Further research outside contributions such as Enstin (1990). People's Power in Nepal. Kathmandu: process may initiate attempts to th ink of social anthropology was done by C. Rieger. Allen/Mukherjee (1990), Schuler (l988), FOPHUR. 20 21

Bonk. T. 1991. N~paJ . Struggle for anthropology, health and development. Ftirer·Haimendorf. C, von 1978, Trans· Press. Dt mocroC'j. Bangkok . Himalayan Traders in Transi ti on, Hima . Dani. A.A. and G.J . CampbeU. 1986. layan Anthropology. Ed. J,F. Fisher. The Heide. S, von der 1987, The Thakolis from Borgslrom , B.-E. 198Oa. The Patron and Sustaining Upland Resources. People's Hague/Paris: Mouton : 339·357, North Western Nepal. Kathmandu : Rama the Ponca: Village VoJut's and Pancayol Participation in Watershed Management. Pustak Bhandar. Democracy in Nepal. New Delhi: Vihs. Kathmandu: ICIMOD Occasional Papers Fi.irer·Haimendorf, C. von 1981 . Social No. 3. OIange in a HimaJayan Region, TM HifrlQ. Herdick. R. 1988, Kirtipur. BorgsutSm. B.-E. J98Ob. The Best of Two laya: Aspects o/Change, Eds. J,S , La.ll and Sladtgtschichu. Prinzipien der Worlds: Rhetoric of Autocracy and Democ­ Draper, J. 1988. The Sherpas Transforrtlt:d : A,D. Moddie, New Delhi: Oxford Univer. Raumordnung und gesellschaftliche racy in Nepal. Contribwiol1s to Indian Towards A Power-Centered View of sity Press. Funluionen einu- Ne"WClr·Stadl. KOln: Studies (N.S.) XlV (I); 35-50. Change in the Khwnbu. Contributions to Weltforum VerJagsanstalt. Nepalese Studits XV (2): 139·162. Gaborieau. M. 1993, Muslims Feel Safer in Brower. B. 1991. Sherpa of Khumbu. Nepal Than in India. Intenoiew given to HOfer. A, 1979. The Caste Hierachyantl the People. Uveslock, and Landscape. Delhi: English. R. 1982. Gorkhali and Kirallli: Independent, 17,3,93 . StateD/Nepal: A Sludyo/the Muluki Ain oJ Oxford Univenity Press. Political Economy in lhe Eastern Hills oJ 1854, Innsbruck: UniversiUitsverl ~g Nepal. HRAF. Gaige. F. 1975, Regionalism and National Wagner, Burghan, R. 1984. 1l\e Formation of the Uniry in Nepal. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Concept of Nation·Slate in Nepal. Journal English, R. 1985. Himalayan State Forma· University of Californ ia Press. Hock, B. v,d. 1990, Does Divinity Protect of Asian Smdies XLIV (I): 101-125. ti on and the Impact of British Rule in the the King? Ritual and Politics in Ne pal. Nineteenth Century. Mountain Research Gaenszle, M. 1991. Blut im Tausch fOr Contributions to Nepalese Studies XVII Burghan. R. 1988. Cultural Knowledge of and Dtve/opment V (I): 61·78. Demokratie. Der Kampf urn eine neue (2); 147-155. Hygiene and Sanitation 85 a Basis for Health Verfassung in Nepal 1990. lnternationales Deveiopmem in Nepal. Contributions to Enslin. E. 1990. The Dynamics 0/ Gender, Asien/orum XX II (3-4): 233·258. Hondrich. K.O. 1992. Worl dSociely Versus Nepalese Stullies XV (2): 185-212. Class and Caste in 0 Women's Movemelll in Niche Societies: Paradoxes of Unidirec. Rural Nepal. Ph.D. thesis. Stanford Gellner. I? 1986, Language. Caste, Religion tional Evol ut ion. In: Social Change and CampbelJ, G. 1978. Community In volve­ University. and Temtory. Newar Identity Ancient and Modernity. Ed. H. Haferkamp and N.J , ment in Conservation: Social and Organi· Modem . European Journal 0/ Sociology Smelser. 8erkeley: University ofCalifomia sational AspeCts a/the Proposed Resource Fardon. R. 1985. Power and KncM'ledge: XXVII : 102-148. I'

Nepalese Studies XIV (2): 99-110. Macfarlane, A. and I. Gurung. 1990. Panday, n .R. 1989. Admin i s u~tive Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study. Gurungs of Nepal (A Guide to the Development in a semi-Dependency: The Sales, A. de . fonhcoming. The Chantel Kondos. A. 1987a. The Question of Gurungs). Kathmandu: Ralna Pustak Experience of Nepal. Public Claim for Identity: From Integration to "Corruption" in Nepal. Mankind xvn ( I ): Bhandar. AdminiSlralion and Development IX: 315- Separation. 15-29. 329. Manzardo. A.E. 1985. Ritual Practice and Schrader. H. 1988. Trading Patterns in the Kondos. V, and 1. Ban. 1990. Old Ways, Group Maintenance in he Thakali of Central Pfaff-Czamecka, 1. 1989. Macht und Nepal Himalayas. Saarorilcken-Fon New Sites: Power and Privilege at a Nepal. Kailash XII (1-2): 8 1-114. rimelle Reinheit. Hinduistisches Lauderdale: BreitenOOch. Bielefelde r Nepalese Women's Development Project. 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Manchester: Manchester Univer­ 774. Mountains. A Global Report. London-New sity Press: 108-133. Rose. L.E. and J.T. Scholz. 1980. Nepal. Jersey: Zed Books. O'Hanlon, R. 1988. Recovering the Subject Profile of a Himalayan Kingdom. Boulder. Macfarlane. A. 1990. Fatalism and Subaltern Studies and Histories of Resis· Colorado: Westview Press. Tomn. G. (ed.) 1991 . Man and his House in Development in Nepal. Cambridge tence in Colonial South Asia.ModernAsian the Himalayas. New Delhi. Bangalore: Atlfhropology XIV (I): 13-36. Studies XXII ( I): 189-224. Rustomji. N.K. and C. Ramble 1990. Sterl ing Publishers. Himafayan Environment and Culture. 24

ARCHIVES (C. Jest, A'w. Macdonald), the Tamang (M. tions, and provided the basis for lhe Gaborieau. M. Helfrer. C. Jest. A.W. fo llowing publications: Macdonald) and among Tibetan populations Helffer. M. Nepalese Archives of the Department of Ethnomusicology in of the high Himalayan Valleys. 1969a: "Fanfares viUageoises au Nepal". the Mus~ de I'Homme (paris, 1960-1975)_ 1l\ese recordings illustrate various Objtrs ct Mondcs lXn.: 51 -58 . musical genres: seasonal songs accompa­ 1969b: Castcs dc Musieitns al4 Nipal. Mirellle HellTer and Anne de Sales nying work in the fields. planting out or record 3Oc:m/'·"t. Musee de l'Homme L020. harvesting rice. songs sung while gathering with a booklet in Frenchand English,lhe Ne­ Ea rl y in the sixties. anthropologists and popular songs of the jhJlJut type, rilual in the forest. sheep- or yak-herding songs pali text of the songs, photos, musical nota· linguists within the National Cenlle for songs such as m!lsiri git and panegy ric and festival songs. The narrati ve songs are tions (no longer available). Scientific Research (CNRS) started to songs of the karkha type. Numerous represented by the Indian epics of the collect oral and specifically musical tradi­ missions were concerned with this caste of Mahlbhanlta and the RlmlylJ)a and by the Helffer, M. et Macdonald, A.W. tions of various groups in Nepal. In 1966 beggar-singers: Tibetan epic ofGesar, as well as by chantefa­ 1966 "Sur un s'al'lgi de glinc", Objtts ct the ethnomusicologist Mireille He!ffer _ 1961-62: A.W. Macdonald. assisted by bles (b~), by heroic accounts (bhjrat) from Montles. VV2: 133-142. joined them and within a research Dor Bahadur Bista , recorded about a West Nepal (to be compared with reper­ 1968 "le vers nepali chant6", L'Hommc programme directed by Prof. Millot, hundred pieces accompanied on the viol toires from Kumaon) and by such founda­ VDU), 37-95 and VII V4, 58-91 . conducted several missions focu sing on sarangi. tion myth as the Tamang hvli and the Limbu English translations in A.W. Macdonald: musical collections. Dr. Htlffer then _ 1966: survey by M. Helffer in the Kath­ numdhum. Essays on th c Ethnology o/Tibet and South supervised the listing of all the collected mandu Valley and central Nepal (Pokhara Other recordings include perfonnances Asia, Kathmandu: Ratna PuSlak Bhandar, documents • about 500 tapes that were area, Baglung etc.) by various categories of religious interces­ 1975: 175-265. presented to the Depanmenl of Ethnomusi. - 1966-70: recordings by M. Gaborieau in sors (jh8kri, lho-ptJ. puimbo) as well as cology in the Musee de I'Homme. Each the Kalhmandu valley and lhe Gorkha ritual music of the Tibetan Buddhist and Helffer. M. and Gaborieau, M. recorded tape was copied and classified in ..... Bonpo traditions . 1968 "Problemes poses par un chant du a file describing its contents (du ration. - 1965-70: recordings by C. Jest. Tihar". Ethnographic. 68-89. place and conditions of recording, as well The second important set of docu­ COLLECTIONS OF MUSICAL I 974a: "A propos d'un tambour du Kumaon as the subject). A copy of the file was given menls concerns the caste of tailors-musi­ INSTRUMENTS et de I'ousl du Nepal". Studio InJtrumt.n ­ 10 the coll«lor. This is how Marc Gabo­ cians, the Dam.':. rocordings of whom About a hundred musical instruments forum Musical. Populoris 1/1, Stockholm. ri au, Mireille Helffer, ComeiUe Jesl, Alex. were m~dc in variQUS artas of Nepal. LI'J collected in Nepal by various researchers. Musik Historika Museet: 75·79. ander W. Macdonald. Philippe Sagam. and 1969, during a mission in Oadeldhura especiall y by C. Jest. are kept in the Depan­ 1974b: Remarque sur I'utilisalion des 10 a l esse r extem J ean- Fran~ois Mouel and (West Nepal), M. Gaborieau and M. ment of Ethnomusicology in the Musk de tambours-sablier dans le monde indien. le Alain Fou mier, presenled their recordings Helffer collected an exceptionall y rich I'Homme. The whole instrumental range of Nepal et le Tibet". ibid, 268-272. between 1960and 1975. AcopyofBemard body of musical maleri al on the (fholi­ the Oamli is represented (long trumpets. PignMe's recordings (1958) was added 10 hu(ikiJ" Besides these two specifically oboes, kettledrums of various sizes, and CONCLUSION this very rich collection representing the musical sets, various other recordings cymbals). Among the drums used by the This collection is the legacy of an era when Indo-Nepalese castes, including the should be mentioned: religious intercessors there are single-sided neither r1dios or cassette players were Muslims, as well as most of the. ethnic _ tales and accounts related by Bahun and drums such as the rngo of the Gurung. the known in Nepa1 . It can therefore be used as a groups of Nepal. Oletri; ring of the Chantel. the rJamphu of the reference that enables one 10 evaluate the 11 is regrettable that, since. then, - recordings of linguistic interest; Tamang. as well as double-sided drums like changes in repertoire and slyles over a researchers who have carried out fie ld­ • documents conceming the Muslims of the the dhylgro. Mention should also be made period of more than 30 r ears. A num':'tr ?f work, have ceased to present their Kathmandu Valley and of Central Nepal of lutes (sg ra-snJ0tl ), small fiddles with works in progress are uSing the collectIOn In recorded documents to the Department of (M. Gaborieau). sympathethic strings (the slrol'lgi of the this way O. Glooe. C. Tingey. Ph. Ramirel, Ethnornusicology in the Musee de BIdl), hourglass drums (the huQJw of the H. Weiselhaunet). I'Homme. 2) The elhnlc groups dholi) and a few instruments used by the It is hoped that this summary will Musical samples were recorded among Newar. encourage young researchers 10 deposit their CONTENTS OF THE COLLEC­ several ethnic groups such as the Chanlel recorded documents with descriptive files in TIONS (C. Jest), the Gurung (B. Pignede and USE MADE OF THE COLLECTIONS archives where they can be consulted. Only I) The Indo-Nepalese castes Champion). the Hayu (C. Jest), the Limbu The collected recordings have been used for in th is way can lhey be of value to fUlu re Two rich sets of recordings emerge. The P. Saganl). the Magar (C. Jest). the Newar the sound-tracks of films and for exhibi- research. fi rst one concerns the Glint repenoire. (M. Helffer, C. Jest, G. Toffin). the Sherpa 26 27

TOPICAL REPORTS April 1990. when King Birendra a\..ol­ mentofthecounlry.attempts will be made to isbed the Panchayat System. marked amajor make involve Panchayats of various \evels divide. To be sure. participation and decen· in the process of both plan fonnulation and Economic Development, Participation, and Decentralization in tralization were not inexistent prior to this implementation in orderlO make the partici­ Nepal date: what lacked . however. was suitable pation of people in the local development political and economic framework that work more active and dynamic." Such prog­ Bruno Knall would have facilitated the manifold attempts rammatic aims are nOllacking in the subse· in the flCld 10 unfurl their full effect. Devel· quent Five Year Plans either. 1bey remain. opment planning was initiated in 1955 as a however, wishful planning which made Nepal figures in three lists of UN statislics. (1) The success of development projects part of the instru mentarium of the Five investment funds available not only to the Because of the low per capita income. it largely depends on the participation of the YearsPlans. lt isa widelyacceptedviewthat public and private sectors. but also to the belongs 10 the Least Developed Countries population both in planning and realiu­ no plan can he successful in iu implementa­ panchayal sector. and expected from the (LDC): wilh regard 10 the consequences of tion.lbose concerned the most are thus put tion phase unless it fulfills two criteria. panchayals at the district. village and town the uil crisis, it figure s in the list afthe Most in a position to articulate their needs and namely IlJe criterion of communication and levels 10 mobilize additional funds an.d Seriously Affected Countries (MSAC); ideas and to contribute local resources. the criterion of active participation. The labour. Dr. Shrestha. former Vice Chainnan and since it has no direct access to sea, it is such as capital. labour and material. In fonner is fulfilled if there exist adequate of the National Planning commission. aptly classified as one of the Landlocked Coun­ addition. the use of appropriate technology channels of infonnation between the plan­ described this potential of panicipation in tries. Seeing these and other well-known wamnts the integration of the project into ning agency. the public sector (ministries. stating: "A plan can enlist anactive andcrea­ parameters of underdevelopment. one the local populalion's way of life. state e r mixed corporations) and the private tive panicipation of the common people in needed 10 ask why Nepal has failed to (2) Panicipation enhances the people's sector (industrial companies. professional the village only when it is full y renectiveof produce a higher rate of economic growth trust in their own capabilities. strengthens associations. u-ade unions, consulting firms. their genuine needs, hopes and aspirations and. above all. 10 improve the living stan­ their solidarity and ability to self-he lp. research institutes, etc.). This criterion a150 and also provides an effective outlet to venti­ dards of the poorest groups of the popula­ (3) Participation funhers democratization; implies that the measures to be taken are late their grievances." tion. in this sense. democratization is synony­ fonnulated in a language which is intelli· 1be first onset to achieve a genuine Thai Ihe concepts of "decentraliza­ mous with decentralization. gible to all participants in the process, and to break·through towards participation and tion. "panicipation", "development from (4) 1be inadequacy of ministerial bureau­ the population in particular. 'The second decentralization was made in the seventh below" and ''basic needs stratcgyM have cracy in rendering public se..... ices in the criterion, that of active participation. stipu­ Five Years Plan (1985· 1990). A Decentrali­ increasingly gained in imponance in the fields of transport, health. education and lates that. rather than being the task of an zation Law. the first one in the history of context of the economic and social devel­ social welfare provides a further argument esoteric group of technocrats. the implemen­ Nepal. was promulgated in November 1982. opment of the Third World is due not least in support of decentralization and partici­ tation be carried out with the participation of but it took two more years 10 work out the to the fact that the often - quoted "trick.1e­ pation. Participation may offer a palliative individuals and private organizations, such administrative provisions in the execution of down errect" has proven insufficient. In in that the people. thanks to their acquain­ as cooperatives and rural conununities. A this law. This attempt assigned a central role other words. planning as decreed and tance with the local conditions. can make predominant majority of the population to the direct beneficiaries of projects at the executed by top-level instanCes has failed use of their own skill and know how. must see in the plan an expression of their district, viUage and town levels. It envisaged 'in leuing the poorer groups participate in (5) Participation getS a process started own needs in order to be prepared to submit a procedure in which the projects were to be economic growth. A new development which is likely to effect a change in the aui­ to the efforts and sacrifices the implementa­ conceived at the lowest levels and then paradigm claims the active panicipation of tude of non-local bureaucrats and experts tion requires from them. passed on to the districlto be integrated into the populati on. in particular of those social who now have an opportunity 10 acquire a As a maller offact. the first three Devel­ the di strict plan by five expert committees; groups which have hitherto been deprived beller understanding of the local popula­ opment Plans in Nepal were initiated and after its approval by the District Panchayat. of the benefits of development. At the insti­ tion's needs. values and social structure. executed exclusively from above, that is. by the district plan was to be submitted to the lutional level this participation necessi­ While one cannot expect from these the National Planning Commission in loose National Planning Commission in Kath­ tates a change from centralism to a more two strategies to work miracles. they cooperation wi th the ministries concerned. mandu. Unfortu nately. this procedure could decentralized way of planning in which the should nevertheless be regarded as uuerl y Onl y in the fourth Development Plan (1970- not be fo llowed in all 75 districts. partly processes of decision - making and imple­ important components in . or even pre­ 1975) do we find some rather reluctant because of the delayed provisions and partly mentation are to be shifted to a much larger conditions of. a steady growth in underde­ attempts to make provisions for people's because the local decision make~ were not extent than it has been the cast till now veloped national economies. This insight panicipalion. Chapter I of the Plan states sufficiently trained fo r coping with their from the nalional to the local instances. has in the meantime been widely accepted. expli citly: "According to the Panchayat task. To meet the demand for trained Five arguments may be cited in support of and in what fo llows I shall exemplify its System's goal of enJisting greater coopera· personnel. I developed. in collaborati on th is new paradigm: implications with reference to Nepal. tion of the people in the economic develop- with some other fore ign ex~ n s and with the 28 29 financial support of the Deutsche Stiftung success. The Programme has had its limita­ meeting in August 1991, in which MPs and tion and a more efficient people's participa­ Hir Intemationale Entwicklung, a curric­ tions in the increasing difficulty to recruit Nepalese experts exchanged their views on tion. Fortunately and quite in contrast to the ulum for a three-month course to train Local adequately trained and psychologic31ly fonn and function of these future "local Panchayat System, the Govemment now Development Officers. That despite their capable Group Organizers. Another limita· govemments". Convened by the Tribhuvan aims at an intensive cooperation with non­ good qualification these LOOs failed to tion became manifest in those instances University, the political panies and other governmental organizations, 100, in the effect ~ o1ecisive and long-term impact must where local Panchayat elites managed to non-govemmental organizations, several conception and execution of economic and be attributed to he fact that the above­ misuse such projects for their own benefit. seminars and symposia provided a forum for social projects, 11 should also be noted that mentioned criterion of communication The Dhading Project, supported by discussing the tasks of the Local Develop­ the eighth ~velopment Plan (1992-1997) remained unfulfilled, since the officials of Gennan development aid, provides a second ment COIT·minces. In October 1991 , an gives particular consideration to improving the various ministries were unwilling to example of a successful undertaking that AdministT'ltive Reform Commission was the Jiving standard of the poor, up to 70% of come to an agreement with the LOOs over dates back to the Panchayat period. This is established with the aim of formulating the public development expenditure shall be individual projects. the first rural development project to be proposals for a more efficient administration for the benefit of the rural and backward In addition, the Panchayat System with executed in accordance with the Decentrali· and a more adequate personnel structure areas. its polit ical hierarchies also impeded partici­ zation Law. It gives the rural population the with due regard to the principles of decen­ To conclude, Nep31 has arrived at a pation. Not only was it a rigid partyless opportunity to decide on all those measures tralization. In March 1992, Parliament had turning point by taking important steps system which left no room for dissenters, but that concern the village and is designed as a passed a Local Body Election Procedure Bill towards economic development, decentrali­ it also made decentralization the task of its self-supporting project to be continued even regulating the modalities of the elections to zation and people's participation. Their highly centralized political structure • a beyond the term of external fmancing. As the Village, Town and District Development success. however, presupposes an improve· system· immanent contratiictio in adjecto. observations show, villagers are definitely Committee. which took place in last May ment of the so-caUed talk-action ralio; the This is not to assert that the Panchayat era in a position to identify their problems, and June. hitherto prevalent discrepancy between lacked in successful projects, but to presume formulate and cany out action programmes This development laid the institutional word and deed must diminish considerably. that with more people's participation much in their sole responsibility; their technical foundations of a democratic decemraliza- indeed, more could have been achieved. The abil ities have also exceeded the expectations example of the Small Farmers Development of the administralion, Among the negative. Programme (SFDP) demonstrates how it critical factors were the deficient profes· European Researchers affilated with Tribhuvan University was possible to stimulate participation sional qualification of the population and the among the poorwith subsidies from the state dullness of the administrative machinery, Mangala Shrestha during the Panchayat period. Initiated by not least of the Panchayat bureaucracy into FAO, the Programme came under the which the project was integrated, management of the Agricultural Develop­ Anicle 25 of the new democratic Nepal was opened formally for foreigners Toni Hagen. to conduct a geological survey ment Bank whose qualified workers, the so­ Constitution ofthe 9th November 1990 Jays after 1950. The foreigners were attracted to for Nepal. AI present, there are many foreign called Group Organizers. were commis­ down briefly and unequivocally that "It shall Nepal on account of its natural beauties, the researchers formally affiliated with sioned to organize groups among poor small be the main responsibility of the State to virgin land, its unique and hidden culture, different institutions or central departments farmers and motivate them to take up credits bring about conditions for the enjoyment of history, unique anthropological back or R.D. of T.U. The Research Division of for income-relevant activities. such as crop the fruits of democracy through maximum ground, diversified geographical condi­ T.U. renders academic administrative cultivation, irrigation. livestock. bio-gas participation of the people in the governance tions, art and architecture and we high service 10 foreign researchers. i.e., receiving plants, elc. Credits were also provided for of the country through the medium of decen­ Himalayan ranges, The affiliation offoreign application forms and research proposals. activities of social importance. such as the tralization of administration." In June 1990 researchers with Tribhuvan University(fU) evaluating the research proposals by the construction of latrines, washing places. already three laws were promulgated to began only in 1968 (Shakya, 1984). departments concerned and research initiatives in family planning, adult educa­ determine the roles of the District Develop­ However, many foreign scholars had done centres, accepting or rejecting the proposals. tion and the like. Group Organizers acted as ment Committee, the Town Development their researches on different disciplines even affiliating the researchers to the depanrnents advisors to the fanners and as mediators Committee and the Village Development before the establishment of Tribhuvan concerned or research centres and recom· between them and the ministries. Being Committee, The new Government under University (1957) in Nepal. mending non-tourist visas through the organized by external agents, the SFDP G,P. Koirala has adopted the decentraliza­ The first authentic foreign researcher Ministry of Education, Culture and Social cannot be regarded as participation from tion policy, and the function of the Develop­ in Nepal was Kirkpatrick followed by Welfare. below in the strict sense of the term, but it is a ment Committee at the different levels has Hamilton and Hodgson. In 1952. the Swiss The aim of this paper is to explore the positive fact that by now more than 40 such been the object of a number of deliberations government appointed with the permission number of European researchers fonnally projects cou ld be set up in a IOt31 of 75 since the summer of 1991. Thus, the of the Nepalese govemmem a geologist, affiliated with T.U. between the year 1980- districts, and in most cases with lasting Ministry of Local Developmem organized a 30 31

1990 and their areas and fields of research. education were 4.80%, 3.84% and 1.92% Unil'ersiry (1955 -1973). Research Divi­ Kinipur. respectively. Likewise in management. sion, Rectors's Office. T.U.• Kinipur. Number or Europe:an researc:hers affili­ music and law the share of percentage was Thapa. K.B., Stuestha, M.• Shanna. N.el al. ated with T.U. (1980·1990) only O.96%(11lapa. Shrestha, Shanna et al.. Thapa, K.B., Shrestha, M., Shanna. N.el a!. 1991. A Survey an Foreigner's Reuarch There were altogether 104 European 1991 ). The most attractive fields of research 1991. Foreign Researchers in Tribhuvan Reports /980-1990. Research Division, Researchers registered ror their research for the Europeans were anthropology. soci. University (1980·1990): A Profile. Rector's Office. T.U., Kirtipur. studies in T.U. during the year sI98Q..1990. ology, cuJture. science and technology. Research Division. RC1:lor's Office. T.U. • It was found from the Research Division', geography. medicine. forestry and so on. records that researchers from 14 different European countries were registered to Conclusion conduct their researches in affiliation with After the political change in Nepal. the T.U. during the years 1980·J990. Among country was opened for foreigners in 1950. these 104 foreign researchers, 34 came from Like other foreigners. Europeans also Gennany. 30 from U.K.. 8 from France. 7 started talciogan interest in Nepal.1l1e Euro· from Switzerland, 6 from the Netherlands, S pean researchers were interested in Nepa­ from Norway, 3 each from Sweden, Austria lese culture. history. archeology, and the and Denmark , and I each from Spain, sociological and anthropological aspects of Hungary. Finland. Belgium and Ireland. The Nepal. Some also were interested in medi ­ percentages of researchers from different cine, science and technology, fore stry and so European countries were 32.69% from on. Nepalese life, its cultural heritage, Gennany, 28.84% from U.K., 7.69% from castes, geological structure and other France, 6.73% from Switzerland. 5.76% aspects were new to Europe. so the European from the Netherlands and 4.80% from researchers were attracted towa rds these Tabl. " C!>u ntryyl .. CUrop.. o .....' Ch.n an4 tbal r (hi d U""Cbcl l !tlO-U'DI Norway. Likewise 2.88% researchers were subjectS. Through itS Research Division, ,. _. l itl'" ~ "' .. from Sweden, Austria and Denmark and Trihhuvan University helped to affiliate _k_ ..... ~- ~.~ "' 0.96% researchers were from Spain , those researchers with T.U. who came to - -... ------H .n Hungary, Finland. Belgium and Ireland. Nepal to undertake research projects on I .• • " , " U . .. subjects related to Nepal. 00 • " Popular Fields or Research for Europe:an As a consequence. the now of Euro­ -n_ • 7. n , Researchers pean researchers has been increasing every .. ,- , , '.7) Out of 104 European researchers affiliated year. However. T.U. has not had maximal ,• ~ . " with T.U. over the year 198Q..J990. 68 10 the - . .10 benefit from these researchers due fact -. research studies were related to the social that many of the researchers collected the , ! . • , - L .. sciences. IS were related to science and infonnation and data in Nepal and returned technology. 7 were related to medicine,S to their countries without submitting the --, LI' - 0. " were related to forestry, 4 were related to final reports (0 the Research Division 0." agriculture and 2 were re lated to education. (Thapa. Shrestha. Shanna et al., 1992.) -.. , Likewise I each was related to music. law Among the European researchers 0." 0." and management. Among the different German researchers were highest in number. .-~"'!. 0 . " subjectS of the social sciences. me most The reason forthis may be due to the facI that , popularfieldsof research forthe researchers ".!tooI .. • .. Tribhuvan University has an agreement with " . , 10 J . 1t --~, U.I H . U 1.n c ... '.n 0." 0." were anthropology. sociology and culture. the Nepal Research Cenue and Heidelberg ... The percentage of foreign researchers University regarding the conducting of ' OIIr". , ~ .... rc" o lvhl on. Rtcto,', Dflic. , T .V. occupied in the field of social sciences was research by their researchers through these 68.38%. Similarly the percentage of those institutions. researchers who did their researches in the fields of science and technology, and medi­ Re(erenc:es cine were 14.42% and 6.73% respectively. Shakya. Soorya Bahadur. 1984. Estab· The percentage in forestry, agriculture and lishing and Development of Trjbhuvan 32 33 Slrnkalin S6Iitya and the Democraticisation in Nepali place and SamkafIn SMlitya (c hief editor change will wash ... National and interna­ Krishnachandra Singh Pradhan, editors tional developmems have their own bade.­ Literature Bairagi Kainla and lshwar Ballabh, assistanl grounds and contexts. Contemporaneity will editor Avin ash Shreslha) represents a major not be the same everywhere ... We need to Michael Hull advance. understand the changes, trends and experi­ The firsl issue of StJmkllin Slhirya is ments that are taking place in contemporary The Panchayat period (1962·90) brought quality of the literature ilS members dated Magh. Phlgun, Cait 2047 (the first literature." huge changes 10 Nepal. Like everything produced was severely compromised by the quarter of 1991 ). and was pubJished just a The nine volwnes of Samkj/jn S.hitytJ else, the world ofNepaJi literature changed culture of sycophancy that deve loped within few month after the promulgation of NepaJ's that have appeared so far have included irrevocably. When King Mahendra its walls. 1be poet Bhupi Sherchan's huge new democratic constitution. Pradhan's Nepali translations of stories and poems dismissed the Congress govemmenl in popularity was due to his searing indict­ purpose as editor-in-chief is clear from his from Bangladesh (vol.l), Pakistan CD). Sri 1960, the older. more established writers ments of the Nepali establishment, but ooce first editorial: Lanka (D I), Ind;a (IV), O!;na (V), Japan were still adjusting 10 the atmosphere of he had become an Academy member these "Now we are in the pale light of multi­ (VI), Africa: Senegal, Sudan, Kenya, freedom that had followed the Rana's no longer appeared. It rnay seem to be a pany democracy after a poli tical change. Angola. Congo, Cape Verde and Mozam­ downfaU len years earlier. Youngerwritcrs contradiction, but the increasing richness of Democracy is not merely a release from bique (VD), Latin America: Colombia, had ye t to find their feet. Then suddenly Nepali lite .. nure during the Panchayat constraints: it is also a system, an opinion, a Mexico and Pueno Rico (VDJ) and the USA new restrictions were imposed and new period was due more to the regime's censo­ profound responsibility and an open invita· IX), uncertainties came into being. Just as the ri ous tendencies than 10 its attempts to foster ti on to construct a future. Weourselves must Each issue also includes a section first genera tion of posl-Rana regime chil­ development. change radically if we are to accept democ­ headed delbhitra which features NepaJi dren entered the sixth and seventh yean in After the end of the Panchayat system. ra cy and establish it in our minds, customs translations of contemporary works ori gi­ the first rash of new schools. freedom of the freedom has been bewildering. Nepal's and conduct. I( we oppose it, if we do not nally written or published in anolher expression was curtailed. writers and poets are in the process o( resolve contradictions such as "we have nOI language of Ne pal . This is a significant sign It might have been assumed that censor­ fmding a new direction. As one poet put it in changed. only society has" or "we have of a change in the establishment's attitude to ship, evcn mild censorship, would inevit­ SURUner 1992. "if you have been kicking changed. but society has not", there will be Nepal's linguistic and cuhural diversity. It ably retard the growth and development of against a wall (parkhM) (or thirty years, an imbalance." was evident in the revolutionary poetry of lite ra ture that was still comparatively what do you do when the wall falls down?" The most striking feature of SamkJiin the Democracy Movement itself, and is also young. But in the case of Nepali literarure Thereseems to have been a weakening in the Sahirya is the total absence of Nepali poelry. renected in the new constitution. In his the need 10 express dissem opaquely led to a :;pirit ef Nepal: poetry. Verse genres were No explana iioii i~ offered for this: Pradhan preface to volume i, rradhin wroie: kind of disciplined restnlint, and the devel­ the principle medium (or the expression of simply states that the journal is gCJdyo­ "In this tkSbhilra column this time, the opment of rich allegorical writing. This was dissent, afterall. and in a multi-partydemoc­ pradhan (mainly prose), tough it does literature of Nep!1 BhlSi is presented. It especially true in the poetry, which racy the issues are less clear-cut, though the sometimes include Nepali translations of would be an exaggeration if we were 10 remained the most sophislicated and scope for expression is broader. On the other poetry from other languages. The emphasis claim that such a brief account cou Id provide commonly-published genre. Nepali literat­ hand. writers o(proseseem to have gained in on prose may stem from Pradhan's own pref­ a full acquaintance with me literature of any ure's most serious shoncomings were the confidence. This might reflect the continued erences (he is a respected essayist and critic. language, Nor is that what this joumal is scarcity of full-blown novels, the lack of a westernisation of the educated urban class: with a major study of the Nepali novel to his trying to do. What we do intend is that the developed tradition of criticism and a having modemised poetry. there now seems credit). or from the fact tha t the Academy readers and writers of one language should fai lure to reach an audience beyond the tiny 10 be an urge to modemise by moving the also publishes Kavitli (edited by Mohan have al leaSI an inkling (abhis) of what is urban minority. emphasis away from verse altogether. Koirala), which is devoted entirely to going on in the contemporary literature of The Panchayat governments tried to 1nese are subjective impressions and poetry. Two other features of SamkJ/in the country's other languages ... We should encourage the development of Nepali liter­ they would be misleading. However. they Sjhirya are notable. First, there is a regular not claim too loudly that this will create a ature and 10 extend the scope of the are supponed by the content of Samkilfn section on foreign literature, headed ddb,· new culture... But we do feel that this will language in every sphere of national life. Sfhirya (Contemporary Lilenuure), a quar­ hira: provide a taste of paraDel experiences, This they did to the exclusion of Nepal's terly published in NepaJi by the newly­ "So the world is shrinking, countries sensibilities and sufferings, even as we keep other languages: Newari, Hindi and constituled Royal Nepal Academy. In 1990, are coming closerto each other, The sun that our own ethnic characteristics and cultural Maithili disappeared from the official the interim government was strongly criti­ shines in one place filters through to other authenticity in perspective," media . The Royal Nepal Academy, estab­ cised when it appointed a new Academy places too. When one country suffers an Translations of Newari literature lished by King Mahendra, became devoted membership thal consisted almost entirely earthquake, others are shaken too ... We. our ( ~I eaded "Nep!l BhoUl" in volume I, then almost entirely to the promotion of Nepali of allegedly pro-Congress male writers. coum ri es and our democracy, are all shores "Newari" in other issues) have featured in literature, panicularly poet~. But the Nevertheless, these members remain in omo which the new waves of revolution and fou r issues: 34 " Vol. I: Stories byCinadhu'Hfdaya', Rlmd­ Vol. VI: Stories by Rljendra Vimala, Member Secretary for a year. Frustration at there was no constraint on the number of vara and Kedar 'Situ'; poems by DurglllU Bhuvane§var Pathey, Surendra JhiI Sastri; the oversimplification of complex poners. He could afford it. The only S~!ha and Sudah Khusal;t. poems by Dhannendra Jhl Vihval, situations was a recunent theme during our constraint was my own physique. If I was Vol. Ill: Introduction to Newari literature by Oigambar Jhi!. Oinm8J)i, Sylmsundar 5.ui conversation: for example, the eclipsing of strong enough I could collect as much as I Kdavmln Sakya; stories by Sflryabahldur and Rame§ Jha Bhavagra. governmental legerdemain by the liked, and StaiOlon was very supportive. Vol. VID: Stories by Dhflmketu and conspicuous Tanakpur dispute, or the CR: How many districts have you collected PivaJ:i and BhfI$

" life, when ill-health prevented him from lain Research and Devdopment. Vel 11 , carrying out terrestrial survey work. he went No 4, University ofCalifomia Press on taking, from a Pilarus Porter aircraft. the .. . ~ ,. , aerial pholOgraphs by himselr. Htifer. A. and HOfer, S. 1982. Khumbu " Himol. Resuil.r of the Research Scheme References Nepal HimDfaya; Universit!lsverlag Arbeilsgemeinschafl fur Vergleichende VVagner,lnnsbruck Hochgebigsforschung 1977. Kathmandu " :1 Va/feyMaps 1:10 000 and 1:150000; with Kostka, R. 1993. Zur Methodik. der photo- ..-- contributions of Heuberger, H.• Schneider, grammetrischen Arbeiten Erwin Schnei- -, E., Finsterwalder. Rtid .• Hlifer, A. and den; in preparation ~ ."~ I ~ o 0 Shrestha, B.P. Geo-Such Ve rlag. MUnchen ~c~a._ Schneider. E. and Kostk.a, R. 1987. TlI.lig- iU • c ~ =-= 0 ea Buchroithner, M.F .• Koiejka, 1., Koslica, R. keitsbericht Ober die im 4. Quartal 1986 S -:: u 1991. Application of Remote Sensing to durchgefilhrten AuBenarbeiten . Forschungs- ~a-5 I u·- '" GeomorphoJogicaJ Srudies of the Bagmati aufenthalt Nepal 1986: unpublished report, III,", -S "'!! Valley South of Kathmandu, Nepa1; MoUII- Gm, '0 -5•• - ~ ! r, ~~ • I . ~ oS Nepal. Theirlanguage is a variant of Chinese , 6'".~ The Ruins of an Early Gurung Settle- and Tibetan. Many thousands of years ago .J I ~D ~'!;i~ ....nl '~ - .co."- s.l! their ancestors may have lived in !he high ·c-uo S Mark Temple mountains of western China. So the tradition ~ .8 that their viUages were founded by people -u u~~ A recent visit 10 the ruins of a Gurung from Khola Songbre can only represe nt the ~~ . ~ village provided evidence !hat supports last chapter of a long story of migration_The c.-= 0 current views about their origins. ruins were reported 10 be high on the hill- -~ C. ",'':; Khola Songbre is one of the names by sides above Tangling o E '" . , - tIO a "8 which the local people know a ruined Or_ Macfarlane suggested that if the ~ '" ';;; ' I: village which is considered 10 be amongst ruined village was visited, the party should .oCQ u 8- .uoS the oldest Gurung seulements. The author note the shape and number of the houses and -o-S-Su visited the site in April 1992. The sugges- photograph the ruins, The original shape of :1 ra .s·i ·g tion to go looking for these ruins came from Gurung houses, oval or square, has been a •••t::{ij_ '_ 20t---5 Dr. Alan Madariane. a social historian queslion of some controversy amongst those 9-_~ . S who first researched among the Gurungs imerested in Gurung culture. ~- t:: ..:I .. u .!2 ~ ] t>O 2S years ago (Macfarlane 1976). He has At Tangling the help of Damarsingh !!p '" 2 E f;j known of the ruins for many years bUI had Gurung was enlisted to act as guide. His ear- e", 8-c nOI visited them. )jer inleresl in hunting had lead him 10 know "''' u ~ The Oral tradilion among theGurungs the jungle paths well. It took twO days of not I ~II u: of many of the viUages to the Nonh East of very hunied walking to anive al the ru ins. ti Pokhara. including Th.x, Tangling, They are on the South facing slope of the ~, h Khilang and 'SikJis, is that their villages ridge to the North of the Ganch Khola at a i• fL were founded :'y forebears who moved height ofaboul3300 metres. The area is the ! down from Ki,ola Songbre. Gurung highlands 10 the South of lamjung Himal I~~~ legends and myth"i recall long wanderings but the accurate position is 28 degrees 22.7 I Over forested mO\LlIain ridges (Gurung & minutes North and 84 degrees 11 .7 Eas!. To Macfarlane 1990). The origins of the reach the site requires a one day detour from Gurungs are thOUghllO lie to the North of the main trekking routes from Tangting 01 the current homelands of West-Central Siklis 10 the Namun Pass. The site wou ld 44 /(HDL" SDH6811L - A R""i- Pr-. SJJ.-.J. onl y be normally v isited by cattle herds from gol!. ",.. the Bhujung area who graze the pastures in Khola Songbre is 1300 metres higher this pan of forest during the monsoon. The than the highest village occupied by the site is at an altitude where rhododendron Gurungs today. Our guide. Damarsingh, ~ b.. ilJ:"'j IIIO..J. ~ J.o",,~ ¥. pine trees. No temocing or other signs of ting that the people from Khola Songbre ) occupied three other sites above Tangting 1.c.nU ...... j I."t culti vation were seen around the site. A GJ .. ' "O'I'JoI: ' ?'p r"lJ4 . knowledgeable local guide is needed to before the present day viUage was founded. '" f"'s,;bIL '""b--a.: ~..t ... follow the minor forest paths. Damarsingh More ruins can be observed in these places ~ tj Il-r I" ()o~'"".l had been there many years before and lead us but the author did nOI have the opportunity 10 to the ruins without difficulty. see them. The ruins are extensive and the most What do the ruins of Khola Songbre intact walls still stand about 14 feet high. The imply about the origins of the Gurungs1 The plan shows the largest and most intact fact that this village was settled in an era building which lies on its own one hundred when there must have been a lot of available yards to the West of the main settlement. The forest at lower altitudes suggests that its sketch map shows the layout of the main climate and resources were preferred by the village where a small central square and early Gurungs who founded it. 11ley alleys between the clustered houses are presumably moved in from a similar or discernible. In the centre of the square is a higher area and so their livestock, life-style stoneposl about three feel tall. All the houses and perhaps even crops led them 10 select have four sides and the corners are often the this site. Thi s is consistent with the view thal best preserved pan of the walls. None the early Gurungs were primarily a pastoral appeared oval. From the height of the walls it and hunling community (Macfarlane 1976. seems clear that at least some houses had two Temple 1991 ). They could have moved storeys. Large trees grow from within the Wesl or East along the Annapuma Range but ruins and it seems cenain that the site has the proximilY of the Namun Pass makes a been abandoned for several hundred years migration from Manang or Tibet an inter· and perhaps much longer. We did not have esting possibility. time to explore the area thoroughly but the Of course, the existence of an oral sketch shows about fony houses in the main tradition that the Gurung villages lower settlement. down were founded by the inhabitants of On the Nonhern edge of the ruins is a Khola Song.bre is nOI in itself conclusive "go" ". This Nepali word refers to the proof that events followed that course. One temporary shelters made by shepherds and could theorise that the Gurungs hav ing cattle·herds. They occupy them in the arrived from some other direction would monsoon for a few nights while their live· have come to know the ruins because they stock utilise the nearby grazing. A golt were out and aboUI in the foresl so much. consists of a stone base with stakes as rafters Over a long period of lime the ruins in the over which the shepherds throw a bamboo jungle might have become incorporated into mat which they cany from site to site as they the account of their origins. But this is mere migrate with the livestock. The fore sts speculation. Nor does it explain why below Lamjung Himal contain many goths villagers from Khilang and Siklis. who do because the pastoral life-style is still actively not frequent the forest around Khola persued in the neighbouring high Gurung Songbre, should have the same tradition. villages. The proximilY of the high moun­ The best working hypothesis is to take the I tains mean that they still have access to large folk memory at face value. forests and alpine pastures. No-one could The earliest written English account of mistake the ruins of Khola Songbre for a the Gurungs is that of Francis Buchanan. 47

Based on information collected in 1802-3 he knowledge of the people who inhabited the wrote : - ruins of Khola Songbre. Madarlane (1976) "Near lhe Magars was senled a numerous and Strickland (1984) have documenled the noibe named Gurung. whose wealth chiefly changes of the Gurung economy in the last consisted in sheep. but whose manners are. two hundred years and the author (Temple in most respects. nearly the same wilh those 1991) has described the economic force s al of the Magars, except that, in the course of work that transfonned the fanning systems their pastoral life. they frequent the Alpine of most Gurung villages to one of sedentary regions in summer, and rerum to the valleys multi-cropping with fewer livestock. The in winter. The men also employ themselves process of change has been demonstrated to in weaving blankets; they are a tribe be still going on. addicted to anns ..... The Gurungs cultivate Standing in those ruins one cannot but with the hoe and are diligent traders and respect the hardiness of the people who built miners. They convey lheir goods on sheep. their village in beauliful but tough. cold of which they have numerous flocks. The country. Their successors went on 10 popu­ crops they cultivate with the hoe are 1. late a big area of the Southeastern slopes of Barley 2. Uya (naked barley) 3. Maniya the AMapuma Range. Perhaps Khola (finger millet) 4. Kangum (Panicum Ital­ Songbre is the village 10 which Dr. Macfar­ icum) 5. Phapar (buckwheat)." lane and I.B. Gurung refer in their book But if the supposition that Khola "Gurungs of Nepal" when the y say in rela­ Songbre was deserted several hundred years tion to lheir origin hat "they came to a single ago is correct then one must go back before village. where their traditions and culture the writings of the firsl Europeans to were confirmed and then gradually envisage how the inhabitants of these ruins dispersed 10 their present settlemems". It .tf.TAlLS: might have li ved. Theonlyevidenceofthose will require archeological skills to fill in the Gl) times is in the "pie" (myths) recited by the gaps in the oral tradition of their descen­ - .. "poju" (priests ) of the Gurungs. Macfarla­ dants. ne's resume of the infonnation in the "pie" is The pany that visited Khola Songbre as follows: - comprised Damarsingh Gurung. Lekhba­ "The Gurungs consisted of small bands of hadur Gurung, Bhesbahadur Gurung. wandering shepherds and hoe cultivators Surjiman Gurung. Manin Wright and Cathe who circled the Himalayan foothills, rine Ruthven - who did the sketches. moving from site 10 site every few genera­ tions. The "pie" give glimpses of this exis­ References tence. They recount, often in great detail. the Buchanan. F. 1819. An account of th e various villages and regions through which Kingdom of Nepal. Edinburgh. (quoted in the tribesmen wandered. Hunting was Macfarlane A.) clearly an important part of the existence. Large-scale hunts, in which hunting dogs Gurung. lB. & Macfariane, A. 1990. and beaters were employed in pursuit of Gurungs of Nepal. Ralna Pustak Bhandar. deer. and a full -scale unifonn (including Kathmandu. ,. special jackets. knives, kilts and blood­ ,. carrying fla sks) was worn. Other "pie" Macfarlane, A. 1976. Resources and popu­ de Scribe herding (including the man going lo/ion.' 0 study of the Gurungs of Nepal. off to live by himself in the forest to herd Cambridge UniversilY Press. England. animals) - usually of sheep. goatS, chickens. and two long-haited animals (variety of Messerschmidt. D.A. 1976.TheGurungsoj Yak?) called "Yo" and "Pri" in Gurung." Nepal. Aris & Philips. Warminsler. That is about the present stale of England and Cambridge University Press. 48 . 9 New Delhi. Temple. M.L. 1991. Population. growth late glacial period. Therefore the moraine buckwheat, potato) reaches heights of3540 and la bour shonage in Nepal; agriculture. ridges at Thame were deposited by tributary Strickland. S.S. 1984. "Resources and Unpublished paper given to the "Himalayan m, but the main source of living consists of glaciers of the 1lwne Valley from Kongde pasturaiism (dairy farming) and tourism. population among the Gurungs. 1958· Forum" at SOAS Ri. Fushimi (1977, 178) investigated the 1980". Kailash XI (3-4). 211 ·54. moraine ridges near Pheriche (4243 m). He Helambu and Gosalnkund distinguished between three moraine The Helambu and Gosainkund regions are An Investigation or the Intensity or Iate·glacial ongm. In addition, after his systems corresponding 10 different situated to the south of the Laogtang Valley. Weathering or Soils developed rrom calculations the age of the maximum advances: After a minimwn date of 1200 They are separated from the Langtang Glacial and Glacionuvial Deposits and advances of the Linle Ice Age in the Lang­ years BP at the top he supposed the mOl'jl ine Valley by a mountain range with peaks of their RelationShip 10 the Glacial History tang VaUey should have been 1815 AD, and to be of Holcene age. Heuberger (1956) between 5000 and 6800 m. With respect to or Central and Eastern Nepal he identified neoglacial moraine ridges estimated the same wall system to be late the geographical situati on and the climate, probably dating from about 2800 yr BP. glacial. whereas Rothiisberer 1986) Helambu and Gosainkund belong to the Martina Kemp, Annegret Siebert. Rupen Shiraiwa & Walanabe (1991) supposed that it corresponded with the lIimalayan South Side'. Bllumler, Wolfgang Zech and Helmut published the most recent work on glacia­ advances of the main glaciation. Funher, Heuberger tion in the Langtang Valley. By means of Heubergu & Wein gartner (1985) give an Helambu overview of the extent of the lasl main glaci. The investigation area extended over the relative dating methods and 14 C·datings. ation in the Khumbu area. lOt maximum An investigati on of soil genesis on glacial they classified the moraines into five stages. upper part of the Melamchi Khola valley. advance reached the village Ghat (2500 m). and glacioflu vial deposits was canied out in The Ghora Tabela Stage is defmed by the The uppermost part of the valley is fonned order to quantify the intensity of soil devel· In addition, Heuberger (1986) found by a geest called Pemdang (3550 m) and it deeply weathered so called Lower Till several signs of a second and perhaps third opment . The degree of weathering was for a extending down to 3200m a.s.l .. The Laog­ was dammed by a huge moraine in lhe south, relative estimation of the age of the deposits main glaciation in this area. consisting of big boulders. Downvalley the and subsequently for an inlerpretation of the tang Stage (365()'3000 14C yr BP) corre­ Melamchi Khola becomes more narrow. glacial history of the landscape. 10 addition sponds. according to Shiraiwa & Wata­ WORKING AREAS The steep slopes are partly interrupted by we want to reduce the great lack of informa· Mbe (1991), to the grealest advance in the ungtang valley small temces between 2500 and 2900 m. tion on soils and soil development in' the Holocene, followed by a seri es of smaller The Langtang Valley is located about 60 km Acid gneisses are dominant. 1be areas mentioned above. advances in the Urung Stage (2800-550 14C north of Kathmandu. It is surrounded by climate is humid with an estimated annual Our working areas included the Laog. yr BP), and finally by the two smaller Linle mountains ranging in elevation from 500010 precipitation of about 3500 mm. The highest tang Valley, the Helambu·Gosainkund Ice Age advances (Yala I and n Stages). 7200 m and belongs to the Inner Himalaya. precipitation is during the monSOOn period region in Central Nepal and the Solu·Khum· The main difference between the The La ngtang Khola drains the area to the in the summer. The mean annual tempera· bu region in Eastern Nepal. authors concerns the dating of he glacial west and flows inlO the Bhote Kosi at 1480 ture is +4-5"C at Pemdang with a tempera­ advances. Heuberger (1984) and Ono meters. tu re gradient of 0.58"C/lOO m (Mie~ INTRODUCTION (1986) correlated the moraine rernnan!s near The geological conditions are largely 1990). lOt highest permanent settlement is The present study is based on work by Kyangjin to late glacial events, whereas uniform. The paren! rock of the whole valley the monastery of Neding (3000 m). The Heuberger (1956, 1984, 1986) and Shiraiwa & Watanabe (1991) dated them are gneisses (Shiraiwa & Waranabe 1991 ). region is covered by forest vegetation. In the Heuberger & Weingarrner (1985) on to NeogJacial or Linle Ice Age. All authors A monsoom climate is predominant with lower parts Abies spectabiIis and Rhodo­ Pleistocene and Holocene glaciation in are of the opinion that the maximum extent the highest precipitation from June to dendron spc:cc. are dominant. Places which Eastern and Central Nepal. of the last main glaciation reached down 10 September. In the winter and spring season have been destroyed by fire have a bamboo. Former glaciations in the Langtang 2400-2600 m, marked by a clear bending funher imponant rainfalls are registered. AI vegetation. 10 the upper part (Pemdang) Valley have been discussed by various point of the valley. There the glacial trough Kyangjin annual precipitation is about 1220 Betula utlis, Juniperus recurva and Rhodo. authors. Francescherri (1968). Vivian configul'jllion ends. mm. the mean annual temperature is+2.7'C. dendron campanulatum becomemoreabun. (197 1) and Usselmann (1980) described The glacial history of the Khumbu The climatic snow line is at about 5300 m danL several moraines and associated lemces in region has also been discussed by several (Miehe 1990). this main valley. Heuberger (1984) first authors. The first observations were ~ecause of intensive pasturing and the Gosainkund identified several glacial advances in the published by Heuberger (1956), with refe r­ cu Um g of fi rewood, the forest vegetati on in The area of Gosainkund consists of three valley and assigned them to main· and late· ence to the valleys of Nangpo Tsangpo and the upper pan of the valley has been stepped cirque lakes at an altitude of glacial stages. Ono (1985, 1986) also differ· lmja Dranka. He found that in the Nangpo destroyed. and the vegetation cover now between 4080 and 4380 m. The surrounding enciated three tem ce systems with the asso· Tsangpo valley the main valley glacier consists of dwarf bushes. peaks reach altitudes of between 4800 and ciated moraines. which he thought to be of Slopped a long distance upvalley during the . A ~mall population of about 570 people 5100 m. Each lake is dammed by a moraine hves In the valley. Agriculture (barley. ridge. Additional moraine ridges can be " found around the upper lake (Gosain Kund, MATERIALS AND METHODS carbon and nitrogen, cation exchange given by Shiroiwa & WottJnabe (1991). 4380 m). There is also a roche moutonnee The locations of all soil profiles were capacity, exchangeable cations. fractiona­ Three glacial advances could be distin­ south of the Gosain Kund lake. selected according to morphological lion of pedogenic iron oxides and panicle guished during this period. By means of the Climatic data art. not available for this criteria. They are described in detail in size disuibution. In addition, an analysis of results of the weathering indices and the 14C region. The climatic conditions are, Siiwn/er (1988), Siium/er et al. (1991), the total element contents was made by X­ datings, the foUowing conclusion could be presumably, comparable to those of Sitbm (1992) and Kemp (1992). ray-fluorescence. Funher, several fossil soil drawn according to soil development and Helambu, but precipitation and annual mean horizons in the Langtang vaUey were the age of the glacial deposits: The profile on temperature are probably lower because of unglang Valley sampled for radiocarbon dating (14C). the end moraine of the Unmg glacier, classi­ the altitude. The precipitation is estimated at The working area was situated near TIle content of total pedogenic iron fied as a Oystric Regosol. clearly represents about 2500 mm and the mean aMual Kyangjin at 3980 m in the upper part of the oxides, compared with the lotal Fe-content the least developed soil profile. It shows the temperature is around O·C. The working valley, where a tributary glacier (Lirung (FeM=et) and the content of well­ lowest content of organic carbon, the lowest area is situated above the limit of forest glacier) meets the main valley. Samples crystallized Fe oxides compared with the cation exchange capacity, and the degree of growth. The vegetation consists of low were taken from the high end moraine of the total Fe content ( Fed-o!Fet) were used to acidification measured by the exchangeable bushes, grass, moss and lichens . The area is Urung glacier and from two moraine ridges characterize the main weathering zone in the cations is low as well as the degree offonna­ intensively grazed. The small village of belonging to the moraine wall system in soil profiles. tion of pedogenic iron oxides. 1llese results Gosainkund with 2-3 households is a penna­ front of the end moraine. Further profiles The degree of soil weathering was are connnned by the results of the weath­ nent settlement. At the end of July there is a were situated on the Kyangjin terrace, a quantified by a weathering index ac~0:alayenne: Le Lang­ "high castes". discussions were critical and necessily to take into account the internal lehrstuhl f. Bodenkunde u. Bodengeogra­ tang. Revue Geomorphologique 29. I, 1-7 lively. differentiation of "the ethnic groups". phie, UniversiUiI Bayreuth. Om Gurung in his paper on the In his paper on the "Problems of the Vivian. R. (1971): Aux confins du Nepal el "Formation of the Nation-State and the Development of the Backward Indigenous Kronberg, B.I. und Nesbiu. H.W. (1981): du Tibet: Le l..angtang. Revue de Geogro­ Creation of a National Identity" stressed the People" Bihari Krishna Shrestha pointedoul Quantification of weathering soil chemistry phie. Alpine. tome LIX. 1,573-580. power aspect of national integration: he that backwardness (or poverty) is indepen­ and soil fertility. l ournal of Soil Science, described processes like Nepalization as dent of ethnic affiliation. He called for an 32, 453-459. Vuichard, D. (1986): Geological and petro­ surv ival strategies rather than expressive of identification of absolute poverty so that graphical investigations for the Mountain the peoples' wishes. and therefore the result those who are really in need can be given Maisch, M. (1982): Zur Gletscher- und Hazards Mapping Project. Khumbu Himal. was a destruction of ethnic identities. In his special assistance. Dilli Ram Dabal, in his Klimageschichte des alpinen Splitglazials. Nepal. Mountain Research and Develop­ comment Prayag Raj Sharma warned commentary. reminded him that cultural Geographica Helvetica, 2. 93-104. ment, 6. 1. 41-52. against an ideologyoftribali zalion. as only a differences are not to be disregarded. secular outlook of modernization can bring because. for example. Brahmins always " 57 2.6.1993 send their children to school even if they are tions and development in Nepal morphology, syntax), verba1 paradigms, the Dulch nonns for ondenoekers-jn­ pooL February 18 - Robbie Bamell (fibet lnfor­ analysed texts and a glossary. Researchers op/eiding. A good cornmand of spoken and Stephen Mikesell presented a paper on mation Network: 'Little door, big door': will also be encouraged to incorporate a wriRen Nepali is an absolute prerequisite. In "Democracy and Political Participation of refonns in Tibet in 1992 study of the indigenous religion, pantheon, Bhutan, a good working knowledge of Ethnic Minorities". Describing political February 25 - (in conjunction with the rituals and oral traditions into their gram­ Dzongkha is essential, in addition to a good parties in Mu: Weber's tenns as bureau­ Bhutan Society of the U.K.) Sonam man. Such a grammar must be completed command of Nepali. cratic organisalions with their own internal Chhoki (SOAS): Pallerns ofBhutanese within four years and should preferably be In addition to the team of young power structures, he warned that multi-party village life written in English.1n exceptional cases, a linguists, The Himalayan Languages democracy in itself is not sufficient as long March 1I - Tamara Kohn (Univenity of well-designed proposal for a substantive Project will fund short-tenn projects by as old structures persist and people on the Durham): Learning beyond language: dissertation which deviates from the above scholars from Nepal, Bhutan or other coun­ grass-root level are not in a position to hold brides and anthropologists in the hills fonnat, e.g., a comparative grammar of tries, e ilher working in the Himalayas or as their "representatives" fully accountable. of east Nepal Newari dialects, may be approved. The oral visiting scholars in Leiden. These projects The paper was commemed on by Anantaraj May 13 - Robbie Barneu (Tibet Infonnation defence of the dissertation will take place in are meant to yield some tangible result such Paudya1. Network): 'Little door, big door': Leiden and be conducted in Dutch. In excep­ as a publication. The last paper was on "Ethnic Idemity refonns in Tibet in 1992 tional cases, the tenn of employment may be Applications, requests for infonnation Among the Mehawang Rai" by Martin May 20 - Myra Shackley (Nottingham Trent extended by an additional fifth year, and suggestions may be addressed to: Dr. Gaenszle. He drew attention to the tradi­ University): The impact of tourism in provided that the integral manuscript of the George van Driem, Himalayan Language tional sense of ethnic identity which is upper Mustang, Nepal dissertation has already been completed. Project, Rijksuniversiteit Leiden, Postbus rooted in the mythology of the muddum. The costs of fieldwork and necessary vacci­ 9515, 2300 RA Leiden, Kingdom of the Whereas this kind of identity is relational nations will be defrayed within prescribed Netherlands. and inclusive, regarding cultural difference Project limits. Salaries will be in accordance with as ultimately deriving from common origins, in recent developments of Rai Himalaya-talenprojecl are not available. exaggerated claims can be ethnicity the ethnic boundary is redrawn in Symposia "Himalayan Languages Project" made on both sides of the argument - claims more absolute tenns. Rijksuniversiteit Leiden which are difficult to evaluate. Because As most of the papers and discussions most analyses oflhe causes and nature of the were in Nepa1i and some in English, it was Report from the Symposia George van Driem cri sis have been polemical and biased, it was difficult to come to an agreement on tennin­ Bhutan - A Traditional Order and the felt that dispassionate academic scruliny of ological mallers (e.g., the useoftenns such Forces of Change On the 8lh of April this year, the Hima­ as "nation" and "ethnicity".) tn any case, the School or Oriental and African (a) the culture that Bhutan is seeking to layan Language Project of Leiden protect, and (b) the nature of lhe perceived event showed that it doesn't require a fancy Studies, 22·23 Mach 1993 University (Rijksuniversiteit Leiden) was threat to that culture, might be both construc­ budget 10 have a fruitful and well attended inaugurated in L..eiden at Snouck tive and timely. seminar. Michael Hun (convenor) Hurgronje House. The project director is 1 visited Bhutan for two weeks in Dr. George van Driem, and the sponsors The idea of this conrerence was suggested September 1992. There I was the guesl of the The Himalayan Forum allhe London are the Netherlands Organisation for by three Himalayan Forum seminan on gove rnment, whose foreign minister took School ofOrienla1 & African Sludies, Scientific Research (Netherlandse Orga­ Bhutan during late 1991 and earl y 1992 the view that an academic appra isal of Spring Term, 1993 nisatie voor Welenschappelijk Onder­ which attracted great interest. There is Bhutan's current situation wou ld be of zoek), Leiden University and the Royal growing political crisis in Bhutan which has benefit to the kingdom. In Thimphu the resi­ Netherlands Academy of Arts and so far led to the arrival of approximately dent UNDP representative agreed in prin­ In the spring seminar series the following Sciences (Koninklijke Nederlandse Akad­ 78,000 refugees on Nepalese soil and about ciple to funding the aRendance ofBhutanese papers were presented and discussed emie van Wetenschappen). 20,000 in India. Bhutan, the world's last delegates to the conference. Similarly, in The project will recruit six or seven Mahayana Buddhist state, remains little­ Kathmandu, the British Council agreed to February 4 - Jane Carter (Overseas Devel­ young linguists for the description of kn own. In 1991 it was possible for its consider sending the editor of Hjmal, a well­ opment lnstitute,London):Indigenous languages of Nepal and Bhutan. Each government to state lhat it had revised its known journal that had recently focused on environment knowledge: a case study linguistic description, which is meant 10 official population figure from 1.2 million to Bhutan. Both promises bore fruit. from Dolakha district, Nepa1 serve as the individual researcher's 600,000. In a situation in which perhaps A programme gradually evolved, February I1 - Poonam Thapa (lPPF, Lon­ doctoral dissertation, is to consist of an one-sixth of the population has ned or been growing from one to two days: of the 19 don): Non-govemmemal organisa introduction, grammar (phonology, expelled, but in which basic population data papers eventually presented, about half had " " a direct bearing on the political cri sis. The the crisis tended to dominate discussions_ view· of Bhutan as a despolic feudal state and India of about l00.

Exhibition knowledge of the people and !heirproblems; from 196010 1961 he conceived and led !he successful programm (or integarting Building Ihe Bridges 10 Ihe Third Tibetan refugees and helped set up their World - Toni Hagen's memories or carpet industry. After 1962. Toni Hagen Nepal worked in many countries as a specialist in development for the UNO. Since then he has An exhibition on Ihe occasion or his visited Nepal regularly and wimessed all the 751h birthday stages of ilS rapid develoment. Today he is still renowned as one of the best experts on A special exhibition of phOlographs and Nepal. objeclS from Toni Hagen's Nepalese collec­ A book comprising Toni Hagen's tion will be held at [he WissenschaflSzcn­ memories of Nepal is also available. ltUm BOM-Bad Godesberg from 1st of July The exhibition is open to the public Sundays 10 22nd of August 1993. till Fridday 10-17, Thursdays 10-18 and The geologist Toni Hagen was the first closed on Saturdays. For furtherinformation person to undertake geological explorations phone 0228-3029. 1950-1958 (Iergely commissioned by the UNO) in the hitherto forbidden land Nepal. Susanne van der Heide During his work he gained an intimate