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Journal of Religion and Theology Volume 2, Issue 2, 2018, PP 1-11

The Sickness of the : Theology and the Anthropology of Medicine

Simon Dein Professor at Queen Mary College, University of London, uk *Corresponding Author: Simon Dein, Professor at Queen Mary College, University of London, uk

ABSTRACT For the faithful the advent of the Millennium signifies the end of sickness and suffering. Here I argue for another position in relation to Jewish Messianism – that the sickness of the Messiah is an integral part of, and indeed essential to, the millennial scenario. I discuss two Jewish messianic claimants, Sabbatai Sevi who suffered from what we would now call manic depression and the Lubavitcher , Menachem Schneerson who suffered from a stroke. I argue that, like Jesus, their suffering can be understood through a similar template- the Suffering Servant (). Finally from a religious perspective their sickness represents a process of purification and atonement as they undergo a process of descent to purify the of sinners. Keywords: Millennium, sickness, suffering , purification, Messiah

INTRODUCTION separates from the body and either goes straight to heaven (Gan Eden) or spends time in hell Millennialism and the End of Sickness (Gehinnom) to purge itself of sins. In the End of For believers the advent of the millennium Days, the Messiah will gather the Jewish exiles signifies the end of evil, pain, suffering, to Israel and the Temple will be rebuilt. sickness and death. Sickness we be no more for Sometime later, the dead will be resurrected and the faithful. Christian millennialists assert that reunited with their souls. This new, perfected Christ will use his power to cure every sort of universe is known as the World to Come – sickness malady, and infirmity (Rev 22:17). For HaOlam HaBa. Various passages however the Christian Shakers the arrival of Ann Lee, from the Old Testament testify that there will be seen by her followers as the embodiment of all no more hunger or illness, and death will cease the perfections of in female form and as the (Isaiah 25:8).1 second coming of Christ, signified the dawning While believers assert an end to suffering come of the millennium and the possibility of the millennium, many people have deployed the abolishing sickness. The Black Church led by teachings of the to assert that suffering is Mpadi Simon Pierre in the Congo necessary before the World attains its highest maintained that God‘s future kingdom on earth level of perfection. As Harak (2000) notes, would be devoid of sickness (MacGaffey 1983). many people in the US have deployed this The Walker River Paiutes performed the Ghost apocalyptic model to help them endure personal, Dance for a period of five days after Wovoka national and international difficulties. promised that there would be no more sickness, disease, or old ageand the dead would return (La The Biblical model is part of a Divine plan for Barre1972). Followers of Mother Earth history whereby things worse before getting maintained that nature had become impatient better. While this model of course engenders with the Son. She would bring destruction upon fear it is also associated with feelings of the current order of the Son, thus restoring her comfort. There are several versions of this. For original state whereby division and sickness example Dispensational premillennialists hold would no longer occur (Littlewood 1993). that Christ will come before a seven-year period Compared to Christian eschatology, Jewish of intense tribulation to take His church (living eschatological beliefs are less developed. In and dead) into heaven. Historical premillennialists Jewish tradition there is little consensus on how, place the return of Christ just before the what, and when things happen at the end of millennium and just after a time of great times. After death, it is held that the and tribulation.

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This paper focuses upon Jewish Messianism signify; and a schema of our ultimate destination where I argue for another position in relation to as beings. Every theology involves its practical, sickness. The Messiah‘s sickness plays a key everyday psychology of human life.‘ role in propagation and intensification of Significant differences exist between the millennial fervor. While the experience of disciplines of anthropology and theology. The sickness may stimulate millennial thinking, I academic study of anthropology studies humans contend that the illness of the messianic figure within the natural world whereas theology may be seen by his followers as not only a deliberates upon the ultrahuman world. Davies prelude to the arrival of the redemption but (2002) notes the mutual hostility between more so as essential to its occurrence. The anthropology and theology. However he leader‘s sickness is incorporated into the emphasises that both are concerned with human messianic scenario and followers of messianic experiences. Robbins (2006) examines the movements assert that the Messiah‘s illness relationship between anthropology and theology could be anticipated drawing from biblical texts and admits that can be awkward. First theology such as Isaiah 53-the Suffering Servant has impacted the discipline of anthropology. A narrative. good example is Asad‘s (1993) discussion of the THEOLOGY AND MEDICINE Christian origins of religion and culture. Second theology can be taken as a piece of ethnographic The debate regarding illness and suffering in the data that informs us about the particular field of anthropology can be considered as old Christian culture that produced it. A good as the discipline itself (Kleinman, Das and Lock example is Susan Harding‘s (2000) The Book of 1997).Numerous ethnographic examples teach Jerry Falwell which interrogates how the us that illnesses are not universal entities; rather systematic thinking of church elites shaped illness manifests itself differently in different fundamentalist culture. Third theology could societies, cultures and times; and that there are facilitate the development of anthropology culturally specific illnesses/sufferings. Recent through examination of the concept of radical work in medical anthropology reframes illness ontological otherness ie taking alternative as social suffering. Perspectives on social suffering ontologies seriously. explore diverse aspects of human experience that are usually considered separately, bringing together AND SICKNESS conditions that simultaneously involve health, This paper focuses upon Kabbalistic theology in welfare, legal, moral and religious issues. Social the formation of Jewish millennial movements, suffering results from ‗what political, economic, particularly the Zoharand the Lurianic and institutional power does to people and, Kabbalah. The (Hebrew lit. "Splendor" or reciprocally, from how these forms of power "Radiance") is the thirteenth century foundational themselves influence responses to social work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought problems‘ (Kleinman 1997:ix). written in Spain by De Leon. It contains The experience of serious sickness, both physical scriptural interpretations of the alongside and mental, necessitates explanation. The material on , mythical cosmogony, and Anthropology of Medicine provides numerous mystical psychology. takes examples whereby appeal to religious frameworks its name from (1534–1572), one of is made during episodes of sickness. These ultra the great sages of Kabbalah. Lurianic human explanatory models often involve ideas Kabbalah is considered modern Kabbalah, deriving from what we might label under the rubric orKabbalah as it was practiced from the of theology, not only accounting for but also sixteenth century to the present. justifying this suffering and at the same time The Lurianic Kabbalahstresses the role of prayer offering solutions in terms of religious healing. and ritual in - repair of the World. Theology and the interpretation of religious texts According to this God contracted part of God's provide valuable ethnographic data for religious self into vessels of light—partly limiting groups. As Littlewood and Lynch (216:2) note: himself—to create the world. These vessels ‗ A theology tells us what a person is, how shattered and their shards became sparks of light people differ, how they act and are motivated, a trapped within the material of creation. Some theory of uniformity and difference; it offers a areas of the universe were illuminated schema for the natural and ultra human worlds, representing goodness , while others remained for agency, and for influence; how appetites, in darkness representing evil. Prayer, especially emotions and cognitions arise, what they contemplation of various aspects of the divinity

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(sephirot), is able to release these sparks of THE SUFFERING MESSIAH God's self, thus bringing about a reunion with Morgan and Weitzman (2014) note how through God's essence, bringing them closer to a fixed the centuries, the messianic tradition has world. Sickness is inevitable in this scheme of provided a language through which modern things. It is only through the performance of Jewish philosophers, socialists, and Zionists mitzvot (good deeds) that the universe will could envision a utopian future. They note that undergo a process of repair (tikkun). Thus messianic fervour has sporadically erupted healing of the world and of physical sickness throughout as a real, concrete run closely together. In the Messianic era the expression of frustrations and hopes and has process of tikkun is complete and sickness will regularly had significant political and social be no more. Moshiach shall mend the whole consequences. Messianism has been ―a world so that all shall serve G-d in unity (Hilchot Melachim 11:4) permanent and ever‐present feature of Jewish history‖, manifesting itself in movements, The Messianic era will witness ultimate physical revolts and pretenders, which, commencing with and spiritual bliss: the Hellenic and Roman domination of ‗All will be healed. The blind, the deaf and the Palestine, regularly punctuated the history of the dumb, the lame, whosoever has any blemish or diaspora (Werblowsky 43). disability, shall be healed from all their The conviction that the Messiah will come is disabilities: ―The eyes of the blind shall be central to Orthodox : clearsighted, and the ears of the deaf shall be opened… the lame shall leap as a hart and the ‗ The belief in the coming of the Messiah, the tongue of the dumb shall sing…‘ (Isaiah 35:5-6). treasured hope of the throughout all the centuries of misery and persecution, is regarded Kabbalah stresses the concept of “yeridah by most Jewish thinkers as the dogma of l’tzorech ,” a descent for the purpose of Judaism, some of them would not make this ascent. The ascent is the fulfilment of the belief essential to Judaism. They consider it ultimate purpose in creation, the creation of a mainly as a ―branch,‖ or corollary to others dwelling for G–d in this world. Any apparent more important, but almost all agree that the negative happening occurs solely for the belief in the coming of a Messiah is an purpose of growth. Every descent in physical important feature of Judaism. The nature and creation is indeed necessary for the purpose of limitations of this dogma, however remained an ascent to a point higher than before the unsettled, the Jewish authorities differing widely descent. Evil is a necessary condition for the in their conception of it, according to the good. From this perspective sickness and material and intellectual position of the people suffering have a purpose. Every illness is a at their respective times‘ (Greenstone 1948:8-9). message from G-d and take appropriate spiritual There is a long tradition in action, healing ultimately comes from G-d alone .2 but at the same time, we may, and must, use arguing that the Messiah would suffer The medicines that have healing powers. , a collection of traditions and commentaries from the Post-Biblical period ‗Every Jewish neshomah(soul) in itsgilgul (life (from about 300 B.C. until about 500 A.D.), cycle) in a particular body has descended in mentions two –The first suffers and is order to afford it the opportunity to do certain rejected by his people and the second reigns specific mitzvos and thus realize its potential. Its gloriously. The Suffering Messiah -Messiah Son yeridah(decent) is for the sole purpose of a of Joseph (Mashiach Ben-Yosef) is likened to subsequent aliyah (ascent) and, as we will see, Joseph because his brothers reject him. He is as everything physical is a reflection of its rejected by Israel. The Glorious Messiah is spiritual counterpart, so it is with everything. referred to as Messiah Son of David (Mashiach Every descent is for the purpose of an ascent. Ben-David) for two reasons. First, like David he Indeed, there is no ascent without a prior will reign gloriously over Israel and subjugate descent. This is true of souls, of nations and of the other nations under Israel. Second, he is each individual in his own life‘ called Messiah Son of David in that he must be a physical descendant of David, according to the (http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/8 Tenach (Old Testament). 0898/jewish/Yeridah-Descent-for-Aliyah- Ascent.htm)2 The Zohar similarly speaks of the Suffering Messiah:

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‗…In the there is a hall which is SABBATAI SEVI called the Hall of the Sons of Illness. The Sabbatai Sevi (sometimes spelled ―Zevi‖ or Messiah enters that Hall and summons all the ―Zvi‖) was a seventeenth century Jew who diseases and all the pains and all the sufferings publicly proclaimed himself to be the Messiah of Israel that they should come upon him, and in 1665. Sevi, an adherent to a popular Jewish all of them came upon him. And would he not theology called Lurianic Kabbalism, was a thus bring ease to Israel and take their sufferings charismatic man who suffered from what now upon himself, no man could endure the would be called manic depression. Scholem sufferings Israel has to undergo because they (1973: 124) asserts that Sabbatai‗s behaviour, neglected The Torah‘ (Zohar 2:212a). after his first two marriages, reveals the first Thus there are two Messiahs one suffering and symptoms of his mental illness. Sabbatai‗s first one reigning gloriously. The first suffers for the manic episode occurred before his 20th sake of Israel as he takes their woes upon birthday. Over time his practices became more himself to east their pain. The suffering lasts bizarre and antinomian. He would often quote from his creation until his advent. Isaiah 14:14: ―‘I will ascend above the heights of the clouds; I will be like the most high‘, and HereI concentrate upon two Jewish ‘false‘ maintained that he could literally ―fly or messianic claimants- Sabbatai Sevi and levitate himself during his manic ―up episodes Menachem Schneerson. In both instances their (Ibid:127). While manic, hestated that he was illness, bipolar disorder for Sevi and a stroke indeed the awaited Messiah, son of David and subsequent death for Schneerson, have led (Ibid:127). to an intensification of millennial fervor. As I His antinomian tendencies are well known. He shall discuss below, both illnesses can be would deliberately and spectacularly break the reframed as religious states. The discussion of laws of Moses, eat forbidden foods and utter the Sevi derives from historical data (subsequently sacred name of God, and subsequently claim interpreted by renown scholar of Jewish he had been inspired to do so by special Mysticism, Gershon Scholem) while the account revelation. According to Kabbalist Isaac Luria, a of Schneerson‘s illness derives from original major source of inspiration for Shabbetai Sevi, ethnographic research conducted from 1991- the Jewish Messiah would be a pious man, 2000 in Crown Heights, USA and in Stamford possess an immaculate soul, and have a deep Hill UK (Dein 2011). connection to the world of spirits. For him, this Like Jesus, the two Jewish Messianic claimants provided a convincing explanation for his bizarre actions, for it meant that his craziness share a similar messiah template, the ‗suffering was due to the fact that he was the Messiah and servant messiah‘ template. Jesus suffered that he was connected to a secret, mysterious physically: Isaiah 52:14 declares, ‗There were world. many who were appalled at Him—His appearance was so disfigured beyond that of any man and Scholem explains that Sevi rationalised his his form marred beyond human likeness.‘ His strange and antinomian conduct (during his suffering was emotional: ‗All the disciples manic phases) and perceived his ―up phase as holy ―mystical improvisations, which he could deserted him and fled‖ (Matthew 26:56). neither fully understand or explain (Scholem Finally he suffered spiritually: ‗God made him 1973:147). Sabbatai‗s followers also perceived who had no sin to be sin for us‘ (2 Corinthians and understood the anguish and suffering that 5:21). Jesus had the weight of the sins of the Sabbatai experienced during his ―down phase, entire world on Him (1 John 2:2). as ―‘a mysterious passion in which the Kravitz (2010)argues that this template is suffering messiah atoned for his own sins or for related to the wide appeal and success of these those of Israel‘ (Ibid 148). three Jewish messiahs, as it offers their It was who was famous as a followers the option of vicarious atonement prophet and who persuaded the Jewish which relieves people from dealing with their community that Sevi was indeed the Jewish own transgressions and permits people to evade Messiah. An expert in Kabbalah, he experienced the demanding task of assuming personal ecstatic visions that finally culminated in a accountability for all their actions, including vision that recognised Sabbatai‘s messiahship.In their transgressions. 1665 Sevi heard that Nathan had the ability to prescribe the appropriate tiqqun (i.e., to heal,

4 Journal of Religion and Theology V2 ● I2 ● 2018 The Sickness of the Messiah: Theology and the Anthropology of Medicine repair or cure) for a person‗s troubled soul, and and outer realities. Very quickly decided to consult Nathan about this. To Sabbatian doctrines developed and crystalized in Sabbatai‗s surprise, Nathan told him that his the years following the apostasy. Two soul did not require tiqqun as Sabbatai‗s soul factors were of significance: on the one hand, a was already of a high order due to the fact that deeply rooted faith, nourished by a profound he was the Messiah! (Scholem and immediate experience . . . and, on the other 1973:213,214,215). hand, the ideological need to explain and Nathan of Gaza, drew close links between rationalize the painful contradiction between Sabbatai‗s suffering (particularly during his historical reality and faith. The interaction of ―down phase) and that of the Jewish nation- he these two factors gave rise to Sabbatian theology, was seen to suffer on behalf of the entire Jewish whose doctrine of the messiah was defined nation.He also equated Sabbatai‗s suffering and by the prophet Nathan in the years after the Job‗s suffering (Nathan saw Job as the prototype apostasy.‘ of the messianic king) linked with descriptions The theology defined by the prophet he found in the Kabbalah.Based upon an angelic Nathan after Sevi‘s apostasy saw his conversion conviction, Nathan became convinced that Zevi part of an intentional strategy to assume evil‘s was the Jewish Messiahand persuaded him as form and then kill it from within. The such. In 1648, he assumed his messianic rationalization after the disconfirmation was that vocation amid intensified apocalyptic expectation the Messiah must suffer and descend into the and news of terrible pogroms in depths of apostasy in order to bring about the Poland.Sevi gained a huge following spanning Redemption (i.e. convert to Islam).Parallels with Italy, Holland, Germany, and Poland. His Jesus‘s death are striking. As Scholem followers maintained that he would usher in a (1973:795) notes, ‗When discussing the new age of redemption for Israel. His extreme Sabbatian paradox by means of which cruel practices were still perceived by his followers as disappointment was turned into a positive indicating some special exalted condition of the affirmation of faith, the analogy with soul (Scholem 1973:147) and it is likely that he early almost obtrudes itself.‘ himself regarded them as some sort of religious revelation rather than a form of mental illness. The influence of Lurianic theology on the Scholem ( 1973:148) argues that Sabbatai‗s development of the Shabbatean movement has followers also perceived and understood the become a topic of intense scholarly debate but anguish and suffering that Sabbatai experienced undoubtedly Sevi and Nathan drew upon during his ―down ‗depressive‘ phase, as ―a Kabbalah as a source of authority, pointed to mysterious passion in which the suffering Kabbalistic texts and deployed Kabbalistic messiah atoned for his own sins or for those of to support their claim (Dweck Israel. He was attributed with power to save the 2011). souls of sinners of past generations. ZEVI’S DEATH However when Sabbatai visited Istanbul in Much has been written on the death of Sabbatai 1666, he was arrested and imprisoned by Sevi. Although Sabbatai died in 1676, the major Muslim authorities. The Sultan offered him a teaching of the Sabbatians was that he only choice: either conversion to Islam or certain appeared to die. His death was kept secret by his death. Sabbatai chose the former.Some of his inner circle of followers but soon stories followers maintained that he had been assumed circulated purporting that he was buried in a into Heaven while others surmised that the cave but when his brother inspected the grave it apostate was actually an imposter. was empty and the cave was full of light. (1973: 792) explains the effect of Sabbatai‘s apostasy on his followers: According to Scholem(1973:919-920): ‗Sabbatai‘s apostasy took his close followers ‗Sabbatai called his brother, his wife and the and his most vehement unbelievers by utter who were with him, and announced: surprise. Neither literary tradition nor 'Know ye that I shall pass away on the Day of the psychology of the ordinary Jew had , at the time of the ne'ilah. Carry envisaged the possibility of an apostate messiah. me then to the cave that I have prepared for . . . In order to survive, the movement needed to myself near the sea, and on the third day my develop an ideology that would enable its brother shall come to the cave.' [Sabbatai followers to live amid the tensions between inner then, indeed, died on Yom Kippur, at the time of

Journal of Religion and Theology V2 ● I2 ● 2018 5 The Sickness of the Messiah: Theology and the Anthropology of Medicine the ne'ilah.] When his brother came to the cave of parchment called a klaf contained in a on the third day, he found the entrance barred by decorative case and inscribed with specific a huge dragon, but he said [to it] that his brother Hebrew verses from the Torah. The sickness in [] had commanded him to come question was usually attributed to some and the dragon let him pass. Once inside, he aberration in the writing of the Hebrew text, its found the cave empty. 'Neither our Lord nor repair would result in healing (Dein 2002). anything else was in the cave, but it was full of Lubavitchers maintain that there is a one to one light'."). relationship between the and Caygill (2009) refers to Sevi‘s death as a the physical world. Here rather we concentrate ‗second occlusion‘. The first ‗occlusion‘ upon the Rebbe‘s own episodes of sickness and referred to his apostasy. A theology developed their spiritual implications. according to which his death was an occultation From 1991, there grew an increasing and he would return to fulfil his messianic role. fervor among the Lubavitch that their spiritual Long after the death of their charismatic leader, leader, might be the long-awaited Messiah, the the Donmeh, still existing in Turkey todayand one who would usher in the end times redemption. numbering about 4,000 individuals, faithfully Like Jesus, Rebbe Schneerson never continue to await the return of Shabbatai Tzvi, explicitly claimed that he was the Messiah, but the self-proclaimed Messiah, to finally bring he impressed his many followers such that many about their long awaited redemption. of them, if not almost all, strongly maintained A number of parallels can be discerned between that he was Moshiach. He was heirless and the Zevi and Jesus Christ: prophetic recognition, messianic assertions were fuelled by normative violent action in the temple/, Hasidic teachings that a Rebbe has the potential transgression of the law, questionable death, to be Moshiach. The idea that the leader of a disappearance of the body from a cave, Hasidic group could be the Jewish Messiah can divinisation and imminent resurrection.Nathan be traced back to the Founder of Hasidism-the proclaimed that pure faith, independent of the Tov. observance of the Law, was the supreme In March 1992, the eighty-nine year old religious value that secures salvation and eternal Rebbe Schneerson suffered a stroke that life for the believer. Nathan‗s proclamation rendered him paralyzed on the right side of his strongly resembles the declaration made by body and unable to speak. His profound Jesus who also demanded no observance of law, incapacity did little to detract his followers from merely belief in salvation through faith their messianic assertions. Lubavitchers in (Scholem 1973:283; Dimont 1971:227). Crown Heights took to carrying ‗Moshiach LUBAVITCH Bleepers‘ at all times to alert them when the Rebbe publicly declared that he is Moshiach. Lubavitch, otherwise known as , refers While initially the leaders of the movement to a group of Hasidic comprising about stated that the stroke was ‗mild‘ it was not long 200,000 members worldwide. Their last leader, before they admitted its seriousness Menachem Schneerson, the Lub+avitcher Rebbe (‗Rebbe‘ is the formal title for the Lubavitch Shortly after his first stroke, a spiritual leader) lived in Crown Heights, New (scroll containing the text of the Torah) was York City until his death in 1994 from a stroke. written in New York and every Lubavitcher was Anthropologist Simon Dein conducted asked to donate a dollar towards a letter. The fieldwork amongst this movement from 1989 - aim of writing this was to perfect the Rebbe's 2009 and lived in the Stamford Hill community soul and, in turn, his body. By writing a perfect until 1995. The ethnographic data presented Torah, the Rebbe's soul becomes perfect again here derives from this fieldwork (see Dein and this will affect his body. 2011). His first stroke gave rise to arguments over his During his lifetime the Rebbe had always medical care, the group's future direction, and emphasized the close relationship between most significantly question of whether sickness and spirituality. Typically his followers Schneerson himself was the Messiah. In relation would write to him about sickness of any degree to his medical care, Rabbi Groner, the Rebbe‘s of seriousness, both physical and mental. He secretary and the one controlling access to him, would respond by asking them to check their took on the responsibility for dealing with the religious artifacts, usually the mezuzah- a piece Rebbe's health, but his actions were severely

6 Journal of Religion and Theology V2 ● I2 ● 2018 The Sickness of the Messiah: Theology and the Anthropology of Medicine criticized by others, including Rabbi Krinsky, [the second stroke] as a prelude to his messianic when they thought he was not pursuing revelation and the arrival of the redemption. As sufficiently aggressive treatments. Some of he lay dying in intensive care, several hundred these differences became public, compounded followers assembled outside Beth Israel Medical by speculation among those who did not have Centre singing and dancing—anticipating the direct knowledge of the Rebbe's condition or imminent arrival of the redemption. . . . treatment. Supporters and believers signed petitions to God, demanding that he allow their Rebbe to His followers made sense of the Rebbe‘s new reveal himself as the long-awaited Messiah and disabilities in light of their belief that he might rise from his sickbed to lead all humanity to be the Messiah (Dein 2001:394): their redemption.‘ ‗Despite his profound incapacity, messianic fervor in the Lubavitch community intensified, THE REBBE’S DEATH culminating in plans to crown him as Mosiach Three months after this second stroke, on June [the Messiah]. Lubavitchers referred to Isaiah 12, 1994, Rebbe Schneerson died. Some of his 53, ―a man of sorrows, and familiar with followers cried while others danced; some suffering‖, and argued that his illness was a fasted and others drunk heavily(Mahler 2003). prerequisite to the messianic arrival. . . . that the This did little to extinguish the belief that he Rebbe himself had chosen to become ill and had could be the Messiah. Lubavitchers expressed taken on the suffering of the Jewish people. In another and this time even more startling other words not only did his suffering have a rationalization- the idea that the Rebbe would be purpose but it could actually be anticipated resurrected. In fact the funeral procession in through reading Isaiah 53. ‗ New York City via satellite on the same day that Two years later, on March 10, 1994, Rebbe Schneerson died showed Lubavitchers dancing Schneerson suffered a second stroke, this one and singing in anticipation of his resurrection rendering him comatose.Even with the Rebbe in and imminent redemption. One observer on the a virtually vegetative state, his inner circle was street stated in relation tothose celebrating, still able to maintain a semblance of normalcy in ‗They were certain that any second, the hoax the community. Despite the fact that he was would end and the Rebbe would get up and lead unconscious and attached to a ventilator, his us to the redemption right then.‘ aides debated whether or not to switch off his While the exact numbers are unknown, the life support. They questioned whether conviction that Rebbe Schneerson would Schneerson had the same physical make up as resurrect from the dead soon spread through the other humans and they were divided as to Lubavitch community worldwide and gained a whether or not physical interference would significant following. In Stamford Hill influence his physical state and whether his according to Dein (2001:397) ‗Very soon, the illness should be allowed to run its natural overwhelming feeling in the community was course(See Ehrlich 2004). Despite his illness that the Rebbe would be resurrected and that the his followers were unshaken, again holding fast redemption would arrive.‘ to their belief that he could be the Messiah. One Only five days after the Rebbe‘s death, a full- Lubavitcher Rabbi gave the following page advertisement in a widely rationalization: circulated Jewish Orthodox weekly in New ‗The Rebbe is now in a state of concealment. York City (the Jewish ress) declared that Rebbe The Jews could not see Moses on Schneerson would be resurrected as the and thought he was dead. They built the golden Messiah. Two years after Rebbe Schneerson‘s calf and had a vision of him lying dead on a death, the International Campaign to Bring bier, whereas he was in fact alive and in a state Moshiach placed a huge billboard beside New of concealment. The Rebbe is in a state York‘s George Washington Bridge proclaiming of Chinoplet, a trancelike state where the soul Rebbe Schneerson was the Messiah. leaves the body. The soul of the Rebbe has to go Unsurprisingly the Lubavitcher expectations of down to lower realms to drag up the souls of the imminent resurrection shocked Orthodox Jews sinners. He must do this before he declares outside the movement. Assertions of the group himself as Moshiach.‘ adopting Christian ideas arose rapidly. David According to Dein(2010:543):‗[Rebbe Berger (2008: 26.), professor of Jewish History, Schneerson‘s] faithful followers saw this past president of the Association for

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Jewish Studies, and outspoken critic of Dein 2011for a discussion of this). Until now a Lubavitch wrote: small group of messianists continue to ‗welcome‘ the Rebbe in his synagogue at 770 ‗[A] large majority of Lubavitch hasidim believe Eastern Parkway, even preparing his chair and with perfect faith in the return of the Rebbe as stander at every service, and persist in singing Messiah son of David. . . . The dominant elements the yechi , signifying that the Rebbe is still alive. among Hasidim in the major Lubavitch population As they sing they eagerly ‗watch‘ the deceased centres of Crown Heights in Brooklyn and Kfar Rebbe approaching the front of the synagogue. Chabad in Israel—perfectly normal people Berger (2008: 170) writes about this representing a highly successful, very important ‗incarnation theology‘: ‗the Rebbe is nothing Jewish movement—believe that Rabbi Menachem but divinity, that he is indistinguishable from Mendel Schneerson will return from the dead . . . God, that nothing can occur without his and lead the world to redemption. Berger went on agreement, that no one can tell him what to do, to say, ―With the exception of that he could answer any question Sabbatianism, Lubavitch messianists have already instantaneously that he is entirely without generated the largest and most long-lived messianic limits‘ . movement in Jewish history since antiquity‘ At the time of writing the messianic fervor in Accounting for the Lubavitch rationalization the Lubavitcher community has all but abated from a social scientific perspective, Dein but still a few mainly Israeli Lubavitchers, (2001:399) says: maintain that he never died and is the Jewish ‗[The] Lubavitch are not a group of fanatics. . . . Messiah. My own experience in Stamford Hill is They are sane people trying to reason their way that there is little discourse about his messianic through facts and in the pursuit of status although when questioned, a common understanding. Like many groups whose response is that the Rebbe had all the messianic expectations fail to materialize, resort qualifications to be Moshiach and there was no is made to eschatological hermeneutics to better candidate but stop short of admitting that explain and reinforce the messianic ideology…. he is Moshiach or is still alive. The Rebbe‘s illness and subsequent death posed However, as evidenced by the many petitions cognitive challenges for his followers. They deposited there, his followers continue to flock made two predictions that were empirically to his gravesite-the Ohelin Queens Now York, disconfirmed: that he would recover from his in the hope of receivingblessings and miracles. illness and that he would usher in the But even though the Rebbe is no longer there to Redemption. In accordance with cognitive lead the movement, It has largely survived his dissonance theory ... they appealed to a number death. The Rebbe has been replaced by his of post hoc rationalizations to allay the teachings which continue to provide both hope dissonance.‘ and direction. Dein continues: CONCLUSION Not surprisingly, these new beliefs have attracted a lot of derision from the wider Jewish Sickness and the Purification of Evil community and, on account of their proclamations While we may understand the convictions (like of the imminent resurrection of Schneerson, resurrection) of Christians in response to some have labeled [them] . . . ‗Christians‘. Christ‘s death and those of the Shabbateans and The significance of the Lubavitch example to Lubavitchers in terms of cognitive dissonance the study of Christian origins is underscored by theory (Festinger, Reiken and Schacter 1956; David Berger (2008:3): ‗Though largely ignored Dein 2011;Komarnitsky 2014), the theory is thus far, this is a development of however problematic in that we can never know whether the followers actually experienced striking importance for the history of world 5 religions, and it is an earthquake in the history this. In contrast here I account for these of Judaism.‘3 convictions through the appropriation of biblical texts which provide retrospective Shortly after his death Lubavitch split between rationalisations. In both instances discussed the Messianists and Non-messianists. The above the sickness of the presumed Messiah was former group‘s views are on a spectrum from an essential part of the millennial scenario- they the Rebbe is Moshiach, to the fact that he never had to develop sickness before the arrival of the died, to the claim that he is God himself (see

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Redemption and their sickness is interpreted in the original sin separated the souls from religious terms. their root in on the side of holiness, and caused them to fall to the sitra achra Judaism has always argued for the neutralisation (literally the realm of evil ). Processes of rather the rejection of evil. For Hasidim evil is atonement and purification will bring the divinity in exile, its scattered aspects necessitate fallen souls back to God and hasten the reconstitution. But such spiritual descent has its messianic arrival. dangers and the risk of non -return is very real (see Littlewood 2013). Hasidim hold that the  The Jewish response to sickness involves descent of a Rebbe into the physical world is a prayer, atonement and the use of fulfilment of his quest for divinity and medicines. perfection. His community service strengthens his soul and is a holy mission.  Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Suffering Servant refers to the Nation of While there is voluminous anthropological Israel rather than an individual messianic writing on the use of healing ritual as figure. Knohl (2000)uses the Dead Sea purification by removing the object, experience, Scrolls to argue that there was a messianic emotion , force, spirit or person causing the figure who was crucified before Jesus and sickness (Bell 2000) , sickness itself may his followers stated that he had been represent a spiritual purification (Sevensky resurrected on the third day-a precursor of 1981), for both Sevi and Schneerson their the resurrection narrative. While illnesses represented a process of neutralisation commentators sometimes point out that of evil essential to the arrival of the prior to Jesus the Servant wasn‘t identified Redemption. For both Sevi and Schneerson their with the messiah, there is some evidence suffering signified processes of purification of that this interpretation wasn‘t unknown. evil and atonement. In the case of Sevi his down Some authors point out that the followers periods signified atonement for the sins of Israel of Jesus would not have expected his death. and in the Rebbe‘s case his stroke signified the elevation of the souls of sinners. We may draw  While Scholem (1973) contends that parallels here with Jesus whose suffering and Shabbateism and its messianic ideology vicarious atonement was again was a necessary were intimately connected with the element of the advent of the Millennium.4 popularity and dissemination of the Lurianic Kabbalah, Idel (1988) strongly Finally as Krawitz (2010) contends, their deaths contests this and argues that in the first half relieve people from dealing with their own of the seventeenth century knowledge of transgressions and permits people to evade the Lurianic Kabbalism was restricted to the demanding task of assuming personal elite, and had little to do with the spread of accountability for all their actions, including the movement among the masses. their transgressions. All threemessianic narratives draw upon the suffering servant,  Shaul Magid‘s (2014) ―The Divine / dying and rising Messiah template. Furthermore Human Messiah and Religious Deviance: all three movements, Christianity, Sabbataism Rethinking Chabad Messianism‖ questions and Lubavitch survive the death of their the common idea that the belief of some messiah.6We may well ask whether there is a members of the Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidic chance that a new millennial movement will movement in the messiahship of their arise in Judaism and perhaps even separate from deceased Rebbe, Menachem Mendel mainstream Orthodoxy leading to a new , is best seen as a religion. Christianizing . For him such messianism perhaps bear a closer Notes resemblance to the occultation of the  In Kabbalah the body, sin and sickness are twelfth imam in Shi‘ite Islam than to closely aligned. The body is modeled after Christianity, but is also rooted in a number the soul. Each one of the physical parts is of well-known Hasidic sources and may an embodiment of a part of the soul. The represent a tradition stretching back to the soul of Adam is a grand collective, all- period. encompassing entity that includes all the  Indeed the parallels between Lubavitcher souls of mankind. Sin, by definition, Messianism and early Christianity have separates the self from G-d. Accordingly, been drawn (see Marcus 2001)

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 Timpe (1999:220) writes that cognitive [13] Greenstone, J. H.1948 The MessiahIdea dissonance occurs when: inJewish History. Philadelphia:JewishPublication Society of  ‗An individual holds beliefs or cognitions America. that do not fit with each other (e.g., I [14] Harak GS 2000Nonviolence for the Third believe the world will end, and the world Millennium: Its Legacy and Future. Front did not end as predicted). Non-fitting Cover. G. Simon Harak. Mercer University beliefs give rise to dissonance, a Press hypothetical aversive state the individual is [15] Harding, S (2000) The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics, motivated to reduce. . . . Dissonance Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. may be reduced by changing behavior, [16] Idel M (1988) Kabbalah : New Perspectives. altering a belief, or adding a new one.‘ New Haven Conn: Yale University Press.  Aside from Judaism and Christianity, there [17] Kleinman A , Das , V and Lock M 1997 Social Suffering. University of California Press. are examples of who die and Berkley Los Angeles. London subsequently return to life found in the [18] Knol I 2000 The Messiah Before Jesus: religions of the Ancient Near East, Biblical The Suffering Servant of the Dead Sea and Greco-Roman mythology traditions. Scrolls, by Israel Knohl, translated by David Included here are Osiris and Dionysus. Maisel. Berkeley: University of California This concept of a dying-and-rising god was Press, first discussed in comparative mythology [19] KomarnitskyK 2014 Cognitive Dissonance by James Frazer's(1993) seminal The and the Resurrection of JesusThe Fourth R Golden Bough magazine Volume 27, Issue 5 September/October 2014 REFERENCES [20] Krawitz L( 2010) Challenging Messianism and Apocalypticism: A Study of the Three [1] Asad, T(1993) Genealogies of Religion: Surviving Messiahs , Their Related Discipline and Reasons of Power in. Commonalities, Problematic Issues and the Christianity and Islam Johns Hopkins Beliefs Surrounding Them. Unpublished PhD University Press, Baltimore, Thesis [2] Bell C (2007) Teaching Ritual. Oxford: Oxford [21] La Barre, Weston. The Ghost Dance: Origins of University Press Religion. Devon, UK: and Australia: Allen and [3] Berger, D 2008 . The Rebbe, the Messiah, and Unwin, 1972 the Scandal of Orthodox Indifference. Portland, [22] Littlewood R 1993 Pathology and identity. The OR: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. Work of Mother Earth in Trinidad. Cambridge [4] Caygill H 2009 The Apostate Messiah: University Press, Cambridge Scholem, Taubes and the Occlusions of [23] Littlewood R. (2013) Psychopathology, Sabbatai ZeviJournal for Cultural Research embodiment and religious innovation: An Vol. 13. 3-4 historical instance. In: Bhugra D, editor. [5] Davies D (2002) Anthropology and Theology. Psychiatry and Religion: Context, Consensus Oxford:Berg and Controversies. London: Routledge [6] Dein, SL; (2001) What really happens when [24] Littlewood, R. (1996).Psychopathology, fails: the case of Lubavitch. embodiment and religious innovation: An Sociology of Religion , 62 (3) pp. 383-402 historical instance. In D. Bhugra (Ed.), Religion [7] Dein, S. 2002. 'The power of words: Healing and Psychiatry. (pp. 178-197). narratives amongst Lubavitch Hasidim', [25] Littlewood, R; Lynch, R; (2016) Cosmos, Medical Anthropology Quarterly 16: 41-62 Gods and Madmen: Frameworks in the [8] Dein S (2010) 'A Messiah from the Dead: Anthropologies of Medicine. Berghahn Books, Cultural Performance in Lubavitcher Oxford and New York. Messianism'. Social Compass 57 (4). [26] MacGaffey, Wyatt.1983. Modern Kongo [9] Dein S 2011 Lubavitcher Messianism: What . Religion in a Plural Society. Really Happens When Prophecy Fails? New Bloomington: Indiana University Press York: Continuum, (Bloomsbury Studies in [27] Magid‘s S (2014) ―The Divine / Human Jewish Thought) Messiah and Religious Deviance: Rethinking [10] Dweck Y (2011) The scandal of Kabbalah. Chabad Messianism in Morgan and Weitzman Princeton University Press [11] Festinger, L., Riecken, H. and Schacter, S. ( op cit 1956) When Prophecy Fails. Minneapolis: [28] Marcus, J. (2001) ―The Once and Future University of Minnesota Press Messiah in Early Christianity and Chabad.‖ [12] Frazer, J (1993). The Golden Bough. London: New Testament Studies 47.3 . Wordsworth.

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[29] Morgan, M. L. & Weitzman, S..(2014) [32] Sevensky RL(1981) Religion and illness: an Rethinking the Messianic Idea in Judaism. outline of their relationship. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. [33] South Med J 74(6): 745–750. [30] Robbins, J. (2006). Social Thought and [34] Timpe, R. L. (1999) Baker Encyclopedia of Commentary: Anthropology and Theology: An Psychology and Counseling. Eds. David G. Awkward Relationship? Anthropological Benner and Peter C. Hill. Grand Rapids, Quarterly,79(2), 285-294 MI: Baker Books. [31] ScholemG (1973) , Sabbatai Sevi: The Mystical [35] Werblowsky RJ, (1992) ―Messianism in Jewish Messiah: 1626–1676, Routledge Kegan Paul, History‖Essential Papers on Messianic Movements and Personalities in Jewish History London. Ed. Marc Saperstein. New York: New York UP

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