Geography Skills Handbook 2 Projections to Create Maps, Cartographers Project the Round Earth Onto a at Surface

Geography

Contents Skills Handbook Geography skills provide the tools and methods for Globes and Maps • From 3-D to 2-D us to understand the relationships between people, • Great Circle Routes places, and environments. We use geographic skills Projections when we make daily personal decisions — where to buy • Planar Projection a home; where to get a job; how to get to the shopping • Cylindrical Projection • Conic Projection mall; where to go on vacation. Community decisions, • Common Map Projections such as where to locate a new school or how to solve Determining Location problems of air and water pollution, also require the • Latitude skillful use of geographic information. • Longitude • The Global Grid Geographers use a wide array of tools and technologies — from basic globes to • Northern and Southern high-tech global positioning systems — to understand the Earth. These help us Hemispheres collect and analyze a great deal of information. However, the • Eastern and Western Hemispheres study of geography is more than knowing a lot of facts about Reading a Map places. Rather, it has more to do with asking questions about • Using Scale the Earth, pursuing their answers, and solving problems. • Absolute and Relative Location Thus, one of the most important geographic tools is inside Physical Maps your head: the ability to think g eographically. Political Maps — Dr. Richard Boehm, Thematic Maps September 2006 • Qualitative Maps • Flow-Line Maps

World Geography and Cultures author Dr. Richard Boehm

1 Geograpahy Skills Handbook Globes and Maps A globe is a scale model of the Earth. Because Earth is round, a globe presents the most accurate depiction of geographic information such as area, distance, and direction. However, globes show little close-up detail. A printed map is a symbolic representation of all or part of the planet. Unlike globes, maps can show small areas in great detail. From 3-D to 2-D Think about the surface of the Earth as the The idea of a great circle route is an important peel of an orange. To atten the peel, you have difference between globes and maps. A round to cut it like the globe shown here. To create globe accurately shows a great circle route, as maps that are not interrupted, mapmakers, or indicated on the map below. However, as shown cartographers, use mathematical formulas to on the at map, the great circle distance (dotted transfer information from the three-dimensional line) between Tokyo and globe to the two-dimensional map. However, Los Angeles appears North when the curves of a globe become straight lines to be far longer than Pole on a map, distortion of size, shape, distance, or the true direction le Rou at Circ te area occurs. distance (solid Gre Los line). In fact, the Tokyo Angeles N great circle distance is 315 miles W E (507 km) shorter. S

N Circle Dis eat tan Gr 2 mi. (8,807 ce W E ,47 km 5 ) S Tokyo Los Angeles True Direction Distance 5,787 mi. (9,313 km)

Great Circle Routes A straight line of true direction—one that runs directly from west to east, for example—is not always the shortest distance between two points on Earth. This is due to the curvature of 1. Explain the significance of: globe, map, cartographer, great the Earth. To nd the shortest distance between circle r oute. any two places, stretch a piece of string around a globe from one point to the other. The string 2. Describe the problems that arise when the curves of a globe will form part of a great circle, an imaginary become straight lines on a m ap. line that follows the curve of the Earth. Traveling 3. Identify Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify along a great circle is called following a great the similarities and differences between globes and m aps. circle route. Ship captains and airline pilots use great circle routes to reduce travel time and conserve fuel. Globes Maps

Geography skills Handbook 2 Projections To create maps, cartographers project the round Earth onto a at surface — making a map projection. Distance, shape, direction, or size may be distorted by a projection. As a result, the purpose of the map usually dictates which projection is used. There are many kinds of map projections, some with general names and some named for the cartographers who developed them. Three basic categories of map projections are shown here: planar, cylindrical, and conic.

Planar Projection A planar projection shows the Earth centered in such a way that a straight line coming from the center to any other point represents the shortest distance. Also known as an azimuthal projection, it is most accurate at its center. As a EQ UA result, it is often used for maps of the Poles. TOR

Cylindrical Projection A cylindrical projection is based on the projec-

tion of the globe onto a cylinder. This projection EQUATOR is most accurate near the Equator, but shapes and distances are distorted near the Poles.

Conic Projection A conic projection comes from placing a cone over part of a globe. Conic projections are best suited for showing limited east-west areas that are not too far from the Equator. For these uses, a conic projection can indicate distances and directions fairly accurately.

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Common Map Projections Each type of map projection has advantages Robinson Projection and some degree of inaccuracy. Four of the most common projections are shown here. ARCTIC CIRCLE

Winkel Tripel Projection TROPIC OF CANCER

AR EQUATOR CTIC CIRCLE TROPIC OF CAPRICORN PRIME MERIDIAN

T ROPIC OF CANCER ANTARCTIC CIRCLE EQUATOR The Robinson projection has minor distortions. The sizes and

RICORN PRIME MERIDIAN TROPIC OF CAP shapes near the eastern and western edges of the map are accurate, and outlines of the continents appear much as they do on the globe. However, the polar areas are f lattened. IC CIRCLE ANTARCT Mercator Projection Most general reference world maps are the Winkel Tripel projection. It provides a good balance between the size and shape of land areas as they are shown on the map. Even the polar areas are depicted with little distortion of size and s hape. ARCTIC CIRCLE Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection

ARCTIC CIRCLE

TROPIC OF CANCER N

A I

D I EQUATOR TROPIC OF CANCER R

EQUATOR E TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

R P TROPIC OF CAPRICORN PRIME MERIDIAN

ANTARCTIC ANTARCTIC CIRCLE CIRCLE An interrupted projection resembles a globe that has been cut apart and laid flat. Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area pro- The Mercator projection increasingly distorts size and distance jection shows the true size and shape of Earth’s landmasses, as it moves away from the Equator. However, Mercator pro- but distances are generally distorted. jections do accurately show true directions and the shapes of landmasses, making these maps useful for sea travel.

1. Explain the significance of: map projection, planar, cylin- 4. Identify Use a Venn diagram like the one below to drical, conic, interrupted projection. identify the similarities and differences between the 2. Which of the four common projections described above is Winkel Tripel and Mercator projections. the best one to use when showing the entire world? W hy? 3. Draw a map of the world from memory, labeling continents, oceans, and as many countries as you can. Then Winkel Tripel Mercator projection projection trade maps with a partner and look for similarities and differences between your maps. Discuss how each person’s spatial perspective is reflected in his or her map.

Geography Skills Handbook 4 Determining Location Geography is often said to begin with the question Where? The basic tool for answering the question is location. Lines on globes and maps provide information that can help you locate places. These lines cross one another forming a pattern called a grid system, which helps you nd exact places on the Earth’s s urface. A hemisphere is one of the halves into which the Earth is divided. Geographers divide the Earth into hemispheres to help them classify and describe places on Earth. Most places are located in two of the four hemispheres. 90°N (North Pole) 75°N 60°N Latitude 45°N

Lines of latitude, or parallels, circle the Earth parallel 30°N to the Equator and measure the distance north or south of the Equator in degrees. The Equator is measured at 15°N 0° latitude, while the Poles lie at latitudes 90°N (north) and 90°S (south). Parallels north of the Equator are 0° (Equator) called north latitude. Parallels south of the Equator are 15°S called south latitude.

30°S 45°S 60°S 75°S 90°S (South Pole)

Longitude Lines of longitude, or meridians, circle the Earth from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distance east or west of the Prime Meridian at 0° longitude. Meridians east of the Prime Meridian are known as east longitude. Meridians west of the Prime Meridian are known as west longitude. The 180° meridian on 60°W 45°W 60°E the opposite side of the Earth is called the International 30°W 45°E 15°W 30°E Date Line. 0° (Prime Meridian) 15°E

90°N (North Pole) 75°N 60°N The Global Grid 45°N Every place has a global address, or absolute location. 30°N You can identify the absolute location of a place by Tokyo 15°N naming the latitude and longitude lines that cross exactly at that place. For example, Tokyo, Japan, is located at 0° (Equator) 36°N latitude and 140°E longitude. For more precise 15°S readings, each degree is further divided into 60 units called minutes. 30°S 60°E 45°S 75°E 135°E 90°E 120°E 105°E

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Northern and Southern Eastern and Western Hemispheres Hemispheres The diagram below shows that the Equator The Prime Meridian and the International Date divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern Line divide the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Everything north of the Equator is Hemispheres. Every thing east of the Prime in the Northern Hemisphere. Every thing south Meridian for 180° is in the Eastern Hemisphere. of the Equator is in the Southern Hemisphere. Everything west of the Prime Meridian for 180° is in the Western Hemisphere. Northern Hemisphere Eastern Hemisphere

EUROPE ATLANTIC NORTH OCEAN AMERICA ASIA PACIFIC PACIFIC OCEAN North OCEAN AFRICA EUROPE Pole AFRICA ASIA INDIAN OCEAN AUSTRALIA

Southern Hemisphere Western Hemisphere INDIAN OCEAN AUSTRALIA NORTH AMERICA AFRICA ATLANTIC OCEAN ANTARCTICA South ATLANTIC Pole OCEAN PACIFIC SOUTH OCEAN PACIFIC AMERICA OCEAN SOUTH AMERICA

1. Explain the significance of: location, grid system, hemi- 4. Indentify Use a chart like the one below to identify the sphere, latitude, Equator, longitude, Prime Meridian, continents in each hemisphere. Continents will appear absolute location, Northern Hemisphere, Southern in more than one hemisphere. Hemisphere, Eastern Hemisphere, Western H emisphere. Hemisphere Continents 2. Which lines of latitude and longitude divide the Earth into hemispheres? Northern 3. Use the Reference Atlas maps to create a chart listing the Southern latitude and longitude of three world cities. Have a part- Eastern ner try to identify the cities. Western

Geography Skills Handbook 6 Reading a Map In addition to latitude and longitude, maps feature other important tools to help you interpret the information they contain. Learning to use these map tools will help you read the symbolic language of maps more easily.

Key Title The key lists and explains the symbols, colors, and lines The title tells you what kind of used on the map. The key is sometimes called a l egend. information the map is s howing.

Europe Before World War I

30°W 20°W 10°W 10°E 20°E 40°E 50°E 0° 30°E

Scale Bar A National RCTIC ICELAND CIRCLE boundary The scale bar shows the relation- Den. National ship between map measurements 60°N capital Major city and actual distances on the Earth. 0 600 kilometers By laying a ruler along the scale 0 600 miles SWEDEN bar, you can calculate how many Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection NORWAY Helsingfors (Helsinki) miles or kilometers are represented N Christiania St. W (Oslo) Petersburg per inch or centimeter. The map Stockholm E North a projection used to create the map is S e Sea S DENMARK ic often listed near the scale b ar. UNITED lt Copenhagen Ba R U S S I A 50°N KINGDOM NETH. Compass Rose Amsterdam Berlin London The compass rose indicates GERMANY ATLANTIC Brussels directions. The four cardinal BELG. OCEAN LUX. directions — north, south, east, and Paris Bern Vienna Budapest west — are usually indicated with FRANCE LIECHT. arrows or the points of a star. SWITZ. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Belgrade ROMANIA SAN Bucharest Black The intermediate directions — MONACO MARINO 40°N Sarajevo Sea SERBIA ANDORRA ITALY northeast, northwest, southeast, PORTUGAL MONT. BULGARIA and southwest — may also be s hown. Madrid Cetinje Soﬁa Lisbon SPAIN Rome Tirane¨ Constantinople ALBANIA Seville GREECE OTTOMAN Cities Medite EMPIRE rranean Cities are represented by a dot. Athens Sea CYPRUS Sometimes the relative sizes of AFRICA MALTA U.K. U.K. cities are shown using dots of different sizes.

Capitals Boundary Lines National capitals are On political maps of large areas, boundary often represented by lines highlight the borders between differ- a star within a circle. ent countries and states.

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Using Scale All maps are drawn to a certain scale. Scale is a consistent, propor- tional relationship between the measurements shown on the map and the measurement of the Earth’s surface.

Small-Scale Maps A small-scale map, like this Large-Scale Maps A large-scale map, like this political map of France, can show a large area map of Paris, can show a small area with a great but little detail. Note that the scale bar on this amount of detail. Study the scale bar. Note that map indicates that about 1 inch is equal to the map measurements correspond to much 200 miles. smaller distances than on the map of France.

France: Political The City of Paris

5°W 0° 5°E 10°E MONTMARTRE Sacré Coeur U.K. AV BL DE VILLIERS VD B el Lille BELG. DE LVD hann LUX. BLVD D Gare N English C 50°N TERNES LLES E C du Nord IGNO LICHY DES MALESHERBESBAT N GERMANY LVD B LLES Gare W Place RCE E COU PARC Gare de l’Est Charles MONCEAU W E de Gaulle St. Lazare S BLVD Paris (Étoile) HAUSSM ANN S

Arc de Triomphe VD DE

Opéra GRANDS BL Nantes Orléans CH AM P STRASBOURG BL ATLANTIC S É VDS FRANCE SWITZ. LYS OCEAN CHAILLOT ÉES Bibliothéque Grand Palais Place de la Nationale L Concorde Bay of QU TUILERIES Biscay Lyon ITALY Seine AI GARDENS VD DE Pompidou DE RUE DE RIVOLI BL 45°N S T Center AY U SÉBASTOPO QUAI D’ORS National ILE Assembly RIES MARAIS National Bordeaux INVALIDES BL Louvre Eiffel VD Hôtel boundary Tower ESPLANADE de Ville Toulouse Nice DES INVALIDES ST. GERMAIN Île de la Cité Regional Corsica CHAMP SAINT GERMAIN boundary DE MARS Rodin BL Marseille Hôtel des VD RASP Museum Notre National 0 200 kilometers Invalides Dame capital VD LATIN ANDORRA 0 200 miles 0 1 kilometer Luxembourg AIL QUARTER Major city Lambert Azimuthal Palace SPAIN 0 1 mile BL Sorbonne Equal-Area projection ST MICHEL

Absolute and Relative Location tion, nd a reference point — a location you As you learned on page 8, absolute location is already know — on a map. Then look in the the exact point where a line of latitude crosses a appropriate direction for the new location. For line of longitude. Another way to indicate loca- example, locate Paris (your reference point) on tion is by relative location, or the location of one the map of France above. The relative location place in relation to another. To nd relative loca- of Lyon can be described as southeast of Paris.

1. Explain the significance of: key, compass rose, cardinal 4. Describe the relative location of your school in two ways. directions, intermediate directions, scale bar, scale, rela- 5. Identify Use a Venn diagram to identify the similarities tive location. and differences between small-scale maps and large- 2. Describe the elements of a map that help you interpret scale maps. the information displayed on the m ap. 3. How does the scale bar help you determine distances on Small-scale maps Large-scale maps the Earth’s surface?

Geography Skills Handbook 8 Physical Maps A physical map shows the location and the topography, or shape, of the Earth’s physical features. A study of a country’s physical features often helps to explain the historical development of the country. For example, mountains may be barriers to transportation, and rivers and streams can provide access into the interior of a country.

Texas: Physical

R G

O R

Water Features E MO. C

K Physical maps show rivers, streams, T er 36°N Y iv an R lakes, and other water f eatures. Canadi OKLAHOMA M

U o ARK. d

a N c Lake a Red R t ive T NEW s r Texoma A E Landforms MEXICO o n I a P N l L L Physical maps may show landforms S A Sab I B ine r Ri such as mountains, plains, plateaus, N a ve z r LA. S o s Toledo Bend 32°N and valleys. Guadalupe Peak Res. 8,749 ft. Pe TEXAS Sam Rayburn Res. cos R R i N (2,667 m) i v e ve e c r r T he N rin s Edwards C ity R Davis o i lo v r R a e Mts. Stockton Plateau d i o v r R e W Plateau iv Relief and Elevation E er r Chisos Balcones S Mts. Physical maps use shading and texture 106°W 102°W Escarpment n lai Galveston N P to show general relief — the differences ueces River l Bay Elevations ta as in elevation, or height, of landforms. o Feet Meters C 28°N 4,920 1,500 Matagorda An elevation key uses colors to indicate R Bay i 3,280 1,000 o 500 MEXICO G speciﬁ c measured differences in elevation 1,640 r 200 a Padre 655 nd Island above sea level. 0 0 e Gulf of Mexico 0 100 kilometers

Mountain peak 0 100 miles 98°W 94°W Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

Political Features Some physical maps also show political features such as boundary lines, countries, and states.

1. Explain the significance of: physical map, topography, Physical Feature What You Can Learn from the Map relief, e levation. Davis Mountains 2. What is the approximate elevation of central Texas? Of Red River western T exas? Gulf Coastal Plains 3. Explain Complete a table like the one to the right to explain what you can learn from the map about the physical features listed.

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Political Maps A political map shows the boundaries and locations of political units such as countries, states, counties, cities, and towns. Many features depicted on a political map are human-made, or determined by humans rather than by nature. Political maps can show the networks and links that exist within and between political units.

Texas: Political

MO. Human-Made Features

36°N Political maps show human-made features such iver an R Canadi OKLAHOMA as boundaries, capitals, cities, roads, highways, Amarillo and railroads. ARK. NEW Red R MEXICO iver Lubbock Wichita Falls Fort S Worth abin e Ri Dallas ver B T LA. r r Abilene a in z i 32°N o t y El Paso s R R Pe i i cos v v R Waco e e i r r ve r T E XAS C olo ra do R Beaumont Austin iv er Houston San Antonio Victoria Galveston Nueces R ver 106°W MEXICO i 28°N N State capital Corpus Laredo R i Christi Major city o E Physical Features G Padre W ra nd Island 0 200 kilometers e S Political maps may show some physical features Brownsville such as relief, rivers, and m ountains. 0 200 miles Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection Gulf of 102°W 98°W Mexico 94°W

Nonsubject Area Areas surrounding the subject area of the map are usually a different color to set them apart. They are labeled to give you a context for the area you are studying.

1. Explain the significance of: political map, human-made. Human-Made Feature What You Can Learn from the Map 2. What types of information would you find on a political Austin map that would not appear on a physical m ap? El Paso 3. Explain C ompl ete a table like the one to the right to Texas state boundary explain what you can learn from the map about the huma n-m ade feature s l is ted.

Geography Skills Handbook 10 Thematic Maps Maps that emphasize a single idea or a particular kind of information about an area are called thematic maps. There are many kinds of thematic maps, each designed to serve a different need. This textbook includes thematic maps that show climate, natural vegetation, popula- tion density, and economic activities.

Qualitative Maps Flow-Line Maps Maps that use colors, symbols, lines, or dots Maps that illustrate the movement of people, to show information related to a speci c idea animals, goods, and ideas, as well as physi cal are called qualitative maps. Such maps are processes like hurricanes and glaciers, are call ed often used to depict historical information. ow-line maps. Arrows are usually used to For example, the qualitative map below left represent the ow and direction of movement. shows resources and exports in Latin America The ow-line map below right shows the move- over time. ment of Slavic peoples throughout Europe.

Latin America: Resources and Exports Europe: Slavic Migrations

VENEZUELA Migration of 20°E 30°E N ATLANTIC ESTONIA

Slavic Peoples, c. 700 a

Au e E FR. OCEAN W Au GUIANA Eastern Slavs S ECUADOR COLOMBIA c (Fr.) i S t EQUA Western Slavs l LATVIA GUYANA TOR a SURINAME 0° Southern Slavs B RUSSIA Au LITHUANIA Present-day PERU BRAZIL RUSSIA PACIFIC boundary BOLIVIA OCEAN 10°E BELARUS POLANDV PARAGUAY i st R u GERMANY . l 20°S a N TRO PIC OF CAPR D 50°N ICOR SLAVIC nie N per W E CZ HOMELAND R. ECH UKRAINE CHILE REP. D S ARGENTINA URUGUAY ni KIA este OVA R. r SL 0 1,000 kilometers AUSTRIA MOLDOVA HUNGARY 0 1,000 miles 40°S Lambert Azimuthal SLOV. ROMANIA Equal-Area projection A CROATIA d 100°W 80°W 60°W 40°W 20°W r R. ia BOS.& Danube Black ti HERZ. ITALY c SERBIA Sea Resources Se BULGARIA 60°S a Coal Food 0 200 kilometers Petroleum products MONT. MACEDONIA 0 200 miles Primary Products TURKEY Natural gas Lambert Azimuthal ALBANIA 40°N Coffee as a Percentage Equal-Area projection GREECE Iron ore of Exports Sugarcane Bauxite 75% or more Cotton Copper 50%–74% Au Gold Cut ﬂowers 25%–49% Zinc Leather Less than 25% Timber Wool No data

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