Stones and Bones

STONES AND BONES

Prehistoric Tools from Montana’s Past Contents

Section I Introduction to the Footlocker 4 The Anzick Site 7 Prehistoric Tools from Montana’s Past: Inventory 9 Footlocker Use: Some Advice for Instructors 11 Footlocker Evaluation Form 12

Section II Ancient Tool Making in Montana: Historical Overview for Teachers 14 and Discussion of Footlocker Artifacts

Amazing Montanans Dr. Thomas Foor 20 Karma Cochran 23 Ann M. Johnson 26 Troy Helmick 29

Section III Teachers’ Tips for Lesson Plans 32

Lesson 1 Narrative: What Is Archaeology? 33 Vocabulary 35 Arch Activity: The Mystery of the Missing Pages 37

Lesson 2 Narrative: What Is Ancient Stone Technology? 39 Narrative: What Non-stone Materials Were Used for Ancient Technology? 42 Vocabulary 44 Arch Activity: Tool Time 47

Lesson 3 Narrative: What Technology Did Ancient People Use to Harvest 57 and Process Plants? Vocabulary 59 Arch Activity: Making Pemmican 60

Lesson 4 Narrative: What Animals Did Ancient People Eat, and 61 How Did They Hunt Their Prey? Vocabulary 64 Arch Activity: Stone Tool Measuring 65

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 2 / Lesson 5 Narrative: What Plants Did Ancient People Use? 70 Vocabulary 74 Arch Activity: Surviving the Wilds 75

Lesson 6 Narrative: Why Do We Preserve and Protect Archaeological Sites? 76 Vocabulary 78 Arch Activity: The Importance of the Past 79

PowerPoint and Script What They Left Behind: Types of Archaeological Sites in Montana 80 PowerPoint Script 82 Vocabulary 85

Section IV Glossary 86 Bibliography 87

Section V Primary Sources and How to Use Them 88 Montana Historical Society Educational Footlockers 95

Cover image: Petroglyph from Ellison Rock, MHS Mus 1988.14.10

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 3 / Introduction to the Footlocker

he Stones and Bones footlocker hunt. Archaeologists seek knowledge and its user guide have been of the past through a rigorous scientific Trevamped to include lesson process. Encouraging students to look plans extracted from the Montana for treasures in the ground may sound Ancient Teachings curriculum focusing romantic and motivating, but it is seen on the artifacts/items in the footlocker. as looting by archaeologists, and often This footlocker allows students it is illegal. We hope you will convey to view the tools and artifacts associ- to students the ethic that the past is a ated with archaeology, specifically in shared heritage. The true romance of Montana sites. Students will be able to archaeology is not in finding treasures, use correct terminology and accurate but in helping people to understand information about archaeology after their shared past. using this footlocker. The footlocker Second, although archaeology is a and associated lesson plans can scientific approach to understanding provide an introduction to the world of artifacts and what they can tell us about archaeology and what archaeologists past people and behavior, it does not have learned about Montana prehistory provide the last and only word about through archaeology and related scien- ancient people. Much of what is said tific disciplines. here is based on theories supported by The narrative “Ancient Tool making evidence—but archaeological theories in Montana: Historical Overview for can and have changed as new evidence Teachers and Identification of Foot- is brought to light. locker Artifacts” (pp. 14–19) provides In addition, archaeology is not the an overview that can be used by both sole perspective we have for under- students and teachers. More detailed standing the past. Religions and Native narratives on a variety of subtopics are American beliefs and oral tradition included in the lesson plans. Teachers sometimes appear to differ with archae- will find it helpful to review both the ology. Ideas about the migration of early historical overview on page 14 and the people to the New World across the various lesson plan narratives to decide Bering Land Bridge are a case in point, which ones they want to assign their and teachers particularly need to be students. aware that many Indian people disagree There are a few other things with the Bering Strait theory. Most tribes teachers should keep in mind as they believe that they originated in their present this material to their students. homeland, not in some foreign conti- First, it is important to avoid nent. This issue is addressed in OPI’s presenting archaeology as a treasure Essential Understanding Regarding

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 4 / Montana Indians 3: “each tribe has its by making a cast or mold. For example, own oral histories, which are as valid as a mold in the shape of a spear point can written histories.” be used to make many replicas of a real Finally, teachers need to be aware spear point. that this footlocker contains artifact Museums use replicas in public replicas, not actual artifacts. exhibits and in teaching kits. The real Ancient human-made artifacts artifacts may be rare and considered are often copied or replicated for use valuable because they tell us of our past in exhibits and for study. Replicas of as human beings. These artifacts are tools such as spear points and arrow kept safe in storage while replicas take points, or arrowheads, may be formed their place in public places.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 5 / Anzick site. Richard Sims, photographer. Courtesy Montana Historical Society State Historic Preservation Office.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 6 / The Anzick Site

any archaeologists believe returned to the site, Ben told him of that about 12,000 years his discovery. Excited about the arti- Mago, near the end of the Ice fact, the two men searched the area Ages, the first people to come to North and found more artifacts. They told the America walked across a land bridge people who owned the land about their which stretched between Alaska and discoveries. The land owners’ names Asia. The area where the land bridge were Melvyn and Helena Anzick, so was is now underwater and is called the area became known as the Anzick the Bering Strait. The people crossed Site. They all knew how important the the bridge because they were looking discovery of these artifacts would be to for a new home. Some of these people others, so they contacted an archaeolo- decided to settle in Montana. Not gist to come and study the area and the everyone agrees with this theory. How artifacts. people first came to Montana is heavily Many archaeologists have since debated. studied the Anzick Site and its artifacts. We do know that one of the They have learned that the ancient earliest places with evidence of people people who once lived there were from in Montana is in an area along Horse the Clovis culture, which is one of the Creek, just a short distance south of earliest known periods of human settle- a small town named Wilsall, near ment in North America. This period Livingston, Montana. This archaeo- of time dates to around 10,000 BC, or logical site is called the Anzick Site. 12,000 years ago. Most archaeologists Archaeologists know that prehistoric believe that the tools were purposely people once lived at the Anzick site left at the Anzick site as a cache, or because ancient tools, made by hand, maybe as part of a burial. Many of the were found there. artifacts were smeared with red ochre, In May of 1968, two men, Ben or red earth, which probably means the Hargis and Calvin Sarver, discovered artifacts were thought to be special or the Anzick Site. After collecting rocks to sacred. be used in building a new high school, There were over 100 artifacts found Calvin drove the load of rocks into at the site. Some of them are: Clovis town, leaving Ben alone at the site. spear points, biface cores, bone fore- While he was waiting, Ben decided to shafts, Clovis blanks, and preforms. fill a hole in the road with some of the The Anzick Site artifacts are on display same rocks. As he was shoveling, Ben at the Montana Historical Society in saw an artifact in the dirt. When Calvin Helena, Montana.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 7 / souri River r Mis ive i R ur so is M

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Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 8 / STONES AND BONES: inVentory

Borrower: ______Booking Period: ______

The borrower is responsible for the safe use of the footlocker and all its contents during the designated booking period. Replacement and/or repair for any lost items and/or damage (other than normal wear and tear) to the footlocker and its contents while in the borrower’s care will be charged to the borrower’s school. Please have an adult complete the footlocker inventory checklist below, both when you receive the footlocker and when you repack it for shipping, to ensure that all of the contents are intact. After you inventory the footlocker for shipping to the next location, please mail or fax this completed form to the Education Office.

Before After Item Use Use Condition Of Item MHS Use

2 Bifacial Knives/Preforms (tray 1)

1 Bifacial Core (tray 1)

1 Crude Obsidian Tool (tray 1)

1 Hammerstone (tray 1)

1 Abrading Stone (tray 1)

1 Unretouched Flake (tray 1)

1 Stone End-Scraper (tray 1)

5 Early Prehistoric Points (tray 2)

6 Middle Prehistoric Atlatl Points (tray 2)

6 Late Prehistoric Atlatl Points (tray 2)

1 Bone Awl (tray 3)

1 Bone Scraper (tray 3)

1 Bone Beamer (tray 3)

1 Antler Tine (tray 3)

1 Antler Billet (tray 3)

1 Bone Handled Bifacial Knife (tray 3)

1 Antler Hafted End Scraper (tray 3)

4 Obsidian Flakes and 2 Obsidian Cores (tray 4)

(continued)

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 9 / Inventory (continued)

Before After Item Use Use Condition Of Item MHS Use

1 Pitch Stick (tray 4)

1 Foreshaft (tray 4)

1 Mano and Metate set (tray 4)

1 Piece of Sinew (tray 4)

1 Bone Needle Preform

1 Bone Needle with Hole

1 Bone Needle without Hole

1 Stone Drill (tray 4)

1 Stone Awl (tray 4)

1 Flint Knapping Kit (tray 4) containing: • 1 hard leather thigh protection pad • 1 soft leather hand protection pad • 1 copper tine

1 Atlatl (tube)

1 VHS Video: People of the Hearth

1 Bitterroot Sample and Photo of Bitterroot

1 PowerPoint and Script

1 Ancient Teachings Curriculum Guide

1 User Guide

2 Magnifying Glasses

Education Office, Montana Historical Society, PO Box 201201, Helena, MT 59620-1201 Fax: 406-444-2696, Phone: 406-444-4789, [email protected]

Teacher’s Name ______Phone Number ��

School ______Footlocker Reservation Dates ��

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 10 / Footlocker Use: Some Advice for Instructors

How do I make the best use of tory form back to: Education Office, the footlocker? Montana Historical Society, Box In this User Guide you will find many 201201, Helena, MT 59620-1201, tools for teaching with objects and or fax at (406) 444-2696. primary sources. We have included topical narratives to introduce various Who do I send the footlocker to? subjects—from prehistoric technology Before the reservation period began to the importance of preserving archae- you received a confirmation form from ological sites. Section three contains the Education Office. On that form you lesson plans for exploration of the will find information about who to send topic in your classroom. Some of these the footlocker to next, with a mailing lessons utilize the objects and images label to affix to the top of the footlocker. in the footlocker, others stand alone. Please insure the footlocker for $1,000 In section five there are introductory with UPS (we recommend UPS). This worksheets on how to look at and read makes certain that if the footlocker is maps, primary documents, photographs, lost on its way to the next school, UPS and artifacts. These will provide you and will pay for it and not your school. your students valuable tools for future study. What do I do if something is missing or broken when the What do I do when I receive footlocker arrives, or is missing the footlocker? or broken when it leaves my IMMEDIATELY upon receiving the classroom? footlocker, take an inventory form from If an item is missing or broken when the envelope inside and inventory the you initially inventory the footlocker, contents in the “before use” column. CONTACT US IMMEDIATELY (406- Save the form for your “after use” 444-4789), in addition to sending us the inventory. This helps us keep track of completed (before and after use) inven- the items in the footlockers and enables tory form. This allows us to track down us to trace back and find where an item the missing item. It may also release might have been lost. your school from the responsibility of paying to replace a missing item. If What do I do when it is time to something is broken during its time in send the footlocker on to the your classroom, please call us and let next person? us know so that we can have you send Carefully inventory all of the items us the item for repair. If an item turns again as you put them in the footlocker. up missing when you inventory before If any items show up missing or broken sending it on, please search your class- at the next site, your school will be room. If you cannot find it, your school charged for the item(s). Send the inven- will be charged for the missing item.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 11 / Footlocker Evaluation Form

Evaluator’s Name ��

Footlocker Name ��

School Name ______Phone ��

Address ��

City ______Zip Code ��

1. How did you use the material? (choose all that apply) 9 Schoolwide exhibit 9 Classroom exhibit 9 “Hands-on” classroom discussion 9 Supplement to curriculum 9 Other ��

2. How would you describe the audience/viewer? (choose all that apply) 9 Preschool students 9 Grade school—Grade______9 High school—Grade______9 College students 9 Seniors 9 Mixed groups 9 Special interest 9 Other ��

3. How many people viewed/used the footlocker?______

4. Which of the footlocker materials were most engaging? 9 Artifacts 9 Documents 9 Photographs 9 Lessons 9 Video 9 CD 9 Books 9 Slides 9 Other ��

5. Which of the User Guide materials were most useful? 9 Narratives 9 Resource Materials 9 Biographies/Vocabulary 9 Lessons 9 Other ______

6. How many class periods did you devote to using the footlocker? 9 1–3 9 4–6 9 More than 6 9 Other ��

7. What activities or materials would you like to see added to this footlocker?

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 12 / Footlocker Evaluation Form (continued)

8. Would you request this footlocker again? If not, why?

9. What subject areas do you think should be addressed in future footlockers?

10. What were the least useful aspects of the footlocker/User Guide?

11. Other comments:

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 13 / Ancient Tool Making in Montana: Historical Overview for Teachers and Discussion of Footlocker Artifacts

Montana Long Ago possible to kill animals, prepare meat Long before trappers, traders, miners, for cooking, and scrape hides for and settlers came to Montana, the clothing, blankets, and shelter. Tool people who lived here had everything making for hunting especially required they needed. There were animals to great skill and was done mostly by men, hunt, water to drink, and plants to who passed the knowledge down to gather. In this vast place, the first people their sons and grandsons. We call these learned how to use what the land skilled tool makers flint knappers. The offered. They made comfortable homes process of making tools is called flint for themselves, they made their own knapping. clothes, and they hunted and gathered Projectile points (spear points, dart the food they needed to survive. But points, and arrow points), knives, and they needed tools to do these things. scrapers are among the most common, useful kinds of tools flint knappers Making Tools made. Most often they are made Early people were very good at figuring from flint, chert, quartizite, basalt, or out how to find or make everything obsidian. Obsidian, a glass-like mate- they needed. They traveled in groups rial made from the lava of a volcano, as the seasons changed, hunting and made very sharp tools. There is little gathering different things in different obsidian in Montana; early people prob- places. One place might have a special ably traded for it. kind of cobblestone, perfect for making A flint knapper had to know what hammers. Another place might have a type and size of rock he needed to make special kind of flint for making arrow- a certain kind of tool or point. He might heads, or projectile points, and scrapers begin with a large rock if he wanted to and knives. make a large spear point. By hitting the The people used every part of the rock, or core, with a hammerstone, he animals they hunted. For example, they could knock off the outer rind. When sharpened small bones to make needles the rind was gone, then he would knock for sewing and awls for punching holes. smaller flakes off the core, shaping the They laced pieces of tanned hides tool. Finally, with the tine of an antler together with thread made of sinew. As he could push tiny flakes off the sides, traveling groups met other travelers, sharpening the tool with amazing preci- they shared their knowledge and ideas. sion. Knappers could resharpen old Children learned from their parents tools or make broken tools into knives where to find the needed materials, or scrapers or drills. how to make the tools they needed, and Women sometimes made stone how to use them. tools, too. Their tools, mostly used to Stone tools were very important process food, were simpler to make. to early people. These tools made it They were, however, no less important.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 14 / Women used cobbles—rocks smoothed called atlatls. An atlatl required a large round by river water—and other kinds spear point hafted, or fastened, onto of stones. Sometimes they used the a slender stick or shaft. These ancient cobbles in their natural shape and tool makers made beautiful projectile sometimes they shaped them. They points. In the hands of a skilled thrower, used stone mauls, like hammers, to the spear points could easily kill very break bones and pound or grind meat. large mammals. They also used manos and pestles, round The Middle Period, from about or long smooth stones small enough to 6,000 to about 2,000 years ago, was a fit well in their hands, to grind seeds time of change. Tool-makers discovered and berries. Women used manos with new ways to make tools better and they a naturally shaped lap-sized flat stone became better at making them. Hunters called a metate. Women always used sometimes still used the atlatl, but they manos with metates. Sometimes they also began to use the bow and arrow. split cobbles in half and used the rough The style of point began to change as edges to scrape hides. atlatls were used less often and bows and arrows became the weapon of choice. The animals being hunted were Material Culture not as large as the extinct animals their The kinds of tools Montana’s ancient ancestors hunted. This is why projectile families used were similar between points over time became smaller as groups but not always exactly alike. animals and kinds of weapons changed. Archaeologists study these differences. During the Middle Period, archae- Tools changed over time as the people ologists begin to find manos, metates, practiced and became more skilled. pestles, and mauls shaped for specific Today, what long ago people made uses. Early people used the same tools, and left behind is called their material but they didn’t usually shape them. culture. Archaeologists study material Instead, they simply used natural cultures to try to discover how the first stones. They are therefore hard to iden- Montanans made the tools they used, tify since they are natural rocks. what they used them for, and how their The last period and most recent is tools changed over time. the Late Period, from about 1,700 years ago to the time when the first European Tools and Time Periods trappers and traders began to come to Archaeologists usually divide the Montana in the late 1700s. There were different styles of tools into three time many changes. Native people acquired periods: Early, Middle and Late. The horses and guns, and they began to oldest is the Early Period, from about use metal tools instead of stone. In 12,000 to 6,000 or 7,000 years ago. Montana, most stone tool use ended by During this long ago time, people the mid-1800s. But technological and hunted large animals like wooly stylistic changes took place at different mammoths, giant sloths, and a huge times in different places. Therefore, the type of bison. All these animals are “years before present” dates are only now extinct. They used spear throwers approximate. Estimating the changes

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 15 / and sequences of the different types of tools by knocking or pushing flakes off points and tools is called seriation. a larger stone). You can see that the projectile points Modern Flint Knapper’s Kit in Tray 2, for example, are different There are still people who practice the sizes, shapes, and styles. Archaeologists fine art of flint knapping. The kit in this study these differences. They are impor- trunk includes tools needed to make tant because the differences provide stone weapons and implements. The clues that help us understand changes large piece of leather is a thigh protec- over time. Archaeologists combine tion pad and the smaller one is a hand these clues with other ways of dating protector, like a glove. These protect things. Stratigraphy, the order that arti- the knapper from being cut by flying facts were buried as sediments or soils particles and sharp edges. Ancient accumulated, and carbon 14 dating are knappers used a small antler tine to two other methods archeologists can press along the edges of a weapon, use to discover when a tool was made removing tiny chips to sharpen it. or used. The copper tine is a modern imple- Projectile points generally became ment used like an antler for this same smaller through time and the style of purpose. The notched foreshaft is the base, the part that attached to the what the point would be attached to— shaft, changed. This is partly because the base of the point fits into the notch. the method of delivery changed. Early The pitch stick is a stick with a glob of Period hunters used the largest points pine pitch on the end. Pitch is the sticky with large, heavy spears they threw stuff you find on pine trees. When it by hand. These large points have is warmed and softened, it is like glue something like notches at the base or clay. A glob of pitch on the notched for attaching to the shaft. A little later, shaft glues the point onto it so that it medium sized points with stemmed, can be then wrapped with sinew and corner, or side notches were used hafted, or fastened. on lightweight, very long—maybe 4 feet—shafts. Ancient hunters threw Sinew these spears with an atlatl (or “spear Sinew comes from animal tendons and thrower”) like the replica atlatl provided separates when dried, just like thread. in the trunk. During the Late Period the Ancient people of all time periods used bow and arrow replaced the atlatl in sinew not only for sewing, but also most places. However, in some places, for wrapping points onto spears and hunters used both bows and arrows arrow shafts. When sinew is wet, it is and atlatls side by side for a very long very soft and can be easily worked as time. a wrapping. Once wet sinew dries, it is Tool-making techniques evolved very sturdy and holds the point securely as people became more skilled and the to the shaft. size of animals hunted and the types of weapons used changed over time. Tray 1 Stones and Bones Lesson 2 explains If a flint knapper wanted to make a the process of flint knapping (making large knife or spear point, he would first

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 16 / choose a large rock of suitable material starting place like a blank or Preform. such as obsidian, chert, flint, quartzite, The knapper used these preforms to or basalt. This type of material, in skilled make tools when he needed them. hands, could be “worked” with little Many bifacially reduced cores were also breakage. The knapper first system- sharpened on the edges and used as atically removed the outer rind and is, like the bifacial core example. Or, reduced the rock using percussion, by with further shaping, they became large hitting it with another rock called a tools like Bifacial Knives. The finished Hammerstone. Once the larger rock point would be polished or smoothed was reduced, the knapper worked each with an Abrading Stone. These stones side of the remaining rock, taking off were usually naturally shaped sand- flakes until the rock was the desired stone, pumice, or other type of coarse shape and thinness. Flakes that came rocks. They were also used to smooth off the larger rock were usually excess. bone and animal hides. The Unretouched Flake is an example of the waste. Sometimes, however, Obsidian Flakes flakes were sharpened for use as other These flakes came from a larger piece types of tools. The End Scraper is a of obsidian. You can see how flint flake that has been sharpened on only knappers knocked these pieces off and one edge. Tool makers usually worked could sharpen their edges for use as tools on only one side of an edge. tools or shape them into points. Often, These unifacial (worked on one face or however, they were only waste prod- side only) tools were used for cleaning ucts. Scatters of flakes, called lithic scat- and thinning hides or shaping wood ters, are common in Montana and tell into pipestems and arrow shafts. End archaeologists that someone, at some scrapers occur from the Early Period to time, made tools at that place. the Late Period. Large flakes could be shaped Tray 2 into points. Obsidian is not found in If a knapper wanted to make a number Montana, but was highly prized and of smaller arrow points instead of one acquired in trade. The black glass- bifacial core or preform, he chose a like material comes from lava. The suitable rock and removed the outer retouched edges were razor sharp. This rind with a hammerstone. This time, Crude Obsidian Tool came from a however, production of flakes was the large flake. goal. In some cases, the tool maker What remains of the large rock after formed points from flakes that were the flakes have been taken off on both worked bifacially. This sequence, or sides is called a Bifacial Core. Bifacial seriation, demonstrates how points (“both faces”) means that both sides changed over time. have been worked. As a knapper hit Often the larger the point, the older the rock with his hammerstone, the it is. The Early Prehistoric Spear flakes fell off in a planned sequence Points are the largest and the most (but breakage often happened!) and crudely made. Their bases are not the core became a sort of uniform notched. These early points would have

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 17 / been used to kill large mammals. These knives were generally flaked on both points, used with hand-held spears, sides (bifacially). However, simpler likely would have fit into a notched tools were also made from flakes and shaft like the one included in the knap- worked on one side only. per’s kit, only much larger. Stone tools for hunting were not The Middle Prehistoric Atlatl the only tools important to early people. Points are different shapes and smaller. Other types of tools were also essen- As knappers became more finely tial for preparing hides, sewing, and skilled, they began to notch their points, cooking. Women did much of this work. which made attaching and wrapping Beamers, made from the hind leg bone with sinew much more efficient. As or tibia of deer, were very specialized large mammals became extinct, early tools. Most archaeologists believe that hunters did not need such big projectile a Bone Beamer was used to remove points for their weapons. Besides that, hair and tissue from hides. The leg bone the atlatl increased the power behind a was deeply grooved lengthwise to make man’s throw, and smaller points, skill- a slot and two parallel knife blades fit fully made, could kill very large animals. into the grooves. Hides were stretched Late Prehistoric Atlatl Points over beams or poles and, using two are even smaller. These tell us that the hands, the worker drew the beamer animals being hunted were smaller, across the hide, scraping it. Beamers like rabbits, deer, and birds, and that would wear out in the middle and snap the hunters were very skilled. They also into two pieces. One such piece, like reveal a high degree of craftsmanship. the Bone Scraper, has been recycled Flint knappers were truly artists who and the broken edge serrated for use left their work behind for us to study. as a scraping tool. Broken pieces could also be used for things like a Bone Tray 3 Awl to punch holes in hides for sewing. Knappers used other utensils for refining Bone splinters, broken during butch- their points and tools. Most knappers ering or broken off of other tools were switched from a hard hammerstone made into sewing needles. In the Early to a softer hammer or billet. A shaped and Middle Periods, awls were crude Antler Billet worked well for this bone splinters. By the Late Period, awls purpose. As the tool became smaller were more carefully made with one end and more fragile, even the soft billet rounded and polished and the other could become clumsy, so knappers then tapered to a point. The joint end of the used pressure flaking for final shaping bone fit perfectly in the hand. Porcupine or reshaping and sharpening tools. In and marmot incisor teeth were also pressure flaking, the knapper used a used as awls. bone tine like the Antler Tine (or the Examples of hafting with animal copper tine in the modern flint knap- sinew and pine pitch to bind tools to per’s kit) to push tiny flakes off rather shafts or handles can be seen in the than strike them off with some sort of Antler Hafted End Scraper and the hammer. Tools like points, drills, and Bone Handled Bifacial Knife.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 18 / Bone Needles by pecking, grinding, and finally Bone tools occur in all periods. Simple polishing to a characteristic “potato straight needles are common in the masher” shape. Middle Period while needles with eyes Manos were for grinding small are more common later in time. But the seeds and other foods. They appear frequency of differences could easily be during the Middle Period. They might because of their fragile nature and rare have been used earlier, but there is no preservation. proof. They were pecked and abraded into cylinders or slightly flattened discs Women’s Work to fit the hand comfortably. If they While the art of flint knapping was became too smooth, women roughed handed down from father to son, the surface by pecking at it with a small women and their daughters used hammerstone. Some manos appear so simpler tools, making them as they natural and have been so little shaped needed them. Women likely made or that the pecking is the best indication sharpened knives and scrapers sharp- of human use. While mauls and pestles ened quickly on one side. They also were used in Montana without a mortar, used natural materials that they shaped or other bowl-like matching container to match their needs. or grinding platform, manos were used Women did much of the meat only with metates. processing. Large stones called mauls Metates were lap-sized, roughly served as hammers, used during rectangular to oval-shaped flat blocks, butchering to break apart carcasses usually of sandstone and sometimes and break large bones for their marrow. of granite. Metates often are unshaped Grooved mauls are most commonly and occur naturally. But sometimes from the Late to the Historic periods. they were intentionally shaped with Women also used mauls to pound broken and roughed flat ends, sides, berries and pulverize dried meat. This and grooved bottoms. Shaped metates mixed with grease made pemmican, have a shallow bowl, dished out just an important food staple. Mauls were enough so that tiny seeds and resulting most often made from round or oval flour do not spill over. river cobbles. Useful bone tools were For further information on making byproducts of butchering. arrow and spear shafts, see http:// The pestle is a Late Middle Period www.thudscave.com/npaa/darts/ to Late Period tool. In Late Period wrenches.htm western Montana, pestles were shaped

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 19 / Amazing Montanans Dr. Thomas A. Foor is an archaeologist.

r. Thomas A. Foor, Missoula, address specific concerns of how the is an archaeologist. Tom has human world works. When sites are Dbeen involved in archaeo- well preserved and left undisturbed, logical fieldwork since 1970, and he they are valuable—and fun—to study. even teaches archaeology. He says, Early sites may represent ways of life “Archaeology is all about the thrill of for which we have no modern compari- discovery.” sons, ways of life that are now extinct! Tom has always read books Tom hopes to find a complete and about explorers and adventurers and intact living floor from a prehistoric has been interested in how humans campsite. It would help him identify became as we are today. Human diver- different groups who may have lived sity—how and why humans organize within the site. into groups—presents many questions Tom was born in Washington, D.C., for him. Some of the questions he asks and attended elementary and secondary are: Why aren’t we all members of just schools in Montana and California. He one society? Why do we even live in received his Bachelor’s and Master’s groups? Why isn’t there just one kind of degrees from the University of society? Why isn’t there just one way of Montana. He obtained his doctorate making a living? from the University of California, Santa He searches for answers to his Barbara, and completed postdoctoral questions through the “time machine” studies at the University of Michigan. In of archaeology. Like the explorers he’s the past, Tom worked as the Montana read about who searched for people in State Archaeologist for the Montana new places, Tom explores people from Historical Society, Helena. Today, he historic and prehistoric times, using is a professor of Anthropology at the archaeology to transport him to the University of Montana, where he guides past. Archaeology allows him to look archaeological students to do their best at how, why, and under what condi- in searching for answers to the questions new human societies or commu- tions archaeologists ask. nities formed. He uses the artifacts, Many instructors inspired Tom features, and ecofacts that people left throughout his schooling. Dee C. Taylor, behind to study their lives and answer University of Montana, taught him the his questions. importance of being able to tell others Tom loves both historic and prehis- about the excitement of archaeology. toric archaeology. The most numerous Albert C. Spaulding, University of sites in Montana are historic and late California, Santa Barbara, taught him prehistoric. The cultures studied at the significance of clear, logical, goal- most prehistoric Montana sites show a oriented thinking, and concise commu- well-developed record of family-based nication. William Duncan Strong, societies. These sites are important to Columbia University, instructed him in

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 20 / the value of being a good writer. Clyde discovered at Tree Frog include pieces Coombs, University of Michigan, taught of a very distinctive type of pottery, Tom the importance of using concepts arrow points made of volcanic glass that are measurable. (mostly from central Idaho), and histor- Tom’s archaeological career began ical trade goods like metal tools and a with work in the coal lands of south- glass trade bead. The site is significant eastern Montana and north-central because it was occupied by people who Wyoming. He found and excavated were undergoing changes in how they campsites, rock art sites, quarry sites, defined their social identity. If those and bison kill sites. He has worked changes can be understood and inter- in locations near Great Falls and in preted, archaeologists are closer to western Montana. He has performed answering their questions about human surveys and test excavations in diversity. Washington and Idaho, usually as part As he studies the past, Tom is most of cultural resource management proj- intrigued with how Montanans were ects. Tom has surveyed and excavated in indirect contact, or maybe direct several California coastal sites, finding contact, with members of other soci- and investigating several large villages eties who lived all over North America. and shell middens. Middens are ancient He is also amazed at the ingenuity garbage sites. shown by early Montanans in their use Tom has also worked in Western of the American bison. Europe, where he unearthed his most Since archaeology is all about exciting find. When he was a student studying past human behavior, archae- worker in France, he excavated a small ologists must look for patterns. They statuette. Only about sixty-five statu- then compare patterns of behavior that ettes of the kind he found have been happened repeatedly and that resulted discovered in Europe, from the east to from similar conditions. They eliminate the west. They all date from about the behavior that appears to have occurred same time, the Upper Paleolithic period. randomly. Tom believes that the digital Nobody really knows what they were computer provides many remarkable used for, but they have many character- and measurable tools to help recognize istics in common. If nothing else, these these patterns. He thinks these tools statuettes suggest that people all over hold great promise for understanding Europe shared symbolic meanings long people of the past. ago. Tom would love to find another! It is very easy for Tom to get excited Tom says that the best and most about archaeology. He loves his work. significant site is always the one The toughest part of his work is giving he’s currently working on. Tom is low grades to students who do not do continuing seventeen years of work in very well. He suggests that you study southwestern Montana’s Centennial human behavior if you are interested Valley, at the Tree Frog site. Tree Frog in archaeology. A great archaeologist is a campsite with radiocarbon dates must have insights into people and how suggesting people lived there some- they behave. Also, since archaeological time in the past 300 years. Artifacts data usually comes from the ground,

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 21 / study dirt. Sedimentology, the knowledge of how dirt accumulates and erodes, and soil sciences, which study what happens to dirt after it accumulates, are both basic requirements for an archaeologist. After you gain exper- tise in these areas, you can specialize in other areas including botany, zoology, ecology, chemistry, physics, art history, or geology. Broad knowledge in many areas creates the best archaeologists. When asked what he believes the future holds for archaeology, Tom responds: “If we want to continue doing archaeology, we need to convince the public that our work is worthwhile. We must ask questions the public wants answered. Since tax dollars pay for most archaeology, we have to investigate sites most likely to provide Tom Foor is an archaeologist. He teaches anthro answers to those questions. We have pology to students at the University of Montana, to spend our valuable money and time Missoula. researching sites where we can accu- rately reconstruct events. I think the future is limitless for young, technically proficient archaeology students who hiking, and swimming. He is also an are excited about people and human amateur radio collector. His family behavior!” members are his father, a surgeon, and When he’s not involved with an his mother, who works in public rela- archaeological project, Tom’s hobbies tions. His brother works in law enforce- are traveling, playing golf, fishing, ment, and his sister is a nurse.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 22 / Amazing Montanans Karma Cochran is an archaeologist who studies Montana’s ancient people.

arma Cochran is an archae- Bachelor’s degree in Anthropology, and ologist who studies Montana’s a minor in Native American Studies, Kancient people. As an enrolled from the University of Montana, member of the Gros Ventre Tribe, Fort Missoula. While in college she main- Belknap Indian Reservation, Montana, tained good grades to participate in a Karma found becoming an archae- cooperative education program with the ologist a choice she made easily. Her Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). During study of Native American people of the summer and winter breaks from school, past allows her to preserve aspects of Karma received on-the-job work experi- Indian culture lost through events in ence as a student trainee archaeologist. American settlement. She learns about In return, the BIA helped pay her tuition tribal histories, then documents them and other college expenses. Upon grad- for present and future generations. uation, she was hired full-time by the Karma says, “Native American people BIA. Karma is now working toward her have been here a long time. Our history Master’s degree in Anthropology, and and culture is rich in tradition.” Karma hopes to achieve a doctorate. is proud of her heritage and shares it Karma’s archaeological work with with others through her archaeological the Bureau of Indian Affairs covers work. Indian reservations in Montana and Karma has been fascinated with Wyoming. She has worked on all reser- archaeology for as long as she can vations in these two states. The artifacts remember, and she credits her mother and features she finds provide evidence for her interest. Her mother held a job of prehistoric and historic occupation, with the Indian Health Service, providing such as old houses dating back to the health care to Native American people. first homesteading. Karma has yet to The job required moving to various work outside of the United States. She locations, and, her mother loved to hopes to travel to South America and travel. Karma recalls visiting museums research the rich history of ancient and parks dedicated to archaeology people on that continent. and dinosaurs. As the youngest of ten Karma finds all aspects of children, she remembers her mom Montana’s past and people intriguing. taking her everywhere! She saw some She prefers to study prehistoric archae- amazing places when living in Arizona ology because her people have inhab- near Canyon de Chelly National Park, ited this continent for thousands of an area very rich in cultural and archae- years. She enjoys using historic archaeological sites. ology to study cultural changes brought Karma attended elementary and to Native Americans by contact with secondary schools in Montana, Arizona, settlers, and she likes to research early and Wyoming. In 1997, she received her pioneer life.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 23 / Karma’s favorite Montana site is site is archaeological: a mammoth bone Snake Butte, located on Fort Belknap with a Paleoindian Clovis point stuck Indian Reservation. Snake Butte in it. This would prove that humans provides an excellent representation occupied Montana and hunted these and concentrated sample of Plains rock animals 12,000 to 14,000 years ago. art. The images there range from hand- Karma’s favorite method of analysis prints to a variety of animal forms. It is a is to map sites using Global Positioning good site for analyzing and comparison System (GPS) satellites. She likes the with other Montana rock art. Snake accuracy of pinpointing a site and using Butte also gives insight into elements a computer to record information on important to early Native Americans, the spot. GPS mapping offers an excel- as well as their lifestyles and history. lent look at the distribution of sites and Other archaeological sites near Snake features, and their patterns. Karma also Butte offer more information that helps likes experimenting with digital photog- archaeologists interpret the area’s use raphy to record and analyze rock art over time. sites. Storing the images in a computer The most interesting sites Karma provides a permanent record. This is has found include those with both large important because rock art is fragile; rock alignments and tipi rings on Fort erosion and vandalism can destroy Belknap Indian Reservation. The rock these irreplaceable resources. alignments, or buffalo runs, are longer Karma is not sure if any of her job than any alignment she has seen. The is easy, but she has the most fun doing tipi ring site includes over fifty rings and archaeological surveys. She enjoys is, by far, the largest campsite she has hiking in the mountains, looking at surveyed. These sites provide insight beautiful scenery, and working on her into the area’s habitation before reser- own. She also says it is great to work vations were established. They are on the reservation she is from, and with located on Fort Belknap and confirm Indian people on other reservations. that early Native Americans used The most difficult part of Karma’s these places for hunting and camping duties is surveying when it is hot and purposes. she is tired from working all day. She Karma states that one of her most would like to sit in the shade and relax, exciting finds was not even archae- but the projects have to be completed! ological. It was paleontological. She Sometimes report writing can be attended a class at Egg Mountain, near dull. She also finds that knowing and Choteau, Montana, where all kinds of learning the many laws that apply to dinosaur fossils are found. During a archaeology, and implementing them, field trip, Karma noticed a bone sticking is demanding. At times, it is difficult for out of the ground. With help from the Karma being a Native American and staff, she excavated the bone. She had being an archaeologist. It is hard to found an adolescent duck-billed dino- balance what she knows is right, and saur leg bone or arm bone. She thought how she feels as an Indian, with the it was pretty cool! But, what Karma established government system and would most like to find at a Montana policies. Those policies dealing with

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 24 / land ownership and resource manage- oped into who we are. Be proud of your ment are especially tough. own, and others‘, history. It is all special When asked what she believes the and in some way sacred. Preserve and future holds for archaeology, Karma protect all cultures. says: “I hope to see more integration “Sure, archaeology is a science, and of tribes in the field of archaeology, scientific information is wonderful. But bridging the gap between the two. archaeology is the study of real humans Montana archaeologists deal with many and cultures that existed in the past. It aspects of Indian peoples’ ways. I think is about people. Be respectful in dealing it is imperative that we be involved; with cultural resources and learn what after all, it is our history and culture. you can. As I was told, this connection As we become more involved, some between heart and mind is vital, not just stereotypes Native Americans have in your work, but to you as a person.” concerning archaeology are changing. In her free time, Karma enjoys New, positive ideas about archaeology camping, reading, and especially are appearing. It is good to see.” fishing. Her catch of the season was a Karma suggests studying the ten-pound, twenty-two-inch walleye, at sciences of geology and biology, as Cooney Dam. well as English and writing if you are interested in archaeology. Archaeology Karma Cochran is an requires a lot of report writing, and archaeologist who studies being understandable is very impor- Montana’s ancient people. tant. Knowledge of math is also helpful. She is also an enrolled member of the Gros Archaeologists must know the history Ventre Tribe. and geography of a region before they can understand its people and their societies. Her message to you is: “We are all rich in history and culture; it makes us who we are. Archaeology and the study of human culture in Montana gives us a greater understanding and appreciation of our early ancestors. It teaches us about their ability to overcome seem- ingly insurmountable odds, and about their perseverance. Because of our ancestors, we are here and have devel-

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 25 / Amazing Montanans Ann M. Johnson is an archae ologist who studies ancient technology.

r. Ann M. Johnson is an qualities that distinguish cultures and archaeologist who studies time periods. Someone who analyzes Dancient technology—the pottery—a ceramic analyst—also needs manufacture and use of material to keep good records and notes on the objects needed in daily life by people collections she has viewed. Similarities of the past. Ann’s specialty is the study and differences in pottery translate into of prehistoric pottery, or ceramics, of similarities and differences in cultures. the Northern Plains. When Ann was in Records and notes are then used to graduate school, Montana prehistoric compare to collections viewed at a later ceramics was an area no other student time. was studying, and she found the oppor- Ann was interested in archaeology tunity to make a contribution in the at a young age and did her first field- study of prehistoric ceramics attractive. work when she was eleven. She joined The first Northern Plains prehistoric a field crew testing prehistoric sites near pottery found by archaeologists dates Havre, Montana. Ann attended elemen- from about A.D. 400. tary and secondary schools in Kalispell, Ann directs her research at a range Montana. Her post-secondary educa- of cultures, from the group of prehistoric tion was at the University of Montana people just before pottery appeared, and the University of Missouri. While 1000 B.C., to the people at the begin- in graduate school, she published her ning of the historic period. She also first archaeological article and worked studies historic Native American sites on archaeological inventory and testing so that she can more fully interpret the crews. past. Ann spent a couple years working When Ann studies pottery, she is with the Colorado State Archaeologist’s first interested in the technology of a Office and the Bureau of Land piece. She seeks clues about how it was Management. She joined the National made, where the clay was obtained, Park Service in 1980, and she has and how the pot was decorated. Then been the archaeologist for Yellowstone she focuses on the group of prehistoric National Park since 1995. She says that people who made this particular type the easiest part of her job is getting up of pottery. Pottery tends to be culturally and going to work, because she loves characteristic, that is, pots have quali- where she works and what she does! ties that help identify different prehis- Ann says the most difficult part of her toric groups. job is finding time to write articles Ann states that the best way to presenting the information she has study pottery is to examine it in person, learned from her investigations. Her and to look at a great deal of it. Pictures other work, with deadlines to meet, and words do not fully convey the often takes priority over her writing.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 26 / As she studies the past, Ann is most all the activities associated with the intrigued by the relationships between buffalo jump, allowing archaeologists to the groups of people who inhabited interpret the entire picture of how early the plains. There were two contrasting people lived. The Wahkpa Chu’gn site is prehistoric lifestyles. One group were open to the public to visit. migratory, having no permanent home. Another of Ann’s favorite sites They moved seasonally, gathering plant is Nollmeyer, a village near Sidney, foods and hunting animals, primarily Montana. People at Nollmeyer moved bison. The other group were villagers, from northern South Dakota to eastern who had permanent homes. They culti- Montana and built earth homes. They vated gardens with corn, beans, squash, left behind many tools, pottery, and and sunflowers, and they supplemented animal bones from their meals. These their agricultural products with summer people also built a fortification ditch hunts. These summer hunts would around their village. It must have been bring villagers west from the Dakotas because their migratory neighbors were to the eastern Montana plains, where not friendly! the non-village groups lived. When Ann has worked at sites in North evidence of contact between the two and South Dakota, Montana, Colorado, groups exists, their encounters were Wyoming, and Missouri. An exten- sometimes peaceful, and sometimes sive project she worked on was in the they were not. mountain foothills outside of Denver, Ann notes that the villagers made Colorado. During this project, Ann and large numbers of excellent ceramics, her co-workers documented seven while the non-village groups only thousand years of prehistory with a occasionally made a few pots. Working series of rock shelter tests. Ann has for the National Park Service has given also worked at sites in Saskatchewan, her the opportunity to study two sites Canada, and Colombia, South America. in Yellowstone National Park known Ann would most like to find a to contain prehistoric ceramics. Montana kiln site, a location where These ceramics are identified as prehistoric pottery was fired to change Intermountain ware and are found in it from dried clay to ceramics. If such Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho. Both a site were carefully excavated, much Yellowstone ceramic sites are believed could be learned about how non-village to represent prehistoric Shoshone people made pottery. She would study Indians, a non-village people. similarities and differences to the way One of Ann’s favorite Montana sites village people made their pottery. is Wahkpa Chu’gn, near Havre, where Ann says that thousands of sites she did her first fieldwork. It is a large are destroyed by development, erosion, buffalo jump with processing areas and vandalism each day. Thus, the and camp areas. Wahkpa Chu’gn was total number of sites is decreasing. She used from about A.D. 400 to 1600 by a believes that, in the future, archaeolo- series of different peoples. It has never gists will investigate more sites through been vandalized, making it a valuable the use and reanalysis of museum archaeological site. It also contains collections.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 27 / Prehistoric pottery is not Ann states that archaeologists an artifact commonly should know a little about many found in Montana. When subjects. If you are interested in the it does appear, it often field of archaeology, it is helpful to reflects long-distance travel or trade between have knowledge of botany and animal ancient groups. After anatomy to identify plants and bones. studying this piece of Geography and geology assist in under- pottery from Meagher standing the location of sites and stones County—a rim shard with a handle—Ann used as tools. Math, statistics, biology, Johnson concluded that ecology, history, physics, earth science, it is most like pottery and chemistry are essential courses. from the Middle Missouri It is important to be able to read and area of South Dakota made between A.D. 1450 write well. Computer skills are valuable. and A.D. 1700. Students should also learn about the scientific method of how to formulate and test hypotheses. Ann’s message—as you learn more about archaeology—is: “Please remember that knowing where artifacts come from, the site and the location within the site, is very important to the Since 1995, Ann proper interpretation of those artifacts.” Johnson has been When Ann is not studying pottery, the archaeologist for Yellowstone National she enjoys gardening and photography. Park. Ann began her Her family includes two sisters, a lawyer career with the National and a medical doctor. Park Service in 1980.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 28 / Amazing Montanans Troy Helmick is an archaeologist who studies ancient technology.

roy Helmick is an archaeolo- found in Montana. These are stone gist who studies ancient tech- artifacts and are the most commonly Tnology—the manufacture and recovered pieces of an atlatl system use of material objects needed in daily besides the projectile point tips. life by people of the past. Troy grew Archaeologists have many ideas about up in central West Virginia, an area the weight’s function. They test their rich in historic and prehistoric sites. theories by replicating the weapon and His interest in archaeology developed using it. No clear role of the weight has as he listened to his uncle tell Civil War yet been determined. What archae- stories and of finding “arrowheads” in ologists do know is that ancient atlatl cornfields. His fascination continued hunters could effectively hit a target. when he moved to Montana as a young Archaeological interest in atlatls adult. Troy then had the opportunity to has led to competitions, both for discover Montana’s many archaeolog- research and fun. Troy participates in ical sites and features. these atlatl competitions. He reports Troy was curious to know more that the current world record distance about ancient stone tools and weapons. for an atlatl-thrown dart is 258.6 He wanted to contribute correct infor- meters! mation about lithics—objects made Troy enjoys studying prehistoric of stone by ancient people. He began archaeology because there are so many flint knapping to understand the tech- unanswered questions. It is very easy niques and technology involved in for him to stay interested in his search creating those tools and weapons. He for answers. He says that the most also studied the atlatl, a weapon used difficult part of his work in archae- more than nine thousand years ago in ology is finding time to do everything North America. The atlatl is composed he would like to accomplish. of a throwing board used to launch Troy’s favorite location is Canyon a long dart tipped with a projectile Ferry Lake, near Helena. He has spent point. The atlatl was used until the bow more than thirty years studying sites and arrow replaced it as the preferred along the lakebed. More than four hunting weapon, about two thousand thousand artifacts from these sites years ago. have been catalogued. They represent Troy is an amateur archaeologist, ten thousand years of habitation! He working in the field out of personal feels that the importance of these finds interest rather than as a profession. is yet to be recognized and determined. He has made some important contri- Troy has worked on many archaeo- butions with his experience. He has logical projects throughout Montana. authored an article on atlatl weights He has done research for the Montana

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 29 / Troy Helmick draws scientific illustrations of artifacts for archaeologists. These detailed drawings help to show how an artifact was made. Here are three of Troy’s drawings: a stone knife, an end-scraper, and a projectile point. Courtesy Montana Historical Society.

Historical Society Preservation Office, Troy has carried out a variety of Helena, and worked on the Flying D archaeological tasks working at those Ranch Survey, Madison County. He locations. He has located, identi- has surveyed sites and worked as an fied, marked, and recorded artifacts, archaeological aide for Dr. Leslie B. features, and sites. He has drafted Davis of the Museum of the Rockies, cross-section and profile maps, as Bozeman, and for Aaberg Cultural well as vicinity and location maps. Research Consulting Service. The loca- Other work he has performed includes tions he has worked include Sheep topographic surveys, horizontal and Rock Springs, Steels Pass, Barton vertical grid layouts, sorting screened Gulch, Bowman Springs, Lindsay matrix to recover cultural materials, Mammoth, Indian Creek, McHaffie, and writing reports. In addition, he Dry Creek, KXGN, Bear Paw Springs, has drawn ink illustrations of stone Merrel, and Mann Gulch. and bone artifacts to include in site

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 30 / Troy Helmick is a reports. His illustrations have appeared nationally recognized in numerous archaeology reports. marksman in the use When Troy is not involved in of the atlatl weapon archaeological activities, he spends system. Here he demonstrates the pieces time with his family. Troy and his wife, of the atlatl to Ted Shirley, live in Townsend, Montana. Turner on the Flying D Their six children are Rhonda in West Ranch outside Bozeman, Virginia, Leslie Ann of Billings, Coleene Montana. Mark Baumler, photographer. Courtesy living in Virginia, Charmon in nearby Montana Historical Helena, Brent in Naples, Italy, and Dean Society. in California. Troy and Shirley have ten grandchildren! Hunting, fishing, photography, Lewis and Clark—and of course atlatl competitions and flint knapping—are among Troy’s hobbies.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 31 / Teachers’ Tips for Lesson Plans

Arch Journals and the needs of your students. Each Before they begin to work on a narrative may be used with the whole theme, students should create an group, small groups, or individual Arch(aeology) Journal so they can students. As students read a narrative, keep most of their written material in you can have them focus on specific one location. Then they will be able to reading and writing skill areas from refer back to information they learned your curriculum. You may also assign in previous lessons. And they may narratives within a theme to groups want to use the information they’ve of students for reading, summarizing, collected in their journals for a culmi- and reporting to the class. Always plan nating activity, such as a book or mural. before making a reading assignment. By reviewing each journal, the teacher is able to assess and evaluate student Vocabulary learning in targeted areas. The vocabulary words in each narrative Following are four different possible are identified in bold. All vocabulary formats for your students’ Arch Journals: within a narrative is listed on a separate • spiral notebook page that immediately follows the • loose-leaf paper, with construc- narrative. A Glossary for Teachers at tion paper cover, stapled together the end of the curriculum defines some • accordion “book” of the vocabulary words. For a complete • unlined paper folded in half glossary, see Ancient Teachings To choose the most appropriate Glossary for Teachers, in the Ancient Arch Journal format, determine how Teachings binder or on the web at many of these lessons you will be http://mhs.mt.gov/shpo/archaeology/ presenting to your class. ancientteachings.asp. Your students should do their best to define each Narratives vocabulary word on their own, deriving Each narrative in this curriculum is the meaning from the narrative itself written to be used by students as hands- and from readily available reference on reading material. The writing targets works—especially dictionaries aimed at upper intermediate readers. Each narra- their grade and reading levels. tive contains an opening paragraph Use the vocabulary to teach specific designed to help students connect their skills and language development. You own experience with the theme and can use the vocabulary words to teach lesson. The narrative then provides pronunciation, syllabication, defini- background information relating to the tion in context, and sentence writing. lesson question. The narrative may be Review your curriculum needs to design used before or after the Arch Activity, your vocabulary lesson. Students may based on your delivery strategy. do the entire list, or break into groups to The way you approach each reading share the list. lesson should match your teaching style

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 32 / Lesson 1—Narrative: What Is Archaeology is the study of the Archaeology? past through artifacts, ecofacts, and features.

f you have ever moved from one home to another, you know that you Iand your family left behind broken toys, outgrown clothing, and other belongings that you no longer found useful. Imagine that the next people who moved into your old house found the things you left behind. Those people could then learn something about you, and your daily life, by studying the objects you discarded. They could learn about your technology, or the tools you used. They could learn how you managed to stay alive, or subsist, by studying the foods you ate. And they far distant past. Recent refers to modern The excavations at could study your shelter, or home, and times. Pictograph Cave, south of Billings, in the late the protection it gave you. Archaeologists search for artifacts. 1930s and early 1940s, Scientists today study technology, Artifacts are the objects that people were the beginning of subsistence, and shelter of people have made or used. An artifact may be scientific archaeology from the past. This study of the tools, a stone tool of long ago, or broken glass in Montana. Spencer Lauson, photographer. foods, and homes from former times from the more recent past. Courtesy Montana is called archaeology. Archaeology is In addition to artifacts, archaeol- Historical Society the process of discovering, interpreting, ogists search for and study ecofacts Photograph Archives. and preserving the past. The scientist and features. Ecofacts are items from who conducts these studies is called nature that provide clues to the past. an archaeologist. Archaeologists Seeds or animal bones found in a fire pit create stories of the past through are ecofacts. Features are non-movable careful research. First, they find items things that indicate that humans at a specific place. Next they carefully have been present in a certain place. describe those items and may take them An example of a feature is soil that is to a laboratory. In the laboratory, the discolored or stained by bacteria and archaeologists study and analyze the mold, where a wooden post rotted in items they have discovered. From this the ground. A feature may also be a study and analysis, archaeologists can place where people spent time, like a tipi then determine a story of the past. The ring or a fire pit. Artifacts, ecofacts, and story will tell of the lives, movements, features present definite clues that help and survival of people, either recent or an archaeologist re-create the past. ancient, and describe their way of life. People left artifacts, ecofacts, Ancient means very long ago, from the and features behind at the sites, or

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 33 / locations, where they lived. Ancient or feature means. As a result, different Montanans did not have homes like archaeologists come up with different ours. Their homes may have been theories about the nature of past life. caves, rock overhangs, or structures Future discoveries and advancements made of timbers and animal skins. in research methods may challenge our Their homes could be either tempo- current theories. rary or permanent, depending on Montanans of long ago were the whether food was available. Ancient ancient ancestors of today’s American people did not shop at grocery stores. Indians. The most ancient of Indian Instead they were nomadic, moving groups on North America are named as the seasons changed to hunt and Paleoindian people. Paleoindians lived gather plants in different places. The more than 8,000 years ago. They lived in items they left behind when they moved Montana during the end of the last Ice were eventually buried by soil and dust. Age. Paleoindian artifacts indicate that The discoveries made at ancient sites these people hunted some animals that provide clues as archaeologists attempt no longer exist. After the Paleoindians, to understand the past. the next group of ancient people are A Montana archaeologist might called Archaic people. They lived in study and research an ancient camp- Montana between 8,000 to 2,000 years fire pit for clues to the past. The site ago. Archaic artifacts indicate that may contain ecofacts like animal bones these people made use of more plants and pieces of stone tools. These are and animals than Paleoindians did. ordinary items from the lives of ordi- The most recent ancestors of today’s nary people. Thrown away or dropped Indians are the Late Prehistoric and when they were no longer useful, and Protohistoric peoples. These groups sometimes lost, they are the garbage lived much like Archaic people, except of the past. Ancient garbage is called that they depended more on the bison a midden. Middens provide many to survive. The most recent ancestors of objects for archaeologists to study. today’s Indians introduced the bow and An archaeologist thoroughly arrow as a weapon, and they later used researches the information presented horses for transportation and travel. by artifacts, ecofacts, and features. Then Archaeology is often very puzzling the scientist creates an idea, or theory, and mysterious. And the intrigue of that explains the daily life of early the past attracts people to the study of Montanans. Interpreting an object’s use archaeology. Finding missing pieces and function may be difficult. Because of the past’s puzzle—and solving the of this, not all archaeologists reach the mysteries of ancient life—makes being same conclusions about what an arti- an archaeologist rewarding. fact was used for or what an ecofact

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 34 / Lesson 1—Vocabulary: What Is Archaeology?

ancestor ancient archaeologist archaeology

Archaic artifact ecofact feature

Late Prehistoric midden nomadic

Paleoindian

Protohistoric recent shelter site

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 35 / Lesson 1—Vocabulary: What Is Archaeology? (continued)

subsist technology theory

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 36 / Lesson 0—A1—Acrctihv ityAcTtiitlevity: :T Titlehe HMereystery of the Missing Pages

Grades: 3–8 Materials: Time: 30–45 minutes • mystery book—30 to 40 pages Content Area: science, writing, and • worksheet—12 copies reading • pencils and coloring tools Who: whole class and small group • Arch Journal

Objective and Outcome 4. Return to whole class. Each reader • Students will gain an understanding shares his or her group’s part of the story of how an archaeologist uses clues to in order, including their re-creation of determine the past. the missing pages. • Students will reconstruct a book by 5. Discuss: How did each group deter- creating the missing pages. Then they mine the missing pages? What factors will compare their work to that of an entered into the re-creation? What archaeologist. changes would a group make upon hearing the remainder of the book from Activity other groups? How is their assignment 1. Select a disposable story book (30–40 similar to an archaeologist’s work? Why pages). Tear apart into individual pages. are they both mysteries? Divide book into 6 equal groups and 6. Show students the missing pages and remove 1 or 2 pages of text from each read the missing text. group. 7. Share ideas with the class and 2. Divide class into 6 equal groups. discuss. Instruct each group to choose a writer, an illustrator, a reader, and a materials Extensions manager. The materials manager hands 3–5: out book pages in sequence, and 1 or 2 • Research vocabulary. worksheets to each group. Each person See: Lesson 1A—Vocabulary needs at least 1 page. 3. Inform students the book is incom- 6–8: plete. Instruct groups to order the pages • Challenge students to read about chronologically. Each student then archaeological sites and to locate reads his or her page(s) aloud in the them on a map. See: Montana Archae- group. The group’s task is to study the ology Education Resource Catalog: available information and create the Student Reading List (full citation in missing story on the worksheet (writer Bibliography). and illustrator). Allow 10–15 minutes.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 37 / Lesson 1—Arch Activity: Student Worksheet for “The Mystery of the Missing Pages” (2 per 6 groups)

Each group member reads his or her portion of the story aloud. Discuss the missing pages. Determine the group’s plan for the missing pages. Write and illustrate the missing pages. Prepare to share your ideas with the class.

Missing Page #

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 38 / Lesson 2—Narrative: What Is Stone technology uses raw Ancient Stone Technology? materials to provide tools for daily survival.

echnology is the manufacture Asia depended on and use of tools to cope with the stone hand- Tdaily life. Today, technology axe. One end of includes everything from kitchen knives the hand-axe was to computers. It includes the processing s h a p e d i n t o a and packaging of foods in our grocery point. It was used stores. It is responsible for our society’s in hunting, food ability to land a spacecraft on Mars. preparation, and Tools make our lives easier, more effi- many other tasks. cient, and better. Later, prehistoric people made more This large block of In the prehistoric past, tools gave refined stone blade and core tools, in black basalt shows evidence of percussion people the ability to survive, just as they which long, narrow flakes (blades) were flaking. It comes from do today. Their needs for food, shelter, created from a prepared piece of lithic a prehistoric quarry safety, and expression were exactly raw material (core). The earliest prehis- near McAllister in the same as ours. But past technology toric groups who migrated to North southwestern Montana. Courtesy Montana relied on raw materials that are quite America and Montana brought this Archaeological Society. different from those commonly used in sophisticated stone tool technology our modern world. with them. Ancient technology depended The earliest Montana stone tools heavily upon the use of stone. Stone are about twelve thousand years old. is an inorganic material that survives They are beautiful spear points. Stone in soil for thousands of years. Stone tool use continued here until about tools are found in archaeological two hundred years ago. Great skill was sites throughout the world, including required to make stone tools. Ancient Montana. Tools made of stone are the people selected special kinds of stone most common kind of artifacts studied that were easy to work, but kept a sharp by archaeologists. The word lithic (from edge. Chert (sometimes referred to as the Greek word lithos) refers to objects “chalcedony,” “flint,” or “agate”) is such made of stone, as in Paleolithic, the a stone. Raw chert comes in a variety of Old Stone Age. colors—brown, yellow, red, green, and The earliest known stone tools in the even blue. A useful quality of chert is world were pebble tools. They were that even-sized flakes can be removed made by very primitive humans in Africa from it—in a controlled manner—by some two million years ago. They are carefully striking its edge with another intentionally broken rocks with edges rock or piece of antler. Prehistoric that indicate that they were used as people sometimes baked or heated tools. These early humans used pebble chert in fire pits dug into the ground. tools for crushing animal bones. About This process of heat treatment drew five hundred thousand years ago, more out the water in the rock and made it advanced human groups in Europe and easier to work. Obsidian, basalt, and

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 39 / porcelanite are other types of stone used by prehistoric people in Montana. Obsidian and basalt are volcanic in origin and are usually black in color. Many kinds of raw toolstone are found throughout Montana. A quarry is a specific place where people obtained this toolstone. Prehistoric people often traveled great distances to collect particular kinds of toolstone. One of the places they got obsidian, for example, was Obsidian Cliff in Yellowstone National Park. But these early people also gathered other toolstone, espe- hide working, or cutting. Others served “Knapping” is the cially chert, on mountainsides and in multiple purposes. Unshaped flakes of process of making stone tools by flaking riverbeds wherever they encountered it chert and obsidian were often used for a special kinds of rocks. in Montana. single task, and then discarded. Hunting Percussion flaking The crafting of stone tools by care- weapons required stone projectile involves using a fully removing pieces of material is points, often called “arrowheads.” hammerstone (left hand) to strike a block called knapping, or sometimes “flint Stone projectile points were hafted, or of stone that can be knapping” (even though other stones tied with sinew, onto a wooden shaft. chipped, sometimes besides flint were used). Prehistoric The earliest people in Montana used called a “core” (right people used a fist-sized rock called a spear points from twelve thousand to hand). Courtesy Kootenai National Forest. hammerstone to craft raw stone into nine thousand years ago. These hunters tools. With a hammerstone or large needed to get very close to animals in piece of antler, prehistoric flint knap- order to kill them with a spear. Some pers carefully chipped away excess archeological sites with very old spear material like modern-day sculptors. points have been found in Montana. This is called percussion flaking. It These include the Anzick Site near gave a rough shape to the tool. Then Wilsall, the Mill Iron Site near Broadus, the flint knappers used antler tools and the McHaffie Site near Helena. in pressure flaking the stone into a About nine thousand years ago, finished, sharp tool. If a piece of flint Montana’s prehistoric groups began broke in the wrong place while being to use the atlatl, or dart thrower, to worked, it was either reworked or throw long narrow darts tipped with discarded. Archaeologists find waste projectile points. The atlatl featured a flakes or “chips” at sites where ancient wooden throwing board in which the people knapped stone. Many primitive- dart was placed. Throwing an atlatl was looking tools found near quarries were like swinging a tennis racket over one’s probably made by children or adults head and propelling the dart at a target. who were just learning to make stone A hunter had to stand and put his entire tools. body into motion to propel the dart. Some stone tools were designed Because it had a much greater range specifically for hunting, butchering, than earlier weapons, the atlatl allowed

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 40 / hunters to distance themselves from their prey, making hunting much safer. Parts of atlatls have been found in a few cave sites in Montana, but usually only the stone tips have been preserved. Prehistoric people made stone atlatl projectile points of many shapes. Some styles relate to particular time periods. Depending on the style or styles found at a particular site, archaeologists can then estimate the site’s age and chro- also resharpened and reshaped their How to make a projectile nology—its placement in time. Today, points until they were beyond repair. point: Select a piece of chert, obsidian, or any atlatl enthusiasts hold contests to test Only then did they throw the points other fine-grained stone their skill using this ancient weapon. away. that, when broken, Prehistoric people in Montana used Stone tools served many purposes. exhibits a conchoidal the atlatl until about two thousand When a game animal was killed, fracture (a technical term meaning that it years ago. Then the bow and arrow ancient people used stone butchering breaks just right!). Strike (using true “arrowheads”) replaced it knives and sharp flakes to cut up the the stone with a harder as the preferred hunting weapon. The animal. They used stone scrapers stone to break off a bow and arrow had advantages over to clean animal hides. And they used large flake, or relatively flat piece like the one the atlatl. This new weapon could shoot stone drills to make holes in wood, on the left. Then shape longer distances with greater accuracy. bone, and leather. Archaeologists have the flake by chipping And it required less movement by the many technical names for the various off smaller flakes from hunter, making it less likely that the types of stone tools. the sides and surfaces with a rock, a bone animals being hunted would be star- Because stone is an inorganic fragment, or an antler tled and run away. Montana Indians material—that is, it does not decay tip. To finish the point, continued to use the bow and arrow easily—stone artifacts are more abun- chip the sides finely to until the late 1800s, even after guns dant than other types of prehistoric create sharp edges. As a final step, Clovis points were introduced. artifacts. Remember, if you find an arti- were “fluted” by popping Most projectile points and other fact, it is best to leave it in place. If you a flake off the two faces stone tools that people find today were find an artifact on public land that you to make a shallow not lost by prehistoric people. They think an archaeologist should know channel. This point can be fastened directly to were thrown away and replaced when about, call your local Forest Service or a wooden shaft with they were no longer usable. Projectile Bureau of Land Management office, or sinew (animal tendon) points were used like pencils are today. the State Historic Preservation Office and natural glue. Flint When a pencil point breaks, it is not (SHPO) in Helena. Professional archae- knapper, Alan Stanfill, 1987. Courtesy Montana thrown away. It is resharpened and ologists who work for these organiza- Historical Society. used again and again. Ancient hunters tions study and protect ancient sites.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 41 / Lesson 2—Narrative: What Bone, antler, and shell were Non-stone Materials Were non-stone materials used for Used for Ancient Technology? ancient technology.

o you ever wonder how people of the past made their clothes Dwithout steel needles, thread, or a sewing machine? Ancient people manufactured their clothing, moccasins, containers, and tipi coverings with bone needles and awls. They used their awls, which were about the size of a modern embroidery needle, to pierce holes in animal hides. Their bone needles, about the size of tooth- picks, had a tiny hole in one end just like modern sewing needles. They used sinew—animal tendons—and plant twine as thread. One container ancient people made was a parfleche. A parfleche was a hide container for storing dried food, clothing, and personal belongings. It was made by sewing together pieces of animal hide, especially from bison. Ancient people used the fibers of sagebrush, cedar, yucca, and other plants to make string and cordage. They used cordage in many ways, just like a modern ball of string. They used are fences or other enclosures set in Prehistoric people used it to tie things together and to make a stream to catch fish.) Some Indian stone and non-stone organic materials as tools baskets. Archaeologists rarely find tribes—like the Blackfeet—do not like to for different activities. ancient string and cordage in Montana eat much fish. The ancient people here Can you guess how archaeological sites. Sometimes they may have shared this dietary prefer- the bone tools (#3 and do find small cordage and basket frag- ence. This might explain the absence of #6 in this group) were used? Courtesy Montana ments in caves and rockshelters like fish bones in many Montana archaeo-

Historical Society.

Pictograph Cave near Billings in south- logical sites. bends. and eastern Montana. Ancient people used shaped bone curves remove to holes

Some ancient people made their tools to butcher animals and to process the through pulled were

wooden arrow shafts shafts arrow wooden

fishhooks and fishing harpoons out hides. Bone was also the material they straightener— shaft bone

of bone. These artifacts are not very used to make beads for necklaces. They #6) hides. working for

common in Montana. Here, people drilled the holes in their beads with used scraper stone a for #3) bone handle handle bone #3) caught fish with nets and weirs. (Weirs stone drills. They carved, or incised, Answer:

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 42 / some beads and other bone ornaments deterioration of these organic with abstract designs. At Pictograph artifacts. Cave, archaeologists have found bone Archaeologists get excited gaming pieces and a small carved bone when they find leather, wood, turtle effigy, or figure. The game pieces antler, or bone artifacts are believed to have been used like we preserved in the archaeolog- use dice today. ical record. Sites with perish- Montana’s prehistoric people also able artifacts usually give us used shell to make decorative items. more information than sites They did not travel to the coast to get where only stone tools are shells. Instead, they obtained them in found. Finding artifacts made trade with other tribes who lived closer of organic material provides to the ocean. Archaeologists have found us with a better picture of the range of This prehistoric woman shell beads and ornaments in Montana technologies ancient people used. As uses a slender bone with a tapered tip as an “awl” sites. archaeologists gain more detail about to make holes in leather Ancient people used antler and ancient daily life, they can provide a for sewing. Courtesy horn just like they did bone. They used more complete story of Montana’s early Kootenai National Forest. tools made of deer and elk antler for peoples. flint knapping, as digging sticks, and as handles for some stone tools like axes and knives. They also used ladles, spoons, bowls, and cooking tongs made of wood and bison horn. Many of these non-stone artifacts were perishable, that is, they were made of organic materials—like plants, wood, bone, leather, and antler—that decompose quickly if exposed to air. For this reason, non-stone artifacts are rarely found in Montana. Wind, rain, snow, and the chemical agents in soil cause organic materials to decay over a period of years or tens of years. In Montana, archaeologists have mostly found non-stone artifacts in caves and rockshelters, where they are protected from the weather and do not decay as rapidly. Even so, archaeologists usually only find scraps and pieces of baskets, A chipped stone blade or twine rope, and hide clothing in these point could be hafted to sites. In museums, perishable artifacts a bone handle to make a knife for cutting cordage must be kept in special, temperature- made of twisted plant controlled display cases and storage fibers. Courtesy Kootenai boxes. This prevents further decay and National Forest.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 43 / Lesson 2—Vocabulary: What Is Ancient Stone Technology? atlatl basalt blade and core bow and arrow butchering knives chert chronology flint knapper flint knapping hafted hammerstone hand-axe heat treatment inorganic knapping lithic obsidian

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 44 / Lesson 2—Vocabulary: What Is Ancient Stone Technology? (continued)

Paleolithic pebble tools percussion flaking porcelanite pressure flaking projectile points quarry scrapers sinew spear points stone stone drill stone tool technology technology toolstone

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 45 / Lesson 2—Vocabulary: What Non-stone Materials Were Used for Ancient Technology? awl baskets cordage effigy incised nets organic parfleche perishable sinew trade weirs

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 46 / Lesson 2—Arch Activity: Tool Time

Grades: 3–8 Materials: Time: 50 minutes • Technology Tool Kit (optional) Content Area: science, history, and writing • pencils Who: whole class and small group • draft paper • Arch Journal

Objective and Outcome 2. Divide the class into four groups. • Students will learn how ancient people Instruct each group to select a writer used natural resources as tools to adapt and a presenter. Pass out artifact collec- to their everyday world. tions (or pictures) to each group. Give • Students will examine prehistoric each group a certain class of artifacts tools (or pictures of tools if unavailable) (i.e. one group receives flint knap- and will write down modern analogs to ping tools—Artifact Group 1; another prehistoric tools. hunting tools—Artifact Group 2; • Students will compare the function of another receives butchering and hide prehistoric tools with their modern-day processing tools—Artifact Group 3; and counterparts. the other group manufacturing and food processing tools like drills, awls, mano Activity and metate—Artifact Group 4). 1. If you are using the artifact replicas 3. Have each group look at the artifacts from the footlocker, before starting this for 5–10 minutes and determine how activity, lay the artifacts out on four they might be used. Have them write different tables, grouping them as down on paper the function of the arti- follows: Artifact Group 1: hammerstone facts. Also have them brainstorm what and abraiding stone (from Tray 1), antler tool we use today with the same func- billet and antler tine (from Tray 3), and tion. If we don’t have a tool today that flint knapping tools (in white bag, Tray compares, have them figure out why 4); Artifact Group 2: all points in Tray 2, not and write it down. atlatl (from tube), and foreshaft (from 4. Have groups rotate until each group blue bag, Tray 4); Artifact Group 3: stone has looked at all four artifact classes. end scraper, unretouched flake, and 5. Have each group present their bifacial knife preforms (from Tray 1), conclusions about what/how the arti- antler hafted end scraper, bone handled facts in one of the groups were used. bifacial knife, bone beamer, and bone Also have them talk about modern scraper (from Tray 3); Artifact Group 4: analogs. Discuss. bone awl (from Tray 3), stone awl and 6. Once the class discussion has ended, stone drill, bone needles, and sinew have students write—in their Arch (in clear bags, Tray 4), pitch stick (in Journal—their conclusions about how blue bag, Tray 4), and mano and matate prehistoric tools were used and what (Tray 4). they learned from this activity. Have

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 47 / them list their conclusions by artifact the narrative. Have them determine classes. whether the points were used with spears, atlatls, or the bow and arrow. Extensions Have them assess which technology 3–5: is the oldest and which is the most • Research vocabulary. recent. Challenge students to read about See: Lesson 3A—Vocabulary archaeological sites and the kinds of stone tools found at them. 6–8: • Challenge students to place the projec- See: Montana Archaeology Education tile points in rough chronological order Resource Catalog: Student Reading List based on the information provided in (full citation in Bibliography).

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 48 / Lesson 2—Arch Activity: Tool Time Group 1

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 49 / Lesson 2—Arch Activity: Tool Time Group 1 (continued)

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 50 / Lesson 2—Arch Activity: Tool Time Group 2

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 51 / Lesson 2—Arch Activity: Tool Time Group 2 (continued)

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 52 / Lesson 2—Arch Activity: Tool Time Group 3

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 53 / Lesson 2—Arch Activity: Tool Time Group 3 (continued)

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 54 / Lesson 2—Arch Activity: Tool Time Group 4

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 55 / Lesson 2—Arch Activity: Tool Time Group 4 (continued)

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 56 / Lesson 3—Narrative: Ancient people used stone, bone, What Technology Did Ancient wood, and antler tools to harvest People Use to Harvest and and process plants. Process Plants?

rchaeologists focus on stone a digging stick. The digging stick was and bone artifacts because three to four feet long and made of antler Athese are the most common or wood. The digging end was pushed artifacts found at sites. But they some- into the ground to move the root up to times find plants and seeds preserved the surface. It worked like a modern-day at prehistoric sites in Montana. These dandelion digger. The end of a wooden discoveries demonstrate the impor- digging stick was hardened in a camp- tance of plant resources to prehistoric fire. This made the digging end durable peoples. Most seeds and plant remains and kept it from breaking. The handles are found in ancient campfires. They of digging sticks were made of deer or are often charred and hard to identify. elk antler. Styles of digging sticks varied Plants were always a significant among Montana Indian tribes. Blackfeet food source for Montana’s ancient Indians used the wood of birch trees people. Archaeologists find the most for their digging sticks. Other western evidence of plant food use between Montana tribes used hawthorn and 8,000 and 1,500 years ago. Ancient serviceberry branches for digging. Digging people used plants medicinally to heal sticks are rarely found in prehistoric sites. wounds and cure sick people. Many These tools were highly valued and were modern medicines are made from only left behind when they were broken plants that prehistoric peoples used. and could not be repaired. Ancient people used rope and twine Ancient people cut branches for made from plant fibers for lashing digging sticks and poles for structures equipment together, tying tipi poles, with stone knives and axes. They and as bow string. And they also used probably used stone flakes and knives plants in ceremonies of all types. to harvest plants like balsamroot Many types of plants grow across and prickly pear cactus which grow Montana. Some plants were more above the ground. important to ancient people than Prehistoric people placed roots and others. Knowledge of important plants, berries on a large, flat grinding stone, and where they could be found, was called a metate. They then mashed passed from generation to generation. the roots and berries with a hand-sized Women and girls harvested seeds, flat rock called a mano. This produced berries, and roots throughout spring, juice and pulp. They then dried the summer, and fall. This provided impor- pulp into a flour and stored it in skin tant winter food to supplement meat. containers. (They also sometimes used Roots, such as bitterroot (Montana’s a mortar and pestle to process plant state flower) and camas, were dug with foods.) They dried roots and berries

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 57 / whole and stored them in bags. And they sometimes ground dried plants for use as flour. People used this flour in stews or made it into cakes or bread. By mixing together mashed berries, dried meat, and fat, they made pemmican. Pemmican provided an important and nutritious food during winter when plants were not available and wild game was not plentiful. Archaeologists have found plant seeds in prehistoric sites throughout Montana. One of the best finds was in This woman uses the Barton Gulch site in southwestern a stone mortar and Montana. pestle to grind up roots, berries, and nuts. Some ancient people preferred to use manos and metates. Courtesy Kootenai National Forest.

For the ancient people of western Montana, camas was an important food source. They harvested the edible roots of the camas with a digging stick. Courtesy Kootenai National Forest.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 58 / Lesson 3—Vocabulary: What Technology Did Ancient People Use to Harvest and Process Plants?

balsamroot bitterroot camas digging sticks mano metate pemmican prickly pear cactus stone axes stone knives

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 59 / Lesson 0—A3—Acrctihv ityAcTtiitlevity: :T MitleakingHere Pemmican

Grades: 3–8 Materials for pemmican: Time: half-day (1 hr. to soak; 30 min. to • 12 ounces of thin-strip beef jerky, 2 cups prepare; 2 hrs. to bake) of fresh or frozen blueberries (or raisins), Content Area: science, social studies, 2 cups of sunflower seed meats, 1/4 cup and math of soft margarine. Who: small groups • large mixing bowl and large flat rock that has been sterilized to serve as grinding board (metate) and smaller, sterilized rock to serve as a masher (mano), 1–2 cookie sheets for drying or baking.

Objective and Outcome 4. Place mixture on cookie sheets. • Students will learn about the process Spread flat. Bake at 200 degrees for 2 by which pemmican was made and the hours. ancient technology used to create it. 5. Eat and enjoy. • Students will make a native food using sterilized grinding stones and mixing it Note: If you don’t have a grinding stone by hand. They will then sample the food and a stone masher, you can chop the they have created. jerky with a knife and put the jerky, blueberries, sunflower seed meats, and Activity margarine in a bowl and mix well. 1. Soak the jerky in 1 cup of water for 1 hour. Extensions 2. Assign students to groups of three to 3–8: five. Have them wash their hands before • Research vocabulary. they begin. Groups take turns mashing See: Lesson 3C—Vocabulary. the jerky on the grinding stone. Place • Research other native recipes and ground jerky in bowl. Once jerky is foods introduced by American Indians. ground, begin to add berries to a bit • Discuss with the class what these of the jerky and mash together on the contributions are. grinding stone. Continue this process • Find other American Indian recipes until all the jerky and berries are mixed such as those for fry bread or wild rice together. Then add sunflower seed soup. Make and sample these tradi- meats. tional foods. 3. Put jerky/berry/sunflower mixture • Put together a cookbook with 5–15 in bowl. Add margarine and mix all ancient recipes using traditional foods. together thoroughly. Knead the mixture. It should be the consistency of trail mix.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 60 / Lesson 4—Narrative: Ancient people hunted prehistoric What Animals Did Ancient and modern-day bison, elk, deer, People Eat, and How Did and other animals with a variety They Hunt Their Prey? of techniques.

oday many Montana families game became the primary prey for choose to hunt big game and prehistoric hunters. These hunters used Tgame birds for food. Ancient sophisticated hunting techniques to Montanans did not have a choice. They stampede and corral bison into natural depended on the animals they hunted traps and gullies. for protein, a nutrient all humans need Prehistoric groups began to use the to maintain health. For men and boys, bow and arrow about two thousand hunting was a constant, daily activity. years ago. This new weapon increased Some women also hunted. the distance a hunter could shoot accu- When people first arrived in rately. The stone projectile points on Montana, at least twelve thousand years arrows were much smaller than those ago, they hunted the Ice Age bison used with the atlatl or the hand-held (or buffalo), mastodons, and woolly spear. Bow-and-arrow hunters were mammoths. These huge animals are the avid and sophisticated bison now extinct. Ancient people hunted hunters that people imagine roaming and killed these large animals with the plains of Montana. There were few hand-held spears. They chased many or no bison west of the Continental into gullies and spring bottoms, where Divide, but the prehistoric people who the great beasts became mired in mud lived there made annual trips east- and muck. Then prehistoric people— ward to hunt bison. These trips became working as a group—were able to kill their giant prey in these confined spaces. Hunting this way was very dangerous because the hunters had to get in close proximity to their prey in order to thrust their spears into vulner- able areas like the lung cavity. These hunts involved much planning, prepara- The atlatl came before tion, and ceremony. the bow and arrow as the dominant hunting About nine thousand years ago, weapon. In skilled hands, prehistoric hunters began using the the atlatl was accurate atlatl, or spear thrower, to propel a and deadly. Jim Knight, long, slender, stone-tipped dart. The artist. Used by permission of the artist. atlatl enabled hunters to distance themselves from prey. By this time, the giant Ice Age mammals had disappeared. Instead large bison, deer, elk, and other

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 61 / especially popular when the use of the lines, or lines of rock piles, to funnel horse became widespread about 250 animals into areas where other hunters years ago. waited to ambush and kill them. They In western Montana, ancient people also used drive lanes—defined by two hunted elk, deer, moose, and sheep, converging lines—to lead bison to and they fished the many streams. On buffalo jumps. A pishkin—the name the east side of the Continental Divide, the Blackfeet used for a buffalo jump— ancient people primarily hunted bison. was a steep cliff over which hunters They also hunted pronghorn antelope, drove bison to their deaths. If an animal elk, deer, sheep, rabbits, porcupine, did not die, hunters waiting at the foot beaver, marmots, and birds. Remains of the cliff killed it. Native Americans of these animals are found in many used buffalo jumps heavily as a hunt- prehistoric archaeological sites like ing method between 2,500 and 1,200 Pictograph Cave near Billings. years ago. Today the short grass plains of Ancient hunters also built sophis- eastern Montana may look devoid of ticated wooden corrals to capture natural plant and animal life. That is bison, deer, mountain sheep, and not true, but it was even less the case antelope. These ancient corrals were in prehistoric times. The grasses and sturdily built and could hold as many other forbs (herb-like plants) that grew as ten to twenty bison. Some ancient on these plains contained protein that corrals had bison skulls around them; enabled animals like bison to build up prehistoric hunters believed that mass. This extra weight then helped these skulls invoked magical spirits them survive the cold winter months. As that helped lure the animals inside. A a result, during ancient times, immense shaman, or spiritual leader, would sing herds of bison and other large game and perform rituals near the corrals made their homes on the plains. This to aid the hunters. Hunters also used gave Montana’s prehistoric people a natural traps, formed by ravines or tremendous supply of meat on the hoof! draws or even sand dunes, to capture For over eleven thousand years, their prey. They herded animals into large game, especially bison, was the these natural traps where they could main source of subsistence for many surround and kill them. prehistoric people of Montana. These Once they had killed the animals, hunters had to be clever and successful prehistoric groups immediately butch- in their endeavors to hunt these large ered them. Otherwise, the meat would animals. Young hunters served long spoil in the hot sun, and the smell apprenticeships with their elders, would attract wolves, grizzly bears, absorbing knowledge and experience. and other predators. These people This enabled them to almost instinc- did not have refrigerators. They used tively know what hunting strategy to sharp stone flakes, stone knives, and use in any given situation. Before 1700, bone tools to do the butchering. The they did not have horses, and so they butchering process was grueling work. had to devise ingenious methods to The average carcass of a female bison hunt these large game. They used drive provided 180 kilograms of meat. After

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 62 / field butchering, the people hauled people. Large animals like bison pieces of the carcass back to camp. provided quantities of meat for the Sometimes, they left excess meat at the long Montana winter. Hunting could kill site. Back at camp, they cut the meat be dangerous, and often hunters were in strips and hung it on willow frames wounded, or even killed, in the process. to dry. The women dressed the hides, The public can visit some buffalo which were then cleaned and tanned jump sites in Montana. These include and used for tipi covers, carrying bags, the Bootlegger Site near Chester, the clothing, and moccasins. Madison Buffalo Jump near Three Forks, Animals provided a main source Ulm Pishkin near Great Falls, and the of food for the subsistence of ancient Wahkpa Chu’gn Site near Havre.

For thousands of years, the buffalo provided food, shelter, and spiritual guidance to Montana’s ancient people. The buffalo remains a sacred animal to many Indian people today. Courtesy Montana Historical Society.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 63 / Lesson 4—Vocabulary: What Animals Did Ancient People Eat, and How Did They Hunt Their Prey?

atlatl bison bow and arrow buffalo jumps

Continental Divide drive line forbs mastodon natural traps pishkin short grass plains spears wooden corrals woolly mammoth

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 64 / Lesson 4—Arch Activity: Stone Tool Measuring

Grades: 3–8 Materials: Time: 45 minutes • paper and pencils Content Area: math, science, and writing • rulers (centimeters) Who: small groups and individuals • projectile points from Technology Tool Kit (or pictures of points if kit is unavailable) • Artifact Data Sheet (attached)

Objective and Outcome 4. Once students are finished, ask • Students will learn how archaeologists Grades 3–5 to figure out the size range use measurement and math skills to for each group of artifacts. What was the study stone tool hunting technology. longest/shortest point in each group, • Students will use metric system to etc.? Ask Grades 6–8 to calculate aver- measure and record data to describe ages using the mean length and width of artifacts. each projectile point group. • Students will identify point groups for 5. Ask students to identify which point spear, atlatl, or bow and arrow. groups were probably used for spears (largest), with atlatls (medium-sized Activity points) and with bow and arrow (smallest 1. Tell students they will record measure- points). Are there any points that might be ments for three different projectile point used in two ways (overlapping range)? groups (A, B, and C). They will write down 6. Have students use their measure- the number of each artifact in the group ments to create a key identifying the and then write its length and width on different kinds of points. an Artifact Data Sheet. Students will 7. Have students discuss other charac- be asked to identify from the measure- teristics that distinguish the different ments which points they think were groups (e.g. notches vs. no notches). used as spear, atlatl, or arrow points. 2. Divide the class into three groups. Extensions Give each group one projectile point 3–5: group; each point group should include • Research vocabulary. 5–10 artifacts. See: Lesson 4B—Vocabulary. 3. Have each student measure—using a • Have each group measure the height of ruler—the maximum length and width each person in their group and calculate the of each artifact to the nearest millimeter. range of heights for the group. Have each student record the information for each artifact in the group on the 6–8: attached Artifact Data Sheet. (They will • Have each group measure the height and each need three Data Sheets, one for each head size (diameter) of each person in the artifact group.) Give each group about 10 group. Have the group calculate the average minutes to measure their artifacts, and group height and head size, using the mean then ask the groups to trade artifacts. and the median. Does the mean or median give the best average in this case?

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 65 / Lesson 4—Arch Activity: Stone Tool Measuring Group A

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 66 / Lesson 4—Arch Activity: Stone Tool Measuring Group B

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 67 / Lesson 4—Arch Activity: Stone Tool Measuring Group C

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 68 / Lesson 4—Arch Activity: Stone Tool Measuring Artifact Data Sheet

Name: ______Artifact Group: ______

Artifact Number Length (mm/cm) Width (mm/cm)

Stone Tool Mean Stone Tool Range Length Width Length Width to to

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 69 / Lesson 5—Narrative: Roots, berries, bulbs, and other What Plants Did Ancient parts of plants provided food and People Use? medicine for ancient people.

hen hunger strikes, you Animals moved as plants were avail- simply open the refrig- able for their subsistence. People lived Werator door, or cupboard, along the warmer river bottoms during and take out food to eat. Your parents the cold weather. They traveled to the prepare meals from food they buy foothills and mountains during warm at the grocery store. Some Montana weather to hunt animals and gather families choose to grow gardens for roots, bulbs, and berries. This was their fresh produce, or they hunt game yearly subsistence round. animals. Maybe your family drives to Traveling to gather plants and hunt a local restaurant for a meal. Ancient animals was their way of life. Living a Montanans did not have all the choices nomadic lifestyle meant traveling light we have today. They did not rely and carrying few possessions. For the on grocery stores or restaurants for majority of prehistoric time, people subsistence. They depended on plant did not have horses to transport their foods they gathered and animals they personal items. Dogs hauled belong- hunted in the wild. ings for ancient people on a travois. Prehistoric Montanans did not plant They carried only the necessities. They gardens or raise animals for food. But could not carry a great supply of food. many ancient people living in other Gathering plants and hunting animals parts of the New World did. By the time was a constant and necessary activity Europeans arrived in the New World, of all prehistoric groups in Montana. most Indians living in the east and All people need food and water to southwest were agriculturalists who survive. Each person needs a certain cultivated plants, including over three number of calories, or food energy, hundred different food crops. Foods to stay alive. The number of calories introduced to the world by American each person needs varies depending Indians include potatoes, tomatoes, on a variety of factors. A person’s age, squash, beans, corn, peanuts, cashews, body size, and activity level create the blueberries, and maple syrup. The plant need for different amounts of calories. foods first domesticated by Indians feed Young people require more calories much of the world today. than an older person does, as young Prehistoric people in Montana bodies are growing. People who live were hunters and gatherers. They in cold climates also require more were not agriculturists. They were calories than those living in warm also nomadic, moving as the seasons areas. In Montana’s rigorous climate, changed to hunt and gather wild food people needed many calories of food in different places. A variety of plants to survive. Prehistoric groups did not grew through the warm seasons. have the technology to store large

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 70 / quantities of food. When food—particu- to western Montana, from lowlands larly bison—was plentiful, times were to high mountains, and from spring good. But each year in late winter and through summer to fall. Many plants early spring, prehistoric groups often that grew in Montana during prehistoric went hungry. They might eat a meal times, such as camas and bitterroot, are every couple of days. A meal might be similar to the same plants today. People a little camas flour mixed with water used the plants that grew in their terri- and pieces of boiled bison hide. Stored tory because they knew where and plant food often got them through these when to find them. Spring and summer tough times. were seasons to gather plant roots In ancient times, the kinds and and bulbs. Late summer and autumn availability of plants varied from eastern were times to harvest nuts and berries.

Montana’s ancient people used the travois to move their food, shelter, and other belongings from place to place. Before Euro- Americans introduced horses, the travois was harnessed to dogs. Courtesy Kansas State Historical Society.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 71 / People did not just use plants oral histories and early written descrip- for food. Some plants were of great tions of plants used by historic Indian medicinal value. Medicines made from tribes helped archaeologists under- plants cured ills and healed wounds. stand how prehistoric people probably In fact, the soft drink, Dr. Pepper, got used plants. And today, many tribal its start as a traditional medicinal tonic members still gather plants in special made from peppery-tasting roots and areas. They process and use them in bark. Prehistoric people placed purple the ancient way as food or medicine. coneflower on rattlesnake bites and The study of modern traditional plant other venomous stings. They used the use is called ethnobotany. leaves of the balsamroot plant as a Roots were a primary plant food poultice, a moist covering, for burns, source for prehistoric people. Root cuts, and bruises. Tea, made from the crops such as camas, bitterroot, biscuit- stem or bark root of a wild rose, helped root, and Indian breadroot provided cure stomach problems. They used them with nutrients, minerals, and vita- yarrow on cuts to help stop bleeding. mins, as well as carbohydrates and They also boiled yarrow and used it protein. Root harvesting was women’s to wash and disinfect wounds. The and girls’ work among the Salish, Flathead Indians used the huckleberry Flathead, Blackfeet, and Shoshone plant for heart ailments and arthritis. Indians. They used a special digging Plants could also help people stick, made of wood and/or antler. manufacture useful items. Prehistoric They harvested the roots at certain people used milkweed and juniper to times in spring when they were most make cordage, an ancient form of edible. Bitterroot was harvested before braided string. A nine-thousand-year- it flowered; camas was harvested after old net made of juniper bark cordage it flowered. Through knowledge passed was found in Mummy Cave near the on by elders, ancient people knew Montana/Wyoming border. The net when roots were at their prime. This was used to trap animals. traditional knowledge continues to be Plants were very important to passed on today. ancient people. It is estimated that Once a root was dug, it could be over three hundred different species processed, or prepared, in many of plants were used by the prehistoric different ways. Some roots were dried people of Montana. However, until in the sun by spreading them out on recently, archaeologists often ignored animal hides. These were saved for this important facet of prehistoric life. winter meals. People also boiled and This is because direct evidence of plant steamed roots, or roasted them in pits gathering and processing has been diffi- dug into the ground. Roots could be cult to find in Montana archaeological eaten plain, mixed with berries, or sites, where plant remains often do not added to stews as a thickener. survive over time. Now, new methods Camas, a very popular root crop of analysis have enabled archaeolo- among the prehistoric people of gists to better study this activity. Before western Montana, was stored whole, this new knowledge became available, squeezed into little cakes, or mashed

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 72 / and formed into round loaves. Camas berry cakes that weighed fifteen pounds! was also boiled to make a sweet- Prehistoric people dried a mixture of tasting drink much like coffee or tea. berries and/or fruit, meat, and fat to Before sugar was introduced, dried create pemmican. Pemmican could be camas was the primary sweetening stored to eat during the winter months agent used by many Indian groups in or packed along on journeys. the Pacific Northwest. Other parts of edible plants these Often prehistoric people dried the early people consumed included roots and then mashed and ground the seeds of yucca, pigweed, wild them with a stone mano and metate sunflower, and wild rye and the nuts of to create flour. This flour was then limber and whitebark pine. They also used in cooking. A metate is a large flat ate the leaves and fruit of the prickly stone with an indented area to place pear cactus. Prehistoric gatherers roots. The mano is a smaller hand- collected the bulbs of sego lily and wild held stone used to mash and grind the onion, and in the spring, they ate the root back and forth within the metate’s early shoots of the arrowleaf plant like indented area until the root is finely celery. ground. Prehistoric manos and metates Many of the plants you see when show the wear of many years of use. you hike through the prairies or moun- Berries and fruit were a staple in tains provided food and medicines for many prehistoric diets, especially during ancient people. Plants were extremely the fall. The people harvested service- important for survival, especially berry, huckleberry, chokecherry, goose- when prehistoric hunters could find no berry, currant, and buffaloberry as they animals to kill. Today many American ripened in late summer or early autumn. Indians, and others, use plants as the The berries harvested after the first frost ancient people did. Tribes such as the are considered the sweetest by many Blackfeet, Salish, and Kootenai Indians today. Berries and fruit were eaten fresh, still use traditional huckleberry and dried in the sun on hides, or ground with bitterroot gathering grounds each year. a mano and metate. Ground berries and It is always important to identify fruit were mixed with fat and meat, then plants before you eat or use them. formed into cakes and loaves. Lewis Some plants like the water hemlock are and Clark wrote in their journals that deadly poisonous, so please exercise they saw Indian women making service- caution.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 73 / Lesson 5—Vocabulary: What Plants Did Ancient People Use? agriculturalist calories carbohydrates cordage digging stick ethnobotany hunters and gatherers mano medicines metate nomadic pemmican poultice processed protein subsistence travois yearly subsistence round

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 74 / Lesson 5—Arch Activity: Surviving the Wilds

Grades: 3–8 Materials: Content Area: science, history, and writing • paper and pencils Who: whole class and individual • Arch Journal

Objective and Outcome d. How would they cook food? What • Students will gain an understanding would they need to cook it? of how ancient people used the natural e. If they need to store food, how environment as their grocery store. would they do it? • Students will identify plants and f. How would the river be important animals in their local area that could be for their survival? used for food and clothing. g. Would it be easier to survive in • Students will create a chart compar- a desert than in Montana? What ing subsistence elements of our culture advantages would a desert environ- with those in prehistory. ment offer? h. How much time in a day would Activity survival activities take? When would 1. Tell students to imagine that one day there be play time? they wake in the wild next to a river. i. In summary, what special skills After they find themselves there, they would students need to develop to look around and find no other people. survive in the wild and what would There are no roads, stores, buildings, or their lives be like? other signs of civilization. All they have 3. Instruct each student to make a chart is a book for identifying plants. In order in their Arch Journal with six compar- to survive, they will need food, tools, isons of our food today with that of and shelter. They must rely on nature to prehistoric people. provide for their needs. 2. Discuss what their needs would be Extensions and how they would do things. List all 3–5: ideas on blackboard. • Research vocabulary. a. Ask students what their first See: Lesson 4A—Vocabulary. concerns would be? b. Ask students what animals and 6–8: plants would be available for them to • Challenge students to read about the eat? How would they gather plants? domestication of plants and find out How would they hunt? which domesticated plants came from c. What tools would they need for which continents. Examine the world hunting and plant gathering? map and show where plants came from.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 75 / Lesson 6—Narrative: Why Preserving and protecting Do We Preserve and Protect archaeological sites provides Archaeological Sites? information for future generations.

any families record events can verify in which season of the year the and celebrations with ancient people consumed these foods. Mphotographs. The photos Archaeologists even discover how long show what family members looked a site was inhabited, or lived in, by like through time. If the photos are lost studying context. or destroyed, the record of the family If a site is disturbed or destroyed changes. The events remain in people’s before archaeologists can make proper memories, but the objects describing records, valuable information is lost. A those memories—the photographs—are site can not be re-created once artifacts gone forever. A future archaeologist have been disrupted. Archaeological would have difficulty interpreting your sites are fragile, non-renewable past if artifacts have vanished. resources. It is extremely important to The same difficulty applies to an leave a site as it exists, unless you are archaeological site and its record. The prepared professionally to take respon- position and location in which artifacts sibility for recording it properly. are found provide clues for an archae- If you have ever lost something ologist. If the objects are destroyed or special, you know that you felt sad about missing, or if the artifacts are disturbed the loss. Archaeologists experience or mixed up, the archaeologist will the same feeling if a site is destroyed. find it difficult to determine the story Knowledge and understanding of of the site. The place where an artifact the past—the most important things was left by prehistoric people, and that archaeologists learn from a site—are position in relationship to other arti- lost forever. Many artifacts are very facts in the site, is known as context. beautiful and are valued for their artistic Context is vital during archaeological qualities. Some people steal these items research. Context provides solid clues from archaeological sites and sell them. for site reconstruction. If the context These pothunters, or people who only is disturbed, important evidence about dig for pretty artifacts like whole pots, the past is forever lost. Context may be take away our chance to gain aware- disturbed accidentally or intentionally ness of the past. They rob us of our by humans, or by natural occurrences. past. Other people vandalize sites and All pieces of the puzzle are necessary destroy them for no reason. In addi- for interpretation and reconstruction of tion to vandals and pothunters, other the past. Context assists archaeologists circumstances threaten archaeological in dating a site, and in determining the sites. A new housing development may activities that took place there. Scientists disturb an ancient campsite. Other can learn about the plants and animals threats may be construction of shopping eaten by people of long ago. And they malls or oil and gas pipelines. A farmer

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 76 / Right: Prehistoric artifacts are sometimes bought and sold along with other Native American craft items. However, without their context, artifacts lose their meaning and significance to archaeology.

Below: Modern vandals scratched their initials over this ancient rock art in Fergus County, Montana. Acts of vandalism can destroy archaeological sites. Courtesy Montana State Historic Preservation Office.

tilling a new field may disturb artifacts. logical past on public lands for future Progress and growth in our civilization generations. threaten archaeological sites daily. We Archaeological sites and artifacts lose knowledge of the past any time a are messengers from the past. If we site is improperly dug or disturbed. know how to read the messages, arti- Laws are written to preserve and facts tell us much about people of long protect archaeological sites. The first ago. The people who lived on a site law passed in the United States that may have been there hundreds, or even protected sites was the Antiquities Act thousands, of years ago. All cultures, of 1906. The Antiquities Act makes it modern or ancient, contain value for illegal for people to disturb archaeo- our society. logical sites on federal public land— The past is our legacy, a gift land that belongs to the federal goven- passed down to us by those who first ment—without special permission from inhabited this land. Our connections to the government. The Montana State the past are strong. And all Montanans Antiquities Act, passed in the 1970s, deserve an opportunity to know about protects archaeological and historical the people who were here before us. sites on state-owned property. These You are a caretaker, or steward, of our laws also allow the police to arrest heritage, which includes the traces pothunters and fine them for looting, of Montana’s early peoples that lie or illegally taking artifacts away from, buried in our landscape. Protect and sites. These and other federal and state preserve the past for present and future laws protect and preserve the archaeo- generations.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 77 / Lesson 6—Vocabulary: Why Do We Preserve and Protect Archaeological Sites?

context heritage inhabited laws legacy looting

Montana State Antiquities Act nonrenewable public land steward vandalism/pothunters

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 78 / Lesson 6—Arch Activity: The Importance of the Past

Grades: 3–8 Materials: Time: 40 minutes • 2 photos of family activities Content Area: history and writing • writing tools Who: whole class and small group • Arch Journals

Objective and Outcome Some people say that a photograph is worth • Students will identify the importance a thousand words. . . . of their family’s past and compare it Courtesy K. C. Smith, with the archaeological past. Museum of Florida • Students will write sentences about History, Tallahassee. the importance of the past.

Activity 1. Prior to the activity, instruct students to bring two photographs representing questions in their Arch Journal (write an important family event, for example a questions on board or overhead): family reunion, or a vacation, or a grad- a. Why is it important to know about uation party. Ask them to think about the your past? picture’s significance. b. Why is it important to learn about 2. Divide the class into groups of four. the archaeological past? Each student is a writer and a presenter. c. What can we learn by studying the Instruct students to discuss their photos past? and their importance within the group. d. What happens if special items from Allow up to 10 minutes. the past are destroyed? 3. Instruct students to trade photos with another group. Make sure all groups Extensions have traded. Next, each group should 3–5: determine the meaning and significance • Research vocabulary. of the other group’s pictures. Each See: Lesson 1D—Vocabulary member will write sentences explaining • Have students write a story about an the importance of one photo. Allow up event or a special object from their past. to 10 minutes. Place a twist in the story when the event 4. Each member then presents the or object disappears. conclusions to the whole class. Ask them to explain clues from the picture 6–8: that helped identify what that impor- • Have students research other cultures. tance was. Ask the owner of the photo Look for similarities and differences if the conclusions are correct and to add between their culture and the others. information. Ideas for research include types of foods 5. Pass photos back to the owner. eaten, family organization, and types of Instruct each student to answer these shelters.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 79 / LWessonhat T 0—Chey Lheapfttertitle Behind: Types ofChaptersubtitle Archaeological Sites in Montana

Grades: 4–8 Materials: • "What They Left Behind" lesson plan, Time: 50 minutes available for download from the following Content Area: social studies/Montana link: http://svcalt.mt.gov/education/Textbook/ state history Chapter2/What%20They%20Left%20Behind% Who: whole class 20Archaeological%20Sites%20Lesson%20Plan.pdf) • laser pointer (optional) • laptop and projector

Objectives and Outcome 3 . D istribute the vocabulary Students will: list. Read through the list with your • Recognize the ways today’s landscape students. Can they guess what any of provides evidence of ancient habitation. the terms mean? Tell them that they will • Identify types of sites and features left need to listen closely for these terms by Montana’s first peoples. during the PowerPoint and record their • Understand the importance of pro- definitions. [Note: Vocabulary words tecting archaeological sites have been placed in bold italics in the script.] 4. Present PowerPoint (script on Activity page 82) 1. Prior to the Activity Print and 5. Culminating Activity Guide your review either the script or script with students in a discussion of what they accompanying slides. To print the just saw, in a way that emphasizes the script only, print pages 82 through 84 need to preserve and protect archaeo- of this document. To print the script logical sites. Questions you might ask with accompanying slides open the include the following: PowerPoint. Select “Print,” making sure • If you saw one of these sites in your that “Notes Pages” is selected in the travels how could you (or would you be “Print What” dialogue box. able to) tell that it was a place of partic- 2. Introduce Activity Ask your ular cultural significance? students, “What traces of the ancient • What can serious archaeological study past remain in Montana?” (Possible of a culturally significant site reveal answers: Pictographs, petroglyphs, that casual “artifact collecting” or “pot buffalo jumps, tipi rings.) Tell your hunting” cannot? students that there are many traces on • What is lost if someone rearranges the land of ancient peoples and that you the rocks in a drive line? Or collects are going to view a PowerPoint presen- arrowheads without documenting their tation that describes some of the things context? ancient people left behind. These sites • For a grade appropriate reading and and “features” on Montana’s landscape worksheet on this topic, see Lesson 6, help us better understand how early “Why Do We Preserve and Protect people lived. Archaeological Sites,” (pp. 76–79).

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 80 / Image credits Slide 2 (family group processing deer) courtesy Montana Department of Transportation. Slide 23 (schematic of drive lines) courtesy Library and Archives Canada. All other images courtesy Montana State Historic Preservation Office.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 81 / What They Left Behind: PowerPoint Script

[SLIDE 1: TITLE SLIDE] ancient tool makers. This common type of site is called a “lithic scatter.” [SLIDE 2: ARTIST’S RENDERING, “Lithic” is a word meaning “rock.” PROCESSING DEER] The ancestors of modern Native Americans were hunters [SLIDE 6: LITHIC SCATTER, and gatherers who moved across CLOSEUP] Identifying lithic scatters the landscape for over 12,000 years. requires knowledge of the types of They found everything they needed to stone prehistoric people used and an survive. This presentation describes ability to identify the unique character- some of the things ancient people left istics of human-made stone chips. behind. These sites and “features” on Montana’s landscape help us better [SLIDE 7: LITHIC QUARRY, understand how early people lived. BEAVERHEAD COUNTY] A place where early tool makers collected rock [SLIDE 3: TIPI RINGS, MEAGHER for flint knapping is called a lithic COUNTY] Tipi rings like these in quarry. At South Everson Creek in Meagher County are the most common Beaverhead County, we can see today type of archaeological site in Montana. where ancient people dug material for Campsites containing from one to over tools. several hundred stone rings are found throughout Montana east of the conti- [SLIDE 8: ROCK CAIRN, BEAVER- nental divide. Most of these tipi ring HEAD COUNTY] Early people used campsites date anywhere from 5,000 rock cairns, or piles, like this one in years ago up to about 250 to 300 years Beaverhead County to mark special ago. places or trails.

[SLIDE 4: TIPI RINGS, HILL COUNTY] [SLIDE 9: ROCK CAIRN, PONDERA Tipi rings show up especially well from COUNTY] The upright stones in this the air, like these on the Meisner Ranch rock cairn, or “feature,” in Pondera in Hill County. Early people may have County is probably very old. The moss used these rock rings to hold down their or lichen that has grown on it suggests tipis. They were probably used season- its great age. ally again and again as the people [SLIDE 10: ROCK BLIND, BIG HORN moved from one camp site to another. COUNTY] At the Cold Rattler Site in [SLIDE 5: LITHIC SCATTER] Where Big Horn County, you can see another flint knappers stopped to make tools, type of “feature.” These are called they left a scatter of waste flakes. To forts, blinds, or pits and usually are most of us, these flakes look like nothing on high ground or viewpoints like hill- more than rocks scattered around. But tops. There are different ideas about the trained archaeologist can see that what purposes they served. Travelers the flakes were made deliberately by might have used them as a lookout

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 82 / point, hunters might have concealed handprint on this wall in Bear Canyon, themselves from passing game, or they Fergus County. might have been used for vision quests. [SLIDE 16: PICTOGRAPHS, BROAD- [SLIDE 11: FORT SMITH MEDICINE WATER COUNTY] Erosion is not WHEEL, BIG HORN COUNTY] The the only enemy of these fragile cave Fort Smith Medicine Wheel in Big Horn and canyon sites. Vandals here County is an example of one of the have chipped away at these ancient most unique types of prehistoric stone Hellgate Pictographs at Canyon Ferry, features. Medicine Wheels are large Broadwater County. Once they are stone ceremonial rock configurations. gone, what we can learn from them is They range in size from 20 to over 100 gone forever. feet in diameter. [SLIDE 17 PETROGLYPH] In the [SLIDE 12: MEDICINE WHEEL south central and southeastern part of DIAGRAM] Medicine wheels come in Montana in sandstone country, images different shapes and sizes. Although called petroglyphs are commonly they resemble tipi rings, they likely pecked or carved into the soft rock were used for religious ceremonies. surfaces. While we can often identify The sacred nature of these features is the images, like this human, we can still recognized today by modern Indian only guess what the artist wanted to peoples. tell us.

[SLIDE 13: PICTOGRAPH CAVE] [SLIDE 18 FIRST PEOPLE’S BUFFALO Early people used caves for shelter. JUMP STATE PARK] Buffalo jumps Pictograph Cave in Yellowstone County are one of Montana’s most celebrated near Billings is one of Montana’s most and complex prehistoric sites. They important prehistoric sites because of are common in Montana and were one its long use. People used this cave for effective way hunters had of killing several thousand years. It is a National many buffalo at one time. First People’s Historic Landmark and very fragile Buffalo Jump State Park (formerly Ulm because of natural deterioration caused Pishkun) in Cascade County was prob- by wind and water. This natural erosion ably used several times every year from is destroying the work early artists left 900 A.D. to 1500 A.D. behind. [SLIDE 19: BUFFALO JUMP DIORAMA] [SLIDE 14: PICTOGRAPH] In some This diorama at the Montana Historical cave sites, the painted images called Society’s Homeland Exhibit shows how pictographs, left behind by the early buffalo stampeded over the jump. A inhabitants, are still visible on the cave successful buffalo jump required careful walls. planning and organization. It was dangerous business. Prehistoric hunter- [SLIDE 15: PICTOGRAPH, FERGUS gatherers were very knowledgeable and COUNTY] Someone long ago left his very skilled.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 83 / [SLIDE 20: CAMERON BUFFALO [SLIDE 25: SCARRED TREES, JUMP, MEAGHER COUNTY] At the POWELL COUNTY] Scarred trees are bottom the Cameron Buffalo Jump another type of feature that early people in Meagher County, you can see the have left. The bark on this tree has been remains of ancient buffalo bones. carefully removed to serve as a marker along a trail in Powell County. [SLIDE 21: BUFFALO POUND] Not all buffalo kill sites are jumps. Surrounding [SLIDE 26: LOLO TRAIL] Animal trails or corralling buffalo were also common often were used by early humans, and group hunting techniques. The corral some of these were then later used by pound illustrated here was also used miners and early settlers. The Lolo Trail in Montana. Wooden corrals or simple in western Montana is one example. fences made of fallen timber and brush [SLIDE 27: HAGAN SITE] The Hagan were placed at the base of steep hills to Site near Glendive, discovered when a trap bison herds. farmer plowed this field, is important [SLIDE 22: DRIVE LINE, HILL to Montana’s history because it is the COUNTY] Prehistoric hunters placed only archaeological site with evidence drive lines, or alignments, for several of agriculture. Most early people moved miles leading up to a jump or corral. with the seasons, but people at the Skilled medicine men made the buffalo Hagan Site grew some crops like corn stampede. When buffalo stampeded, and tobacco. This site is so special that they did not cross the alignments, and it is a National Historic Landmark. the entire herd would fall over the cliff [SLIDE 28: TIPI RING SITE, TOOLE or run down the hill into the corrals. COUNTY] Archaeologists must be very It was a very powerful and mysterious respectful of Montana’s special places process. These drive lines are at Fresno because they are especially impor- Reservoir in Hill County. tant to the heritage of modern Native [SLIDE 23: 1854 SCHEMATIC OF A Americans. Here archaeologists and DRIVE LINE] This drawing, from 1854, and tribal members gather together to shows how hunters used drive lanes to honor tipi rings at the Benjamin Ranch funnel the buffalo over a cliff. Tipi Ring Site in Toole County. From tipi rings to stone tools, the archaeological [SLIDE 24: WICKIUP, MADISON resources of Montana are fragile and COUNTY] Timber shelters like this one need to be preserved. They connect us in Madison County are called wickiups. with 12,000 years of human history. Hunters likely used these timber shelters These ancient places and objects give when passing through. Montana’s dry us a window into the past so that we climate has preserved some wickiups. can better understand Montana today. You can tell the great age of this one by the moss, or lichen, that has grown on it.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 84 / What They Left Behind: Vocabulary

Tipi rings ______��

Flint knappers ��

Lithic ��

Lithic scatter ��

Lithic quarry ��

Cairn ��

Blind ______��

Medicine wheel ��

Pictograph ��

Petroglyph ��

Buffalo jump ��

Corral pound ��

Drive line ��

Wickiup ��

Scarred trees ��

Hagan Site ��

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 85 / Glossary

Ancestor—a person from whom you beings to live in North America. are descended; a relative from long Their customs, ideas, arts, skills, and ago their tools (how and why they were Anzick Site—the place where evidence made) make up the culture of the (artifacts) of some of Montana’s Clovis people. The time of the Clovis earliest inhabitants were found people was about 10,000 b.c. Archaeologist—a scientist who Clovis spear point—the hard, sharp studies the lifestyles of ancient stone point of a spear made by the people by learning from the objects Clovis people (artifacts) they made Curator—the person in charge of a Arrow point—the hard, sharp stone museum’s collection of artifacts point of an arrow Exhibit—an object or objects displayed Artifact—an object made by human for the public for educational or hands entertainment purposes Awl—a small, pointed tool used for Flintknapping—the process of making piercing holes into hides copies of tools such as spear points Biface Core—a block of stone that by chipping and striking pieces of has been chipped on both sides stone to make the proper sizes and (i.e., “two faces”) to produce flakes shapes for making into tools Mammoth—an extinct elephant that Bone foreshaft—a spear is made was very big and had long, shaggy of three parts; the point, the fore- hair shaft, and the shaft. The foreshaft is Needle—small tool with a tiny hole in shaped like a finger, but two to three one end, used for sewing times longer, to which the stone Prehistoric—the time before recorded spear point is attached. The other (written) history end of the foreshaft is attached to the Red ochre—an iron-rich red colored long part (shaft) of the spear, which dirt used by many prehistoric people is made of wood. in ceremonies Cast—verb; to make a copy of an Replica—a copy of an artifact object from a mold Scraper—a stone tool most often used Clovis blanks & preforms—finely to scrape away the soft tissue that shaped, but not yet finished stone covers the inside of an animal hide spear points, which may have also Spear point—the hard, sharp point of been used as knives a spear Clovis culture—The Clovis people are some of the earliest known human

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 86 / Bibliography

The Montana Archaeology Education Moloney, Norah. The Young Oxford Resource Catalog: A Guide to book of archaeology. Oxford: Oxford Educational Materials for the University Press Children’s Books, Teaching of Archaeology and © 2000. Prehistory in Montana Schools, rev. ed. Helena, MT: Montana Historical Grades 9–12 Society, 2002. Download this Echo-Hawk, Robert C. & Walter R. comprehensive catalog at http:// Echo-Hawk. Battlefields and burial mhs.mt.gov/shpo/archaeology/ grounds: the Indian struggle to mtarchedusesourcecatalog.pdf protect ancestral graves in the United or call 406-444-7715 to order a States. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner hard copy. Publications Company, © 1994. Snow, Dean R. Archaeology of North Additional recommentations: America. New York: Chelsea House, Grades K–2 © 1992. Addy, Sharon. Right here on this spot. Yeager, C.G. Arrowheads & stone arti- Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., facts. Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing © 1999. Co., © 1986. Pickering, Robert B. I can be an archaeologist. Chicago: Children’s Press, Adult © 1987. Canby, Thomas Y. “The Search for the first Americans.” National Grades 3–5 Geographic, vol. 156, no. 3 Duke, Kate. Archaeologists dig for clues. (September 1979): 330–361. New York: HarperCollins, © 1997. Davis, Leslie B. “In search of early Fradin, Dennis B. Archaeology. Chicago: elephants.” Montana Outdoors, Children’s Press, © 1983. vol. 17, no. 3 (1986): 27–31. McIntosh, Jane. Eyewitness: archaeology. Frison, George C. Prehistoric hunters of New York: DK Publishing, © 2000. the high plains. New York: Academic Panchyk, Richard. Archaeology for Press, © 1991. kids: uncovering the mysteries of our Lahren, Larry L. and Robson past, 25 activities. Chicago: Chicago Bonnichson. “Bone foreshafts from Review Press, © 2001. a Clovis burial in Southwestern Montana.” Science, 186 (1974): Grades 6–8 147–150. Avi-Yonah, Michael. Dig this!: how Taylor, Dee C. “The Wilsall excava- archaeologists uncover our past. tions: an exercise in frustration.” Minneapolis: Runestone Press: Proceedings of the Montana Academy Lerner Publishing, © 1993. of Science, 29 (1969): 147–150. Greenberg, Lorna. Digging into the past: Wilke, Philip J., Jeffrey Flenniken and pioneers of archaeology. New York: Terry Oxbun: “Clovis technology Franklin Watts, © 2001. at the Anzick Site, Montana.” Holmes, Krys. Montana: Stories of the Journal of California and Great Basin Land. Helena: Montana Historical Anthropology, 13(2), 1991: 242–272. Society, © 2008, Chapter 2.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 87 / Primary Sources and How to Use Them

he Montana Historical Society Education Office has prepared Ta series of worksheets to introduce you and your students to the techniques of investigating historical items: artifacts, documents, maps, and photographs. The worksheets introduce students to the common practice of using artifacts, documents, maps, and photographs to reveal historical information. Through the use of these Photographs worksheets, students will acquire skills The photograph below is one of 350,000 that will help them better understand in the Montana Historical Society the lessons in the User Guide. Students Photographic Archives. After looking will also be able to take these skills at the photograph, some of the small with them to future learning, including “secrets” that we can find in it include research and museum visits. These the shadow of the photographer, the worksheets help unveil the secrets of rough fence in the background, the belt artifacts, documents, maps, and photo- on the woman’s skirt, and the English- graphs. style riding saddle. See the examples below for insight Questions that might be asked of the into using these worksheets. woman in the photo are: Does it take a lot of balance to stand on a horse, and Artifacts is it hard? Was it a hot day? Why are you Pictured at top right is an elk-handled using an English-style riding saddle? spoon, one of 50,000 artifacts preserved by the Montana Historical Society Museum. Here are some things we can decipher just by observing it: It was hand-carved from an animal horn. It looks very delicate. From these observations, we might conclude that the spoon was probably not for everyday use, but for special occasions. Further research has told us that it was made by a Sioux Indian around 1900. This artifact tells us that the Sioux people carved ornamental items, they used spoons, and they may have had a spiritual relationship with elk.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 88 / Documents This document is part of the Montana Historical Society’s archival collection. Reading the document can give us a lot of information: It is an oath pledging to catch thieves. It was signed by 23 men in December 1863. It mentions secrecy, so obviously this document was only meant to be read by the signers. Further investigation tell us that this is the original Vigilante Oath signed by the Virginia City Vigilantes in 1863. The two things this document tell us about life in Montana in the 1860s are that there were lots of thieves in Virginia City and that traditional law enforce- ment was not enough so citizens formed a secret society to clean up their community.

Maps This map is part of the map collection and was drawn by William Clark. The of the Library of Congress. Information three things that are important about that can be gathered from observing this map are that it shows that there is the map includes the following: The no all-water route to the Pacific Ocean, subject of the map is the northwestern it documents the Rocky Mountains, and region of the United States—west of the it shows the many tributaries of the Mississippi River. The map is dated 1810 Missouri River.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 89 / How to Look at an Artifact (Adapted from the National Archives and Records Administration Artifact Analysis Worksheet)

Artifact: An object produced or shaped by human workmanship that is of archaeological or historical interest

1. What materials were used to make this artifact?

9 Bone 9 Wood 9 Glass 9 Cotton

9 Pottery 9 Stone 9 Paper 9 Plastic

9 Metal 9 Leather 9 Cardboard 9 Other ______

2. Describe how it looks and feels:

Shape ______Weight ______

Color______Moveable Parts ��

Texture______Anything written, printed, or stamped on it

Size______

3. Draw and color pictures of the object from the top, bottom, and side views.

Top Bottom Side

(continued)

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 90 / How to Look at an Artifact (continued)

3. Uses of the Artifacts

a. How was this artifact used?______

b. Who might have used it?______

c. When might it have been used?______

d. Can you name a similar item used today?______

4. Sketch the object you listed in question 3d.

5. Classroom Discussion

a. What does the artifact tell us about technology of the time in which it was made and used? ______

b. What does the artifact tell us about the life and times of the people who made and used it? ______

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 91 / How to Look at a Photograph (Adapted from the National Archives and Records Administration Photograph Analysis Worksheet)

Photograph: An image recorded by a camera and reproduced on a photosensitive surface

1. Spend some time looking at the whole photograph. Now look at the smallest thing in the photograph

that you can find. What secrets do you see?______

______

2. Can you find people, objects, or activities in the photograph? List them below.

People______

______

Objects______

______

Activities______

______

3. What questions would you like to ask of one of the people in the photograph?

______

4. Where could you find the answers to your questions?

______

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 92 / How to Look at a Written Document (Adapted from the National Archives and Records Administration Written Analysis Worksheet)

Document: A written paper bearing the original, official, or legal form of something and that can be used to furnish decisive evidence or information

1. Type of document: 9 Newspaper 9 Journal 9 Press Release 9 Diary 9 Letter 9 Map 9 Advertisement 9 Census Record 9 Patent 9 Telegram 9 Other ______

2. Which of the following is on the document: 9 Letterhead 9 Typed Letters 9 Stamps 9 Handwriting 9 Seal 9 Other ______

3. Date or dates of document:______

4. Author or creator:______

5. Who was supposed to read the document?______

______

6. List two things the author said that you think are important:

a. ______

b. ______

7. List two things this document tells you about life in Montana at the time it was written:

a. ______

b. ______

8. Write a question to the author left unanswered by the document:______

______

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 93 / How to Look at a Map (Adapted from the National Archives and Records Administration Map Analysis Worksheet)

Map: A representation of a region of the earth or stars

1. What is the subject of the map?

9 River 9 Stars/Sky 9 Mountains

9 Prairie 9 Town 9 Other______

2. Which of the following items is on the map?

9 Compass 9 Notes 9 Key 9 Name of Map-Maker

9 Date 9 Scale 9 Title 9 Other______

3. Date of map______

4. Map-maker:______

5. Where was the map made:______

6. List three things on this map that you think are important:

a. ______

b. ______

c. ______

7. Why do you think this map was drawn?______

______

8. Write a question to the map-maker that is left unanswered by the map.

______

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 94 / Montana Historical Society Educational Footlockers

Architecture: It’s All Around You— From Traps to Caps: The Montana Explores the different architectural Fur Trade—Gives students a glimpse styles and elements of buildings, at how fur traders lived and made their urban and rural, plus ways in which living along the creeks and valleys of we can preserve buildings for future Montana, 1810–1860. generations. Gold, Silver, and Coal—Oh My!: Cavalry and Infantry: The U.S. Mining Montana’s Wealth— Military on the Montana Frontier— Chronicles the discoveries that drew Illustrates the function of the U.S. people to Montana in the late 19th military and the life of an enlisted man century and how the mining industry on Montana’s frontier, 1860 to 1890. developed and declined.

Coming to Montana: Immigrants Inside and Outside the Home: from Around the World—Showcases Homesteading in Montana, 1900– the culture, countries, traditions, and 1920—Focuses on the thousands of foodways of Montana’s immigrants people who came to Montana’s plains through reproduction clothing, toys, in the early 20th century in hope of and activities. making a living through dry-land farming. Daily Life on the Plains: 1820– 1900—Includes items used by Lifeways of Montana’s First American Indians, such as a painted People—Emphasizes the various tribal deerskin robe, parfleche, war regalia lifeways of the people who utilized the case, shield, Indian games, and an land we now know as Montana in the educational curriculum. years around 1800.

Discover the Corps of Discovery: Contemporary American Indians in The Lewis and Clark Expedition in Montana—Highlights the renaissance Montana—Traces the Corps’ journey of Montana’s Indian cultures and their through Montana and their encounters efforts to maintain their identities and with American Indians. Includes bison traditions. hide, trade goods, books, and more. Prehistoric Life in Montana— East Meets West: The Chinese Explores Montana prehistory Experience in Montana—Explores (10,000–12,000 years ago) and the lives of the Chinese who came archaeology through a study of the to Montana, the customs that they Pictograph Cave prehistoric site. brought with them to America, how they contributed to Montana communities, and why they left.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 95 / Stones and Bones: Prehistoric Tools of the Trade: Montana Tools from Montana’s Past— Industry and Technology—Surveys Uncovers Montana’s prehistory the evolution of tools and technology and archaeology through a study of in Montana from late 1700s to the reproduction stone and bone tools. present. Contains casts and reproductions from the Anzick collection found in Wilsall, Woolies and Whinnies: The Sheep Montana. and Cattle Industry in Montana— Reveals the fascinating stories of cattle, The Cowboy Artist: A View of horse, and sheep ranching in Montana, Montana History—Presents over 40 1870 to 1920. Charles M. Russell prints and hands-on artifacts that open a window into Land of Many Stories: The Montana history by discussing Russell’s People and Histories of Glacier art and how he interpreted aspects of National Park——Focuses on the Montana history. commemoration of the centennial anniversary of Glacier National Park. It The Home Fires: Montana and is thematically tied to the MHS exhibit World War II—Describes aspects of Land of Many Stories: The People and everyday life in Montana during the Histories of Glacier National Park. It 1941–1945 war years. Illustrates the examines the human experience little-known government projects such in the area now known as Glacier as the Fort Missoula Alien Detention National Park, from pre-contact to Center and Civilian Public Service the recent past, focusing on human- Camps. environmental interaction.

The Treasure Chest: A Look at the Montana State Symbols—Provides hands-on educational activities that foster a greater appreciation of our state’s symbols and their meanings.

Montana Historical Society: Stones and Bones User Guide / 96 /