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United States Department of Agriculture Fire Ecology of the Forest Service Forest Habitat Types Intermountain Research Station of Central Idaho General Technical Report INT-218

December 1986 M. F. Crane William C. Fischer THE AUTHORS RESEARCH SUMMARY MARILYN (MARTI) F. CRANE is a research plant ecologist This report summarizes available information on fire as with Systems for Environmental Management, a nonprofit an ecological factor for forest habitat types occurring in research foundation in Missoula, MT. Ms. Crane earned a central Idaho. The forest habitat types described for cen- B.A. degree from San Jose State University in 1961 and tral ldaho by Steele and others (1981) are grouped into an M.A. (botany) from the University of Montana in 11 Fire Groups based primarily on fire's role in forest June 1980. succession. For each Fire Group, information is presented on (1) the WILLIAM C. FISCHER is a research forester for the relationship of major tree species to fire, (2) fire effects on Prescribed Fire and Fire Effects research work unit at the undergrowth, (3) fire effects on wildlife, (4) forest fuels, lntermountain Research Station's lntermountain Fire (5) the natural role of fire, (6) fire and forest succession, Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. He earned his B.S. and (7) fire management considerations. and B.S.F. degrees from the University of Michigan in The Fire Groups are described as follows: 1956. Before coming to the fire lab in 1966 he worked as Fire Group Zero-Miscellaneous special habitats. a forester on the Boise National Forest in central Idaho. Fire Group One-Dry limber pine habitat types. Fire Group Two-Warm, dry habitat types that support open forests of ponderosa pine or Douglas-fir. Fire Group Three-Warm, moist ponderosa pine habitat ACKNOWLEDGMENTS types and warm, dry Douglas-fir habitat types usually dominated by ponderosa pine. This report is the result of a cooperative endeavor Fire Group Four-Cool, dry Douglas-fir habitat types. between the lntermountain Research Station's Prescribed Fire Group Five-Moist Douglas-fir habitat types. Fire and Fire Effects research work unit and several cen- Fire Group Six-Grand fir habitat types. tral ldaho National Forests of the USDA Forest Service Fire Group Seven-Cool habitat types usually dominated lntermountain Region (Region 4). The following individuals by lodgepole pine. were especially supportive of this project: Marvin L. Wolfe, Fire Group Eight-Dry, lower subalpine habitat types. Assistant Aviation and Fire Management Officer, Boise Fire Group Nine-Wet or moist, lower subalpine habitat National Forest; James R. Moorehead, Branch Chief for types. Fire Control, Recreation and Land Use, Salmon National Fire Group Ten-Cold, upper subalpine and timberline Forest, now retired; and James E. Moore, lntermountain habitat types. Region Fuels Management Officer, now retired. The knowledge of central ldaho silviculture and forest ecology contributed by Jerry Hamilton, Regional Silvi- culturist, and Andy Youngblood, Area Ecologist, Inter- mountain Region, was a great asset to this study.

lntermountain Research Station 324 25th Street Ogden, UT 84401 CONTENTS Fire Group Four: Cool. Dry Douglas-fir Habitat Page Types ...... Introduction ...... 1 Vegetation ...... Purpose ...... 1 Forest Fuels ...... Format ...... 1 Role of Fire ...... The Fire Groups ...... 2 Forest Succession ...... Nomenclature and Terminology ...... 4 Fire Management Considerations ...... Relationships of Major Tree Species to Fire ...... 4 Fire Group Five: Moist Douglas-fir Habitat Types . . Limber Pine (Pinus flexilis) ...... 4 Vegetation ...... Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa) ...... 5 Forest Fuels ...... Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesir) ...... 6 Role of Fire ...... Grand Fir (Abies grandis) ...... 6 Forest Succession ...... Engelmann Spruce (Picea engelmannir) ...... 6 Fire Management Considerations ...... Lodge pole Pine (Pinus contorta) ...... 7 Fire Group Six: Grand Fir Habitat Types ...... Subalpine Fir (Abies lasiocarpa) ...... 7 Vegetation ...... Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis) ...... 7 Forest Fuels ...... Undergrowth Response to Fire ...... 8 Role of Fire ...... Wildlife Response to Fire ...... 13 Forest Succession ...... Fire Use Considerations ...... 22 Fire Management Considerations ...... Heat Effects and Insect Attack ...... 22 Fire Group Seven: Cool Habitat Types Usually Frequency of Burning ...... 22 Dominated by Lodgepole Pine ...... Large Woody Debris ...... 22 Vegetation ...... Heat Effects on Soil ...... 22 Forest Fuels ...... Prescribed Fire Planning ...... 23 Role of Fire ...... Fire Group Zero: Miscellaneous Special Habitats . . 23 Forest Succession ...... Scree ...... 23 Fire Management Considerations ...... Forested Rock ...... 23 Fire Group Eight: Dry, Lower Subalpine Habitat Wet Meadow ...... 23 Types ...... Mountain Grassland ...... 23 Vegetation ...... Aspen Communities ...... 24 Forest Fuels ...... Deciduous Riparian Communities ...... 24 Role of Fire ...... Fire Management Considerations ...... 24 Forest Succession ...... Fire Group One: Dry Limber Pine Habitat Types ... 24 Fire Management Considerations ...... Vegetation ...... 24 Fire Group Nine: Wet or Moist, Lower Subalpine Forest Fuels ...... 24 HabitatTypes ...... Role of Fire ...... 25 Vegetation ...... Forest Succession ...... 26 Forest Fuels ...... Fire Management Considerations ...... 27 Role of Fire ...... Fire Group Two: Warm, Dry Habitat Types that Forest Succession ...... Support Open Forests of Ponderosa Pine or Fire Management Considerations ...... Douglas-fir ...... 27 Fire Group Ten: Cold, Upper Subalpine and Vegetation ...... 28 Timberline Habitat Types ...... Forest Fuels ...... 28 Vegetation ...... Role of Fire ...... 28 Forest Fuels ...... Forest Succession ...... 30 Role of Fire ...... Fire Management Considerations ...... 31 Forest Succession ...... Fire Group Three: Warm. Moist Ponderosa Pine Fire Management Considerations ...... Habitat Types and Warm. Dry Douglas-fir Habitat References ...... Types Usually Dominated by Ponderosa Pine .... 33 Appendix A: Habitat Types of Central Idaho ...... Vegetation ...... 33 Appendix B: Occurrence and Roles of Tree Species Forest Fuels ...... 33 by Habitat Types ...... Role of Fire ...... 35 Appendix C: Scientific Names of Plants Mentioned Forest Succession ...... 36 inText ...... Fire Management Considerations ...... 39

Fire Ecology of the Forest Habitat Types of Central Idaho M. F. Crane William C. Fischer

INTRODUCTION tions such as serotinous cones, corky bark, or seeds that require mineral soil for germination. Purpose Undergrowth Response to Fire-This section sum- marizes the effect of fire on the response of important This report summarizes available fire ecology and understory grass, forb, and shrub species. Fire-adaptive management information relating to forest habitat types traits or survival strategies are highlighted, and the in central Idaho; specifically, on the Boise, Challis, species' tendency to increase or decrease following fire is Payette, and Salmon National Forests; the Fairfield and noted. Ketchum Ranger Districts and Sawtooth National Recrea- tion Area of the Sawtooth National Forest; and the Dubois Wildlife Response to Fire-This section contains sum- Ranger District of the Targhee National Forest. The maries of the general effects of fire on common central primary purpose of this report is to aid in understanding Idaho mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds. Fire fire's role in central Idaho forests, especially the role of response of wildlife is largely inferred from expected fire in forest succession. changes in habitat as a result of fire. Habitat types, as defined by Steele and others (1981), Fire Use Considerations-This brief section summarizes are arranged into eleven "Fire Groups" based on the precautions that apply to the use of fire as a management response of the tree species to fire and similar postfire tool. Emphasis is on effective fire use, site protection, successions. The exception is Fire Group Zero, which is a minimizing damage to residual stand, and wildlife habitat collection of miscellaneous vegetation types. The actual protection. successional sequence in any given stand depends upon a Habitat Types and Phases, ADP Codes, and Physio- number of variables, such as preburn vegetation; the size, graphic Sections-The fire groups are defined with nature, and severity of the fire; climatic, topographic, and reference to "Forest Habitat Types of Central Idaho" soil factors; and chance. Steele and Geier-Hayes (1982a, (Steele and others 1981). A complete list of central Idaho 1982b) show an example of the variation possible within a forest habitat types is included as appendix A. Habitat single habitat type. Thus, stands that key to the same types are designated in the standard format of habitat type might fall into different Fire Groups. "Seriesltype, phase," in which "series" refers to the Habitat types are grouped according to the most dominant tree in potential climax; "type" denotes a probable successional path. A variation frequently en- characteristic or indicator understory species; and "phase" countered in a particular habitat type is mentioned in the provides a further subdivision where needed. The "ADP text, but infrequent variations may not be noted. A cer- codes" are automatic data processing codes for National tain reliance is placed on the judgment of the land Forest System use. Physiographic sections are as de- manager in evaluating the local conditions of any par- scribed by Steele and others (1981) and are illustrated in ticular site. The groups defined in this report are intended figure 1. as a general guide, not a definitive treatment. Vegetation-Following the list of habitat types that comprise each group, we describe the characteristic Format overstory and understory vegetation for that group. This report is patterned after Fire Ecology of Montana Climax and sera1 species are identified. A complete Forest Habitat Types East of the Continental Divide distribution of tree species showing their successional (Fischer and Clayton 1983). The relationships of major status is included as appendix B. tree species to fire, fire effects on wildlife and understory Forest Fuels-In this section we characterize the fuels plant species, and fire use considerations relate to the cen- likely to occur on forest sites in the fire group. Emphasis tral Idaho region as a whole. Consequently, these sections is on the kind and amount of dead, woody material on the precede the individual Fire Group discussions of vegeta- forest floor. Where they contribute significantly to fire tion and soils, forest fuels, fire's natural role, forest suc- hazard, live fuels and standing dead fuels are also dis- cession, and fire management considerations. cussed. Discussions of forest fuels are based on field obser- Relationship of Major Tree Species to Fire-This sec- vations in central Idaho and on inventory data collected on tion of the report discusses each important tree species in similar habitat types in Montana and northern Idaho. central Idaho with regard to its resistance or susceptibility Role of Fire-This section describes fire and its historic to fire and its role as a successional component of forest role in shaping the vegetational composition of habitat communities. Particular attention is given to fire adapta- types in the various fire groups. This section synthesizes OREGON > MONTANA

Figure 1-Physiographic sections of central Idaho (I-Southern Batholith, 11-Challis, 111- Salmon Uplands, VII-Open Northern Rockies, VIII- Wallowa-Seven Devils). information on susceptibility to fire, fuel conditions, and charts are similar to those suggested by Kessell and fire history, gleaned from an extensive search of the Fischer (1981). Symbols are used for the tree species on literature. this diagram and the flow charts in the following section. Fire severity is an important factor in shaping the The symbols are defined as follows: vegetation in a forest stand. For the purpose of this Abies grandis, grand fir (ABGR) report, three levels of fire severity are recognized: low Abies lasiocarpa, subalpine fir (ABLA) (light), moderate, and severe (high). A low-severity or cool Picea engelmannii, Engelmann spruce (PIEN) fire has minimal impact on the site. It burns in surface Pinus albicaulis, whitebark pine (PIAL) fuels consuming only the litter, herbaceous fuels, and Pinus contorta, lodgepole pine (PICO) foliage and small twigs on woody undergrowth. Moderate Pinus Jexilis, limber pine (PIFL) fires consume litter, upper duff, understory plants, and Pinus ponderosa, ponderosa pine (PIPO) foliage on understory trees. If fuel ladders exist, individual Pseudotsuga menziesii, Douglas-fir (PSME) trees or groups of overstory trees may torch out. A severe Larix occidentalis, western larch (LAOC) fire is one that burns through the overstory, consumes large woody surface fuels, and may remove the entire duff Fire Management Considerations-This section sug- layer over much of the area. Heat from the fire impacts gests how the preceding information can be used to the upper soil layer and may consume the incorporated develop fire management plans that support resource soil organic matter. management objectives. The discussion is intended to be suggestive, not dogmatic. Each individual manager is in a Forest Succession-The generalized succession diagram much better position than are the authors to relate the in- and accompanying text represent a simplified overview of formation presented in this report to a particular manage- fire's role in successron for the fire group. The diagram ment situation. can be used from any stage of stand development, al- though generally the beginning of secondary succession following a stand-destroying fire is used as the starting The Fire Groups point. In order to emphasize the role of fire in each group The forest habitat types of central Idaho have been and keep the diagram simple, other factors that influence assembled into 11 fire groups (table I), which are defined vegetational patterns are omitted. as follows: Successional pathway flow charts represent a synthesis of confirmed knowledge and surmised possibilities that Fire Group Zero: Miscellaneous special habitats. This form a hypothesis concerning the many influences fire group of special habitats includes scree, forested rock, may have on the vegetation of a fire group. The flow wet meadows, mountain grasslands, aspen community groves, and deciduous riparian communities. Table 1-Summary of central Idaho habitat type Fire Groups (see appendix A for formal listing of habitat types)

Physiographic Physiographic Physiographic Habitat type section1 Habitat type section1 Habitat type section

FIRE GROUP ZERO FIRE GROUP FOUR FlRE GROUP SEVEN Forested rock PSMEIARCO-ASMI II, VII ABGRIVACA I Meadow PSMEIARCO-ARC0 II, VII ABLAIVACA I, Ill Grassy bald PSMEIJUCO II, VII ABLAIVASC-VASC I, 11, Ill, VII Aspen PSMEICAGE-SYOR 1, 111, 11, VII ABLAICACA-VACA Ill, 1 Deciduous riparian, flood plain, PSMEICAGE-CAGE II, I, VII ABLAICACA-CACA Ill, 1 and ravine PSMEICELE I, 11, Ill, VII ABLAICACA-LEGL II, 1, 111 PSMEICARU-FEID 1, Ill, VII ABLAIXETE-VASC III FIRE GROUP ONE PSMEICARU-CARU II, VII, 1, 111 ABLAIXETE-LUHI Ill PIFLIHEKI VII PSMEISPBE-CARU 11, 111, 1 ABLAIXETE-VAGL 1, Ill, VII PIFLIFEID VII PSMEISPBE-SPBE I, 11, Ill, VII ABLAIVAGL-VASC Ill PIFLICELE VII PSMEISYAL-SYAL VII, Ill, 1 ABLAICAGE-CAGE 1, 111, 11, VII PIFLIJUCO VII PSMEIACGL-SYOR II, VII ABLAICARU I, II, VII PIENIHYRE VII ABLNALSI 111 ABLAILIBO-VASC 1, Ill, VII FIRE GROUP TWO FIRE GROUP FIVE ABLNLIBO-XETE Ill, 1, VII PI POISTOC I PSMEIBERE-BERE I ABLAIVASC-CARU 1, Ill, VII PIPOIAGSP I, Ill, Vlll PSMEIOSCH I, Vlll PIPOIFEID Ill, I, Vlll PSMEIVAGL 1, 111 PlCOlFElD I, 11, Ill, VII PICOIVACA 1, Ill, VII PIPOIPUTR-AGSP I, Ill, Vlll PSMEIACGL-ACGL I, II PIPOIPUTR-FEID I, Ill, Vlll PSMEIPHMA-PSME II, VII PICOICAGE I PICOIVASC Ill, VII PIPOISYOR I, Vlll PSMEILIBO Ill, VII PSMEIAGSP All PSMEIVACA 1, 111 FIRE GROUP EIGHT PSMEIFEID-FEID II, VII FIRE GROUP SIX ABLNACGL I PSMEIFEID-PIP0 111, 1 ABGRICARU VIII,I ABLNLIBO-LIB0 1, Ill, VII PSMEISYOR VII, II, I ABGRISPBE VIII,I ABLNVAGL-VAGL 1,111 PSMEICELE II, VII ABGRIACGL-PHMA VIII, I ABLAISPBE I, II ABLAIJUCO I, VII FIRE GROUP THREE ABGRIACGL-ACGL VIII, I PIPOISYAL VIII, Ill, 1 ABGRILIBO-LIB0 VIII, I ABLAIARCO I, II, VII PIPOIPHMA 1, 111 ABGRILIBO-XETE 111 FIRE GROUP NINE PSMEICARU-PIP0 I, VIII, Ill ABGRIVAGL VIII, I PIENIGATR VII PSMEICAGE-PIP0 I, VIII, Ill ABGRIXETE VIII, I PlENlCADl II, VII PSMEIBERE-SYOR I, II, VII ABGRILIBO-VAGL VIII, I PIENIEQAR II, VII PSMEIBERE-CAGE I ABGRICOOC I ABLAICABI I PSMEISPBE-PIP0 VIII, I ABGRICLUN VIII, I ABLAICACA-LICA Ill, 1 PSMEISYAL-PIP0 VIII, Ill, 1 ABLAISTAM-LICA Ill PSMEIPHMA-CARU Ill, 1 ABLAISTAM-STAM I, II, VII PSMEIPHMA-PIP0 I, Ill, Vlll ABLAICLUN-MEFE Ill, 1 ABLAICLUN-CLUN Ill, 1 ABLNCOOC 111 ABLAIMEFE-MEFE Ill, Vlll ABLNMEFE-LUHI Ill FlRE GROUP TEN ABLAIRIMO VII, II ABLAILUHI-VASC Ill, 1 ABLAILUHI-LUHI 111, 1 ABLAIVASC-PIAL I, II ABLAICAGE-ARTR 1, 111 PIALIABLA Ill, I, II PlAL h.t.'s II, VII

I I - Southern Batholith I1 - Challis 111 - Salmon Uplands VII - Open Northern Rockies Vlll - Wallowa-Seven Devils

Fire Group One: Dry limber pine habitat types. These to-savanna appearance, with an undergrowth of dry-site habitat types are found almost exclusively in the Challis grasses and forbs. and Open Northern Rockies physiographic sections of Fire Group Three: Warm, moist ponderosa pine habitat central Idaho (fig. 1). types and warm, dry Douglas-fir habitat types usually Fire Group Two: Warm, dry habitat types that support dominated by ponderosa pine. In the absence of fire, open forests of ponderosa pine or Douglas-fir. Mature Douglas-fir regeneration beneath the ponderosa pine is stands in this group are characterized by an open forest- capable of taking over the site on the Douglas-fir habitat types. Fire Group Four: Cool, dry Douglas-fir habitat types. RELATIONSHIP OF MAJOR TREE These stands are generally found in the continental climate of the Challis and Open Northern Rockies SPECIES TO FIRE physiographic sections and elsewhere above the cold Wildfire, along with climate and topography, has been limits of ponderosa pine. Douglas-fir is often the only important in shaping forest ecosystems in the Western conifer on the site. United States. It often creates a mosaic of seral vegeta- Fire Group Five: Moist Douglas-fir habitat types. tional types and age classes within a type. The frequency Douglas-fir generally grows well on these sites and and severity of fire in an area may be particularly impor- dominates the mature stand. tant in determining the species composition on a site Fire Group Six: Grand fir habitat types. These generally (Cattelino and others 1979). The abundance of lodgepole moist and productive sites often support diverse stands pine, snowbrush ceanothus, and ponderosa pine, for exam- of seral tree species. Fire has played an important role ple, is strongly related to fire history in central Idaho in promoting these stands of "mixed forest." (Steele and others 1981). Physical characteristics determine in large part a Fire Group Seven: Cool habitat types usually dominated species' susceptibility or resistance to fire damage, and by lodgepole pine. This group includes stands in which this in combination with regeneration strategy determines fire-maintained lodgepole pine is a dominant seral whether a species will increase or decrease on a site in the species as well as stands in which it is a persistent domi- aftermath of fire. The fuel situation in close proximity to nant species. any individual or group of individuals is, of course, an Fire Group Eight: Dry, lower subalpine habitat types. important factor governing fire damage. This is a heterogeneous grouping of subalpine habitat Table 2 summarizes the relative fire resistance of the types that range from moist to dry. Douglas-fir or a principal conifers in central Idaho forests. An extensive mixture of Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine, sometimes review and summary of comparative autecological followed by spruce, are the major trees in a successional chardcteristics of northwestern tree species is provided by sequence leading toward a subalpine fir climax forest. Minore (1979). Fire Group Nine: Moist, lower subalpine habitat types. These sites are often dominated by Engelmann spruce. Limber Pine (Pinus flexilis) Fires are infrequent but often severe, with long-lasting effects. In some stands, spruce is climax and in the The degree of cambium heating usually determines the subalpine fir habitat types is a persistent seral species. extent of fire injury to limber pines. Young trees are usually killed by any fire that scorches their stems. The Fire Group Ten: Cold, upper subalpine and timberline bark of young limber pine is too thin to prevent cambium habitat types. Fires are generally infrequent; the fires injury, even from a low-intensity fire (Steele in press). that do occur are often limited in extent by discon- Older trees are better able to withstand stem scorch from tinuous fuels. Postfire succession is slow, owing to the low-severity fires because the bark around the base of harshness of the environment. mature trees is often 2 inches (5 cm) thick. The needles of limber pine form into tight clusters around the terminal Nomenclature and Terminology buds. This shields the buds from heat associated with crown scorch. Trees and undergrowth plants are identified by their Keown (1977) conducted prescribed fire studies on common names throughout the text of this report. The list limber pine woodlands at the western edge of the Great of habitat types at the beginning of each Fire Group Plains in central Montana. His results apply to spring fires discussion reflects the common practice of noting siientific when temperatures, relative humidities, and winds were names, abbreviations, and common names. Habitat types moderate, fuel moistures low, and soil moistures high. are most often identified by abbreviation in the text. Results indicated a strong relationship between fuel type, Appendix C lists scientific names and common names of fire severity, and fire injury to limber pine. On sites where plants used in the text. grass was the primary fuel and where trees were present In this report we use common silvicultural terms to as either scattered individuals or in open stands, fire describe general stand conditions such as age, density severity was low and limber pine mortality was light (stocking), and species composition. Definitions of terms (about 20 percent) even though basal limbs commonly ex- such as even-aged, uneven-aged, overstocked, fully tended to the ground. In similar situations but with a stocked, pure stand, mixed stand, and others have evolved dense undergrowth of shrubs (primarily shrubby cinque- from rather arbitrary and subjective definitions to very foil), rather than a grass undergrowth, fire severity was precise and quantitative definitions necessary for modern high and limber pine mortality often reached 80 percent. I silviculture. Our usage of silvicultural terms conforms to The final situation reported by Keown (1977) was where a the definitions of the Society of American Foresters (1971, closed canopy forest bordered shrubland or grassland. L. 1958). These definitions tend toward the subjective rather Trees in these transition zones were less than 10 ft (3 m) than the quantitative, which is appropriate for the general tall, the lower branches often intermingled with ground nature of our discussions. Silviculturists should be aware fuels. The most severe fires occurred on these sites. of this usage so as not to misinterpret the intended level of precision. Table 2-Relative fire resistance of the more commercially important conifers occurring in central Idaho (source: Flint 1925) ----

Tolerance Relative Thickness inflarnrna- Degree of bark of Root Resin in Branch Stand bility of Lichen of fire Species old trees habit old bark habit habit foliage growth resistance

Moderately Medium Very Ponderosa pine Very thick Deep Abundant high & open Open Medium to light resistant Moderately Moderate Heavy to Very Douglas-fir Very thick Deep Moderate low & dense to dense High medium resistant Very Grand fir Thick Shallow' little Low & dense Dense High Heavy Medium Moderately Lodgepole pine Very thin Deep2 Abundant high & open Open Medium Light Medium Engelmann spruce Thin Shallow Moderate Low & dense Dense Medium Heavy Low Very low Moderate Medium Subalpine fir Very thin Shallow Moderate & dense to dense High to heavy Very low

'The shallow root habit characteristic of grand fir in moist, stream bottom habitats. Trees growing on well-drained, dry mountain slopes develop much deeper root systems (Flint 1925). 2Lodgepole pine is generally deep-rooted in well-drained, medium-textured soils. Root development is restricted by layers of coarse soils, impermeable layers, high water tables, or dense stand conditions (Pfister and Daubenmire 1975). Many limber pine sites in central Idaho are exposed and When ponderosa pine occurs in open parklike stands, self- rocky (Steele and others 1981). Limber pines on these pruning is not effective, and such "wolf trees" are suscep- sites are often characterized by profuse branching and a tible to "torching-out" during moderate to severe surface multiple-stemmed appearance. Closer examination of fires. mature, apparently multiple-stemmed trees reveals that Ponderosa pine trees that are heavily infected by the many are actually adjoining individuals established in close dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium campylopodum) are more proximity (Woodmansee 1977). Limber pine has large, susceptible to fire-related mortality and crown scorch than wingless seeds incapable of dispersal by winds. Clark's uninfected or moderately infected trees. Severely infested nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana) has been identified as stands contain increased amounts of both dead surface the primary, if not the only, reliable limber pine seed fuels and live aerial fuels. Also, infected branches, which dispersal agent responsible for reestablishing limber pine are often twice normal diameter, resist natural pruning on high-elevation, rocky, windswept sites following stand (Koonce 1981). destruction (Lanner and Vander Wall 1980). Nutcrackers On moist sites, ponderosa pine often forms two-storied transport seeds as far as 14 miles (22 km) from a seed stands that may be quite susceptible to crown fire. The source to a favored cache site-usually high ridges or tendency for regeneration to form dense understories, or other exposed sites where lack of snow accumulation "dog hair" thickets, on such sites creates fuel ladders that allows seed retrieval when food is needed (Vander Wall can carry surface fires to the crowns of overstory trees. and Balda 1977; Tomback 1977; Tomback and Kramer The fuel ladder effect is often enhanced on moist sites 1980). Limber pine seed dispersal by ground squirrels was because of the greater level of stocking and the often in- noted by Eggler (1941) in southern Idaho. creased occurrence of lichen and moss in the tree crowns. Crown fires are, consequently, more frequent on moist Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa) sites than they are on dry sites. Understory ponderosa pine may also be more susceptible to fire damage because Ponderosa pine has many fire-resistant characteristics. crowded conditions can result in slower diameter growth Seedlings and saplings are often able to withstand fire. and heavier loadings of dead fuels. Such trees do not Development of insulative bark and the tendency for develop their protective layer of insulative bark as early as meristems to be shielded by enclosing needles and thick would otherwise be expected. They remain vulnerable to bud scales contribute to the temperature resistance of cambium damage from ground fires longer than their pole-sized and larger trees. counterparts in open stands. The thick, dense foliage of Propagation of fire into the crown of pole-sized and young stands or thickets also negates the fire-resisting larger trees growing in relatively open stands on dry sites characteristic of open, discontinuous crown foliage is unusual because of three factors. First, the tendency of normally found in this species. Even if such stands or ponderosa pine to self-prune lower branches keeps the thickets do not "crown-out," crown scorching is much foliage separated from burning surface fuels. Second, the more likely than in more open situations. The thinning open, loosely arranged foliage does not lend itself to com- effect of fire is therefore much more pronounced in dense bustion or the propagation of flames. Third, the thick bark stands than it is in open stands. is relatively unburnable and does not easily carry fire up Ponderosa pine seedling establishment is favored when the bole or support residual burning. Resin accumulations, fire removes the forest floor litter and grass, exposing however, make the bark more flammable. Fire resistance mineral soil. Mineral soil exposure and canopy openings of open stands is increased further by light fuel loads. caused by fire allow ponderosa pine establishment. Heavy accumulations of litter at the base of pole- and Grand Fir (Abies grandis) sawtimber-sized tree trunks increase the severity and duration of fire, often resulting in a fire scar or "cat Grand fir (including grand fir and white fir hybrids) is face." Flammable resin deposits around wounds can make moderately resistant to fire. It is more susceptible to fire the tree susceptible to fire damage and usually cause damage than ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir, but more enlargement of the scars. resistant than spruce, subalpine fir, and lodgepole pine (USDA-FS 1965). The thick bark contributes to grand fir's Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) fire resistance; however, its relatively dense and low branches, flammable foliage, dense stand habit, and heavy Mature Douglas-fir has relatively high resistance to fire lichen growth all increase its susceptibility to fire damage. damage. Saplings and small poles, however, are vulnerable Grand fir is very susceptible to bole rot caused by Indian to surface fires because of their thin, photosynthetically paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium) when injured by active bark, resin blisters, closely spaced flammable fire (Aho 1977). needles, and thin twigs and bud scales. The moderately Grand fir in central Idaho and northeastern Oregon are low and dense branching habit of saplings and poles the result of introgressive hybridization between two enables surface fires to be carried into the crown. Even species: Abies grandis and Abies concolor (Daniels 1969). when fire fails to enter the crowns, many saplings and Inner bark color in these trees may be reddish purple as it poles are seriously damaged by crown heating or scorch- is in Abies grandis or yellow as it is in Abies concolor, ing. Older trees develop a relatively unburnable, thick which also has thicker (4- to 6-inch or 10- to 15-cm) bark layer of insulative corky bark that provides protection than Abies grandis (2-inch or 5-cm). Frederick (1972) against cool to moderately severe fires, but this protection found that trees with yellow interior bark had less in- is often offset by a tendency to have branches the length cidence of decay (primarily caused by the Indian paint of the bole. The development of "gum cracks" in the fungus) than trees with red inner bark. He also found that lower trunk, which streak the bark with resin, can provide trees on drier sites had less decay than trees on wetter a mechanism for serious fire injury. sites. Douglas-fir occurs in open stands, but it also grows in Steele and others (1981) suggest that hybridization and dense stands with continuous understory fuels. Dense increased genetic diversity may have allowed grand fir to sapling and pole thickets can form an almost continuous establish on sites drier than normal for the species in layer of flammable foliage about 10 to 26 ft (3 to 8 m) general. above the ground that will support wind-driven crown Grand fir's fire resistance is strongly influenced by site. fires. Even small thickets provide a route by which surface On relatively dry slopes its roots are deep, stands are fires can reach the crowns of mature trees. Crowning is relatively open, and the bark is thick so that it can with- often aided by the presence of lichens. Crowning and stand cool surface fires. On dry sites, however, grand fir "torch out" of individual Douglas-fir is also aided by the may have relatively poor vigor. On moist sites the trees presence of large, dense witches'-brooms caused by the develop shallow lateral roots rather than a deep taproot, dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium douglasii) (Weir 1916; and these are easily killed by fire burning in the thicker Alexander and Hawksworth 1975). duff (USDA-FS 1965). Decay fungi often enter trees As with ponderosa pine, heavy fuel accumulations at the through fire scars (Aho 1977). All factors considered, base of the tree increase the probability of fire injury. grand fir is not benefited by fire in central Idaho nearly as Petersen (1984) determined that bark-char (an indicator of much as its competitors. cambium heating) had a strong influence on fire-related Fisher (1935) compared germination on several different tree mortality when 50 percent or more of a Douglas-fir seedbeds and found grand fir germinated best on ash. crown was scorched. Heavy litter accumulations may allow Seedlings will establish and grow in full sunlight, but early injury to the tree roots, causing delayed mortality growth of grand fir is favored by partial shade (USDA-FS (Connaughton 1936). Also, resin deposits usually enlarge 1965). old scars. Douglas-fir is more susceptible to rot when injured by fire than is ponderosa pine. Engelmann Spruce (Picea engelmannii) Douglas-fir regeneration is generally favored by fire, which reduces vegetational cover and exposes mineral soil Engelmann spruce is easily killed by fire. The dead, dry, so shallow taproots of seedlings can take hold. Ryker flammable lower limbs, low-growing canopy, thin bark, (1975) found good establishment of Douglas-fir on litter, and lichen growth in the branches contribute to the indicating that a mineral soil seedbed may not be as species' vulnerability. The shallow root system is readily critical for establishment of Douglas-fir regeneration on subject to injury from fire burning through the duff. sites as it is for competing species. Severe fire-created Large, old spruce may occasionally survive one or more microsites may be unfavorable for Douglas-fir regenera- light fires (Arno 1980), but deep accumulations of resinous tion-for example, south-facing burns and clearcuts. needle litter around their bases generally make them par- L Ponderosa pine is often able to regenerate on such hotter, ticularly susceptible to fire damage. Survivors are often drier microsites. subjected to successful attack by wood-destroying fungi In central Idaho Douglas-fir occupies the broadest range that easily enter through fire scars. The high susceptibility of environmental conditions of any conifer. This indicates of spruce to fire damage is mitigated in part by the considerable genetic diversity (Rehfeldt 1974). generally cool and moist sites where it grows. Despite its susceptibility to fire, spruce will usually be favored at the expense of subalpine fir where the two grow together 4. High seedling survival and rapid early growth, (Wellner 1970). especially on mineral soil seedbeds exposed to full Spruce is not an aggressive pioneer. It is a moderate sunlight. seed producer, but viability is rated good and the vitality Lodgepole pine's success in revegetating a site following persistent (Alexander and Sheppard 1984). Initial estab- fire may result in dense, overstocked stands. Such stands lishment and early growth of seedlings is usually slow. are likely to stagnate and subsequently succumb to one or Germination is often good on mineral soil and burned more destructive agents over their lifespan, for example, seedbeds where a constant supply of moisture is available natural thinning, snow breakage, windthrow, dwarf and some large debris is left scattered about the site (Roe mistletoe (Arceuthobium americanum) infestation, and and others 1970). A survey of spruce regeneration in the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) attack. Intermountain Region showed that mechanically exposed The individual or combined effect of these agents is often mineral soil was superior to all other types of seedbeds for a significant buildup of dead, woody fuel on the forest seedling establishment and early survival (Roe and floor. Thus, the stage is set for another stand-destroying Schmidt 1964). Spruce seedlings will occur as members of wildfire. a fire-initiated stand with other seral species. Spruce's shade tolerance allows it to establish and grow beneath a canopy of lodgepole pine or other seral species. Subalpine Fir (Abies lasiocarpa) Restocking after fire will occur more quickly if some Subalpine fir is rated as the least fire-resistant Northern spruce seed trees survive within the burn than if regenera- Rocky Mountain conifer because of its thin bark, resin tion is dependent on seed from trees at the fire edge. blisters, low and dense branching habit, and moderate-to- Pockets of spruce regeneration often become established high stand density in mature forests. As a result, fire around such surviving seed trees up to a distance of most often acts as a stand-replacement agent when it 300 feet (90 m), the effective seeding distance for spruce. burns through a subalpine fir forest. Even light ground fires can kill the cambium or spread into the ground- Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta) hugging branches and from there up into the crown. Subalpine fir is very susceptible to decay following injury. Lodgepole pine is ranked as being moderately resistant Subalpine fir may begin producing cones when only 20 to fire (Brown and Davis 1973; Tackle 1961; Starker years old, but maximum seed production is by dominant 1934). It has thin (<0.4 inch or 1 cm thick) bark and a trees 150 to 200 years old. Subalpine fir has the ability to moderately high and open crown. The lower branches of germinate and survive on a fairly wide range of seedbeds. this shade-intolerant tree self-prune in dense stands. Subalpine fir can occur in a fire-initiated stand with Lodgepole pines' most noteworthy adaptation to fire is Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, and other seral species its serotinous cones. Temperatures of 113 OF (45 "C) may because it germinates successfully on a fire-prepared be required to melt the resin binding the scales and seedbed. Subalpine fir is usually, however, a slow-growing release the small, winged seeds. Steele and others (1981) minor component, and is usually not as conspicuous as less state that in central Idaho most lodgepole pine cones are tolerant species. nonserotinous. On the Boise and Payette National Forests In a closed canopy situation, establishment and early the percentage of serotinous-cone-bearing trees was found survival of subalpine fir are not hampered by deep shade. to vary from 0 to 12 percent (Lotan 1975). A more com- Subalpine fir can tolerate low light conditions better than plex situation than open vs closed cones may exist, how- most associated species. Engelmann spruce will, however, ever, according to Perry and Lotan (1977). Cones may often grow faster than subalpine fir where light intensity have a wide variety of opening temperature requirements, exceeds more than 50 percent of full sunlight. Subalpine hence old and new cones on the same tree may open at fir is shade-tolerant and is the indicated climax species on different temperatures. Cone habit in a given locality many sites containing lodgepole pine. Where a seed source cannot be assumed. It must be determined by stand exists, the fir will, consequently, invade and grow in the examination. understory of most lodgepole stands. Given a long enough Aside from serotinous cones, other silvical character- fire-free period, subalpine fir will replace lodgepole pine on istics (USDA-FS 1965; Tackle 1961) that contribute to sites where it is the indicated climax. lodgepole pine's success in dominating a site following fire are: Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis) 1. Early seed production. Cones bearing viable seed are Whitebark pine is a semitolerant or midtolerant species produced by trees as young as 5 years in open stands and (Arno and Hoff, in press) that has been known to invade by trees 15 to 20 years old in more heavily stocked stands. burned sites. It occurs as the potential climax species on This feature not only allows relatively young stands to alpine timberline and exceptionally dry sites, but is a seral regenerate a site following fire, but the seed from open species in upper subalpine forests (Arno in press). White- cones can fill in voids left by the original postfire seeding bark pine is moderately fire resistant. It has a relatively from serotinous cones. thin bark and is susceptible to fire injury from surface 2. Prolific seed production. Good cone crops occur at fires that kill the cambium. Whitebark pine's dry, exposed 1- to 3-year intervals, with light crops intervening. habitat and open structure tend to reduce its vulnerability. 3. High seed viability. Seeds in 80-year-old serotinous The fact that whitebark pine often reaches ages of 500 cones, for example, have been found to be viable. years or more reflects the reduced fire threat. Whitebark pine may occur as small groups of trees, a sparse or limited survivor component following especially near its lower elevational limit where it appears disturbance. In addition, if the colonizer compo- with lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, and Engelmann spruce. nent is composed mostly of shade-tolerant climax- The general impression of whitebark pine communities, like species the rate of survivor recovery can be however, is that of open stands where the undergrowth is expected to be slow. Nearly all of our native continuous low shrubs, forbs, and grasses. Occasionally forest shrub species are capable of surviving burn- larger shrubs and stunted trees occur. ing, and they can therefore be expected to func- Fires that burn in the undergrowth are usually of low-to- tion as survivors. A majority of the predistur- moderate severity. The low, ground-hugging crowns of bance forest herb species also demonstrated the associated conifers can provide a fuel ladder, and downfall ability to survive fire, particularly those species in the vicinity of mature trees locally increases crown fire with underground stems (rhizome) or rootcrowns potential; hence, severe fires are possible. (caudex). As a generalization, the more severe the Severe wildfires starting in lower elevations can spread fire treatment to vegetation, the less the survivor throughout the upper elevation forests to timberline. component. In the drier, more open forest types Although the open nature of a whitebark pine forest acts this usually results in a reduction of amount, but as a firebreak, many trees can be killed under these condi- not major changes in composition. However, in tions. The most common fires are lightning fires that do the moister forest types, where the undergrowth not spread far. During extended periods of high fire is made up of more mesic shade-tolerant species, danger, however, these usually benign fires may spread marked changes in postfire composition can occur downhill into dense lower elevation forests. as increasing severity reduces survivor Clark's nutcracker disperses whitebark pine seed as it representation. does limber pine seed. The nutcracker caches the large, The severity of disturbance treatment (par- wingless seeds in the soil. Unretrieved seed. which are ticularly fire) influences the potential for colonizer stored at an average soil depth of about 0.8' inch (2 cm), presence in two ways: (1) the degree of severity germinate and establish new pines (Hutchins and Lanner creates the character of the ground surface on 1982; Tomback 1982; Lanner 1982). Experimental results which colonizer seedlings germinate, and (2) it ac- indicate a 56 percent seedling survival rate over the first tivates onsite stored seed. Generalizing, the more year; 25 percent by the fourth year (Tomback 1982). No severe the disturbance treatment the more other reliable seed dispersal agent for whitebark pine has favorable the site becomes for colonizers. As the been documented in the literature, although dispersal by extent of exposed mineral soil increases, the ground squirrels was observed during cone collecting ef- ground surface becomes more favorable as a site forts on Teton Pass in the fall of 1984 (J. Hamilton 1985). for germination and establishment of colonizer According to Tomback (1982), Clark's nutcracker is in plants. Increases in treatment severity also favor large part responsible for the "pioneering" status of germination of ground-stored seeds by increasing whitebark pine in subalpine habitats. their exposure to light or heat. Predicting the occurrence of colonizers in UNDERGROWTH RESPONSE TO FIRE postdisturbance vegetation is much less certain than predicting for survivors, but knowledge of Many of the common shrubs and herbaceous plants of the previous succession history can provide the central Idaho forests can renew themselves from plant potential composition of residual colonizers. parts that survive fire. Other plants are quite susceptible Locally this information is often available from an to fire kill and must reestablish from off-site seed, buried adjacent or nearby clearcut. Least predictable is seed, or invasion from unburned patches within or im- the offsite colonizer component, for its occurrence mediately adjacent to the burned area. is dependent on the timing of the disturbance to Current understanding of the process of plant succession the availability and dispersal of offsite airborne following fire in Inland Northwest forests and its manage- seed. Even in this case reference to local clear- ment implications are summarized by Stickney (1982): cuts can provide some idea of the composition for . . .the severity of the disturbance treatment the most common offsite colonizer species likely directly affects the representation of the survivor to occur. component in the postfire vegetation. Since sur- Table 3 summarizes current knowledge of plant vivors derive from plants already established at responses to fire for some species that occur in central the time of disturbance, it is possible, by pretreat- Idaho forests. Actual plant response to fire depends on ment inventory, to determine the potential com- many factors, including moisture content of the soil and position for the survivor component. For this duff, physiological stage of the plant, and the severity of reason it also follows that forest stands with little the fire, especially in terms of the amount of heat that

undergrowth vegetation could be expected to have travels downward through the duff and upper layer of soil. I Table 3-Summary of postfire survival strategy and fire response information for some shrubs and herbaceous plants occurring in forests in central Idaho (sources: Armour and others 1984; Bradley 1984; Britton and others 1983; Crane and others 1983; Daubenmire and Daubenmire 1968; Freedman 1983; Hironaka and others 1983; Keown 1978; Klemmedson and Smith 1964; Kramer 1984; Lotan and others 1981; Lyon 1966, 1971; Lyon and Stickney 1976; McLean 1969; Miller 1977; Morgan and Neuenschwander 1984; Mueggler 1965; Noste 1985; Rowe 1983; Stickney 1981; Viereck and Dyrness 1979; Viereck and Schandelmeier 1980; Volland and Dell 1981; Woodard 1977; Wright 1980, 1978, 1972; Wright and Bailey 1980; Wright and others 1979; Zager 1980; Zimmerman 1979)

Species Fire Group(s) Fire survival strategy Comments on fire response

SHRUBS: Acer glabrum Sprouts from surviving crown. Usually increases following fire. Rocky Mountain maple Alnus sinuata Sprouts from surviving root crown. Usually increases on site following fire. Sitka alder Early seed production (after 5 years) aids in this increase. Amelanchier alnifolia Sprouts from surviving large rhizome. Pioneer species which usually survives serviceberry even severe fires especially if soil is moist. Coverage usually increases following fire. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Sprouts from surviving root crown located Susceptible to fire-kill. Will survive some kinnikinnick below soil surface. Fibrous roots and low severity fires when duff is moist and stolons (runners) at soil surface. therefore not consumed by fire. May invade burned area from unburned patches. Artemesia tridentata Wind-dispersed seed; residual seed in Very susceptible to fire-kill. Recovery is big sagebrush soil. Subspecies vaseyana stores seed in hastened when a good seed crop exists soil, which germinates when heated by before burning. fire. Berberis repens Sprouts from surviving rhizomes, which Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Will creeping Oregon grape grow 0.5 to 2 inches (1.5 to 5 cm) below usually survive all but severe fires that soil surface. remove duff and cause extended heating of upper soil. Ceanothus velutinus Soil-stored seed germinates following heat Usually increases following fire, often snowbrush ceanothus treatment. It can also sprout from root dramatically. crowns following a cool fire. Cercocarpus ledifolius Does not sprout or sprouts weakly. Seriously damaged by severe fires. Seeds curlleaf mountain- need mineral soil to germinate. mahogany Holodiscus discolor Sprouts from surviving root crown. It also Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Is often oceanspray has soil-stored seed that may require heat enhanced by fire. Seedlings favored by treatment. mineral soil exposure. Juniperus communis Bird-dispersed seed Very susceptible to fire-kill. Seed common juniper commonly requires long germination period. Ledlrm glandulosum Fire avoider, rhizomes. L. groenlandicum Unknown probably poor response. L. Labrador-tea rhizomes about 15 to 30 cm deep. groenlandicum cover is much reduced by fire. Linnaea borealis Sprouts from surviving root crown located Susceptible to fire-kill. May survive some twinflower just below soil surface. Fibrous roots and cool fires where duff is moist and not stolons (runners) at soil surface. consumed. Can invade burned area from unburned patches. Lonicera utahensis Sprouts from surviving root crown Often a reduction in cover and frequency Utah honeysuckle following fire. Menziesia ferruginea Sprouts from surviving root crown. Susceptible to fire-kill. Moderate to severe rusty menziesia fires reduce survival and slow redevelopment. Pachistima myrsinites Sprouts from surviving root crown and Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Usually mountain lover from buds along taproot. survives low to moderate severity fires that do not consume the duff and heat soil excessively. Usually increases. Ph ysocarpus malvaceus Sprouts from surviving root crown. Susceptible to fire-kill. Roots may be shallow ninebark damaged by moderate to severe fires. Often a slight decrease following fire. (con.) Table 3 (Con.)

Species Fire Group(s) Fire sunrival strategy Comments on fire response

Prunus virginiana 3,4 Sprouts from surviving root crown. Usually increases coverage following fire. chokeberry Purshia tridentata 2,3,4,7 A weak sprouter. Animal-dispersed seed Very susceptible to fire-kill, especially in antelope bitterbrush and seed caches present on area prior to summer and fall. Decumbent growth form fire. sprouts vigorously, columnar form does not. Spring burns enhance sprouting, fall burns are best for regeneration by seed. Ribes cereum 2,3,4,5,7,8 A weak sprouter from root crown, soil- Susceptible to fire-kill. Seldom survives wax currant stored seed. severe fire. Ribes lacustre 4,6,9 Sprouts from surviving root crown located Resistant to fire-kill. Usually increase prickly currant beneath soil surface. even after a severe fire. Seedlings may establish after low or moderate fires. Ribes viscosissimum 4,5 A weak sprouter, soil-stored seed may Susceptible to fire-kill. Relatively shade sticky currant require heat treatment. intolerant. May contribute substantially to postfire revegetation. Rosa gymnocarpa 356 Sprouts from surviving root crowns. baldhip rose Rosa woodsii 456 Sprouts from surviving root crowns. Some ecotypes can spread by root Woods rose sprouting. Rubus parviflorus 5,6 Sprouts from surviving root rhizomes. It May be enhanced by fire, producing thimbleberry also has soil-stored seed. multiple sprouts. Salix scoulerana Sprouts from surviving root crowns. Wind- Resprouts vigorously after fire. Height Scouler willow dispersed seed. growth may be dramatic. Shepherdia canadensis 4,5,6,7,8 Sprouts from surviving root crown and Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Will russet buffaloberry from buds along taproot. usually survive cool to moderately severe fires that do not consume duff or heat soil extensively. Sorbus scopulina 2,3.4,5,6,7, Sprouts from surviving root crown. mountain ash 8,9,10 Spiraea betulifolia 3,4,5,6,7,8 Sprouts from surviving root crown and Resistant to fire-kill. Will usually survive white spirea from rhizomes which grow 2 to 5 inches even a severe fire. Generally increases (5 to 13 cm) below surface. coverage following fire. Symphoricarpos albus 2,3,4,7,8,10 Weak sprouter from surviving root crown. Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Usually common snowberry maintains prefire frequency and coverage. Symphoricarpos albus 7,8,9,10 Weak sprouter from surviving root crown. Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Usually mountain snowberry maintains prefire frequency and coverage. Vaccinium globulare 5,6,7,8,9 Sprouts from ,surviving rhizomes Increases after cool fires. May take longer blue huckleberry to resprout following severe fires. Vaccinium scoparium 6,7,8,9,10 Sprouts from surviving rhizomes which Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Will grouse whortleberry grow in duff layer or at surface of soil. usually survive mild to moderately severe fires that fail to consume the lower layer of duff. FORBS: Achillea millefolium Sprouts from short shallow rhizome. Reduced by severe fires yarrow Adenocaulon bicolor Short, compact surface rhizomes. Decreased by fire or other disturbance. trail-plant Airborne seed. Postfire development slow. Arnica cordifolia Sprouts from surviving rhizomes which Susceptible to fire-kill. Shoots produce heartleaf arnica creep laterally from 0.4 to 0.8 inch (1 to small crowns within the duff easily killed 2 cm) below soil surface. Wind dispersed. by all but mild fires, which occur when duff is moist. May rapidly invade burned area via windborne seed. Arnica latifolia Sprouts from surviving rhizomes which Susceptible to fire-kill. Will usually survive broadleaf or creep laterally in the soil. mild to moderately severe fires. May mountain arnica exhibit rapid initial regrowth accompanied by heavy flowering and seedling establishment. (con.) Table 3 (Con.)

Species Fire Group(s) Fire survival strategy Comments on fire response

Aster conspicuus 58 Sprouts from surviving rhizomes which Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Will showy aster mostly grow from 0.5 to 2 inches (1.5 to usually survive mild to moderately severe 5 cm) below soil surface fires that do not result in excessive soil heating. May rapidly increase following fire. Astragalus miser Sprouts from buds along surviving taproot Resistant to fire-kill. Can regenerate from weedy milkvetch which may be 2 to 8 inches (5 to 20 cm) taproot even when entire plant crown is below the root crown. destroyed. Can send up shoots and set seed the first year. May increase dramatically following fire. Note: milkvetch is poisonous to sheep and cattle. Balsamorhiza sagittata Regrowth from surviving thick caudex Resistant to fire-kill. Will survive even the arrowleaf balsamroot most severe fire. Clintonia uniflora Sprouts from surviving rhizomes. Usually decreases following fire. Postfire queencup beadlily environment evidently not conducive to rapid recovery. Clematis columbiana Sprouts from surviving root crowns Columbia clematis Coptis occidentalis Slender rhizomes. Fire sensitive; generally is reduced western goldthread following fire. Disporum trachycarpum Rhizomes. D. hookeri is initially decreased by fire but wartberry fairybell recovers to preburn levels relatively rapidly. Epilobium angustifolium Wind-blown seed and sprouts from Needs mineral soil to establish, can fireweed rhizomes. persist vegetatively and flower the first summer following a fire. Large increase following fire. Equisetum arvense Spreading rhizomes and wind-dispersed Frequency unchanged or increased after common horsetail propagules. fire. Especially favored by moist mineral soil exposure. Fragaria virginiana Sprouts from surviving stolons (runners) Susceptible to fire-kill. Will often survive wild strawberry at or just below soil surface. cool fires that do not consume duff because of high duff moisture content. Galium triflorum Sprouts from surviving rhizomes. Susceptible to fire-kill. Usually a sharp sweetscented bedstraw decrease following severe fire. Can increase following spring and fall fires. llliamna rivularis Soil-stored seed. Responds vigorously to severe burning, a pioneer species. Lathyrus nevadensis Rhizomes. In L. ochroleucus these are 0.5 Lathyrus spp. exhibits intermediate Cusick's peavine to 2 inches (1.5 to 5 cm) below the susceptibility. L. hijugatus increases mineral soil surface. somewhat or remains unchanged in frequency after fire. Moldavica parviflora Residual seed in duff. Dramatic increase following fire. American dragon head Decreases after second year. Osmorhiza chilensis Well-developed taproot, sometimes a Little change or some increase in cover. mountain sweet-cicely branched caudex. Seeds transported by Flowering stimulated by opened canopy. animals. Penstemon wilcoxii Surficial branched woody caudex. Seeds Adult plants susceptible, but often many Wilcox's penstemon sprout in first postfire year. seedlings postfire. Pteridium aquilinum Sprouts from surviving rhizomes. Spreads vigorously following fire. Pyrola secunda Sprouts from surviving rhizomes which Susceptible to fire-kill. Coverage sidebells pyrola grow mostly in the duff or at soil surface. frequently reduced following fire. May survive cool fires when duff moisture is high. Senecio streptanthifolius Nonrhizomatous, regenerates from arrowleaf groundsel off-site seed.

(con .) Table 3 (Con.)

Species Fire Group(s) Fire survival strategy Comments on fire response

Smilacina racemosa Sprouts from surviving stout, creeping Moderately resistant to fire-kill. May be feather or false rhizomes. killed by fires that remove duff and heat Solomon's seal soil excessively. Usually maintains prefire frequency. Smilacina stellata Sprouts from surviving creeping rhizomes Moderately resistant to fire-kill. May be starry Solomon's seal killed by fires that remove duff and heat upper soil. Frequency often reduced following fire. Streptopus amplexifolius Extensively rhizomatous. Decreased by fire. twisted stalk Thalictrum occidentale Sprouts from surviving rhizomes. Susceptible to fire-kill. Frequency usually western meadowrue reduced following fire. May survive cool fires that do not consume duff. Trantvetlaria carolinensis Widely spreading rhizomes. Slight decrease after fire. false bugbane Xerophyllum tenax Sprouts from a surviving stout surface Sensitive to fire. Will increase after fires beargrass rhizome. that do not consume duff. Sprouts will flower vigorously after a fire until new overstory canopy develops. GRASSES: Agropyron spicatum Seed germination and some sprouts from Usually not seriously damaged by fire. bluebunch wheatgrass surviving rhizomes. Response depends on severity of fire and physiological state of plant. Damage will be greatest following dry year. Bromus tectorum Seed reserves in soil; variable Individual plants susceptible to heat-kill. cheatgrass germination seasons; relatively high heat Surviving seed germinate at various times resistance of seed. during the year-fall, late winter, spring. Early summer burns before seed matures are more effective for controlling cheatgrass than midsummer and fall burns. Calmagrostis canadensis Invader, wind-disseminated seed; also an Increases on wet to moist postfire sites. bluejoint enduring sprouter. Calamagrostis rubescens Sprouts from surviving rhizomes which Moderately resistant to fire-kill. Will pinegrass grow within the top 2 inches (5 cm) of usually survive cool to moderately severe soil. fires that do not completely consume duff. Burned areas are often successfully invaded by pinegrass. Carex geyeri Sprouts from surviving rhizomes. Invades burned areas and forms dense elk sedge stands. Often decreases immediately following fire; then increases. Carex rossii Seed stored in duff or soil germinates Increased coverage usually results Ross sedge when heat treated. Sprouts from following most fires severe enough to surviving rhizomes. heat but not completely consume duff. Often increases. Festuca idahoensis Seed germination and survival of residual Susceptible to fire-kill. Response will vary Idaho fescue plant. with severity of fire and physiological state of plant. Can be seriously harmed by hot summer fires. Only slightly damaged during spring when soil moisture is high or in fall when growing has ceased. Koeleria cristata Seed germination and residual plant Susceptible to fire-kill. Response will vary junegrass survival. according to fire severity and physiological state of plant. Luzula hitchcockii Sprouts from surviving rhizomes. Often a slight increase following fire. woodrush WILDLIFE RESPONSE TO FIRE closed canopy forests. These birds prefer a dense nesting and foraging cover but do not use fire-created openings. The effects of fire on wildlife are primarily secondary Fire-impervious bird species are unaffected by fire; they effects; fire creates, destroys, enhances, or degrades neither increase nor decrease because of fire. Bird species favorable habitat (food supply, cover, shelter, physical whose niche incorporates successional and climax com- environment) thereby causing changes in the subsequent munity types may be expected to show the highest flex- occurrence and abundance of animal species on a burned ibility in response to fire. area (fig. 2). Table 4 lists the probable effects of fire on Fire-adapted species are associated with habitat that is some mammals, reptiles, and amphibians that occur in cen- characterized by recurring fires of various severity. These tral Idaho forests. The indicated fire effects are either species, however, do not depend on fire. Fire-adapted inferred from habitat requirements or from studies con- species may also occupy areas with the same frequency- ducted on specific wildfire or prescribed fire areas. The severity ratio as fire intolerant species. Fire-adapted birds user is reminded that a major problem in attempting any include those that use both dense canopy areas and open- generalization about the effects of fire on wildlife is the ings; a predator such as the sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter variation in fires: intensity, duration, frequency, location, striatus) is an example. Such birds benefit by increased shape, extent, season, fuels, sites, soils, and prescribed hunting success in recent burns, but generally depend on fires as compared to wildfires (Lyon and others 1978). unburned habitat for nesting sites. The response of bird species to fire has been hypothe- Fire-dependent species are associated with both fire- sized by Kramp and others (1983), using a classification dependent and fire-adapted plant communities. When fire suggested by Walter (1977). Four fire-response categories frequency decreases, these plant communities shift to fire- are recognized in this classification: fire-intolerant, fire- neutral or fire-intolerant types, and fire-dependent birds impervious, fire-adapted, and fire-dependent. are unable to persist. In Central Idaho the blue grouse Fire-intolerant species decrease in abundance after fire (Dendragapus obscurus) is probably fire-dependent. The and are present only in areas characterized by very low bird requires medium to large fire-created forest openings fire frequency and severity. Characteristic central Idaho with shrubs-grass-forb vegetation for breeding adjacent to species include the hermit thrush (Catharus guttatus), red- dense foliage conifers for roosting and hooting. breasted nuthatch (Sitta canadensis), and brown creeper Table 5 present5 fire tolerance for some central Idaho (Certhia familiaris), which are closely associated with bird species.

CLEARCUT HERBACEOUS GRASSES, MATURE TREES, LOGGING& GROWTH TREE SEEDLINGS, LESS HERBACEOUS COMPLETE & SAPLINGS, GROWTH BURN BRUSH

I I DEER - MOUSE - MICROTINES @SHREWSSHREWS - .GROUND ONLY IN NAT POCKET MOSTLY NEA

RABBITS SNOWSHOE PORCUPINE

SUCCESSION m Figure 2-Small mammals found in the successional stages after clearcut logging and burning (Ream and Gruel1 1980). Table 4-Probable effects of fire on some central Idaho mammals, reptiles, and amphibians (major sources: Allen 1983; Beecham and others 1984; Bendell 1974; Bernard and Brown 1977; Black and Tabor 1977; Chandler and others 1983; Halvorson 1981, 1982; Hobbs and Spowart 1984; Kelsall and others 1977; Lyon and others 1978; Maser and others 1981; Melquist and Hornocker 1983; Peek and others 1985; Ream 1981; Thomas 1979; Verner and Bass 1980; Wright and Bailey 1982)

Species Fire Group(s) Habitat considerations Fire effects

MARSUPlALlA (marsupials): Oppossum 2,3,4,5,6 Prefers riparian zones but highly Severe fires may destroy nest sites. Didelphis virginiana adaptable. Nests in hollow trees, brush Relatively impervious to cool surface piles. fires. INSECTIVORA (insect eaters): Masked shrew 2,3,4,5,6,7, Prefers moist situations in forest or May be temporarily eliminated from Sorex cinereus 8,9,10 open. Requires a mat of ground severe burns where duff and ground vegetation for cover; stumps, logs, and cover are absent. Some direct mortality slash piles for nest sites. of nestlings possible. Vagrant shrew 2,3 Prefers streamsides, marshes, and bogs, May be temporarily eliminated from S. vagrans but also occurs in moist soil; mat of severe burns where duff, ground cover ground vegetation or debris for cover. and debris are absent. Some direct Stumps, rotten logs for feeding and mortality of nestlings possible. nesting. Water shrew All Prefers riparian areas at middle and May be eliminated from severely burned S. palustris high elevations. Requires small, cold areas where duff and streamside cover streams and wet areas with protected have been removed. banks and ground cover. Pacific mole 2,3,4,5,6,7, Rarely appear above surface. Prefer Relatively impervious to fires of average Scapanus orarius 8,9,10 well-drained soils. severity. CHIROPTERA (bats): Little brown myotis 2,3,7,8,9,10 Common in forest and at the forest Severe fire may destroy roosting and Myotis lucifugus edge. Requires snags and tree holes for breeding sites. Relatively impervious to roosting and for maternity colony sites. cool and moderate fires. Small-footed myotis 2,3,7,8,9,10 Most common in ponderosa pine zone. Severe fires may destroy roosting and M. subulalus May use hollow trees and snags for breeding sites but with little impact on roosting and breeding. populations. Silver-haired bat 23 Feeds in openings and adjacent to Severe fires may destroy some roosting Lasionycteris noctivagrans mature forest. Roosts in tree foliage; and breeding sites. Relatively impervious uses hollow trees and snags for to fire. breeding. Big brown bat 1,2,3 Common over grassy meadows Severe fires may reduce breeding and Eptesicus fuscus surrounded by ponderosa pine. Roosts roosting sites. Relatively impervious to and breeds in hollow trees and snags. fire. Townsend's big-eared bat 7,8,9,10 May be found in forests up through Relatively impervious to fire. Plecotus townsendi spruce-fir zone. Not a tree user. LAGOMORPHA (pikas, hares, and rabbits): Pika All Prefers high-altitude talus slopes Relatively impervious to fire. Severe fires Ochotona princeps adjacent to forest openings containing may create favorable forest openings grasses and forbs. with abundant grass-forb food supply. Mountain cottontail Prefers dense, shrubby undergrowth and Temporarily eliminated from severe Sylvilagus nuttalli pole-sized trees for cover. Uses downed burns but reoccupies as shrub cover logs for cover and nest sites. increases. Will continue to use less than severe burns. Snowshoe hare Prefers dense shrubs in forest openings Temporarily eliminated from severe Lepus americanus or under pole-sized trees for food and burns. Populations may increase cover. Uses downed logs for cover and dramatically as shrubs resprout and nest sites. dominate the area. Will continue to use many less than severe burns. White-tailed jackrabbit Prefers early grass-forb successional May increase where fire removes L. townsendi stages. overstory and creates meadow-type habitat.

(con.) Table 4 (Con.)

Species Fire Group(s) Habitat considerations Fire effects

RODENTIA (gnawing mammals): Least chipmunk Present in high mountain coniferous Temporarily decreases following severe Eutamias minimus forests. Requires open areas with fire that reduces cover. Returns first stumps, downed logs, and shrubs or season after fire and usually abundant other high vegetation for cover. by third postfire year. Redtail chipmunk 2,3,7,8,9,10 Most common in forest openings or May be temporarily reduced or E. ruficaudus edges with abundant shrub undergrowth. eliminated on severe burns lacking cover. Use of moderate burns may continue at reduced level, especially if cover and fresh seed is abundant. Populations may exceed preburn levels by second or third postfire year. Yellow pine chipmunk All Prefers shrub, seedling, and sapling Recent burns with stumps and shrubs E. amoenus stages of forest succession. Usually are favored habitat, especially as seed abundant in open ponderosa pine and fruit-producing annuals become forests and edges. Needs shelter of available. downed logs, debris, or shrubs. Often burrows under downed logs and stumps. Yellow-bellied marmot All Prefers rocky outcrops or talus slopes, Relatively impervious to fire. Benefits Marmota flaviventris forest openings up through spruce-fir from fire-created openings dominated by zone. Uses downed logs for cover; grass and forbs. burrows under tree roots. Feeds on green grass and forbs. Hoary marmot Found in alpine and subalpine habitats; Relatively impervious to fire. Benefits M. caligata on talus slopes near grassy alpine from fire-created grassy openings. meadows. Uinta ground squirrel Prefers moist habitats with lush May increase dramatically on areas Citellus armatus vegetation and soft soil; subalpine where fire has killed overstory; may be meadows; forest edges. favored by increased light and temperature as well as increase in herbaceous growth. Belding ground squirrel 2,3,4,5,6 Generally restricted to mountain Benefits from fire-created openings that C. beldingi meadows and early successional stages produce abundant herbaceous in ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, and undergrowth. Douglas-fir forests. Nests underground; requires friable soil. Feeds on grasses, forbs, seeds, bulbs, etc. Columbian ground Prefers subalpine meadows, forest May increase on areas where canopy squirrel edges, open woodlands, pine flats, and has been opened by fire, especially if C. columbianus alpine tundra. Uses downed logs for grass, forbs, and seed are abundant. cover. Burrows on rocky, partly forested gentle slopes. Golden-mantled All Widespread from ponderosa pine forest Generally increases on recently burned ground squirrel to alpine meadows. Most abundant in areas due to increased abundance of C. lateralis open forests lacking a dense under- forbs, providing adequate escape cover growth or understory. Needs downed exists. logs, stumps, or rocks for cover. Burrows for shelter. Red squirrel All Found in late successional forests. Nests Essentially eliminated following stand- (pine squirrel) in tree cavities and branches. Feeds on replacing fires. Cavities in fire-killed Tamiasciurus hudsoinicus conifer seeds, nuts, bird eggs, fungi. trees may be used for dens but only if Uses downed logs for cover. surrounded by live trees. Northern flying 2,3,4,5,6,7, Prefers a mature forest. Requires snags Same as for red squirrel except may squirrel 8,9,10 and trees with nest cavities. Also forage for fungi in recent burns. Glaucomys sabrinus requires an abundance of downed logs. Feeds on conifer seed, serviceberries, and mushrooms.

(con.) Table 4 (Con.)

Species Fire Group@) Habitat considerations Fire effects

Northern pocket gopher Wide range Prefers disturbed areas of secondary Population densities usually increase on Thomomys talpoides vegetative growth; also pine forests, areas burned by fires that open canopy alpine parks, and meadows. Occurs and disturb the soil resulting in under- mostly in deep sandy soils but also in growth of early successional forbs and clay and gravelly soils. Requires an grasses. herbaceous food source, especially annual forbs. Beaver Wide range Requires streams or lakes bordered by Usually increases following fires that Castor canadensis stands of aspen, alder, birch, poplars, or initiate a successional sequence that willow for food and building materials. includes aspen as an intermediate stage. Western harvest mouse Wide range Generally restricted to grass-forb stages Generally favored by fires that result in Reithrodontomys megalotis on all habitat types. Usually nests on establishment of seed-producing annual ground but sometimes in woodpecker plants. holes. Deer mouse Wide range Ubiquitous. Occurs in most successional Populations reduce immediately Peromyscus maniculatus stages of most habitat types. Nests in following fire but significantly increase burrows, trees, and stumps. Uses as soon as rain settles the ash. Most downed logs for nesting sites and cover. abundant small mammal on severely burned areas. Bushy-tailed woodrat Prefers rocky situations. Dens in rock Relatively impervious to fires that occur Neotoma cinerea crevices; sometimes in hollow logs. in high-elevation rocky habitat. Usually Gathers conifer seed, berries, fungi, not abundant on recent burns. twigs, shoots, and green vegetation. Southern red-backed All Prefers mesic areas within coniferous Usually eliminated from severely burned mouse (boreal red- forests that contain abundance of large areas within 1 year after fire. If overstory backed vole) debris on forest floor and undergrowth of trees are present and survive, favorable Clethrionomys gapperi shrubs and herbs. Feeds on conifer habitat may return in 7 or more years seed, bark, fungi, and green vegetation. after the fire. A coniferous overhead tree canopy is preferred. Mountain phenacomys All Prefers open grassy areas and forest Benefits from forest openings and early (Heather vole) openings but also riparian zones. Nests successional undergrowth that result Phenacomys intermedius under rocks, stumps, or other debris on from moderate to severe fires. Severe forest floor. Often found in association surface fires may destroy nesting with huckleberry. habitat. Meadow vole Requires a mat of ground cover for Usually eliminated from severe burns Microtus pennsylvanicus runways, palatable herbs, conifer seed, where surface organic layer is absent. and moisture. Uses downed logs for The wet nature of preferred habitat cover and nest sites. Usually found near tends to resist fire. streamside. Montane vole All Habitat includes wet areas and mountain Benefits from fire-created openings that M. montanus meadows within a relatively broad support an undergrowth of grasses, elevational range. Forages on ground for sedges, and other wet site forbs. succulent stems and leaves of grasses and forbs. Constructs underground burrows. Longtail vole Widespread in wet mountain meadows Use increases with removal of tree M. longicaudus and forest edge, often near streams. canopy especially on moist north slopes. Requires a grass-sedge-forb food source. Less restricted to runways and dense grass than other Microtus. Water vole Restricted to alpine marshes, willow- Relatively impervious to fire. Severe fire Arvicoia richardsoni lined stream banks, and grass and that removes streamside cover may sedge areas of the alpine and subalpine result in temporary loss of habitat. forests. Nests under roots, stumps, and logs. Muskrat Wide range. Occupies cattail marshes, banks of Periodic fire retains marshes in a Ondatra zibethicus ponds, lakes, or slow-moving streams. subclimax state and removes Requires a source of succulent grasses unfavorable vegetation that crowds out or sedges, or other aquatic vegetation. useful plants. (con.) Table 4 (Con.)

Species Fire Group@) Habitat considerations Fire effects

-. . ~ ~~~ -. -- Western jumping mouse All Requires a well-developed extensive Generally eliminated from severe burns Zapus princeps herbaceous layer along edge of rivers, that lack the required vegetative cover. streams, lakes, or other wet areas and moist soil. Uses downed logs for cover and nest sites. Eats seed, grass, and forbs. Porcupine Prefers medium and old-age conifer Use of severely burned areas curtailed Erethizon dorsatum stands of less than 70 percent crown especially if overstory is killed. May closure and containing shrubs and continue to use light and moderate herbs. Uses hollow logs and tree burns. cavities for dens. CARNIVORA (flesh-eaters): Coyote Wide range Widespread occurrence in most habitats Increased use of burned areas that Canis latrans and most successional stages. Uses support abundant small mammal hollow logs or stumps for dens. Preys on populations. mice. Gray wolf Highly adaptable but probably restricted Probable increased use of burned areas C. lupus to wilderness forests. Preys on other that support an abundant population of mammals. prey species. Red fox All Prefers open areas in or near forest. Benefits from fires that create favorable Vulpes valpes Uses hollow stumps and logs for dens. habitat for small mammal prey species, Food includes berries, insects, birds, especially those that enhance snowshoe rodents, squirrels, rabbits, and other hare populations. small mammals. Black bear Wide range Prefers mature forests mixed with Benefits from abundant regeneration of Ursus arnericanus shrubfields and meadows. Omnivorous. berry-producing shrubs following fire. Requires windfalls, excavated holes, or Severe fires may destroy favorable den uprooted or hollow trees for den sites. sites. Grizzly bear Wide range Uses all available habitat but prefers Seral forest communities maintained by U. horribilis early successional stages for feeding fire are important for preferred berry- and mature forest for cover. Occurrence producing plants. is increasingly restricted to wilderness- type lands. Raccoon Wide range Very adaptable to environmental change; Relatively impervious to fire because of Procyon lotor in riparian situations; along marshes, mobility and wide ecological amplitude. streams, and lakes. Uses hollow trees and downed logs for dens. Omnivorous. Marten A forest dweller; requires relatively Eliminated from severely burned stands. Martes arnericana dense climax or near-climax situation. Benefits from vegetative mosaics Uses tree or snag cavities and hollow resulting from periodic small fires stumps for nest sites. Food includes tree because of increased food supply. Burns squirrels, chipmunks, mice, berries, containing adequate cover may be used insects. for feeding during summer and fall. Fisher Prefers forest of large trees with many Preferred habitat is adversely affected M. pennanti windfalls and downed logs. Nests in tree by severe fire. Benefits from increase in holes, hollow logs, and snags. Eats prey species on burns adjacent to squirrels, porcupines, woodrats, mice, favorable habitat. Adapts better to early rabbits, insects, and berries. successional stages than marten. Ermine Prefers mature dense forest for breeding Adversely affected by severe fire that (shorttail weasel) and resting; meadows or other forest removes ground debris or kills overstory Mustela errninea openings for hunting. Dens ofien located trees. Benefits from increased biomass in hollow logs and snags. Voles are an of prey species that usually results on important prey; also mice, shrews, and fire-created grass-forb successional chipmunks. stages. Longtail weasel Wide range Ubiquitous-common in most habitats. Benefits from increased biomass of prey M. frenata Prefers open areas and young pole species that usually results on recently stands. Den sites include logs, stumps, burned areas. and snags. A major predator of voles and mice. Also feeds on gophers, chipmunks, birds, insects, and vegetation. (con .) Table 4 (Con.)

Species Fire Group@) Habitat considerations Fire effects

Mink Wide range May occur in any habitat containing fish- Relatively impewious to most fires. May M. vison supporting marshes, lakes, and streams. be adversely affected where fire Hollow logs and tree stumps along removes streamside cover and debris. streams may be used for den sites. Badger Wide range Grass-forb stages of conifer forest Benefits from fires that result in grass- Taxidea taxus succession is a preferred habitat. Likes forb successional stages because of the deep, friable soil for burrowing and abundant rodent populations that are rodent capturing. often present. Striped skunk Wide range Prefers early successional stages of Relatively impervious to fire. Benefits Mephitis mephitis forest but may be found in all stages from increased biomass of prey species and cover types. Uses hollow logs, that usually occur on severe burns. stumps, and snags for den sites. Food includes large insects and small rodents. River otter Wide range Occurs along streams, marshes, and Essentially impervious to fire. Severe Lutra canadensis lakes. Dens in bank. Aquatic. fires may destroy essential escape cover along streams, thereby adversely affecting use. Mountain lion Found throughout all habitat types and Often flourishes on recently burned (cougar, puma) successional stages. Highly mobile. areas due to increased prey availability. Felis concolor Hunts deer, hares, rodents, and porcupines. Lynx Primarily in dense coniferous forests at Benefits from fire-initiated shrub stages Lynx canadensis higher elevations. May den in hollow of succession that support large logs. Snowshoe hare is an important populations of snowshoe hare. prey species. Bobcat Wide range Found in most habitats and successional Relatively impervious to fire. Benefits L. rufus stages; shrub-sapling stages being from any fire-induced increase in especially desirable. May establish den availability of prey species. under large logs or in hollow logs. Preys on rodents, reptiles, and invertebrates. ARTIODACTYLA (even-hoofed mammals): Elk 4,5,6,7,8,9, Prefers semiopen forest but with areas Severe burns usually experience a Cervus canadensis 10 of dense cover for shelter. Requires food decline in first-year use; then an supply of grass, forbs, and shrubs, increase as preferred browse species especially Scouler willow, maple, become available. Moderate fires in sewiceberry, redstem, and chokecherry. forest may remove ground debris and other obstructions to movement. Mule deer Wide range Occupies a wide range of habitats Fire may improve winter nutrition in Odocoileus hemionus including open montane and subalpine grassland and mountain shrub coniferous forest; forest edges, communities by increasing the amount woodlands, and shrubfields. Shrub- of green grasses. Often a decline in use seedling-sapling stage of succession during first postburn year and then an preferred. Needs trees and shrubs for increase in subsequent years. Where cover on winter range. Preferred food antelope bitterbrush is an important includes tender new growth of palatable winter range species, moderate to shrubs-ceanothus, cherry, mountain- severe fires may be detrimental. mahogany, bitterbrush; many forbs and some grasses. Whitetail deer All Prefers dense forest; rough, open Fire-initiated early successional stages 0. virginianus shrublands; thickets along streams and supporting new growth of grasses, forbs, woodlands. Diet includes shrubs, twigs, and shrubs provide a preferred food fungi, grasses, and forbs. source. Moose All Prefers subclimax forests with lakes and Fires that result in abundant aspen and Alces alces swamps. Ideal habitat includes a mosaic willow regeneration create a preferred of numerous age classes and distri- habitat. Optimal successional stage bution of aspen and associated trees occurs from 11 to 30 years following a and shrubs within the wintering range. severe fire. Mountain goat Frequents alpine and high subalpine Relatively impewious to fire; usually Oreomnos americanus zones; on steep slopes. Feeds on above fire-prone forest areas. Fire that grasses, sedges, and shrubs. sweeps up through subalpine and alpine forests may create favorable goat range. (con.) Table 4 (Con.)

Species Fire Group(s) Habitat considerations Fire effects

Bighorn sheep 7,8,9,10 Preferred habitat characterized by Canopy removal by fire may yield (mountain sheep) rugged rocky mountain slopes with increased productivity of undergrowth Ovis canadensis sparse trees and adjacent to alpine and makes available more open habitat meadows. Feeds on alpine shrubs and thereby dispersing populations and forbs in summer; shrubs and perennial reducing incidence of lungworm grasses in winter. infections. Fire may retard successional advance of alpine grasslantls and improve productivity and palatability of important forage species. Fire can improve nutrition in mountain shrublands by increasing availability of green grass. CAUDATA (salamanders): Long-toed salamander All Occupies a variety of habitats from Adversely affected by severe fires that Ambystoma macrodactylum sagebrush steppe to alpine meadows. remove lake- or pond-side debris; Requires ponds or lakes for breeding. otherwise relatively impervious to most Found in rotting logs, under bark and fires. other debris surrounding quiet waters. Tiger salamander 2,4,5,6,7,8, Found in and near pools, ponds, lakes, Impervious to fire except for minor direct A. tigrinum 9,lO and streams. Adults sometimes burrow mortality in severe fire situations. in decayed logs in damp forest situations. SALlENTlA (frogs and toads): Bullfrog Wide range lnhabits lakes, marshes, pools, ponds, Relatively impervious to fire. Rana catesbeiana reservoirs, and streams. Hides under debris at water's edge. Spotted frog All Highly aquatic. Impervious to fire. A. pretiosa Leopard frog Wide range Stays around water. In summer it Generally impervious to fire. Some direct R. pipiens inhabits swamps, grassy woodland or mortality possible from fast-spreading short grass meadows. surface fire. Pacific tree frog All Varied habitats. It may inhabit damp Damp habitat minimizes fire effects. Hyla regilla recesses among rocks and logs in damp Surface fire under severe drying woodland or forest. Uses downed logs conditions could degrade habitat. for hiding and thermal cover. Chorus frog Occupies high grasslands and mountain Relatively impervious to fire because of Pseudacris triseriata forests. Inhabits marshes, meadows, wet habitat. lake margins, and grassy pools. Usually found on the ground or in low plants. Boreal toad All Found in or near water. Burrows in Relatively impervious to fire. (western toad) loose soil. Bufo boreas SQUAMATA (snakes and lizards): Western skink 1,2,4,5,6 Found in woodland and forest with Severe surface fires will reduce cover Eumeces skiltonianus dense vegetation. Inhabits rocky and food supply. streamsides, dry grassy hillsides, forest openings, and meadows. Hides under logs and bark. Diet includes moths, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, and spiders. Western whiptail Found in openings; avoids dense Severe fire may result in some direct Cnemidophorus tigris vegetation. Prefers open woodlands and mortality. Generally benefits from fire- warmer parts of the forest. created openings within its range. Rubber boa All Found near streams and meadows in all Severe surface fire can remove cover (Rocky Mountain boa) forest types; prefers pole to mature and temporarily reduce abundance of Charina bottae stands. Uses rotting logs, and bark of prey species. fallen and standing dead trees for hiding. Feeds on rodents, insects, and lizards on forest floor.

(con.) Table 4 (Con.)

Species Fire Group(s) Habitat considerations Fire effects

Racer 1,2,3 Inhabits open woodlands, wooded Surface fire may adversely affect food (western yellow-bellied ravines, and thickets. Diet includes supply. racer) lizards, frogs, small rodents, snakes, Coluber constrictor and insects. Gopher snake 1,2,4,5,6 Highly adaptable species; occupies a Relatively imperivous to fire because of (bullsnake) variety of habitats. Mainly hunts on wide ecological amplitude. Pituophis rnelanoleucus surface for small mammals. Common garter snake All Widely distributed in many different Impervious to fire. (red-sided garter snake; habitats which include a water source. valley garter snake) Diet largely aquatic but includes small Tharnnophis sirtalis mammals. Western terrestrial Wide range Found in all successional stages of all Relatively impervious to fire because of garter snake habitat types near permanent or its tendency to be close to water. T. elegans intermittent streams and ponds. Western rattlesnake 1,2,3,4,5,6 Highly variable habitats, including open Relatively impervious to fire except for (prairie rattlesnake) woodlands to mountain forests. Often possible direct mortality in severe Crotalus viridis found in rock outcrops. Hunts on surface surface fire situations. for rodents. Table 5-Hypothesized fire tolerance for some central Idaho birds (adapted from Kramp and others 1983)'

Fire intolerant Fire impervious Fire adapted Fire dependent

Ash-throated flycatcher Common crow American kestrel Blue grouse Bewick's wren Robin Robin House wren Black-capped chickadee' Black-billed magpie Black-headed grosbeak Mourning dove Black-throated gray warbler Black vulture Blue grosbeak Sandhill crane Brewer's sparrow Blue-winged teal Blue-winged teal Turkey Brown creeper Brown-headed cowbird Brewer's sparrow Burrowing owl Canadian goose Canadian goose Common bushtit Cedar waxwing Cassin's kingbird Cassin's finch' Chestnut-collared longspur Clark's nutcracker Chipping sparrow Clark's nutcracker Cliff swallow Golden-crowned kinglet Cliff swallow Common flicker Grasshopper sparrow Common flicker Common nighthawk Great horned owl* Common raven Cooper's hawk Hammond's flycatcher Common snipe Dark-eyed junco Hermit thrush Eastern kingbird Downy woodpecker Mountain chickadee" European starling Eastern bluebird Goshawk* Gadwall Eastern meadowlark Northern harrier* Great blue heron Fox sparrow Pine siskin Horned lark Gadwall Pygmy nuthatch Lark bunting Gambel's quail Red-breasted nuthatch' Loggerhead shrike Green-tailed towhee Red crossbill MacGillivray's warbler Hairy woodpecker Ruby-crowned kinglet Mallard House wren Rufous-sided towhee* Mourning dove Killdeer Sharp-shinned hawk' Northern pintail Lark sparrow Solitary vireo Orchard oriole Lazuli bunting Western flycatcher Red-winged blackbird Mallard Western tanager* Snowy egret Mountain bluebird White-crowned sparrow* Song sparrow Northern harrier White-throated sparrow Steller's jay Northern pintail Yellow-rumped warbler' Townsend's solitaire Poor-will Yellow warbler Turkey vulture Rufous-sided towhee Savannah sparrow Screech owl Snowy egret Three-toed woodpecker Tree swallow Vaux's swift Vesper sparrow Violet-green swallow Western bluebird Western kingbird Western meadowlark Western woodpewee Wild turkey Williamson's sapsucker Winter wren Yellow-bellied sapsucker

'Breeding cover negatively impacted by fire, foraging use made of burned areas. 'Caution is urged in using this table. Assignment of a species to one or more categories is based, in most cases, on limited data and opinion. Definitions in the text for each category should be read carefully. FIRE USE CONSIDERATIONS Large Woody Debris The management implications of fire ecology information An important consideration is the retention of enough are presented at the end of each fire group discussion. woody material to maintain forest site quality. The rela- The use of fire to accomplish certain resource manage- tionships between organic matter and ectomycorrhizae in ment objectives is suggested. The following fire use con- Intermountain Region forest soils have been described by siderations apply generally to all Fire Groups. They are Harvey and others (1981) and by Harvey (1982). They presented here to avoid repetition. found ectomycorrhizal development was stimulated by the presence of decayed wood in the soil. Decayed wood also Heat Effects and Insect Attack contributes moisture and nutrients that favor continued seedling growth. These potential benefits are especially Care must be taken when burning in forest stands to important on moderately dry sites. prevent or minimize scorching the Erowns of residual Scattered large logs left on a site also retard soil move- overstory trees. Heavy fuel accumulations or slash concen- ment and provide shade for young seedlings. The more trated near the base of overstory trees may require scat- tolerant tree species, such as subalpine fir or Engelmann tering or other treatment to avoid lethal cambium heating. spruce, will not successfully regenerate without at least Excessive crown scorch, cambium, damage or both can partial shade. Harvey and others (1981) suggest that about result in loss of vigor and increased susceptibility to bark 11 to 17 tonslacre (2.5 to 3.8 kg/m2) of fresh residues beetle attack or tree mortality. For example, the relation- larger than 6 inches (15 cm) in diameter should be left on ships between crown defoliation and mortality caused by the site following logging and burning. In addition, only as the western pine beetle (Dendroctonus brevicomis) in much mineral soil should be bared as is necessary to ob- ponderosa pine has been generalized as follows (Stevens tain desired stocking. Amounts of organic matter in excess and Hall 1960): of the above requirements can be considered undesirable Percent Percent of trees especially on dry sites. Excess buildup of fuels can set the defoliation killed by beetles stage for high-intensity wildfires that result in an extreme 0-25 0-15 reduction of the soil's organic reserves. Numerical rela- 25-50 13-14 tionships for predicting duff and woody fuel consumption 50-75 19-42 by prescribed fire in the Intermountain area are provided 75-100 45-87 by Brown and others (1985). A final reason for leaving moderate amounts of large- The season in which a fire occurs is an important factor diameter woody debris scattered on the site following log- influencing direct tree mortality, and the subsequent oc- ging and burning is to supply food and cover for wildlife. currence, duration, and severity of a beetle attack. The Many small mammals that reside in central Idaho forests result of crown scorching is usually more severe during rely on forest floor debris for cover and nesting sites. the active growth period early in the summer than later Rotten logs are often important foraging sites for both when growth has slowed, terminal buds have formed, and mammals and birds. Logs, for example, are important a food reserve is being accumulated (Wagener 1955, 1961). feeding sites for pileated woodpeckers. Likewise, crown scorching that occurs in early spring, Woodpeckers and other cavity-nesting birds (and mam- before or immediately after bud burst, often results in mals) also require snags, preferably scattered patches of minimum damage to the tree. snags, for nesting sites (McClelland and Frissell 1975; Understory vegetation and dead surface fuels can be McClelland and others 1979). burned without serious threat of subsequent damage by The need to retain moderate amounts of scattered large- bark beetles if the overstory trees are not severely diameter woody debris should not preclude slash disposal. scorched (Fischer 1980; Safay 1981). If accidental scorch- Unabated logging slash represents a significant fire hazard ing does occur, and bark beetle activity is detected, on most sites, usually greatly in excess of the pretreat- prompt removal of the severely scorched trees will reduce ment situation. This increased hazard will exist for at least the probability of subsequent damage to healthy green 3 to 5 years, even with a maximum compaction effect trees. If scorching occurs outside the active growth period, from winter snows. scorched trees may recover and regain lost vigor. This Unabated logging slash as well as large accumulations of may take 3 years, but signs of recovery should be visible deadfall in untreated stands can affect elk behavior and during the first growing season that follows scorching. movement. Elk use may be diminished when slash inside a treatment unit, or when dead and down material outside, Frequency of Burning exceeds 1.5 feet (0.5 m) in depth (Boss and others 1983). The effects of repeated burning on a given site are not well defined for central Idaho forests. Consequently, it Heat Effects on Soil seems prudent to follow the wildfire frequencies that ex- Properly applied, prescribed fire has a low risk of caus- isted prior to organized fire suppression (Arno 1976). Too ing long-term adverse effects on the fertility of the most frequent fire might result in loss of seed source, loss of common central Idaho soils. The effect on naturally infer- nutrients, and a decline in the fertility of the site. tile soils as in the Idaho batholith is, however, unclear and should be monitored. The shallow, granitic soils of the Idaho batholith, including the Salmon Uplands and South- munities it is not unusual for a fire to spread from tree to ern Batholith physiographic regions, tend to be very erodi- tree aided by firebrands created when a subalpine fir ble (Gonsior and Gardner 1971; Megahan 1974; Clayton crown torches-out. Due to the harsh environment, scree and others 1979). The presence of living vegetation, sites revegetate slowly. especially trees and tree roots, is important to soil stabil- ity, hence a severe fire can increase erosion and the Forested Rock possibility of landslides and other mass soil movement (Gonsior and Gardner 1971; Megahan and others 1978; Forested rock is usually a very steep canyon wall or Megahan 1983). The intense heat and ashes resulting from mountain side composed of rock outcrops, cliffs, and occa- burning bulldozer-piled slash can affect regeneration suc- sional clumps of trees clinging to ledges and crevices. cess on the area occupied by the piles. Size of piles should, Forested rock is especially prominent along the canyons of consequently, be kept small and burning should be defer- major rivers and in rugged upper subalpine areas near red to periods of relatively high fuel and soil moisture timberline. These sites bear a certain similarity to scree (Holdorf 1982). sites, but the substrate is relatively stable and climax vegetation frequently become established. Prescribed Fire Planning Surface fires do not burn well because of the vertical and horizontal discontinuity of ground fuels. The probabil- From a fire management perspective, a successful ity of crown fires depends on the density and arrangement prescribed fire is one that is executed safely, burns under of trees on the rock face. In some cases the islands of control, accomplishes the prescribed treatment, and at- vegetation are so widely scattered as to be almost immune tains the land and resource management objectives for the to wildfire. In other cases, particularly in low-elevation area involved. Successful prescribed burning requires plan- Douglas-fir-forested rock communities, unbroken foliage ning. Such planning should be based on the following fac- may extend from the base to the top of a cliff. Each tree tors (Fischer 1978): forms a ladder into the lower branches of the next higher 1. Physical and biological characteristics of the site to tree upslope. In such cases crown fires can occur over be treated. ground that would not support a less severe surface fire. 2. Land and resource management objectives for the Revegetation of rocky sites depends on the severity of site to be treated. the fire, the characteristics and availability of soil, and the 3. Known relationships between preburn environmental availability of a seed source. factors, expected fire behavior, and probable fire effects. 4. The existing art and science of applying fire to a site. Wet Meadow 5. Previous experience from similar treatments on similar sites. A meadow is an opening in the forest that is character- ized by herbaceous vegetation and abundant water. Sub- irrigation is common during at least some part of the FIRE GROUP ZERO: MISCELLANEOUS growing season. Mountain meadows are frequently too wet SPECIAL HABITATS to burn during the fire season. In midsummer, wet meadows often act as natural firebreaks, but during the Group Zero is a miscellaneous collection of habitats that late summer and early fall they may carry grass fires. have fire ecology and management implications, but that It is the nature of streamside meadows to gradually do not fit into the central Idaho habitat type classifications. become drier in the course of primary succession, from the hydric to the mesic condition. The buildup of organic Scree material and 'trapped sediments from the flowing water, combined with a possible deepening of the stream bed and The term "scree" refers to slopes covered with loose lowering of the water table, can leave former meadows in rock fragments, usually lying almost exactly at the max- an intermediate condition between wet meadow and grass- imum possible angle of repose so that any disturbance land. In some such sites the meadow becomes bordered by causes miniature rock slides down the face of the slope. fire-maintained grassland. Fire suppression has allowed Scree slopes may be treeless or they may support scat- conifers to invade meadows where they would not tered trees with sparse undergrowth. Usually scree com- normally be found. munities are regarded as special environments where the vegetation is in an uneasy equilibrium with the unstable substrate. Mountain Grassland The trees most often associated with scree at lower A mountain grassland is a grass-covered opening within elevations are ponderosa pine, limber pine, and Douglas- an otherwise continuous coniferous forest. Mountain fir. At higher elevations, these habitats are occupied by grasslands may act as firebreaks and can be maintained as lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, or grassland by light fires, but usually their fire ecology is whitebark pine. less obvious. Despain (1973), working in the Bighorn The discontinuous fuel often makes scree slopes unburn- Mountains of Wyoming, found stable boundaries between able. Individual trees or islands of vegetation may ignite, grassland and forest, and theorized that topoedaphic fac- but fire spread is limited. A severe, wind-driven fire could tors may produce parks. Daubenmire (1943) suggested pass over the intervening open spaces and destroy a scree that edaphic factors might cause permanent parks. community, but this rarely happens. In subalpine fir com- Langenheim (1962), in west-central Colorado, speculated FIRE GROUP ONE: DRY LIMBER PINE that grasslands dominated by Thurber fescue might be HABITAT TYPES relicts from a warmer and drier period during the Pleistocene. Caution is indicated in management of stands ADP Physiographic adjacent to mountain grasslands until conditions respon- code Habitat type-phase sections sible for their perpetuation are determined. (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others 1981) Aspen Communities 080 Pinus JlexilislHesperochloa Open Northern Aspen communities dominate a variety of sites in central kingii h.t. (PIFLIHEKI), Rockies Idaho. Aspen stands that appear below the elevational limber pinelspikefescue limits of conifers may be climax. More often aspen is a 050 Pinus JlexilislFestuca Open seral species although it may persist for long periods. idahoensis h.t. Northern An aspen clone is long-lived and consists of many in- (PIFLIFEID), limber pine1 Rockies dividual stems produced on a system of lateral roots. The Idaho fescue individual stems (suckers or ramets) are not fire resistant, 060 Pinus JlexilislCercocarpus Open but the clone is fire resistant, sending up new suckers ledifolius h.t. Northern following fires. Fire may rejuvenate deteriorating stands (PIFLICELE), limber Rockies and may be necessary to promote sufficient suckering to pinelcurlleaf mountain- maintain aspen in areas where it is seral (DeByle and mahogany others in press). 070 Pinus JlexilislJuniperus Open communis h.t. Northern Deciduous Riparian Communities (PIFLIJUCO), limber pine1 Rockies common juniper Riparian, flood plain, and ravine communities are typified by various species of cottonwood, birch, willow, dogwood, hawthorn, alder, and sedge. Although the Vegetation species composition of these communities varies through- Limber pine occurs primarily as an incidental forest type out the region, the communities are easily recognizable as in the Open Northern Rockies section of central Idaho wet sites dominated by deciduous species; conifers either (Steele and others 1981). It occupies the driest forest are scarce or entirely absent. Wet-site, spruce-dominated sites-below the lower limits of Douglas-fir forests or on communities are included in Fire Group Nine. exposed rocky sites within the Douglas-fir zone (Steele and Under normal moisture conditions, riparian areas fre- others 1981). Limber pine may either be the only tree quently may act as firebreaks. They can, however, burn species on the site, or codominant with Douglas-fir. Rocky severely when dry especially early in the spring after Mountain juniper is a minor climax associate on some snowmelt and before green-up, or late in the fall. Many of limber pine sites. the deciduous species found on these wet sites resprout Spikefescue and bluebunch wheatgrass are primary following fire, and some of these, for example, alder, put undergrowth species on harsh sites. ldaho fescue and up several new sprouts for each burned plant, thus in- mountain big sagebrush may be conspicuous on less than creasing the stand's density. severe sites. Curlleaf mountain-mahogany, creeping The ecology of these communities is dominated by the barberry, mountain snowberry, common juniper, and predictable disturbances caused by floods and the fluctua- weedy milkvetch occur with varying frequencies. tions in stream course, water tables, soil depth, and soil particle-size distribution and organic matter accumulation that follow such flooding. Forest Fuels Downed, dead woody fuels are rarely a fire hazard in Fire Management Considerations Group One stands. In eastern Montana, for example, fuel Group Zero sites burn poorly under normal summer loads range between 5 and 15 tonslacre (1 and 3.4 kg/m2) weather conditions. Fire managers can take advantage of on limber pine habitat types (Fischer and Clayton 1983; this fact when developing preattack plans and when Brown and See 1981). About 80 percent or more of the delineating fire management areas, units, or zones. These downed woody fuel is 3 inches (7.6 cm) in diameter or sites can also serve as anchor points for fuel breaks and larger. This material is often the result of fallen snags firebreaks. created by a previous fire. Such material is usually scat- Meadows, aspen communities, and riparian zones can be tered about the site (fig. 3). Hazardous fuel conditions are important wildlife habitats. Prescribed fire is often a often the result of dead herbaceous fuels. suitable tool for maintaining desired forage conditions on these sites. Role of Fire fire frequencies of 5 to 25 years. Successful invasion could occur, however, under a frequent fire regime of cool sur- Fire history information for central Idaho limber pine face fires. Keown (1977) killed only 20 percent of the in- sites is lacking. Arno and Gruell (1983) determined a mean vading limber pines with low-severity prescribed fire in fire interval (MFI) of 74 years within the PIFLIAGSP h.t. the spring; his severe fires killed 80 percent of the in southwestern Montana. This MFI may overestimate the invaders. average time between fires at a given point on the ground Frequent low-intensity surface fires could favor develop- because fuels are so light that the trees may not be well ment of limber pine stands by keeping fuels from reaching scarred by fire (Arno and Gruell 1983). levels that would support severe tree-killing fires. The Cooper (1975) found a number of 300-year-old Douglas- possibility that limber pine communities have burned fre- fir with four to six fire scars each on a PIFLIHEKI h.t. in quently in the past with very slight effects (no scarring) northwestern Wyoming. cannot be ruled out. The existing evidence, however, sug- Limber pine invasion of adjacent grass and shrublands is gests infrequent fires. The lack of continuous fuels, a slow process. The fire-susceptibility of young limber pine perhaps due in part to grazing, usually limits fire severity and Douglas-fir would seem to preclude successful invasion although occasional wind-driven crown fires can occur. of sites that experienced historical (pre-1900) grassland

Figure 3-Low-elevation limber pine habitat types in Railroad Canyon, northeast of Leadore, ID, Salmon National Forest. stage can kill most of the trees and return grass to the Forest Succession site. A generalized concept of forest succession in Group One With a long, fire-free interval, the slow-growing trees habitats and how fire affects this succession is shown in will reach maturity and acquire some fire resistance due to figure 4 (subsequent numbers in this section refer to a thickened bark. Light-to-moderate surface fires (if fig. 4). allowed to burn) would be most likely (No. 4) and would Grassland sites that are potential limber pine sites were help maintain an open stand. If fire does not thin the probably maintained as grassland by frequent grass fires mature forest over a very long period, then accumulating (No. 1). It is uncertain that this effect is taking place regeneration and litter can eventually contribute to a anywhere today; moreover, the frequency of fire required wind-driven, stand-destroying wildfire (No. 5). Such a fire to prevent conifer invasion of the grassland is not known. would return the site to grassland. A shrub stage may develop within the PIFLICELE and Successional pathways based on the combined effects of PIFLIJUCO h.t.'s. A thinning fire in the sapling stage fire, plant succession, and fire exclusion are hypothesized could eliminate some shrubs (temporarily) and favor limber in figure 5. pine over Douglas-fir (No. 2). A severe fire (No. 3) at any

Repeated fires

(may not occur) Stand-rep1 aci ng return to grassl and nax Seed1 ings Thinning fire PIFL, PSME & saplings; I PIFL, PSME

Return to grassl and

( "en mature st \ PIFL, PSME

Thinning fire

LEGEND :

GENERALIZED FOREST SUCCESSION

kkCOOL FlRE

SEVERE FIRE

Figure 4-Generalized forest succession in Fire Group One: limber pine climax series habitat types. I I Open ------\,codland

LEGEND : -b SUCCESSION IN ABSENCE OF FlRE -- + RESPONSE TO FIRE LOW COOL OR LIGHT SURFACE FlRE MOD. FlRE OF MODERATE SEVERITY SEVERE HOT STAND-REPLACEMENT FlRE 1.2, etc. REFERENCE NUMBER (SEE TEXT) Figure 5-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group One habitat types.

Fire Management Considerations 130 Pinus ponderosalAgropyron Southern Batholith, spicatum h.t. (PIPOIAGSP), Salmon Uplands, Productivity of trees and undergrowth is usually low on ponderosa pinelbluebunch and Wallowa-Seven limber pine sites. Consequently, high fire control expen- wheatgrass Devils ditures are seldom justified unless life, private property, and adjoining high resource values are seriously threat- 140 Pinus ponderosalFestuca Salmon Uplands, ened. Sparse surface fuels often limit fire spread in open idahoensis h.t. (PIPOIFEID), Southern Batholith, stands. Such stands often serve as natural fuel breaks ponderosa pinelIdaho fescue and Wallowa-Seven under most burning conditions. Severe fires can, however, Devils seriously damage dense stands on steep, windswept slopes 161 Pinus ponderosalPurshia Southern Batholith, and ridges. Recovery on such sites will be slow. tridentata h.t. - Agropyron Salmon Uplands, Limber pine sites are most valuable as a source of food spicatum phase (PIPOIPUTR- and Wallowa-Seven and cover for mule deer, elk, and bighorn sheep especially AGSP), ponderosa pine1 Devils as winter range. Periodic surface fires csn benefit browse bitterbrush - bluebunch and forage production for wildlife on some sites. Periodic wheatgrass phase fire can also check limber pine invasion of adjoining 162 Pinus ponderosalPurshia Southern Batholith, grasslands. tridentata h.t. - Festuca Salmon Uplands, idahoensis phase and Wallowa-Seven FIRE GROUP TWO: WARM. DRY (PIPOIPUTR-FEID), Devils HABITAT TYPES THAT SUPPORT ponderosa pinelbitterbrush - OPEN FORESTS OF PONDEROSA PINE Idaho fescue phase OR DOUGLAS-FIR 195 Pinus ponderosalSymphori- Southern Batholith carpos oreophilus h.t. and Wallowa-Seven ADP Physiographic (PIPOISYOR), ponderosa Devils code Habitat type-phase sections pinelmountain snowberry (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others 210 Pseudotsuga menziesiilAgro- All sections 1981) pyron spicatum h.t. 120 Pinus ponderosalStipa Southern Batholith (PSMEIAGSP), Douglas-fir/ occidentalis h.t. (PIPOISTOC), bluebunch wheatgrass ponderosa pinelwestern needlegrass ADP Physiographic Stands are generally characterized by discontinuous code Habitat type-phase sections patches of deep to very deep needle mat layers. Often, the (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others most abundant surface fuel is dead, or curing grass. This 1981) is especially true for mature, open-grown stands. Downed woody fuel in such stands usually consists of widely scat- 221 Pseudotsuga menziesiilFestuca Challis and Open tered large deadfalls and concentrations of twigs, idahoensis h.t. - Festuca Northern Rockies branchwood, and cones near the base of individual trees. idahoensis phase Fuel loadings in stands infested with dwarf mistletoe (PSMEIFEID-FEID), can be considerably greater than in uninfested stands. Douglas-firlldaho fescue - Severely infested ponderosa pine stands in central Oregon, Idaho fescue phase for example, contained significantly greater amounts of 222 Pseudotsuga menziesiilFestuca Salmon Uplands dead surface fuels of all size classes than did uninfested or idahoensis h.t. - Pinus and Southern less severely infested stands (Koonce 1981). Weir (1916) ponderosa phase Batholith noted that large, dense witches'-brooms caused by dwarf (PSMEIFEID-PIPO), mistletoe in Douglas-fir are often broken from the trees Douglas-fir1Idaho fescue - during snowstorms and accumulate around the bases of ponderosa pine phase the trees (Alexander and Hawksworth 1975). The presence 380 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Open Northern of witches'-brooms in the crowns of ponderosa pine and Symphoricarpos oreophilus Rockies, Challis, Douglas-fir also increase the risk of individual tree "torch h.t. (PSMEISYOR), and Southern out" and subsequent crowning and spotting. Douglas-firlmountain Batholith snowberry Role Of Fire 385 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Challis and Open The natural role of fire in Fire Group Two habitat types Cercocarpus ledifolius h.t. Northern Rockies is threefold (Davis and others 1980): (PSMEICELE), Douglas-fir1 curlleaf mountain-mahogany 1. To maintain grasslands. Grassland areas capable of supporting ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir could be kept in treeless condition through frequent burning. Vegetation 2. To maintain open stands. The open condition can be perpetuated by periodic fires that reduce the number of Fire Group Two sites frequently border grasslands in seedlings, that remove dense understories of saplings or central Idaho. Usually ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir are pole-sized trees, or that thin overstory trees. the only trees on the site, although aspen may be present 3. To encourage tree regeneration. Fire exposes as accidental individuals. Sites are frequently steep south- mineral soil, reduces seedling-damaging insect populations, and west-facing slopes where a scarcity of soil moisture reduces competing vegetation, and increases nutrient limits both establishment and growth rates of trees. availability. Depending on the subsequent seed crop, Lower elevation ponderosa pine communities may occur on weather, and continuity of the seedbed, regeneration may gentle terrain of varying aspect. appear as dense stands, separated thickets, or scattered The fortuitous occurrence of a duff-consuming fire individuals. Periodic fires can create uneven-aged stands followed by a good seed crop and then adequate moisture comprised of groups of trees that vary in age from group can result in sporadic tree regeneration (Steele andoothers to group. Severe fires may result in a predominantly even- 1981). Good seed crops are infrequent. aged stand if regeneration does occur. Undergrowth is primarily composed of grass (fig. 6), although bitterbrush, big sagebrush, mountain snowberry, Recent fire historv studies on the Salmon National and curlleaf mountain-mahogany are major components on Forest provide some information on historical fire fre- some sites. Common grass and forb species include quencies. Data from six small stands in the Colson Creek bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, western needlegrass, drainage (Barrett 1984) show mean fire intervals ranging Wheeler's bluegrass, oniongrass, and arrowleaf from 10 to 18 years for both ponderosa pine and Douglas- balsamroot. fir climax communities. Overall fire intervals range from 3 to 30 years. Other data from Salmon River ponderosa pine stands show presettlement mean fire intervals of Forest Fuels 12 to 22 years (Arno and Wilson 1986). On the Boise Downed, dead woody fuel loads are often light. The National Forest, the mean fire interval for a stand belong- amount of material less than 3 inches (7.6 cm) in diameter ing to the PIPOISYOR h.t. in the Boise Basin was rarely exceeds 5 tonslacre (1 kglm2). The amount of 11 years for the period prior to 1900 (Steele and others material greater than 3 inches (7.6 cm) varies according to 1986). stand age and condition, but generally accounts for nearly Before 1900, fire was a frequent event in ponderosa pine 70 percent or more of the total downed woody fuel load. stands adjacent to western grasslands, occurring at inter- Large downed fuels commonly result from competition in vals of from 5 to 25 years. Arno (1976) reported a range dense stands, fire, insects, or disease; and damage by of 2 to 20 years and mean fire-free intervals of 6 to wind, snow, or tree-felling, and logging residues. 12 years for fires occurring somewhere in small Group

Two ponderosa pine stands on the Bitterroot National The relatively spotty or patchy distribution of dwarf Forest in western Montana. These figures should be con- mistletoe in ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir stands in cen- sidered conservative estimates of past mean fire intervals tral Idaho is due, in large part, to fire history. Severe because many light surface fires can occur without scar- fires often replaced infested stands with relatively ring trees. mistletoe-free young stands. Partial burns resulting from A fire interval of 50 years or more is suggested by less-than-severe fires often produced young trees that Wright (1978) for the stands within the PIPOIPUTR h.t. were rapidly infected by residual overstory trees that sur- He bases this hypothesis on observation and current vived the fire (Alexander and Hawksworth 1975). Accord- knowledge of the susceptibility of bitterbrush to fire (Nord ing to Roth (1974a, 1974b), before fires were controlled in 1965; Weaver 1968; Wright 1978). Gruell (1986) suggests, Oregon ponderosa pine stands, heat from repeated surface however, that the fire interval was short and that many of fires pruned back mistletoe-infected branches in the lower the shrubs were not present in the densities we observe crowns, thus limiting the mistletoe plants to a sometimes today. It has also been proposed that ponderosa pine com- inconspicuous presence high in the forest canopy munities with shrub undergrowth had longer fire intervals (Alexander and Hawksworth 1975). than those communities with grass undergrowth (Gruell On Group Two sites, frequent light fires contribute little and others 1982). to soil erosion because few trees are killed and under- Successful fire control during the 20th century has un- growth and litter return quickly. An intense fire may doubtedly affected some Group Two stands. In some accelerate erosion on the fragile batholith soils, but usually areas, understory trees have created fuel ladders. Large, not as much as the mechanical disturbances often asso- intense fires may result when fire control fails in these ciated with modern fire suppression techniques. stands. Successful fire control also increases the area covered by Group Two stands by allowing ponderosa pine Forest Succession and Douglas-fir to invade formerly fire-maintained grasslands. A generalized concept of forest succession in Fire Group Two and how fire affects this succession is shown in figure 7 (subsequent numbers in this section refer to fig. 7).

Fire- maintained grassland

I 2:"CY'Y '.:EY; or both 1

or both

L PIPO or PSME. or both ,

11 ntai ned LEGEND open, parklike\ , A. :

GENERALIZED FORES T SUCCESSION

Surface fire A COOL FIRE

A SEVERE FIRE Figure 7-Generalized forest succession in Fire Group Two: warm, dry ponderosa pine habitat types. Frequent fires could maintain a grassland community by ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir regeneration (Ryker and killing tree seedlings (No. 1). Grasses dominate the under- Losensky 1983). growth, but other herbs and small shrubs may be present. Prescribed understory burning can be an effective tool Depending on habitat type (see appendix B), ponderosa for reducing natural fuel accumulations in undisturbed pine or Douglas-fir seedlings may become established stands of ponderosa pine, thereby minimizing potential gradually over a long fire-free period, resulting in an all- damage from subsequent wildfire. Such fires can be aged, all-sized stand; or as a single age class following a planned to accomplish multiple objectives, including hazard seedbed-preparing fire (No. 2). In the absence of additional reduction, site preparation, and increased forage produc- fires, the seedlings develop into saplings. Fires during this tion for livestock and wildlife. Where especially heavy fuel period may have the effect of killing the young trees loadings exist, a two-stage burning technique can be used (No. 3) or thinning them (No. 4). to minimize unacceptable damage to overstory trees With sufficient time the remaining trees mature to pole- (Maupin 1981). First entry burns are usually low-intensity size trees. Subsequent light ground fires tend to produce burns employing narrow strip headfires that produce short an open stand of mature trees (No. 5). The open nature of flame lengths and only partial fuel reduction. Desired fuel the stand is a direct result of the fires and stocking limita- reduction is obtained by a subsequent fire conducted under tions and deteriorates if the fires are suppressed. The more severe burning conditions. stand may then (in theory) become overstocked and ac- Range and Wildlife Management-Many Fire Group cumulate enough fuel to support a severe stand-destroying Two sites support livestock grazing during the summer. fire (No. 6). Many sites are important winter range for elk, mule deer, Successional pathways based on the combined effects of and occasionally bighorn sheep. In spring, black bear feed fire, plant succession, and fire exclusion are hypothesized heavily on the perennial grasses and forbs of many sites. in figure 8. Properly applied, fire can increase forage production and enhance the nutritional value of the forage produced. Fire Management Considerations Where sparse fuels exist, grazing may have to be deferred for at least a year before burning in order to create ade- Silviculture-Hazardous fuels resulting from timber cut- quate fuels to carry the fire. ting can be reduced by prescribed burning. Depending on For wildlife habitat management, prescribed fire can be the situation, broadcast burning, understory burning, used to increase undergrowth forage production, control piling and burning, and jackpot burning may be appro- vegetation composition, and increase habitat diversity. A priate. Lopping and scattering, unless followed by burn- prescribed fire frequency of 25 to 30 years is recom- ing, is generally not an acceptable treatment, especially in mended to maintain or enhance presence of desirable ponderosa pine stands. "Red slash" creates a very serious shrubs (Gruel1 and others 1982). Low-intensity spring or fire hazard, particularly in partially cut or thinned pine fall fires can be used to stimulate sprouting and to im- stands, because needle fall and slash compaction occur so prove seedling establishment in senescent stands of bitter- slowly. Fire hazard in untreated slash persists at a rela- brush. More intense fires that expose mineral soil are tively high level for 3 to 5 years following cutting. Even recommended to rejuvenate decadent willow (USDA-FS after compaction is complete the hazard level will remain 1982). General guidelines for the use of prescribed fire for higher than before cutting. Carlton and Pickford (1982) wildlife habitat improvements in Intermountain Region predict that burning will produce a reduction in the depth ponderosa pine stands have been suggested by the Forest of a ponderosa pine slash fuelbed equivalent to a natural Service (1982). settling period of 8 years for burns conducted in the Fire Control-Natural regeneration on Group Two sites spring, and at least 20 years for fall burns. is often sporadic and growth is generally slow. Fire con- Fuel reduction burning generally results in removal of trol should be geared to protecting desirable advanced the duff layer over at least some of the burned area. The regeneration, especially in stands where stocking is exposed mineral soil provides a favorable seedbed for limited. 1. SUCCESS ION FROM THE OPEN, PARKLIKE,OLD GROWTH PONDEROSA PINE OR DOUGLAS -FIR STATE

(See 2 helor for successlr,n (rnm the arass sfatel

2. SUCCESSION FROM THE GRASS STATE

LOW COOL OR LIGHT SURFACE FIRE 1.2. etc. REFERENCE NUMBER (SEE TEXT)

Figure 8-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Two habitat types: (1) hypothethical succession starting from an open, parklike, old growth ponderosa pine or Douglas-fir stand; and (2) hypothetical succession starting from the grass state. FIRE GROUP THREE: WARM, MOIST ADP Physiographic PONDEROSA PINE HABITAT TYPES code Habitat type-phase sections AND WARM, DRY DOUGLAS-FIR (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others HABITAT TYPES USUALLY 1981) DOMINATED BY PONDEROSA PINE 262 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Incidental in Physocarpus malvaceus Salmon Uplands ADP Physiographic h.t. - Calamagrostis and Southern code Habitat type-phase sections rubescens phase Batholith (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others (PSMEIPHMA-CARU), 1981) Douglas-firlninebark - 170 Pinus ponderosal Wallowa-Seven pinegrass phase Symphoricarpos albus h.t. Devils, Salmon 264 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Southern Batholith, (PIPOISYAL), ponderosa Uplands, and Physocarpus malvaceus Salmon Uplands, pinelcommon snowberry Southern Batholith h.t. - Pinus ponderosa phase and Wallowa-Seven 190 Pinus ponderosalPhyso- Southern Batholith (PSMEIPHMA-PIPO), Devils carpus malvaceus h.t. and Salmon Douglas-firlninebark - (PIPOIPHMA), ponderosa Uplands ponderosa pine phase pinelninebark 324 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Southern Batholith, Calamagrostis rubescens Wallowa-Seven Vegetation h.t. - Pinus ponderosa phase Devils, and Fire Group Three includes those warm, dry Douglas-fir (PSMEICARU-PIPO), Salmon Uplands habitat types where ponderosa occurs as a major sera1 or Douglas-firlpinegrass - climax associate and two relatively moist ponderosa pine ponderosa pine phase habitat types found in central Idaho. The Douglas-fir 334 Pseudotsuga menziesiilCarex Southern Batholith, habitat types in this group may support fire-maintained geyeri h.t. - Pinus Wallowa-Seven ponderosa pine stands that develop a Douglas-fir under- ponderosa phase Devils, and story in the absence of fire or other disturbance (Davis (PSMEICAGE-PIPO), Salmon Uplands and others 1980). The vegetation within ponderosa pine Douglas-firlelk sedge - habitat types included here (PIPOISYAL, and PIP01 ponderosa pine phase PHMA h.t.'s) regenerates more readily than those in Fire 397 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Southern Batholith, Group Two, increasing the opportunity for the kind of fuel Berberis repens h.t. - Challis, and Open ladder development characteristic of stands belonging to Symphoricarpos oreophilus Northern Rockies Douglas-fir habitat types included in this group. Examples phase (PSMEIBERE- of Fire Group Three stands are shown in figure 9. SYOR), Douglas-firloregon The habitat types within Fire Group Three occur pre- grape - mountain snowberry dominantly at low to middle elevations within the phase Wallowa-Seven Devils, Salmon Uplands, and Southern 398 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Southern Batholith Batholith physiographic sections of central Idaho. East Berberis repens h.t. - and south of these sections, conditions are drier. The Carex geyeri phase lower tree line occurs at higher elevations and includes (PSMEIBERE-CAGE), little or no ponderosa pine (Steele and others 1981); thus Douglas-firloregon grape - these situations fall into other Fire Groups. elk sedge phase Many stands have a shrub-dominated undergrowth that includes common snowberry, white spirea, rose, choke- 344 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Wallowa-Seven cherry, ninebark, antelope bitterbrush, Oregon grape, Spiraea betulifolia h.t. - Devils, and serviceberry, willow, and mountain snowberry. Recently Pinus ponderosa phase Southern Batholith burned stands may have snowbrush ceanothus as a domi- (PSMEISPBE-PIPO), nant species. Elk sedge and pinegrass dominate under- Douglas-firlwhite spirea - growth in some stands. Other common herbs include ponderosa pine phase oniongrass, arrowleaf balsamroot, sticky geranium, and 315 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Wallowa-Seven silvery lupine (Steele and others 1981). Symphoricarpos albus h.t. - Devils, Salmon Pinus ponderosa phase Uplands, and Forest Fuels (PSMEISYAL-PIPO), Southern Batholith Douglas-firlcommon Fuel loads are heavier on the average than those found snowberry-ponderosa pine in Fire Group Two ponderosa pine stands. The average phase downed dead fuel load for comparable stands sampled in (con.) Montana was about 10 tonslacre (2.24 kglm2) with a range of from 2 to 30 tonslacre (0.45 to 6.73 kglm2) (Fischer 1981a). Figure 9-(A) A PSMEKARU-PIP0 h.t. near Lick Creek, Payette National Forest. Ponderosa pine dominates the overstory, Douglas-fir dominates the understory. (6) A PIPO/SYAL h.t. on a southwest-facing ridge near Banks, ID, Boise National Forest. (C) A PSMEKARU-PIP0 h.t. (D) A PSMEICARU-PIP0 h.t. Both stands C and D have a mixed overstory of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir and represent a later stage of succession than stand A. Stands C and D are located along the South Fork of the Salmon River, Payette National Forest. Fuel conditions and associated fire hazard are usually Some of the most valuable ponderosa pine stands in cen- determined by stand development which in turn is often tral Idaho are growing on Douglas-fir sites because of governed by fire history. As a very general rule, fuel loads reoccurring surface fires (Davis 1952). In the absence of tend to increase with stand age as a result of accumulated fire, relatively dense, stagnant, multistoried Douglas-fir downfall from insect and disease damage, blowdown, and stands can develop. Not only are such stands susceptible natural thinning. Stands of the same age may, however, to crown fires, but they are also often more susceptible to have widely different fuel loads. This is especially true in insect and disease problems. dense, young stands where heavy mortality from natural Recent fire history investigations in the Colson Creek thinning or dwarf mistletoe infection (see Fire Group Two) area, Salmon National Forest, suggest a mean fire interval can cause rapid fuel accumulation. of between 13 and 16 years for four small stands within Live fuels can be a significant factor. Dense thickets of the PSMEISYAL and PSMEIPHMA h.t.'s (Barrett 1984). Douglas-fir regeneration may become established during Fire intervals ranged from 3 to 30 years based on the fire-free periods. Overstory trees become susceptible to method of Arno and Peterson (1983). Mean fire intervals stand-destroying crown fires when such situations are ranging from 10 to 22 years have been determined for allowed to develop. The presence of witches1-brooms also stands within the Boise Basin, Boise National Forest indicates a high potential for torch-out, crowning, and (Steele and others 1986). When these stands are arranged spotting. on a dry-to-moist gradient, the mean fire interval pro- gressively increases: 9.8 years for a stand within the Role of Fire PSMEICAGE h.t., 10.3 years for a stand within the PSMEISPBE h.t., 12.8 years for a dry site PSMEIPHMA Fire's role in presettlement forest stands appears to stand, 15.9 years for a typical site PSMEIPHMA stand, have been important in establishing and maintaining open, and 21.7 years for a moist site PSMEIPHMA stand. All of old-growth stands. Relatively frequent fires: the above stands occupy mid- to upper-slope positions. One 1. Prepared seedbeds favorable to both ponderosa pine stand belonging to the PSMEISPBE h.t. contradicted the and Douglas-fir regeneration, dry-to-moist gradient, with a mean fire interval of 18.1 2. Controlled stocking levels in young stands, favoring years. This stand was situated directly above a stream sapling ponderosa pine over Douglas-fir, bottom; thus it is presumably less vulnerable to a spread- 3. Thinned suppressed pole-sized stands, again favoring ing fire than the other stands. Remember, these short fire ponderosa pine in mixed stands, intervals represent historical fires; they very likely do not 4. Maintained a ponderosa pine "fire climax" on represent current fire history. Douglas-fir habitat types by killing the Douglas-fir Light surface fires that temporarily remove regeneration understory, and undergrowth should not be expected to cause serious 5. Maintained open, parklike stands of ponderosa pine erosion problems. Severe fires, on the other hand, can or Douglas-fir or open mixed stands of both species, cause serious erosion and mass movement problems on the 6. Prevented the development of "fuel ladders" of granitic soils common in this Fire Group (Gray and saplings or small poles that could carry fire into the Megahan 1981). Severe stand-destroying fires have the crowns of the mature stand, effect of reducing evapotranspiration, which may increase 7. Pruned back mistletoe-infected branches in the lower the depth of the saturated zone relative to the soil depth, crowns, thus limiting the mistletoe plants to a sometimes which in turn increases the landslide hazard (Megahan inconspicuous presence high in the forest canopy (Roth 1983). 1974a, 1974b), and 8. Regenerated browse and forage species. Fire- Stand-rep1acing fire. maintained Prepare seedbed grass1 and. nFire- or shrubs / maintained 1 1 ooen. oarkl ike 1 A

shrub stage

rMu1 ti storied, Seed1 ings ; PIPO & PSML a1 1- aged PSME '(PIPO); rarely occurs

Thinning fire

L Mature forest. Saplings; , PIP0 & PSME PIP0 & PSME

Return to grass, Pol e-si zed forbs. & shrubs Thinning fire

Return to grass, forbs, & shrubs

Thinning fire

LEGEND :

GENERALIZED FOREST SUCCESSION

A COOL FlRE

&&SEVERE FlRE

Figure 10-Generalized forest succession in Fire Group Three: warm, moist ponderosa pine habitat types and warm, dry Douglas-fir habitat types usually dominated by ponderosa pine.

pine would be thinned by fire (No. 4). If Douglas-fir is Forest Succession present, the thinning will favor the pine. A cool surface The theoretical Fire Group Three climax forest is an all- fire would also thin a dense "dog hair" thicket of pine or aged ponderosa pine or Douglas-fir stand. Old-growth pine and fir, again to the advantage of the pine. A stands tend to remain fairly open; but if dense under- moderately severe fire, however, would kill the entire stories develop, severe stand-replacing fire can occur, as thicket (No. 5). Pole stands that develop may be quite shown in figure 10, No. 1 (subsequent numbers in this sec- open, fully stocked, or overstocked. They may consist of tion refer to fig. 10). Grass, forbs, or shrubs along with ponderosa pine, a mixture of ponderosa pine and Douglas- conifer seedlings will become established on the site. Very fir, or perhaps only Douglas-fir. A light-to-moderate fire frequent fires (No. 2) maintain a grass or herb and shrub will thin the stand, removing undergrowth and susceptible community on the site. Given an adequate seed source and Douglas-fir or ponderosa pine stems. Subsequent fires site preparation, seedlings usually become established and could maintain an open, ponderosa pine-dominated stand. eventually dominate the site. Douglas-fir seedlings require Severe fires in young stands (No. 7) return the site to some shade for successful establishment on most Group herbs and shrubs. Low-to-moderate fires remove existing Three sites. Any fire during the seedling stage would regeneration and keep mature stands open (No. 8). Such return the site to the herbs and shrubs (No. 3). The effect fires also prepare the site for new regeneration. In the of a fire in the sapling stage depends on stand composition absence of fire, a multistoried all-aged stand of pine or fir and density. A relatively open stand of sapling ponderosa will develop. LEGEND : --+SUCCESSION IN ABSENCE OF FIRE MOD. FlRE OF MODERATE SEVERITY -- + RESPONSE TO FIRE SEVERE HOT STAND-REPLACEMENT FIRE

LOW COOL OR LIGHT SURFACE FIRE 1.2. OtC. REFERENCE NUMBER (SEE TEXT)

Figure 1 1-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Three ponderosa pine habitat types.

Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Three are presented in figures 11 and 12. Figure 11 refers to ponderosa pine habitat types. Figure 12 refers to the Douglas-fir habitat types. Many of the successional stages and pathways hypothesized for Fire Group Two ponderosa pine stands (fig. 4) also apply to ponderosa pine stands in Fire Group Three. The major difference is that Group Three stands tend more toward the dense all-age and multistory condition than to the open, parklike condi- tion shown for Group Two. Very long time

L ------LEGEND :

SUCCESSION IN ABSENCE OF FIRE MOD. FlRE OF MODERATE SEVERITY -- RESPONSE TO FIRE SEVERE HOT STAND-REPLACEMENT FlRE

LOW COOL OR LIGHT SURFACE FIRE 1.2. OtC. REFERENCE NUMBER (SEE TEXT)

Figure 12-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Three Douglas-fir habitat types. Fire Management Considerations properly applied prescribed fire. Such fires can reduce establishment of Douglas-fir, remove accumulated dead Wildfire Hazard Reduction-In the absence of fire, plant materials, recycle nutrients, regenerate old shrubs, hazardous fuel situations can develop in Group Three and increase distribution and production of nutrient-rich stands. The combination of dense Douglas-fir or ponderosa grasses, forbs, and legumes. On some sites burning will pine understories, accumulated deadfall, decadent shrubs, result in a lush vegetation of snowbrush ceanothus, a and other types of accumulated debris and litter can pro- favored browse species. Willms and others (1980) found duce fires severe enough to scorch the crowns and kill the that deer and cattle preferred forage from burned cambium of overstory trees. Brown and others (1985) have Douglas-firbluebunch wheatgrass communities over un- determined relationships for predicting consumption of burned control areas. Refer to Fire Group Two fire forest floor duff and downed, dead, woody fuel to assist management considerations for general guidelines for the managers in planning prescribed fires to safely reduce this use of prescribed fire for wildlife habitat improvement in hazard. Prescribed fire can also be used to reduce the ponderosa pine forests. hazard associated with logging slash resulting from clear- Recreation and Esthetics-Prescribed fire can be used cuts and partial cuts. Most fire prescriptions can be writ- to reduce fire hazard in areas immediately adjoining camp- ten so as to accomplish silvicultural, range, and wildlife grounds. Such treatment not only reduces fire hazard, but objectives as well as hazard reduction. also improves viewing and foot travel from the camp- Silviculture-Where timber management is the objec- ground to the surrounding forest. tive, fire can be used to dis~oseof slash and eliminate mistletoe-infected residual irees on logged over areas, FIRE GROUP FOUR: COOL, DRY prepare seedbeds, reduce herbaceous competition before planting, control species composition, and reduce the prob- DOUGLAS-FIR HABITAT TYPES ability of stand-destroying wildfires. Where ponderosa pine ADP Physiographic is a favored timber species, fire can be used to remove un- code Habitat type-phase sections wanted Douglas-fir regeneration once the pine attains a (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others diameter of 5 inches (13 cm) or more. Wright (1978) 1981) recommends that there be an adequate number of trees 10 to 12 feet (3 to 4 m) tall before regular prescribed 372 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Challis and Open burning begins, although low-intensity surface fires will Arnica cordifolia h.t. - Northern Rockies often leave pine 6 to 8 feet (2 to 2.5 cm) tall unharmed. Astragalus miser phase Larger Douglas-fir trees will also survive most low- (PSMEIARCO-ASMI), severity surface fires; so there need be little concern about Douglas-firlheartleaf completely eliminating fir from the stand. Where bole or arnica - weedy root decay is common on overstory Douglas-fir, increased milkvetch phase mortality should, however, be expected. 3 71 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Challis and Open The practice of prescribed underburning in ponderosa Arnica cordifolia h.t. - Northern Rockies pine-Douglas-fir stands may also reduce the susceptibility Arnica cordifolia phase of such stands to damage by the western spruce budworm (PSMEIARCO-ARCO), (Choristoreura fur-rtiferama) and the tussock moth Douglas-firlheartleaf (Hemerocampa pseudotsugata) (Fellin 1980). arnica - heartleaf The use of fire on some sites, especially those within the arnica phase PSMEICARU-PIP0 h.t., may result in heavy coverages of 360 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Challis and Open pinegrass, especially following low- to moderate-severity Juniperus communis h.t. - Northern Rockies fires. The resulting dense sod may impede tree seedling (PSMEIJUCO), Douglas-fir1 establishment, especially in the absence of bulldozer common juniper scarification. Weaver (1957) reports that successful regeneration of ponderosa pine on grassy sites in eastern 332 Pseudotsuga menziesiilCarex Southern Batholith, Washington occurred on spots where slash piles were geyeri h.t. - Symphoricarpos Salmon Uplands, burned. Ponderosa pine seedlings planted on burned spots oreophilus phase Challis, and Open had increased survival and height growth after 5 years on (PSMEICAGE-SYOR), Northern Rockies sites within the PSMEIPHMA h.t. on the Payette National Douglas-firlelk sedge - Forest (Hall 1971). mountain snowberry phase On some sites, burning results in a lush vegetation of 331 Pseudotsuga menziesiilCarex Challis, Southern snowbrush ceanothus originating from seed stored in the geyeri h.t. - Carex geyeri Batholith, and forest floor. This situation, while favorable to wildlife, may phase (PSMEICAGE- Open Northern impede seedling establishment and early development. Pre- CAGE), Douglas-firlelk Rockies harvest underburns coupled with a shelterwood cut that sedge - elk sedge phase leaves an overstory in control of the site may discourage 385 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Challis, Open development of snowbrush (Martin 1982). Cercocarpus ledi,folius h.t. Northern Rockies, Range and Wildlife Habitat Management-Deer and (PSMEICELE), Douglas- Southern Batholith, elk winter and spring ranges can be rejuvenated with firlcurlleaf mountain- and Salmon mahogany Uplands ADP Physiographic Vegetation code Habitat type-phase sections (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others Douglas-fir is the indicated climax within all habitat 1981) types except the PIENIHYRE h.t. It generally dominates later successional stages as well. Habitat types in this Pseudotsuga menziesiil Challis, Open group are generally too cold for ponderosa pine, although Calamagrostis rubescens Northern Rockies, it may be a coclimax species at the warmest and driest h.t. - Festuca idahoensis Southern Batholith, extreme of the PSMEICELE h.t. With the exceptions of phase (PSMEICARU-FEID), and Salmon some sites within the PSMEICARU-CARU and PSMEI Douglas-firlpinegrass - Uplands SPBE-CARU h.t.'s lodgepole pine is not a major sera1 Idaho fescue phase species. Examples of Fire Group Four stands are shown in figure 13. Pseudotsuga menziesiil Challis, Open Forests in this group tend to be open, and tree regen- Calamagrostis rubescens Northern Rockies, eration is often difficult and sporadic. Undergrowth may h.t. - Calamagrostis Southern Batholith, be sparse but strongly competitive with tree seedlings rubescens phase (PSMEI and Salmon following disturbance. Elk sedge and pinegrass dominate CARU-CARU), Douglas-fir1 Uplands the undergrowth on some sites. Other grasses and forbs pinegrass - pinegrass phase include bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, pussytoes, Pseudotsuga menziesiil Challis, Salmon ballhead sandwort, heartleaf arnica, weedy milkvetch, Spiraea betulifolia h.t. - Uplands, and arrowleaf balsamroot, sticky geranium, and silvery lupine. Calamagrostis rubescens Southern Batholith Common shrubs include mountain snowberry, chokecherry, phase (PSMEISPBE- currant, big sagebrush, mountain mahogany, russet CARU), Douglas-firlwhite buffaloberry, willow, Oregon grape, woods rose, white spirea - pinegrass phase spirea, common snowberry, mountain maple, and Pseudotsuga menziesiil Southern Batholith, snowbrush ceanothus. Spiraea betulifolia h.t. - Challis, Salmon Most of the habitat types in this group have their main Spiraea betulifolia phase Uplands, and Open distribution in the O~enNorthern Rockies and Challis (PSMEISPBE-SPBE), Northern Rockies physiographic sections. These sections lie on the east side Douglas-firlwhite spirea - of major mountain systems and generally do not receive white spirea phase full benefit of winter storms bringing moisture from the Pseudotsuga menziesiil Open Northern Pacific Ocean. They do, however, receive some summer Symphoricarpos albus h.t. - Rockies, Salmon rain from storms originating from the Gulf of Mexico and Symphoricarpos albus phase Uplands, and California coast (Steele and others 1981). This basically (PSMEISYAL-SYAL), Southern Batholith dry climate with summer rain has severai consequences: Douglas-firlcommon 1. Tree growth is slow. snowberry - common 2. Tree seedlings establish readily with the aid of sum- snowberry phase mer rain if seed is available. Pseudotsuga menziesiilAcer Challis and Open 3. Trees in overstocked stands do not respond well to glabrum h.t. - Symphori- Northern Rockies release. carpos oreophilus phase 4. Lightning-caused fires are infrequent. (PSMEIACGL-SYOR), Douglas-firlmountain maple - mountain snowberry phase Picea engelmanniilHypnum Open Northern revolutum h.t. (PIENI Rockies HYRE), sprucelhypnum Figure 13-(A) A PSME/JUCO h. t. (13)A PSME/ARCO h.t. Both stands are in the Wildcat Creek drainage near Leadore, ID, Salmon National Forest. (C) A lower timberline forest on a north-facing slope in Railroad Canyon. Old limber pine show among the Douglas-fir, indicating an earlier stage of succession. Forest Fuels sections, where relatively few lightning ignitions occur. In other areas relatively light fuel loads, sparse undergrowth, Downed, dead, woody fuels are relatively light. Similar and generally open stands also suggest a relatively long sites in Montana averaged about 13 tonslacre (3 kg/m2) fire interval. In southwestern Montana, Arno and Gruel1 (Brown and See 1981). Twigs and small branchwood less (1983) estimated a mean fire-free interval of 41 years than 3 inches (7.62 cm) in diameter usually are the within the PSMEICARU-CARU h.t. Fire may have predominant woody fuels on the forest floor. Fine fuels created and maintained open stand conditions by thinning are less abundant in this group than in Groups One, Two, pole stands and periodically removing understory and Three. Both undergrowth and regeneration are seedlings. The probable role of fire in the distribution of usually sparse. Individual Douglas-fir trees will, however, dwarf mistletoe on Douglas-fir is as reported for Fire often have branches close to the ground; if sufficient Group Two. ground fuels are available, torching can occur. The large, Severe stand-destroying fires may lead to accelerated dense witches'-brooms caused by dwarf mistletoe in erosion on some sites. Sites on granite substrates within Douglas-fir are often broken from the trees during the Southern Batholith and Salmon Uplands physiographic snowstorms. These accumulate around the bases of the sections are the most susceptible to mass wasting follow- trees and increase the likelihood of torching from surface ing severe fires. fires (Weir 1916; Alexander and Hawksworth 1975). Also, large brooms on living or standing dead trees may pro- Forest Succession mote crown fires and spot fires. The combination of widely spaced, thick-barked trees The generalized forest succession discussed here and and the characteristically depauperate undergrowth results illustrated by figure 14 assumes that Douglas-fir is the in a very low fire hazard for most open stands of old- dominant seral species on the site as well as the climax growth Douglas-fir. within all habitat types except the PIENIHYRE h.t., where spruce is the theoretical climax. Sites where lodge- Role Of Fire pole pine is a dominant seral species (some sites within the PSMEICAGE-CAGE and PSMEISPBE-CARU h.t.'s) are The natural role of fire is poorly defined for this group. represented in figure 18 (see Fire Group Five). Severe stand-replacing fires seem likely for dense stands Frequent fire can maintain Fire Group Four sites as of the Open Northern Rockies and Challis physiographic grasslands, as shown in figure 14, No. 1 (subsequent

Fire- maintained grassland (unlikely)

Return to grass, forb A

Grass. forbs L

Underburn; reduce fuel

Keturn to grass, forbs, & shrubs

Thinning fire

LEGEND :

Underburn, GENERALIZED FOREST SUCCESSION reduce fuel, remove understory & COOL FIRE Return to grass forb, & shrub & SEVERE FIRE Figure 14-Generalized forest succession in Fire Group Four: cool, dry Douglas-fir habitat types beyond the normal range of ponderosa pine. numbers in this section refer to fig. 14). Seedling estab- near climax is characterized by a Douglas-fir or Douglas- lishment is often slow and requires a combination of fir and spruce overstory, sparse undergrowth, and favorable seedbed, adequate moisture, and abundant seed. moderate amounts of dead fuel on the forest floor. A light When favorable conditions for seedling establishment do fire in such a stand will remove undergrowth and reduce occur, an even-aged stand usually develops. Any fire in dead woody fuel (No. 6). A severe fire (No. 7) in a climax either seedling or sapling stages returns the site to grass or near-climax stand will destroy the stand and revert the (No. 2). site to the grasslforblshrub state. A light surface fire thins a pole-sized stand by killing the Hypothetical successional pathways following fire and more susceptible stems (No. 3). A pole stand (No. 4) is the absence of fire for most Group Four habitat sites are killed by a severe fire, and the site returns to the grassy presented in figure 15. Figure 15 does not adequately stage. A less-than-severe fire in a mature stand (N;. 5) represent those sites on which lodgepole pine is a major acts as an underburn and thins and opens the stand. Sub- sera1 component (some sites within the PSMEICAGE- sequent light fires maintain the open condition leading to CAGE and PSMEIPSME-CARU h.t.'s). Succession on a parklike Douglas-fir or Douglas-fir and spruce stand. In those sites is better represented in figure 19 (see Fire the absence of fire a near-climax situation develops. The Group Five).

1. DOUGLAS- FIR HA6 ITAT TYPES

2. SPRUCE HA6 ITAT TYPES

Grass forbs

LEGEND :

-b SUCCESSION IN ABSENCE OF FlRE MOD. FlRE OF MODERATE SEVERITY -- RESPONSE TO FIRE SEVERE HOT STAND-REPLACEMENT FIRE LOW COOL OR LIGHT SURFACE FIRE 1.2, etc. REFERENCE NUMBER (SEE TEXT)

Figure 15-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Four habitat types. stand contained mostly mistletoe-deformed saplings and poles. Lyon (1971) presents descriptions of the fire, the prefire forest community, and the first 7 years of postfire vegetal development. Effects on wildlife habitat are stressed. The Neal Canyon prescribed fire was burned during daylight hours under conditions severe enough to produce crown fire in the overstory. All litter and herbaceous plants, all dead woody stems under 3 inches (7.6 cm) in diameter, and all live stems under 2 inches (5.1 cm) were completely consumed. After seven growing seasons, the early seral herbaceous community contained nearly twice as many species as the 0 10 20 30 405060 preburn community. Virtually all the perennial herbaceous species resprouted and many new species appeared. Post- YEARS SINCE FIRE fire canopy cover never dropped significantly below pre- Figure 16-Theoretical development of Neal burn levels (Lyon 1971). Canyon vegetal community (Lyon 1971). The Douglas-fir overstory was killed in the fire, but a new forest has been established by planting, direct seeding, and some natural seeding. Canopy closure of the Fire Management Considerations tree overstory is predicted before postfire year 30 (Lyon 1971). Hazard Reduction and Site Preparation-Fire can be Most of the preburn shrub species have resprouted, but used following timber harvest to prepare seedbed (Ryker the relative importance of several species has been signifi- and Losensky 1983) and to reduce wildfire hazard from cantly modified. Before the fire, crown volume per acre of logging slash. Care must be taken to control fire intensity Rocky Mountain maple was greater than all other shrub when burning in partially cut stands. The hazard reduction species. During the first 7 postfire years, however, Scouler objective in such situations should be to remove fine fuels willow and maple were about equal in crown volume, and only. Attempts to burn larger sized slash could result in crown volume per acre of snowbrush ceanothus nearly sur- fire damage to the residual trees. Also, scattered large passed all other shrub species (Lyon 1971). logs may provide the necessary protection needed for The Neal Canyon prescribed fire was judged to be suc- Douglas-fir seedling survival. cessful in all respects. Silvicultural objectives were Where pinegrass is a component of the undergrowth, achieved, wildlife habitat was significantly improved, and burning may lead to an increase in cover and density. This there was no apparent watershed damage. Lyon (1971) condition requires careful site preparation for successful presents a theoretical model (fig. 16) to show that the regeneration of conifers (Steele and others 1981). preburn forest community description can be used to Wildlife Management-The occurrence of wildfire or predict postfire community structure and long-term the application of prescribed fire following logging can development pattern. result in very favorable big game habitat on some sites, Lyon (1971) properly cautions that sites with depauper- especially where snowbrush ceanothus seed is stored in the ate vegetal communities and fragile soils do not recover soil. The resulting seral stands of snowbrush, willow, from burning in the relatively short-term periods sug- aspen, mountain maple, serviceberry, and other preferred gested at Neal Canyon. wildlife browse are very important to deer and elk. In The increased flammability of both logging slash and some areas, the sites may be important for fawning and standing, living and dead trees containing witches'-brooms calving (Steele and others 1981). was clearly demonstrated by the fire at Neal Canyon. A Prescribed Fire Case Study-A selectively logged Alexander and Hawksworth (1975) describe the situation: stand of Douglas-fir in Neal Canyon on the Ketchum Flaming witches-brooms 2 to 3 feet in diameter Ranger District, Sawtooth National Forest, was burned were carried aloft in the convection column, fell with prescribed fire on August 1, 1963. Major habitat and caused spot fires from 6 to 8 chains outside types represented on the area are PSMEICARU (Fire the control lines. The dense, heavy witches- Group Four) and PSMEIACGL (Fire Groups Four and brooms "exploded" on impact with the ground Five). The basic objective of the fire was to destroy and almost instantly spread flames over a 12- to residual trees in a partially cut stand that was so heavily 15-foot circular area. In addition, some burning infested by dwarf mistletoe that the site was unproductive, brooms rolled down hillsides after landing, caus- and to regenerate a young healthy stand. The prefire ing further fire spread. FIRE GROUP FIVE: MOIST DOUGLAS- however, be slow due to competition from shrubs or pine- FIR HABITAT TYPES grass and elk sedge. Common shrubs include ninebark, mountain maple, serviceberry, Oregon grape, rose, moun- ADP Physiographic tain snowberry, blue huckleberry, dwarf huckleberry, twin- code Habitat type-phase sections flower, and bearberry. In addition to pinegrass and elk (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others sedge, common herbs include bigleaf sandwort, Wilcox's 1981) penstemon, mountain sweet-root, heartleaf arnica, showy aster, false Solomon's seal, and western meadowrue. 396 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Southern Batholith Berberis repens h.t. - Berberis repens phase (PSMEIBERE-BERE), Douglas-firloregon grape - Oregon grape phase Pseudotsuga menziesiil Southern Batholith Osmorhiza chilensis h.t. and Wallowa-Seven (PSMEIOSCH), Douglas- Devils firlmountain sweet-root Pseudotsuga menziesiil Incidental in Vaccinium globulare h.t. Southern Batholith (PSMEIVAGL), Douglas. and Salmon firlblue huckleberry Uplands Pseudotsuga menziesiilAcer Southern Batholith glabrum h.t. - Acer and Challis glabrum phase (PSMEIACGL-ACGL), Douglas-firlmountain maple - mountain maple Figure 17-A productive PSME/PHMA h. t. in an phase early ssucessional stage, near Roaring River, 265 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Challis and Open Boise National Forest. Physocarpus malvaceus Northern Rockies h.t. - Pseudotsuga menziesii phase (PSMEIPHMA-PSME), Forest Fuels Douglas-firlninebark - Depending on stand density, down, dead, woody fuels Douglas-fir phase vary between light and moderate; a range of about 5 to 290 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Incidental in 20 tonslacre (1 to 5 kglm2), although heavier fuel loads Linnaea borealis h.t. Salmon Uplands may occur. The most hazardous conditions occur in rela- (PSMEILIBO), Douglas- tively closed stands with dense Douglas-fir understories. firltwinflower These stands are usually characterized by relatively large 250 Pseudotsuga menziesiil Incidental in amounts of downed twigs and small branchwood less than Vaccinium caespitosum Southern Batholith 3 inches in diameter. Downed as well as standing dead h.t. (PSMEIVACA), and Salmon trees resulting from dwarf mistletoe mortality and Douglas-firldwarf Uplands associated witches'-brooms may add greatly to fuel loads huckleberry and corresponding fire hazard. If dense understories are absent, fire hazard is reduced accordingly; however, the density of overstory trees and Vegetation the presence of dead branches near the ground create a crown fire potential under severe burning conditions. Douglas-fir is the indicated climax species in all habitat Fuel conditions in stands dominated by lodgepole pine types. It is also the major seral species. Ponderosa pine tend to be less hazardous than stands dominated by can be a major seral species within the PSMEIBERE- Douglas-fir. Ladder fuels are much less prevalent, so the BERE and PSMEIOSCH h.t.'s. Except for the greater probability of fire going from the forest floor to the occurrence of Douglas-fir, these habitat types could be in- crowns is not as great. cluded in Fire Group Three. Similarly, lodgepole pine can be a major seral species at cool and moist extremes. Role of Fire Aspen and accidental individuals of subalpine fir occur at some sites. In western Montana, Freedman and Habeck (1984) Fire Group Five sites are more moist than Fire Group estimated the historic mean fire-free interval for sites Four sites, so that fully stocked, closed-canopy forests belonging to the PSMEISYAL-CARU and PSMEIVACA develop (fig. 17). Regeneration following disturbance may, h.t.'s to be about 25 years, with an estimated range of 5 to 67 years (Arno 1976; Gabriel 1976). Arno (1980) fur- Forest Succession ther suggests that forests in the Douglas-fir series ex- perience a range of fire severity resulting in a mosaic of The theoretical climax stand is a multistoried Douglas-fir fire effects. stand. Fire maintains many stands in an open, sera1 condi- In this group, fires of low-to-moderate severity would tion in the Salmon Uplands, Southern Batholith, and open dense stands of pole-sized or larger trees. Subse- Wallowa-Seven Devils physiographic sections as shown in quent light burns would maintain these stands in a figure 18 (subsequent numbers in this section refer to parklike condition. Long fire-free intervals may result in fig. 18). Following a stand-replacing fire (No. 1) grass, overstocked stands or open stands with dense under- forbs, and shrubs will dominate the site. If aspen is pres- stories, creating conditions that might eventually lead to a ent, it resprouts and quickly dominates wherever surviving severe stand-replacing burn. rootstock exists. Any fire will perpetuate this state In these stands fire is an important factor in maintain- (No. 2); if a shrub or aspen canopy develops, conifer estab- ing wildlife habitat. Fire opens up stands by killing over- lishment is slow. Douglas-fir seedlings establish on most story trees, reduces competition by removing understories sites, in the absence of fire, along with ponderosa pine at and rejuvenates sprouting plants through top kill, thus low elevations. Lodgepole pine will also establish on some increasing the availability of browse and forage. colder sites, including low-elevation frost pockets, and can As indicated in Fire Group Two, wildfire has played an dominate the site if a seed source is available. Any fire in important role in the distribution of Douglas-fir and its the seedlinglsapling state (No. 3) returns the site to grass, dwarf mistletoe. The patchy distribution of dwarf mistle- forbs, and shrubs. toe is due, in large part, to fire history (Tinnin and A severe fire in the pole stage (No. 4) will return the Knutson 1973; Alexander and Hawksworth 1975). site to grass, forbs, and shrubs. If serotinous lodgepole pine is present, a stand of lodgepole may result. A light fire in a pole stand (No. 5) or a low-to-moderate fire in a large-pole or mature stand (No. 6) thins the stand, favor- ing ponderosa pine if present, resulting in an open stand of mixed species. Severe fire (No. 7) returns the site to herbs and shrubs. Without fire a climax Douglas-fir forest

herbs R shrubs

Return to herbs & shrubs (aspen) Stand-replacing; prepare seedbed

Return to herbs & shrubs (aspen)

Thinning fire

Thinning fire LEGEND :

GENERALIZED FOREST SUCCESSION Figure 18-Generalized forest succession in Fire Group Five: moist Douglas-fir & COOL FIRE habitat types. && SEVERE FIRE Group Five habitat types tend to support nearly pure pine dominates some seral stands. Hypothetical succes- stands of Douglas-fir or, at high elevations, mixed stands sional pathways for stands with ponderosa pine as the of Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine. Within its elevational dominate seral species are represented in figures 11 (see range, ponderosa pine may mix with Douglas-fir. In cold Fire Group Three) and 22 (see Fire Group Six). Most Fire air drainages all three species may be present. Ponderosa Group Five stands follow the hypothetical successional pathways shown in figure 19.

1. SITES SUPPORTING ESSENTIALLY PURE STANDS OF DOUGLAS- FIR

2. SITES SUPPORTING MIXED STANDS OF DOLIGLAS- FCR AND LODGEPOLE PINE

LEGEND :

SUCCESSION In AasEncE OF FIRE MOD. FIRE OF MODERATE SEVERITY -- + RESPONSE TO FIRE SEVERE HOT BTAND-REPLACEMENT FIRE LOW COOL OR LIGHT SURFACE FIRE 1.2. OtC. REFERENCE NUMBER (SEE TEXT)

Figure 19-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Five habitat types. Arno and others (1985) show the sequence of sera1 com- FIRE GROUP SIX: GRAND FIR munity types developing after stand-destroying wildfire HABITAT TYPES and clearcutting with broadcast burning, mechanical scarification, or no followup treatment within moist ADP Physiographic PSMEIPHMA and PSMEIVAGL-XETE h.t.'s in western code Habitat type-phase sections Montana. (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others 1981) Fire Management Considerations 585 Abies grandislCalama- Wallowa-Seven grostis rubescens h.t. Devils and Fire Group Five stands are quite variable, depending on (ABGRICARU), grand site conditions, stand history, and successional stage. Fire Southern Batholith firlpinegrars management considerations must, therefore, be attuned to this variation. 505 Abies grandislSpiraea Wallowa-Seven betulifolia h.t. Devils and Wildfire Supression-Protection from unwanted fire (ABGRISPBE), grand Southern Batholith may be a major fire management consideration in stands firlwhite spirea where combinations of live and dead fuels result in a severe fire behavior potential. It may be difficult and im- 527 Abies grandislAcer glabrum Wallowa-Seven practical to abate the fire hazard in such stands except in h.t. - Physocarpus Devils and conjunction with timber harvest operations. Preattack malvaceus phase Southern Batholith planning coupled with rapid detection and initial attack (ABGRIACGL-PHMA), may be the only reasonable means to deal with such situa- grand firlmountain maple - tions until such time as harvest operations can be ninebark phase scheduled. 526 Abies grandislAcer glabrum Wallowa-Seven Hazard Reduction and Site Preparation-Fire can be h.t. - Acer glabrum phase Devils and used to prepare seedbeds and reduce hazard following log- (ABGRIACGL-ACGL), Southern Batholith ging including the elemination of mistletoe-infected grand firlmountain maple - residual trees. Care must be taken to control fire intensity mountain maple phase when burning in partially cut stands. The diameter of 591 Abies grandisllinnaea Wallowa-Seven residual Douglas-fir trees and their branching habit will borealis h.t. - Linnaea Devils and dictate, to a large extent, the kind of fire that can be borealis phase (ABGRI Southern Batholith prescribed. Guidelines for fuel consumption and duff LIBO-LIBO), grand firl reduction developed by Brown and others (1985) should be twinflower - twinflower consulted. phase On some sites, light or moderate fires may result in 592 Abies grandisllinnaea Salmon Uplands unusually high coverages of pinegrass. When this condition borealis h.t. - Xerophyllum develops careful site preparation is required for successful tenax pha5e (ABGRILIBO- regeneretion of conifers (Steele and others 1981). XETE), grand firl Wildlife Management-Fire use considerations for wild- twinflower - beargrass life management are similar to those discussed for Fire phase Group Four. Some Fire Group Five sites are represented 515 Abies grandislVaccinium Wallowa-Seven in the prescribed fire case study presented in that discus- globulare h.t. Devils and sion. Many Fire Group Five sites are excellent berry pro- (ABGRIVAGL), grand Southern Batholith ducers for bear, grouse, and humans. Spring burning can firblue huckleberry often increase berry production by top-killing old shrubs, thereby stimulating resprouting (Miller 1977). 510 Abies grandislXerophyllum Salmon Uplands tenm h.t. (ABGRIXETE), and Wallowa- grand firbeargrass Seven Devils 593 Abies grandisllinnaea Wallowa-Seven borealis h.t. - Vaccinium Devils and globulare phase Southern Batholith (ABGRILIBO-VAGL), grand firltwinflower - blue huckleberry phase 511 Abies grandislCoptis Salmon Uplands occidentalis h.t. (ABGRICOOC), grand firl western goldthread 520 Abies grandislClintonia Wallowa-Seven uniflora h.t. (ABGRI Devils and CLUN), grand firl Southern Batholith queencup beadlily Vegetation are also varied. Shrubs include white spirea, pyramid spirea, blue huckleberry, common snowberry, Utah honey- The highly productive habitat types included in this fire suckle, mountain maple, serviceberry, Scouler willow, group are typically more moist than Douglas-fir habitat ninebark, rose, twinflower, and myrtle pachistima. Herbs types and warmer than subalpine fir habitat types. They may include pinegrass, elk sedge, Ross sedge, heartleaf are found between 3,400 ft (1,040 m) and 6,500 ft arnica, western pipsissewa, western meadowrue, sweet- (1,980 m) in elevation and support a very diverse flora root, beargrass, strawberry, Nevada peavine, pathfinder, (Steele and others 1981). Sera1 communities include Hooker fairybells, western goldthread, queencup beadlily, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, Engelmann sidebells pyrola, Solomonplume, and Sitka valerian. See spruce, western larch, and aspen. Undergrowth species figure 20 for examples of Fire Group Six grand fir stands.

Figure 20-(A) An ABGR/ACGL-ACGL h.t. near Lost Valley Reservoir, Payette National Forest. The overstory is dominated by Dougas-fir, with spruce and grand fir sub- dominant. A few ponderosa pine and western larch veterans are still present in the stand. (B) An ABGR/ACGL- PHMA h.t. near the Cabin Creek Campground, Payette National Forest. Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine comprise the overstory and grand fir the understory. (C) An ABGR/CLUN h.t. dominated by Douglas-fir with some ponderosa pine and western larch. Understory is grand fir. Forest Fuels be the first and essentially the only conifer to establish on the site. Douglas-fir and other conifers will regenerate in Quantitative descriptions of fuel loadings on central sheltered microsites and eventually in the shade of the Idaho grand fir habitat types are lacking. Downed, woody ponderosa pine. On less harsh sites a mixed conifer stand fuel loadings on similar habitat types inventoried by establishes with ponderosa pine, western larch, Douglas- Fischer (1981b) in western Montana ranged between about fir, lodgepole pine, spruce, grand fir, and even an occa- 13 and 38 tonslacre. The heavier loadings tended to occur sional subalpine fir seedling. in very moist streamside locations. Drier upland sites A severe fire in a pole stand (No. 3) returns the site to varied between 13 and 20 tonslacre. Brown and See (1981) herbs and shrubs. A surface fire (No. 4) thins the stand, show total downed woody fuel loadings averaging about favoring ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and if within its 16 tonslacre (3.6 kg/m2) within the ABGRIXETE h.t. and range, larch. Repeated low-intensity surface fires maintain about 20 tonslacre (4.5 kg/m2) within the ABGRICLUN an open stand of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir with an h.t. in western Montana and northern Idaho National understory of true firs and spruce. Low-to-moderate fires Forests. (No. 5) in a mature mixed conifer forest result in a Live fuels in the form of understory fir and pine can add similar, fire-maintained seral stand. A severe fire (No. 6) greatly to the crown fire hazard, especially under severe returns the site to herbs and shrubs. In the absence of burning conditions. The often luxuriant undergrowth of fire, grand fir, spruce, and some subalpine fir dominate shrubs and moist-site forbs may retard fire spread under the understory in old-growth stands because ponderosa normal summertime moisture conditions. pine and Douglas-fir will have difficulty regenerating under the dense canopy. As it matures, grand fir develops Role of Fire a thicker, more fire-resistant bark. Occasional low-to- moderate fires (No. 7) create openings in the canopy and Detailed information about the presettlement fire history expose mineral soil. This allows some reproduction of all of central Idaho grand fir stands is scarce. Fire has, none- species and maintains the mixed condition. The less shade- theless, altered these forests (Steele and others 1981). The tolerant seral species will be lost from the near-climax dominance of seral species on drier sites and their pres- stand in the absence of fire, leaving true firs and spruce. ence in most stands, suggests fire's role. On drier grand When fire does occur in the near-climax or the climax fir sites frequent surface fires maintained open stands forest (No. 8) stand replacement is likely. dominated by fire-tolerant ponderosa pine along with some Ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir are seral species in the Douglas-fir. Hall (1976, 1980) estimates that natural warm and dry habitat types of this fire group. The underburns occurred every 10 years in a mixed conifer- ABGRICARU, ABGRISPBE, ABGRIACGL-PHMA, pinegrass forest in the Blue Mountains of Oregon. Part of ABGRIACGL-ACGL, and ABGRILIBO-LIB0 h.t.'s all fit this mixed conifer-pinegrass community is similar to those into this warm, dry subgroup. The ABGRILIBO-LIB0 h.t. of the ABGR-CARU h.t. (Steele and others 1981). may support some lodgepole pine in seral stands, but On cooler and wetter sites, fires were less frequent. ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir will dominate. Succession Fires of low-to-moderate severity favored open, seral in these habitat types is considered in part 1 of figure 21. stands of ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, larch, and possibly The remaining habitat types in this fire group are gen- lodgepole pine. Long fire-free intervals, however, allowed erally cool and moist, hence ponderosa pine is a minor grand fir to dominate and form a closed canopy. Following seral species while lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce severe, stand-replacing fires, persistent shrubs or pine- dominate. Western larch may occur as a minor seral grass dominate some sites when conifers fail to establish. species or, within the ABGRICLUN h.t., a major seral The mean fire interval for grand fir habitat types on the species on the Payette National Forest. Stands belonging Nez Perce National Forest in north-central Idaho was to the ABGRIVACA are included in Fire Group Seven, but estimated to be 70 to 120 years (Arno 1980). some stands respond to fire as do Fire Group Six stands. This cool, moist subgroup consists of the ABGRIVAGL, Forest Succession ABGRILIBO-XETE, ABGRICLUN, ABGRIXETE, and ABGRICOOC h.t.'s. Hypothetical successional pathways The theoretical Fire Group Six climax forest consists of for stands within these habitat types are represented in all-aged grand fir and some incidental subalpine fir. The part 2 of figure 22. more common old-growth or near-climax stands usually contain some longer lived midtolerant species. The general Fire Management Considerations path of succession is depicted in figure 21 (subsequent numbers in this section refer to fig. 21). Group Six sites have the highest potential for growing In this fire group, the initial herb and shrub community timber. Protection from fire damage is, consequently, an can persist if conifer regeneration is not prompt. Fire in important fire management task in managed stands. This I this stage or during the seedling and sapling stage (Nos. 1 task is often complicated by the presence of hazardous fuel and 2), maintains a thick sod of pinegrass in the dry conditions which in many instances are the result of the - habitat types or a dense layer of shrubs in some of the successful fire suppression efforts of the past. In seral moist habitat types. The composition of the initial stand is stands dominated by large ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir, variable. At high elevations or in frost pockets lodgepole dense fir-dominated understories can be burned during pine may dominate as it does in Fire Group Seven. At low relatively mild conditions thereby lessening the chance of elevations on south and west slopes, ponderosa pine may stand-destroying wildfires under severe burning condi- Fire- maintained herb or shrub communi tv

Stand-rep1 acing

sera1 species mixed forest herbs & shrubs

Thinning fire Mature forest, herbs & shrubs

Thinning fire Return to herbs & shrubs Fire- maintained open stand; PIP0 & PSME ( LAOC)

LEGEND :

GENERALIZED FOREST SUCCESSION

'4%COOL FIRE

'4 SEVERE FIRE

Figure 21-Generalized forest succession in Fire Group Six: grand fir habitat types. tions. Many unproductive stands, however, would probably jectives for the site. The lush shrubbery can provide favor- benefit from being destroyed by fire. able browse for big game animals. If immediate domina- Prescribed fire can be used following cutting to reduce tion of the site by shrubs is undesirable, the preharvest fresh logging slash, accumulated woody debris, and prescribed burning (Martin 1982), described in Fire Group undesirable understory trees. Used in conjunction with Three, may be an appropriate treatment. clearcutting, broadcast fire can, in addition to fuel reduc- Ponderosa pine stands can be maintained on Group Six tion, provide a favorable seedbed for ponderosa pine and grand fir sites by periodic underburning once the pine has western larch. Broadcast burning may be inappropriate attained a diameter of 5 inches or more as described in when partial cutting leaves heat-susceptible grand fir in Fire Group Three. Periodic prescribed fires designed to the overstory. Large-diameter grand fir may, however, favor pine over fir will lessen the risk of serious losses survive prescribed understory burning if slash and other from western spruce budworm and the tussock moth. woody debris is cleared from the base of crop trees and In some Group Six habitat types, blue huckleberry is an flame lengths are controlled to minimize crown scorch. important food source for bear, grouse, and humans. Logging and burning on many Group Six sites often Berry production can be maintained or increased by result in a dense stand of tall shrubs that may dominate periodic spring burning (Miller 1977), as described in Fire the site for at least 20 years. This may or may not be a Group Five, and by maintaining open stand conditions. desirable response, depending on land management ob- 1. SUCCESS ION WITH PONDEROSA PINE AND DOUGLAS-FI R

2. SUCCESSION WITH MIXED SERAL STANDS

Figure 22-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Six habitat types. FIRE GROUP SEVEN: COOL HABITAT ADP Physiograhic TYPES USUALLY DOMINATED BY code Habitat type-phase sections (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others LODGEPOLE PINE 1981) ADP Physiographic Abies lasiocarpal Salmon Uplands code Habitat type-phase sections Xerophyllum tenax h.t. - (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others Luzula hitchcockii phase 1981) (ABLAIXETE-LUHI), 580 Abies grandislVaccinium Southern Batholith subalpine firlbeargrass - caespitosum h.t. smooth woodrush phase (ABGRIVACA), grand Abies 1asiocarpalVaccinium Salmon Uplands firldwarf huckleberry globulare h.t. - Vaccinium 640 Abies 1asiocarpalVaccinium Southern Batholith scoparium phase caespitosum h.t. and Salmon (ABLAIVAGL-VASC), (ABLAIVACA), subalpine Uplands subalpine firblue firldwarf huckleberry huckleberry - grouse whortleberry phase 732 Abies 1asiocarpaIVaccinium Southern Batholith, scoparium h.t. - Vaccinium Challis, Salmon Abies 1asiocarpalCarex Southern Batholith, geyeri h.t. - Carex geyeri scoparium phase Uplands, and Open Salmon Uplands, (ABLAIVASC-VASC), Northern Rockies phase (ABLAICAGE- Challis, and Open subalpine firlgrouse CAGE), subalpine firlelk Northern Rockies sedge - elk sedge phase whortleberry - grouse whortleberry phase Abies lasiocarpal Southern Batholith, Calamagrostis rubescens 654 Abies lasiocarpal Southern Batholith Challis, and Open Calamagrostis canadensis h.t. (ABLAICARU), Northern Rockies subalpine firlpinegrass h.t. - Vaccinium caespitosum phase Abies lasiocarpa1Alnus Incidental in (ABLAICACA-VACA), sinuata (ABLAIALSI), Salmon Uplands subalpine firbluejoint - subalpine firlSitka alder dwarf huckleberry phase Abies 1asiocarpaILinnaea Southern Batholith, 651 Abies lasiocarpal Salmon Uplands borealis h.t. - Vaccinium Salmon Uplands, Calamagrostis canadensis and Southern scoparium phase and Open h.t. - Calamagrostis Batholith (ABLAILIBO-VASC), Northern Rockies canadensis phase subalpine firltwinflower - (ABLAICACA-CACA), grouse whortleberry phase subalpine firbluejoint - Abies lasiocarpallinnaea Salmon Uplands, bluejoint phase borealis h.t. - Xerophyllum Southern Batholith, 655 Abies lasiocarpal Challis, Southern tenax phase (ABLAI and Open Calamagrostis canadensis Batholith, and LIBO-XETE), subalpine Northern Rockies h.t. - Ledum glandulosum Salmon Uplands firltwinflower - beargrass phase (ABLAICACA- phase LEGL), subalpine fir1 Abies 1asiocarpalVaccinium Southern Batholith, bluejoint - Labrador-tea scoparium h.t. - Salmon Uplands, phase Calamagrostis rubescens and Open 691 Abies lasiocarpal Southern Batholith, phase (ABLAIVASC- Northern Rockies Xerophyllum tenax h.t. - Salmon Uplands, CARU), subalpine fir1 Vaccinium globulare phase ans Open Northern grouse whortleberry - (ABLAIXETE-VAGL), Rockies pinegrass phase subalpine firheargrass - Pinus contortalFestuca Southern Batholith blue huckleberry phase idahoensis h.t. and occasionally in 692 Abies lasiocarpal Salmon Uplands (PICOIFEID), lodgepole Challis, Salmon Xerophyllum tenax h.t. - pinelIdaho fescue Uplands, and Open Vaccinium scoparium Northern Rockies phase (ABLAIXETE- Pinus contortalVaccinium Southern Batholith VASC), subalpine fir1 caespitosum c.t. beargrass - grouse (PICOIVACA c.t.), whortleberry phase lodgepole pineldwarf huckleberry ADP Physiographic lodgepole pine, with little evidence that any other species code Habitat type-phase sections is climax. The other group contains grand fir and sub- (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others alpine fir habitat types where succession is commonly 1981) dominated by lodgepole pine (fig. 23). Grand fir, spruce, and subalpine fir occur on most fir habitat types. Douglas- 940 Pinus contortalVaccinium Southern Batholith, fir is also found on some sites, and ponderosa pine is a scoparium c.t. Salmon Uplands, minor sera1 s~ecieson some ABGRIVACA sites. (PICOIVASC c.t.), and Open On some severe sites, lodgepole pine can be dominant lodgepole pinelgrouse Northern Rockies and appear almost stable within the ABLAIVACA, whortleberry ABLAIVASC, and sometimes ABLAIVAGL h.t.'s. These 955 Pinus contortalCarex Southern Batholith situations should be treated as belonging to the first geyeri c.t. subgroup of essentially pure lodgepole pine stands. (PICOICAGE c.t.), The most common shrubs are dwarf huckleberry, blue lodgepole pinelelk sedge huckleberry, and grouse whortleberry. Other shrubs in- clude Labrador-tea, myrtle pachistima, Sitka alder, moun- tain snowberry, and big sagebrush. The herbaceous layer Vegetation is frequently dominated by grass. Pinegrass, bluejoint, elk sedge, or Idaho fescue may be predominant. Other com- There are two subgroups in Fire Group Seven. One mon species include beargrass, smooth woodrush, group consists of lodgepole pine habitat types and com- twinflower, Ross sedge, western needlegrass, Hook violet, munity types that support essentially pure stands of heartleaf arnica, silvery lupine, Sitka valerian, and rosy pussytoes.

Figure 23-(A) An ABLA/CAGE h.t. alongside the Warren Wagon Road, Payette National Forest. The stand is dominated by lodgepole pine but undergoing invasion by subalpine fir. (8) A PICO/FEID h.t. northwest of Stanley, ID, Challis National Forest. (C) An ABWALSI h.t. near the Lick Creek Road, Salmon National Forest. Forest Fuels windthrow, lodgepole pine snags on the Sleeping Child Burn (Bitterroot National Forest) fell at an annual rate of Brown (1975) has characterized fuel cycles and fire 13.4 percent (fig. 25). Overall, an average of 497 snags per hazard in lodgepole pine stands, as shown in figure 24. acre was reduced to an average of 75 snags per acre after Curve A of that figure corresponds to what Muraro (1971) 15 years (table 6). After 21 years, nearly 93 percent of all describes as typical fire hazard in lodgepole pine where snags had fallen (fig. 25). young, especially dense stands are most hazardous. Least hazardous are moderately dense-to-open advanced, im- Table 6-Average number of snags per acre by size class and mature, and mature stands. Hazard increases as stands year of count, Sleeping Child Burn, Bitterroot National 1977) become overmature and as ground fuels build up from Forest, MT (Lyon (totals may not agree because of rounding) downfall and establishment of shade-tolerant species. Curve C depicts conditions not uncommonly found. Ground Year fuel quantities and fire potential remain relatively low Size ppp throughout the life of the stand until it undergoes class 1962 1963 1966 1969 1971 1976 ~~~~p~~--~-- decadence. Individual stands can vary anywhere between Inches curves A and C during younger growth periods, and Under 3 266 265 96 41 28 4 develop higher fire potential at later periods of growth 3 8 159 156 124 103 85 50 (curve B). to In a young lodgepole stand the snags created by the 8 to 12 64 62 40 36 24 19 previous fire provide an immediate source of downfall. Over 12 7 7 7 6 4 3 Lyon (1977, 1984) found that after 2 years with little Total 497 390 268 186 141 75

Young l mrnature Mature Overmature Figure 24-Fuel cycles and fire intensity potential in lodgepole pine (Brown 7975). TIME SINCE ESTABLISHMENT

SNAG ATTRITION

SNAGS 3-8 INCHES

SNAGS OVER 8 INCHES

AVERAGE. ALL SNAGS

3 INCHES

Figure 25-Percentage of lodgepole pine snags still standing, by year and diameter class, Sleep- ing Child Burn, Bitterroot National Forest, MT, 0 4 8 12 16 20 7962-82 (Lyon 7984). SUCCESSION YEARS Aside from fire-created snags, sources of downfall are stand condition was characterized by moderate to dense natural thinning; snow breakage and windthrow of live stocking of even-aged lodgepole pine seedlings or saplings, trees: dwarf mistletoe-related mortalitv:", and mountain 3 to 40 years old. These stands contained heavy loadings pine beetle attack and subsequent mortality. Dwarf mistle- of large-diameter, windthrown, fire-killed snags and very toe often adds to the ground fuel and causes witches'- little duff. The even-aged lodgepole pine stands were brooms that enhance vertical fuel continuitv and thus characterized by dense, even-aged lodgepole, 85 to 140 increase the likelihood of ground fuels creating a "fire years old, with closed or nearly closed canopies and ladder" to burn out individual tree crowns (Brown 1975). evidence of some natural thinning in progress. Decay had The witches1-brooms also tend to trap fallen needles, thus reduced the heavy loading of down material from the increasing the scattering of vertically situated fine fuels, previous fire. The transition stands were characterized by which are ideally situated for optional fire flammability mostly mixed overstories of old-age lodgepole pine 230 to (Alexander and Hawksworth 1975). Immature dwarf 250 years old, along with spruce and subalpine fir over mistletoe-infested lodgepole pine stands have much more spruce-fir understories. Increasingly large-diameter fuel dead material on the ground, more stems, and more loadings reflect the breakup of the lodgepole pine stand. foliage near the ground, than comparable uninfested The spruce-fir stands were characterized by overstories of stands (Hawksworth and Hinds 1964). Mountain pine subalpine fir and scattered, very large spruce, 250 years beetle attack is often the mechanism that causes the or more in age. Heavy fuel loads reflect the downing of lodgepole stand to break up. Cumulative mortality during dead lodgepole. a mountain pine beetle epidemic (average duration about 11 years) frequently amounts to 85 percent or more of the Role of Fire large, 8-inch (20-cm) diameter trees in a lodgepole pine stand (Cole and Amman 1980). Arno (1980) concluded that more frequent (generally Published fuel inventory data for central Idaho lodgepole between 25 and 50 years apart) low-to-medium severity pine stands are lacking. Data from Montana and northern surface fires were associated with lodgepole pine- Idaho indicate down, dead woody fuel loads of 3 to 35 dominated communities having dry summers. In areas tonslacre (0.7 to 8 kg/m2) (Fischer 1981c; Brown and See with moist summers, fire was less frequent and more 1981). As a general rule, central Idaho lodgepole pine severe, with large stand-replacement fires more prevalent, stands are less heavily laden with downed, dead, woody although stand-replacement fires did occur to some extent fuel than are neighboring stands in Montana where fuel in all areas where lodgepole pine was dominant. loadings in excess of 150 tonslacre (34 kglm2) have been Romme (1982) found that light surface fires on a high reported (Mathews 1980). plateau west of Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park Moderate to heavy fuel loads are much more likely to spread slowly and covered only small areas before going occur in sera1 stands of lodgepole pine than in climax out. Growth is slow on these unfavorable sites, and it stands in central Idaho. This is true for live fuels as well takes over 300 years before fuel accumulations support as dead, woody fuels. Dense understories of spruce and fire. Then a severe stand-replacement crown fire would be subalpine fir (or grand fir) develop beneath the overstory most likely. lodgepole pine within subalpine fir (or grand fir) habitat In central Idaho, the most persistent and possibly climax types. When sufficient surface fuels exist beneath such lodgepole pine stands occur in broad, high-elevation valleys understories an effective fuel ladder is created and crown where its dominance appears to be related to its ability to fire hazard is great. withstand daily temperature extremes and fluctuating The association between successional stage and fuel water tables (Steele and others 1981). These stands often loading on lodgepole pine sites is reflected in table 7. The consist of widely spaced trees with little undergrowth on values in table 7 represent the results of fuel inventories gentle slopes; fire appears to be a minor factor. Lodgepole on 36 stands belonging to the ABLAIVASC and pine competes well with other tree species on sites with ABLAICAGE h.t.'s within the Teton Wilderness, western shallow granitic soils, where summer frosts are frequent Wyoming (Oberheu and Mutch 1976). The recent burn and summer rainfall is low (Lotan and Perry 1983).

Table 7-Dead fuel loads associated with stands within the ABLAIVASC and ABLAICAGE h.t.'s, Teton Wilderness, WY (source Oberheu and Mutch 1976)

Downed, dead woody fuel by size classes (inches)

Stand Stand 3 + 3 + condition age 0 '/,-I 1-3 sound rotten Total Litter Duff

Years ------Tons per acre ------Recent burn 3-40 0.1 0.3 1.1 25.3 17.0 43.8 0.5 10.1 Even-aged 85-140 .1 .5 1.0 4.2 2.8 8.6 1.2 28.9 lodgepole Transition 230-250 .2 .8 1.9 12.2 9.5 24.6 1.5 33.2 Spruce-fir 250 + .2 .9 2.3 10.2 14.2 27.8 1 .O 37.3 In subalpine fir and grand fir habitat types, where The Lodgepole Pine Fire Cycle-Brown (1975) sum- lodgepole pine is the dominant seral species, fire-induced marized the lodgepole pine fire cycle and the many inter- stands of lodgepole pine cover large areas, and the related factors that influence it (fig. 26). His discussion of reduced seed sources of other conifers delay their replace- fire cycles and community dynamics in lodgepole pine ment (Steele and others 1981). Repeated wildfire further forests is an important source of information on the role depletes seed sources of other conifers in the area. This of fire in lodgepole pine forests. Brown also discussed the leads to even more uniform stands of lodgepole pine, different effects of fires of varying severity on lodgepole which become increasingly flammable. Fuels build up in pine forests. The critical role of fuel and duff moisture in mature lodgepole stands as a result of natural thinning, determining fire severity and, consequently, fire effects is mortality caused by mountain pine beetle outbreaks and emphasized. dwarf mistletoe infestations, and deadfall from previous Fire and Dwarf Mistletoe-Infection by dwarf mistle- fires. Suppressed understories of subalpine fir and spruce toe, as noted earlier, usually enhances the flammability of create fuel ladders from dead surface fuels to the over- lodgepole pine, thereby increasing the risk of severe wild- story. Eventually a chance ignition leads to a stand- fire and subsequent stand replacement. Such fires main- replacement fire. Soils may become unstable following tain lodgepole pine on the burned site and, in turn, assure such a fire especially on the steep slopes of the Idaho that mistletoe seed sources are not eliminated. This can be batholith. an especially important role of fire in seral lodgepole pine Pinegrass often persists under near-climax conditions in stands growing on subalpine fir habitat types because lower elevation stands. Following fire, it can increase succession toward nonsusceptible climax tree species is rapidly from rhizomes and develop a dense sod that im- interrupted. In the unlikely event that no infected lodge- pedes establishment of other species, including trees pole pine remain adjacent to a burned area, the fire- (Steele and others 1983). regenerated stand could remain free of dwarf mistletoe.

\ i LODGEPOLE FUEL BUILDUP

Figure 26-Lodgepole pine fire cycle showing interrelationships among influences (Brown 19 75). More likely, however, the spread of mistletoe from adja- when they do occur (Brown 1975). Hot fires of cent unburned mature stands into reproduction on the this nature eliminate Douglas-fir, which otherwise burned area would be relatively slow. Hawksworth (1958) is more resistant to fire damage than lodgepole reported an average spread rate of 1 to 2 feet (0.3 to pine. The dominant shade-tolerant species are 0.6 m) per year. Taylor (1969) found that infection in eliminated, resulting in a return to a pure lodge- regenerated lodgepole pine burns in Yellowstone National pole pine forest. On the other hand, light surface Park was directly correlated with time since burn-only fires would not be adequate to kill large, thick- 1 percent of the lodgepole pines in the new stand were barked Douglas-fir and return lodgepole pine to a infected after 57 years; 10 percent after 111 years; and dominant position in the stand. 36 percent after about 300 years. In situations where less- Following regeneration of lodgepole pine after than-severe fires occur, surviving mistletoe-infected fire, the mountain pine beetle-lodgepole interac- residual lodgepole pines will quickly infect young trees as tions would be similar to those described in the soon as they are tall enough to remain at least partially absence of fire. A fire may interrupt the sere at uncovered by winter snows. any time, reverting the stand back to pure lodge- Fire and the Mountain Pine Beetle-The interactions pole pine. However, once succession is complete, of fire and mountain pine beetle are inextricable in most lodgepole pine seed will no longer be available to lodgepole pine forests. The following excerpt from Amman seed the burned areas except along edges where (1977) describes this interrelationship: the spruce-fir climax joins persistent or climax lodgepole pine. ROLE OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE WHERE LODGEPOLE PINE IS SERAL ROLE OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE WHERE Absence of fire: Lodgepole pine stands depleted LODGEPOLE PINE IS PERSISTENT OR by the beetle and not subjected to fire are even- CLIMAX tually succeeded by the more shade-tolerant Lodgepole pine is persistent over large acreages, species consisting primarily of Douglas-fir at the and because of the number of shade-tolerant in- lower elevations and subalpine fir and Engelmann dividuals of other species found in such persistent spruce at the higher elevations throughout most stands, the successional status is unclear (Pfister of the Rocky Mountains. Starting with a stand and Daubenmire 1975). In any case, lodgepole pine generated by fire, lodgepole pine grows at a rapid persists long enough for a number of beetle infes- rate and occupies the dominant position in the tations to occur. In such cases and when lodgepole stand. Fir and spruce seedlings also established in pine is climax because of climatic or soil condi- the stand grow more slowly than lodgepole pine. tions, the forest consists of trees of different sizes With each infestation, the beetle kills most of and ages ranging from seedlings to a few over- the large, dominant lodgepole pines. After the in- mature individuals. In these forests, the beetle festation, both residual lodgepole pine and the infests and kills most of the lodgepole pines as shade-tolerant species increase their growth. they reach larger sizes. Openings created in the When the lodgepole pines are of adequate size stand as a result of the larger trees being killed, and phloem thickness, another beetle infestation are seeded by lodgepole pine The cycle is then occurs. This cycle is repeated at 20 to 40 year repeated as other lodgepole pines reach sizes and intervals depending upon growth of the trees, phloem thicknesses conducive to increases in until lodgepole pine is eliminated from the stand. beetle populations. The role played by the mountain pine beetle in The result is two- or three-story stands consist- stands where lodgepole pine is seral is to periodi- ing of trees of different ages and sizes. A mosaic cally remove the large, dominant pines. This pro- of small clumps of different ages and sizes may vides growing space for subalpine fir and occur. The overall effect is likely to be more Douglas-fir, thus hastening succession by these chronic infestations by the beetle because of the species. The continued presence of the beetle in more constant source of food. Beetle infestations these mixed-species stands is as dependent upon in such forests may result in death of fewer trees fire as that of lodgepole pine. Without it both are per hectare during each infestation than would oc- eliminated. cur in even aged stands developed after fires and Presence of fire: Where lodgepole pine is seral, in those where lodgepole pine is seral. forests are perpetuated through the effects of Fires in persistent and climax lodgepole pine periodic fires (Tackle 1964). Fires lend to elim- forests should not be as hot as those where large inate competitive tree species such as Douglas-fir, epidemics of beetles have occurred. Smaller, more the true firs, and spruces. Following fire, lodge- continuous deposits of fuel are available on the pole pine seedlings may be abundant. If sero- forest floor. The lighter beetle infestations, and tinous cones are present, they will open because thus lighter accumulations of fuel, would result in of the intense heat and release their seed fires that would eliminate some of the trees but (Clements 1910, Lotan 1975). probably would not cause total regeneration of the Large accumulations of dead material caused by stand. This would be beneficial to the beetle periodic beetle infestations result in very hot fires because a more continuous supply of food would be maintained. Where large accumulations of fuel Following a stand-destroying fire an herblshrub stage occur after large beetle epidemics, fire would com- dominates the site Because most trees have open cones, pletely eliminate the beetles' food supply from seedlings establish over a period of several years. A fire in vast acreages for many years while the entire the herblshrub stage (No. 1) will, however, extend its stand of trees grow from seedlings to sizes con- period of dominance A fire during the seedlinglsapling ducive to beetle infestation. stage also returns the site to herbs and shrubs (No. 2). The The mountain pine beetle's evolutionary likelihood of a fire at this stage is not great on most Group strategies have been successful. It has exploited a Seven sites. niche that no other bark beetle has been able to The lack of fuels in most pole-stage stands renders fire exploit, that of harvesting lodgepole pine trees as unlikely, but should fire occur, its effects will depend on they reach or slightly before they reach maturity. fire severity. A cool fire (No. 3) thins the stand and pre- Such trees are at their peak as food for the pares a seedbed for lodgepole regeneration. A severe fire beetle Harvesting at this time in the age of the (No. 4) will destroy the stand; however, a new stand of stand maintains the vigor of the stand, and keeps lodgepole pine will generally recur. The effect of fire in a the stand at maximum productivity. mature lodgepole forest is essentially the same as in the pole forest. A cool fire thins the stand and a severe fire Forest Succession recycles the stand (Nos. 5 and 6). The probability of a severe stand-destroying fire greatly increases as a previous- The theoretical climax forest on Fire Group Seven sites ly unburned mature forest starts to break up and an varies according to habitat type as shown in figure 27 understory of climax species develops. At this stage, a thin- (subsequent numbers in this section refer to fig. 27). Ex- ning fire (No. 7) is unlikely; if the stand is dry enough to cept for stands belonging to the PICO ct. 's and the burn it will probably burn severely (No. 8) because of PICOIFEID h.t., however, fire usually interrupts succession hazardous fuel conditions. short of the climax condition.

Fire- maintained herb & shrub cornrnuni ty

/-* -%& Any Stand-replaci ng prepare seedbed Herbs t Shrubs

Seed1 inss FI sap1i ngs; Return to herb PIC0 & shrub stage Climax forest Thi nni ng Fire ABLA & ABGR (unlikely) PIEF~ (PICA)

Fire- Mature Pole-sized ~1~0-stand PIC0 stand , maintained Thinning fire PICO stand

Stand-rep1 acinq

Stand-rep1aci ng rnai ntai ned PICO stand

LEGEND : Thinning fire

GENERALIZED FOREST SUCCESSION

A COOL FlRE Figure 27-Generalized forest succession in Fire Group Seven: cool habitat types usually SEVERE FlRE dominated by lodgepole pine. 1. LODGEPOLE PINE AND CLIMAX TYPES

LEGEND : -b SUCCESSION IN ABSENCE OF FlRE --+ RESPONSE TO FIRE LOW COOL OR LIGHT SURFACE FIRE MOD. FlRE OF MODERATE SEVERITY SEVERE HOT STAND-REPLACEMENT FlRE 1.2, etc. REFERENCE NUMBER (SEE TEXT) Figure 28-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Seven.

Hypothetical successional pathways for Fire Group Seven problem is that during "safe" fire weather, it is often dif- stands are represented in figure 28. ficult to sustain a fire in Group Seven stands. Low-to- Arno and others (1985) show the sequence of sera1 com- medium severity surface fires, however, do occur. Thus, munity types developing after stand-destroying wildfire there may be opportunities to use prescribed fires to and also for clearcutting with broadcast burning, mech- accomplish specific management objectives. anical scarification, or no followup treatment within the The primary use of prescribed fire in this group has ABALIXETE h.t. in western Montana. been and undoubtedly will continue to be for hazard reduc- tion and site preparation in conjunction with tree harvest- Fire Management Considerations ing and subsequent regeneration. Broadcast burning and pile and windrow burning have been the most often used A primary fire management consideration in the Fire methods of accomplishing these tasks. Successful broadcast Group Seven habitat types is protection of high-hazard slash burning usually yields increased forage production stands from unwanted fire during extended periods of for big game. Slash disposal of any kind aids big game drought and during severe fire weather conditions. Fires at movement. such time often crown and result in complete stand mor- Prescribed fire can be an effective tool for controlling tality if the lodgepole stand is ready physiognomically to dwarf mistletoe in lodgepole pine stands. Alexander and burn (Despain and Sellers 1977). Of course, in some Hawksworth (1975) suggest two purposes for use of fire management situations, this may be an acceptable result. for mistletoe control: (1) to eliminate infected residual Opportunities for use of understory fire are limited in trees in logged-over areas, and (2) to destroy heavily in- natural stands because of the low fire resistance of lodge- fested, unproductive stands so that they can be replaced pole pine, spruce, and subalpine fir. The other side of this with young healthy stands. 2. GRAND FIR AND SUBALPINE FIR CLIMAX TYPES

LEGEND : during subsequent -b SUCCESSION IN ABSENCE OF FIRE -- -* RESPONSE TO FIRE LOW COOL OR LIGHT SURFACE FIRE MOD. FIRE OF MODERATE SEVERITY SEVERE HOT STAND-REPLACEMENT FIRE 1.2, etc. REFERENCE NUMBER (SEE TEXT) Figure 28 (Con.) STOCKING GOALS

NIT. REGENERATION SEED SUPPLY NAT. REGEN. POTENTIAL REGENERATE BY CONE HABIT ADEQUATE? STAND

-DETERMINE SEEDISEEDLING I RATIOS REQUIREMENTS

ARTIFICIALLY E3INFORMATION REGENERATE

CALCULATION YES I NO I El

DECISION DWARF MISTLETOE IS WINDTHROW TO NIT. REGEN. THE STAND <>

MANAGEMENT YES A PROBLEM? 0 SHELTERWOOD TO ( IJ PLANTING IS GENERALLY RECOMMENDED NAT. REGEN. IF SEEDING IS APPROPRIATE.ENTER THE STAND 'POTENTIAL FOR STOCKING' DECISION POINT FOR SCARIFICIATION GUIDANCE

ZJ PROVIDE MAXIMUM FLEXIBILITY FOR LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT GROUP SELECTION OR SMALL IRREGULAR CLEARCUTS

SCARIFICATION OR LIGHT BURN

HIGH 1 NO 1

SITE PREPARATION SCARIFICATION OR LIGHT BURN OR MODERATE BURN

Figure 29-The decision chain for lodgepole pine regeneration (Lotan and Perry 1983). The various considerations that determine the appropri- Guidelines have been developed by McGregor and Cole ate use of fire for site preparation and regeneration of (1985) to assist forest managers in integrating pest lodgepole pine forests have been summarized by Lotan and management techniques for the mountain pine beetle with Perry (1983) in figure 29. other resource considerations in the process of planning As indicated earlier, the primary concern in the fire and executing balanced resource management of lodgepole management of many lodgepole pine forests is the preven- pine forests. The guidelines present visual and classifica- tion of stand-destroying fires over large areas. Timber tion criteria and methods for recognizing and summarizing harvest for a variety of products and subsequent slash occurrence and susceptibility status of lodgepole pine disposal are the primary techniques to meet this objective stands according to habitat types and successional roles when economic considerations are favorable Harvest and important resource considerations associated with schedules should be developed and implemented to create them. McGregor and Cole (1985) review appropriate silvi- age-class mosaics of lodgepole pine This minimizes the cultural systems and practices, including use of fire, for areal extent of stand-destroying fires. Silvicultural prac- commercial and noncommercial forest land designations, tices designed to harvest trees before they become suscep- including parks, wilderness, and other reserved areas. tible to mountain pine beetle attack (Cole and Amman 1980) can greatly reduce the threat of severe fires in second-growth stands of lodgepole pine The use of lodgepole pine for house logs, firewood, poles, posts, wood FIRE GROUP EIGHE DRY, LOWER chips, and sawlogs may provide opportunities for fuel SUBALPINE HABITAT TYPES management-related harvesting. In some wilderness areas, periodic crown fires play a ADP Physiographic vital role in natural development of lodgepole pine eco- code Habitat type-phase sections systems, and their use should be considered when consis- (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others tent with the need to protect human life, property, and 1981) resource values outside wilderness. A case for fire use in 645 Abies 1miocarpalAcer Southern Batholith lodgepole pine stands is presented by Fellin (1980): glabrum h.t. In many areas where natural fires have been (ABLAIACGL), suppressed, forest residues resulting from moun- subalpine firlmountain tain pine beetle epidemics accumulate until hot maple fires occur, According to Cole (1978), "such fires 661 Abies lasiocarpallinnaea Southern Batholith, are normally more destructive than ones that borealis h.t. - Linnaea Salmon Uplands, would have otherwise occurred if fires had not borealis phase and Open been suppressed, and they tend to perpetuate (ABLAILIBO-LIBO), Northern Rockies future extremes in the mountain pine beetle1 subalpine firltwinflower - lodgepole pinelfir interactions." Several opinions twinflower phase have been expressed that the bark beetle epidemics now rampant in the Rockies and Inter- 723 A bies lmiocarpa1Vaccinium Southern Batholith mountain West may be a product of fire exclusion globulare h.t. - Vaccinium and Salmon (Schwennesen 1979). In Glacier National Park, the globulare phase Uplands mountain pine beetle epidemic took such a strong (ABLAIVAGL-VAGL), hold because fire suppression programs were so subalpine firblue successful and trees that ordinarily might have huckleberry - blue been burned are now mature and ripe for the huckleberry phase beetles (Kuglin 1980). 705 Abies LmiocarpalSpiraea Southern Batholith Cole (1978) suggests that a deliberate program betulifolia h.t. and Challis of fire management and prescribed fire can be in- (ABLAISPBE), stituted to moderate the mountain pine beetle- subalpine firlwhite spirea lodgepole pine-fire interaction cycle His premise is 745 Abies 1asiocarpalJuniperus Southern Batholith that both wildfire and prescribed fire management communis h.t. (ABLAI and Open plans can be developed to use fire to "create a JUCO), subalpine Northern Rockies mosaic of regenerated stands within extensive firlcommon juniper areas of timber that have developed." D. Cole 780 A bies LasiocarpalAmica Southern Batholith, (1978) believes that prescribed fires can create cordifolia h.t. Challis, and Open these ecosystem mosaics more effectively than (ABLAIARCO), Northern Rockies I wildfires. With the recent change from fire control subalpine firlheartleaf to fire management, managed wildfires will be, in arnica fact, prescribed fires. Vegetation Forest Fuels Fire Group Eight is a collection of warm, lower sub- Downed, dead, woody fuel loadings on lower subalpine alpine habitat types that are generally dominated by seral habitat types in Montana and northern Idaho averaged Douglas-fir although subalpine fir is the indicated climax. between 20 and 25 tonslacre (5 and 6 kglm2) (Brown and A mixture of Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine may dominate See 1981); stands inventoried by Fischer (1981~)ranged seral stands belonging to the ABLAILIBO, ABLAISPBE, between 1 and 80 tonslacre. As a general rule, the ABLAIVAGL, ABLAIJUCO, and ABLAIARCO h.t.'s. heaviest downed, dead, woody fuel loads on central Idaho Englemann spruce may dominate late seral stands within forests occur in lower subalpine stands of this Fire Group. the ABLAIVAGL-VAGL, ABLAILIBO, and ABLAIARCO A large percentage of the fuel load is made up of h.t.'s (fig. 30). material greater than 3 inches (7.62 cm) in diameter; 10- Common shrubs are white spirea, common juniper, and 20-inch (25- and 50-cm) material is not uncommon. russet buffaloberry, mountain snowberry, blue huckle- The large material is the result of downfall of dead over- berry, Utah honeysuckle, Sitka alder, mountain maple, and story trees. The long fire-free intervals characteristic of mountain ash. Columbia clematis occurs on these sites this Fire Group allow these large materials to accumulate along with herbs such as heartleaf arnica, sidebells pyrola, for many decades. Because of the long time spans in- twinflower, elk sedge, pinegrass, western meadowrue, and volved, much of the material is rotten. Wilcox's penstemon. Mosses are notable in some stands Live and standing dead fuels can contribute significantly within the drier ABLAIJUCO and ABLAIARCO h.t.'s. to overall fire hazard during dry conditions. Dense spruce and fir understory trees along with low-hanging, moss- covered live and dead branches of overstory trees form effective fuel ladders to the overstory tree crowns.

A Figure 30-Two views of the same ABLA/LIBO h.t. near the Lick Creek Road, Salmon National Forest. (A) The stand is dominated by late seral Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir although a few seral lodgepole pines remain. (B) The forest [loor shows characteristic fuel buildup associated with the breakup of the former lodgepole stand. Relatively deep duff layers may form on forest floors. Douglas-fir over the thinner barked lodgepole pine. Severe When this duff layer becomes dry and burns it can cause fires favor lodgepole pine regeneration if serotinous cones considerable mortality by heating the shallow roots of are present in the prefire stand. Some large, thick-barked subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce. Dry rotten logs on Douglas-fir trees often survive fires severe enough to kill the forest floor are partially incorporated into the duff all the lodgepole pine, thus ensuring its presence in future layer and will intensify this effect. The fuel loadings for stands. Cones in tips of fire-killed Douglas-fir may provide the transition and spruce-fir classes listed in table 7 (Fire viable seed. Any fire will set back invasion of the stand by Group Seven) should be representative of similar stands in spruce or subalpine fir, which eventually dominate the site the group. in the absence of fire. The theoretical climax forest is dominated by subalpine Role of Fire fir. This climax requires such a long fire-free period to develop that it is rarely found. A near-climax situation Fire history information is generally lacking. Where characterized by a dense understory of subalpine fir along available, fire history studies of subalpine forest mainly with an overstory of this species accompanied by Douglas- apply to lodgepole pine-dominated sera1 stands. Gabriel fir and spruce is more common. (1976) indicates that some of the stands he studied in the Bob Marshall Wilderness are similar to stands in Fire Forest Succession Group Eight. One of Gabriel's stands contained fire- scarred trees although the entire area did not burn each A general pattern for forest succession in Fire Group time. In another stand, he found no sign of fire in the past Eight is shown in figure 31. (All numbers in the section 280 years. Other stands showed evidence of light fires dur- refer to fig. 31.) The time required for seedlings to estab- ing the last 100 years. lish following a fire varies, depending upon site conditions, Stand composition following a fire may be quite variable. moisture, and seed source, including the presence or Low-to-moderate surface fires generally favor residual absence of serotinous-coned lodgepole pine. Following a

Return to shrubs

PSME & PIC0 (some

Thinning fire Mature forest;

Stand-rep1aci ng

Stand-replacing

Remove understory, thin overstory

LEGEND :

GENERALIZED FOREST SUCCESSION

A COOL FlRE

SEVERE FIRE

Figure 31-Generalized forest succession in Fire Group Eight: lower subalpine habitat types. 1. MIXED SPECIES SUCCESS ION

Climax -0\LOW

2. SUCCESS ION WITHOUT LODGEPOLE PINE AND SPRUCE (ABLAIACGL h.t. )

LEGEND :

SUCCESSION IN ABSENCE OF FlRE --+ RESPONSE TO FIRE LOW COOL OR LIGHT SURFACE FlRE MOD. FlRE OF MODERATE SEVERITY SEVERE HOT STAND-REPLACEMENT FlRE 1.2. Otc. REFERENCE NUMBER (SEE TEXT)

Figure 32-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Eight. stand-replacement fire (Nos. 3, 5, and 6) within the FIRE GROUP NINE: WET OR MOIST, ABLAIACGR h.t., a tall shrub field can persist for decades. Douglas-fir is generally the only sera1 conifer on LOWER SUBALPINE HABITAT TYPES stands belonging to the ABLAIACGR h.t. Within other ADP Physiographic habitat types in this fire group, the seedlings and saplings code Habitat type-phase sections on the site are generally a mixture of Douglas-fir and (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others lodgepole pine. Any fire in the seedlinglsapling stage 1981) would return the site to shrubs and herbs (No. 1). Pole-size stands are usually mixtures of Douglas-fir and 440 Picea engelmanniilGalium Open Northern lodgepole pine. A low-to-moderate fire can favor the more triflorum h.t. (PIENIGATR), Rockies fire-resistant Douglas-fir (No. 2). A severe fire (No. 3) Engelmann spruce1 could favor lodgepole pine if cones in the prefire stand sweetscented bedstraw were serotinous. If no fire occurs, a mature stand of 490 Picea engelmanniilCarex Challis and Open Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine will develop. There may disperma h.t. (PIENICADI), Northern Rockies also be some spruce in the stand, and regeneration under Engelmann sprucelsoft- the canopy is likely to be spruce and subalpine fir on many leaved sedge sites. A surface fire would remove most of this fire- 410 Picea engelmanniilEquisetum Challis and Open susceptible understory and overstory lodgepole pine, open- arvense h.t. (PIENIEQAR), Northern Rockies ing the stand and favoring Douglas-fir (No. 4). Severe fire Engelmann sprucelcommon (No. 5) would return the site to herbs and shrubs and horsetail might again favor lodgepole pine if sufficient trees had Abies 1asiocarpaICaltha Southern Batholith serotinous cones. Periodic fire favors lodgepole pine on 605 biflora h.t. (ABLAICABI), some sites. If fire continues to be absent, a climax subalpine firlmarsh marigold subalpine fir forest will develop. The hypothetical successional pathway diagram for Fire 652 Abies lasiocarpal Salmon Uplands Group Eight is shown in figure 32. Because both lodge- Calamagrostis canadensis and Southern pole pine and spruce are normally absent within the h.t. - Ligusticum canbyi Batholith ABLAIACGL h.t., a separate pathway is shown for this phase (ABLAICACA-LICA), habitat type. subalpine firlbluejoint - The mixed species pathway generally applies to all Canby's ligusticum phase habitat types except the ABLAIACGL. Remember, 637 Abies 1asiocarpalStreptopus Salmon Uplands however, that spruce is lacking on stands belonging to the amplexi,folius h.t. - ABLAISPBE h.t. Ligusticum canbyi phase (ABLAISTAM-LICA), Fire Management Considerations subalpine firltwisted stalk - Canby's ligusticum phase Fire protection is usually an important fire management 636 Abies 1asiocarpalStreptopus Southern Batholith, consideration during severe burning conditions especially amplexi,folius h.t. - Challis, and Open on sites managed for timber production. At other times, Streptopus amplexifolius Northern Rockies fire may be of low-to-moderate severity and result in only phase (ABLAISTAM-STAM), moderate damage or no damage to overstory trees, subalpine firltwisted stalk - despite the relatively low resistance of many of the species twisted stalk phase present. Large, overstory Douglas-fir should easily survive fires of low-to-moderate severity. 625 A bies 1asiocarpaIClintonia Salmon Uplands Fire can be used to dispose of logging slash on harvest uniflora h.t. - Menziesia and Southern areas, but broadcast burning for site preparation is often fermLginea phase Batholith hampered by high duff moisture and scarcity of acceptable (ABLAICLUN-MEFE), burning days during traditional spring and fall prescribed subalpine firlqueencup burning periods. Summer burning has, consequently, beadlily - menziesia phase become common in subalpine sites in some areas. 621 Abies 1asiocarpaIClintonia Salmon Uplands Where timber production is not a management objective, uniflora h.t. - Clintonia and Southern opportunities may exist for implementing fire management uniflora phase Batholith prescriptions that allow the use of naturally ignited fires. (ABLAICLUN-CLUN), Such fires can create vegetational mosaics that provide a subalpine firlqueencup diversity of wildlife habitat. Vegetational mosaics can also beadlily - queencup reduce the probability of widespread wildfire damage to beadlily phase soil and watershed values. 638 Abies 1asiocarpalCoptis Salmon Uplands occidentalis h.t. (ABLAICOOC), subalpine firlwestern goldthread ADP Physiographic (Steele and others 1981). Sera1 stands may be dominated code Habitat type-phase sections by wet-site herbs. On better drained sites the undergrowth is variable and shrubs may dominate early seral com- (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others munities. Some characteristic undergrowth shrubs are 1981) prickly currant, blue huckleberry, menziesia, Labrador-tea, 671 Abies lasiocarpa/Menziesia Salmon Uplands, bearberry, honeysuckle, and grouse whortleberry. The rich ferruginea h. t. - Menziesia Wallowa-Seven herb layer includes queencup beadlily, sweetscented bed- ferruginea phase Devils, and straw, red baneberry, arrowleaf groundsel, claspleaf (ABLAIMEFE-MEFE), Southern Batholith twisted stalk, soft-leaved sedge, common horsetail, subalpine firlmenziesia - fireweed, sidebells pyrola, western meadowrue, brook menziesia phase saxifrage, marsh marigold, bluejoint, Canby's ligusticum, 672 Abies 1asiocarpaIMenziesia Salmon Uplands Columbian monkshood, fivestamen miterwort, spreading ferruginea h.t. - Luzula sweet-root, bracted pedicularis, western goldthread, hitchcockii phase Piper's anenome, darkwoods violet, shooting star, (ABLAIMEFE-LUHI), beargrass, and heartleaf arnica. subalpine firlmenziesia - smooth woodrush phase Forest Fuels Fuel conditions are similar to those of Group Eight. Vegetation Total downed, dead, woody fuel loads may average slightly heavier than in Group Eight because of the larger size at- Englemann spruce is usually dominant either as a per- tained by overstory spruce and the longer fire-free inter- sistent seral species or, mainly in the Challis and Open vals often experienced on these wet sites. Northern Rockies sections, as the climax species. Within A large percentage of the downed woody fuel exceeds the ABLAICLUN h.t., Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine may 3 inches (7.6 cm) in diameter (see table 7, Fire Group be major seral species and lodgepole pine may precede Eight). The combination of deep duff and large amounts of Engelmann spruce as a major seral species within the dead, rotten fuel can result in a severe surface fire during ABLAICOOC h.t. Lodgepole pine and Douglas-fir occur as unusually dry moisture conditions. When dense under- minor seral species or accidentals within other habitat stories exist, such fires can easily spread to the tree types in this Fire Group. Western larch may be present in crowns and destroy the stand (fig. 33). Even if a severe seral stands belonging to the ABLAICLUN, ABLAICOOC, surface fire does not crown, there is a good chance the and ABLAIMEFE h.t.'s. Grand fir may be a coclimax overstory spruce and subalpine fir will be killed by cam- species within ABLAIMEFE-MEFE and ABLAICLUN- bium heating. CLUN h.t.'s. On many sites wet-site herbs and mosses dominate the undergrowth, while shrubs and herbs more characteristic of drier sites grow on hummocks' or at the base of trees

Figure 33-A BLA/CACA-LEGL h. t. 's occupying low benches along Cloochman Creek, Payette National Forest. 6 Under normal moisture conditions for these sites, a lush Steele and others (1981) found evidence of fire in spruce undergrowth of shrubs and herbs usually serves as an habitat types of central Idaho that suggests less frequent effective barrier to rapid fire spread. These stands are fires than on adjacent slopes. The characteristically wet probably more susceptible to damage from fire which undergrowths of Fire Group Nine stands do not normally sweeps in from adjoining areas than from fire that starts support surface fires. Under severe burning conditions within the stand. they are, however, susceptible to damage from wind- driven crown fires originating in adjacent stands. Role of Fire Forest Succession Fire history is lacking for these moist, subalpine forest stands in central Idaho. Evidence from similar habitats in A general outline of forest succession for Fire Group other Rocky Mountain areas suggests that fewer fires Nine is shown in figure 34 (subsequent numbers in this occur on these sites than on the drier upland subalpine section refer to fig. 34). Following a stand-replacing fire, sites. The mean fire-free intervals for sites within a herbs and shrubs will dominate until seedlings and sap- ABLAICLUN h.t. at Coram Experimental Forest in north- lings become well established. Within the ABLAICACA- western Montana were about 140 years (Sneck [Davis] VACA h.t., aspen may be present in the immediate 1977). Fires at Coram were reported to be small, moder- postfire vegetation if it was present in the prefire stand. ately severe surface fires that occasionally crowned, Spruce generally dominates the initiating stand, with especially near ridgetops (Arno 1980). Romme and Knight lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, and western larch as minor (1981) found intervals of 300 to 400 years between fires in sera1 species within some habitat types. Sometimes grand drainage bottoms compared to 300 years for drier upland fir or subalpine fir are also present. sites of the Medicine Bow National Forest in southwestern A fire during the seedlinglsapling stage is unlikely, but Wyoming. if one did occur the area would return to the shrubherb

/ Shrubs & herbs 7 Seed1i n( Stand-rep1acing rClimax forest; sap1 in< ABLA or PIEN PIEN, PICO, r21.i~ 1 (rarely occurs) ,,, A ,. Return to Lnub, nuLn, u ~YUI, herb state (unlikely)

Pol e-si zed forest; Near climax forest PIEN, PICO, PSME, Stand-rep1aci ng PIEN & IBLA LP.OC, ABLA, & ABGR

Mature forest; PIEN, PICO, PSVE Thinning fire (unlikely)

Stand-rep1 aci ng

Thinning fire LEGEND :

GENERALIZED FOREST SUCCESSION

COOL FlRE

J/4( SEVERE FIRE

Figure 34-Generalized forest succession in Fire Group Nine: very moist lower subalpine habitat types. stage (No. 1). The moisture of the sites and lush under- Fire Management Considerations growth make fires unlikely during the pole stage as well. Any fire that did occur would probably be a cool surface Fire protection is usually necessary in undisturbed fire that would thin the poles favoring the more resistant stands during severe burning conditions. This is especially Douglas-fir, if present, and larch (No. 2). A cool fire in a true for areas where timber production is a management mature stand would also thin the more susceptible stems objective. At other times, fires may be of low to moderate and reduce accumulated surface fuels (No. 3). It is at this severity and result in little or no damage to overstory stage that stand replacement fires become a possibility trees (other than subalpine fir), despite the relatively low (No. 4). In many stands in this Fire Group other distur- fire resistance of the species present. If slash is present, bances such as spring flooding and windthrow help main- unacceptable tree mortality can result even under tain the mature forest stage by creating openings and moderate burning conditions. mineral soil for seral tree establishment. During the time Broadcast burning is an effective method for reducing required to achieve the near climax and climax situations, slash hazard and for preparing seedbeds in clearcuts, but stand replacement fires (Nos. 5 and 6) are very likely. The not in partial cuts. Timing of a burn is important. Group theoretical climax rarely occurs. Nine sites are so cool and moist that opportunities for The pattern of tree succession in Group Nine (fig. 35) is broadcast burning are limited. The moisture content of the relatively simple. This simplicity is more a reflection of duff must be low enough to allow the fire to bare mineral lack of knowledge than lack of vegetative complexity of soil over 20 percent or more of the area. Often, such Group Nine communities. Perhaps the most significant in- favorable moisture conditions occur only during late formation gap has to do with the frequency of occurrence summer. and related effects of cool to moderately severe fires on Burning slash in large windrows or piles can create these moist sites. Figure 35 indicates a minimum impact enough heat to alter the physical structure of the soil. for cool fire and does not include moderately severe fires. Lower densities and slower growth of conifers on such Intuitively, one might expect that fires of moderate sever- sites can persist for 15 years or more (Vogl and Ryder ity do occur and thin out groups of trees rather than in- 1969). Consequently, windrows should be narrow and piles dividual trees throughout the stand. If this in fact is the should be small. Slash disposal plans should consider leav- case, the effect of a moderately severe fire is the same as ing some large residues for nutrient cycling and to shade a severe fire, but on a small area within the stand. seedlings. The simplicity of this figure also reflects the assumption Additional guidelines for using fire for slash disposal and that Group Nine sites are generally either too moist to site preparation in spruce-fir stands are provided by Roe burn or, under conditions of extended summer drought, and others (1970). This reference should be consulted susceptible to wind-driven crown fire. In other words, along with local silvicultural guides before planning fire either the whole thing burns, or it hardly burns at all. use in these habitats. Arno and others (1985) show the sequence of seral com- The often complex structure of subalpine forests reflects munity types that develop after stand-destroying wildfire their fire history. Their natural development has not, as a and after clearcutting with broadcast burning, mechanical general rule, been noticeably affected by past fire sup- scarification, and no follow-up treatment within the pression policies (Habeck and Mutch 1973). Management ABLAIMEFE h.t. in western Montana. objectives for these sites are often oriented toward non-

LEGEND : -b SUCCESSION IN ABSENCE OF FlRE -- RESPONSE TO FIRE LOW COOL OR LIGHT SURFACE FIRE MOD. FlRE OF MODERATE SEVERITY SEVERE HOT STAND-REPLACEMENT FlRE 1.2, etc. REFERENCE NUMBER (SEE TEXT) Figure 35-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Nine habitat types. consumptive uses, such as watershed protection and wild- Vegetation life habitat. On some sites the disturbances associated with modern fire suppression might result in more lasting Fire Group Ten habitat types occur at or near upper damage than the fire would cause. Consequently, the ap- timberline. Severe winds, low temperature, and thin soils propriate fire management policy may be one that allows all contribute to harsh site conditions. On exposed dry certain ignitions to burn according to a predetermined fire ridges conditions are even more harsh. management prescription (Fischer 1980). In cirque basins and on north slopes near timberline, trees characteristically grow as islands interspersed with FIRE GROUP TEN: COLD, UPPER open meadows (Arno and Harnrnerly 1984). Above these areas lie krummholz. In some areas whitebark pine is the SUBALPINE AND TIMBERLINE only tree present while other areas support clusters of HABITAT TYPES whitebark pine and subalpine fir (fig. 36). Individual stands of whitebark pine may be 500 or more years old, ADP Physiographic with high basal areas and biomass (Forcella and Weaver code Habitat type-phase sections 1977). (Steele and others 1981) (Steele and others In the upper subalpine forests, subalpine fir is the in- 1981) dicated climax. Succession is slow, and stands tend to re- main open; thus seral species seldom disappear. Whitebark Upper Subalpine pine, lodgepole pine, spruce, and occasionally Douglas-fir 810 Abies LasiocarpalRibes Open Northern may all be seral. Limber pine may occur on limestone montigenum h .t. Rockies and substrate in the Open Northern Rockies physiographic sec- (ABLAIRIMO), Challis tion. Spruce is also more prevalant in the Open Northern subalpine firlmountain Rockies. gooseberry Stands are generally open, with mountain gooseberry, 831 Abies LasiocarpaILuzuLa Salmon Uplands grouse whortleberry, mountain snowberry, and big sage- hitchcockii h.t. - Vaccinium and Southern brush the most common shrubs. Broadleaf arnica, wood- scoparium phase Batholith rush, snowlover, coiled lousewort, Parry rush, elk sedge, (ABLAILUHI-VASC), false-hellebore, pokeweed fleece-flower, Idaho fescue, and subalpine firlsmooth western needlegrass are found in the herbaceous layer. woodrush - grouse whortleberry phase Abies Lasiocarpa/Luzula Salmon Uplands hitchcockii h.t. - Luzula and Southern hitchcockii phase Batholith (ABLAILUHI-LUHI), subalpine firlsmooth woodrush - smooth woodrush phase A bies Lasiocarpa/Vaccinium Southern Batholith sco~ariumh.t. - Pinus and Challis albicaulis phase (ABLAIVASC-PIAL), subalpine firlgrouse whortleberry - whitebark pine phase Abies ZasiocarpalCarex Southern Batholith, geyeri h.t. - Artemisia Salmon Uplands, Figure 36-A PIAL-ABLA forest in the vicinity of tridentata phase and Challis Cloochman Creek Road, Payette National Forest. (ABLAICAGE-ARTR), subalpine firlelk sedge - big sagebrush phase Forest Fuels Timberline Fuel inventory data for Group Ten habitat types are 850 Pinus albicaulis-Abies Salmon Uplands, scarce. Data from stands in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilder- lasiocarpa h.t.'s Southern Batholith, ness in western Montana and central Idaho showed a wide (PIAL-ABLA), whitebark and Challis range of downed woody fuel loadings. The average total pine-subalpine fir loading for 153 plots in three different habitat types was 2 870 Pinus albicaulis Series Challis and Open about 14 tonslacre (3.14 kglm ); material greater than (PIAL h.t.'s), whitebark Northern Rockies 3 inches (7.6 cm) in diameter accounted for 11 tonslacre 2 pine (2.47 kg/m ) of this total. Fuels tend to be very discon- tinuous. Typically, most of the fuel load is the result of a few, scattered, large-diameter downfalls resulting from wind and snow breakage, windthrow, and insect- and forests. Vegetational recovery following such fires is usual- disease-caused mortality. Such fuels do not reflect a ly slow because of the extremely short growing season and serious fire hazard. The usually sparse and often discon- cold climate. The wet or dry subalpine meadow that forms tinuous nature of fine surface fuels (live or dead), the the early successional stage may last a century or more short fire season, and the normally cool, moist site are (Billings 1969; Stahelin 1943). mitigating factors that must be considered. Forest Succession Role of Fire Secondary succession begins with a mixture of herbs and The severity of Group Ten sites and the prevailing shrubs, and possibly some conifer seedlings in the shelter climate near and at timberline minimize the possibility of of snags, logs, or shrubs (fig. 37). Herbaceous plants will severe fires. Lightning does ignite fires, but the patchiness probably prevail for an extended period. Fire may initiate of trees and fuel, the short fire season, and the prevalance secondary succession but probably will not maintain it. On of rain showers with lightning storms limit the number of moist sites and north slopes physical disruption of the fires and their spread. Gabriel (1976) concluded that the stand by snow and wind, and snow and rock slides is more fire history at high elevations in the Bob Marshall Wilder- important than fire in maintaining early stages of ness was one of lightning strikes igniting many fires that succession. burned small patches, ranging from a single tree to a few Perhaps 100 years or more will elapse before conifers acres. dominate some Group Ten sites. It may take another cen- In the more continuous forests of this Fire Group, the tury for a mature forest to develop. It is unlikely that fuel most pronounced fire effect is to produce stand-replacing or stand conditions will support a fire of any consequence fires at long intervals of 100 to 300 years (Heinselman during this period. Surface fires do occur, especially in 1981). Stand-destroying fires in Group Ten are most likely whitebark pine stands on south slopes and ridges. Such to occur during extended periods of drought when very fires act as underburns reducing fuels and killing some severe wind-driven crown fires develop in the forests overstory trees. Severe fires may occur over small areas, below and burn into the upper subalpine and timberline but their effect will usually be limited to the creation of

Shrubs & herbs 1

Seed1i nqs & sap1i ngs; PIAL, PIEN, ABLA, rlHL, rltll, PIFL, PI PIC0 Stand-rep1aci ng "' & PIFL

L Mature stand; Young stand; A L PIAL, PIEN; DTAI DTCN

1 Thinning fire LEGEND :

4 GENERALIZED FOREST SUCCESSION

COOL FIRE

SEVERE FlRE

Figure 37-Generalized forest succession for Fire Group Ten: cold upper subalpine and timberline habitat types. LEGEND : -b SUCCESSION IN ABSENCE OF FIRE -- RESPONSE TO FIRE LOW COOL OR LIGHT SURFACE FIRE MDD. FlRE OF MODERATE SEVERITY SEVERE HOT STAND-REPLACEMENT FlRE 1,2, etc. REFERENCE NUMBER (SEE TEXT) Figure 38-Hypothetical fire-related successional pathways for Fire Group Ten habitat types. vegetative mosaics. Eventually the mature forest will Fire Management Considerations begin to break up under the impact of wind and snow breakage, windthrow, insect and disease attacks, and Timber production is rarely an important management senescence. Stand-destroying fires, especially those that objective in Fire Group Ten forests. Watershed, wildlife, invade from low-elevation forests become a possibility dur- and recreation are often the dominant values. Consump- ing periods of extended drought. tive uses are often restricted by natural area or wilderness Without disturbance, the mature trees will progress into designation. Fire is infrequent, and when it does occur a climax stand. This advanced successional stage requires damage in terms of management objectives is usually decades, and sometimes centuries. Fires of low-to- slight. These sites are, however, fragile and can easily be moderate severity rarely affect a mature stand because of damaged by modern, mechanized firefighting equipment. the open structure and lack of continuous fine woody For many Group Ten habitats, the primary fire manage- fuels; however, severe fires that enter the crowns and kill ment consideration should be the development of prescrip- the cambium of trees return the site to the early succes- tions that allow fire to more nearly play its natural role sional stages (fig. 37). (Fischer 1984). A simple successional pathway postulated for Fire Group Ten is shown in figure 38. REFERENCES Arno, Stephen F.; Wilson, Andrew E. Dating past fires in curlleaf mountain-mahogany communities. Journal of Aho, Paul E. Decay of grand fir in the Blue Mountains of Range Management. 39(3):-240-243; 1986. Oregon and Washington. Research Paper PNW-229. Barrett, Stephen W. Fire history of the River of No Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Return Wilderness: River Breaks Zone. Missoula, MT: Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experi- Systems for Environmental Management; 1984; Final ment Station; 1977. 18 p. Report. 40 p. [Unpublished.] Alexander, M. E.; Hawksworth, F. G. Wildland fires and Beechman, J. J.; Reynolds, D. G.; Hornocker, M. G. Black dwarf mistletoes: a literature review of ecology and bear denning activities and den characteristics in west- prescribed burning. General Technical Report RM-14. central Idaho. In: Proceedings, International Conference Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, on Bear Research and Management. 5: 79-86; 1984. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Bendell, J. F. Effects of fire on birds and mammals. Experiment Station; 1975. 12 p. Chapter 4. In: Kozlowski, T. T.; Ahlgren, C. E., eds. Alexander, Robert T.; Shepperd, Wayne D. Silvical Fire and ecosystems. New York: Academic Press; 1974. characteristics of Engelmann spruce. General Technical Bernard, S. R.; Brown, K. F. Distribution of mammals, Report RM-114. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and and A. W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western Range Experiment Station; 1984. 38 p. States. Technical Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Depart- Allen, A. W. Habitat suitability index models: southern ment of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management; red-backed vole (western United States). FSWIOBS- 1977. 168 p. 82110.42. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the In- Billings, W. D. Vegetational patterns near alpine timber- terior, Fish and Wildlife Service; 1983. 14 p. line as affected by fire-snowdrift interactions. Vegetatio. Amman, G. D. The role of mountain pine beetle in 19: 192-207; 1969. lodgepole pine ecosystems: impact on succession. In: Black, H. C.; Taber, R. D. Mammals in western coniferous Mattson, W. J., ed. Proceedings in life sciences: the role forest ecosystems: an annotated bibliography. Bulletin of arthropods in forest ecosystems. New York: Springer- No. 2. Coniferous Forest Biome Ecosystem Analysis Verlag; 1977: 3-15. Studies, U.S. International Biological Program. Seattle, Armour, C. D.; Bunting, S. C.; Neuenschwander, L. F. WA: University of Washington; 1977. 199 p. Fire intensity effects on the understory in ponderosa Boss, A.; Dunbar, M.; Gacey, J.; Hanna, P.; Roth, M.; pine forests. Journal of Range Management. 37(1): Grossarth, 0. D. Elk-timber relationships of west-central 44-49; 1984. Idaho. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Arno, Stephen F. The historical role of fire in the Bitter- Forest Service, Boise and Payette National Forests; root National Forest. Research Paper INT-187. Ogden, U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Management; 1983. 34 p. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station; Bradley, A. Rhizome depth and potential fire survival of 1976. 29 p. eight woody understory plants in Montana. Missoula, Arno, Stephen F. Forest fire history in the northern MT: University of Montana; 1984. 184 p. M.A. thesis. Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 460-465; 1980. Britton, C. M.; Clark, R. G.; Sneva, F. A. Effects of soil Arno, Stephen F. Whitebark pine cone crops-a moisture on burned and clipped Idaho fescue. Journal of diminishing source of wildlife food? Western Journal of Range Management. 36(6): 708-710; 1983. Applied Forestry. l(3): 92-94; 1986. Brown, A. A.; Davis, K. P. Forest fire: control and use. Arno, Stephen F.; Gruell, George E. Fire history at the New York: McGraw-Hill; 1973. 686 p. forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Jour- Brown, J. K. Fire cycles and community dynamics in nal of Range Management. 36(3): 332-336; 1983. lodgepole pine forests. In: Baumgartner, D. M., ed. Arno, Stephen F.; Hammerly, Romona P. Timberline. Management of lodgepole pine ecosystems: Proceedings Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers; 1984. 304 p. of a symposium; 1973 October 9-11; Pullman, WA. Arno, S. F.; Hoff, R. J. Whitebark pine. In: Silvics of Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative forest trees of the United States. Agriculture Handbook. Extension Service; 1975: 429-456. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Brown, James K.; Marsden, Michael A.; Ryan, Kevin C.; Forest Service; [in press]. Reinhardt, Elizabeth D. Predicting duff and woody fuel Arno, S. F.; Peterson, T. D. Variation in estimates of fire consumed by prescribed fire in the Northern Rocky intervals: a closer look at fire history on the Bitterroot Mountains. Research Paper INT-337. Ogden, UT: U.S. National Forest. Research Paper INT-301. Ogden, UT: Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermoun- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Inter- tain Forest and Range Experiment Station; 1985. 23 p. . mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station; 1983. Brown, James K.; See, Thomas. Downed dead woody fuel 8 P. and biomass in the Northern Rocky Mountains. General Arno, Stephen F.; Simmerman, Dennis G.; Keane, Robert Technical Report INT-117. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department E. Forest succession on four habitat types in western of Agricu!ture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest Montana. General Technical Report INT-177. Ogden, and Range Experiment Station; 1981. 48 p. UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Carlton, D. W.; Pickford, S. G. 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A review of some relationships of harvest- and processes in the Idaho batholith. Research Paper ing, residue management, and fire to forest insects and INT-237. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, disease. In: Environmental consequences of timber Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experi- harvesting in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests: Sym- ment Station; 1979. 35 p. posium proceedings; 1979 September 11-13; Missoula, Clements, F. E. The life history of lodgepole pine burn MT. General Technical Report INT-90. Ogden, UT: U.S. forest. Forest Service Bulletin 79. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermoun- Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; 1910. 56 p. tain Forest and Range Experiment Station; 1980: Cole, D. M. Feasibility of silvicultural practices for re- 335-414. ducing losses to the mountain pine beetle in lodgepole Fischer, William C. Planning and evaluating prescribed pine forests. 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Photo guide for appraising downed Connaughton, C. A. Fire damage in the ponderosa pine woody fuels in Montana forests: interior ponderosa pine, type in Idaho. Journal of Forestry. 34: 46-51; 1936. ponderosa pine-larch-Douglas-fir, larch-Douglas-fir, and Cooper, S. V. Forest habitat types of northwestern Wyom- interior Douglas-fir cover types. General Technical ing and contiguous portions of Montana and Idaho. Report INT-97. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Pullman, WA: Washington State University; 1975. Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and 190 p. Ph.D. dissertation. Range Experiment Station; 1981a. 133 p. Crane, M. F.; Habeck, J. R.; Fischer, W. C. Early postfire Fischer, William C. Photo guide for appraising downed revegetation in a western Montana Douglas-fir forest. woody fuels in Montana forests: grand fir-larch-Douglas- Research Paper INT-319. 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APPENDIX A: HABITAT TYPES OF CENTRAL IDAHO

Habitat types and phases ADP code1 Abbreviation Scientific name Common name

PlNUS FLEXlLlS SERIES PlFLlHEKL h.t. Pinus flexilis/Hesperochloa kingii h.f. limber pinelspikefescue PIFLIFELD h.t. Pinus flexilis/Festuca idahoensis h .t. limber pinelldaho fescue PIFLICELE h.t. Pinus flexilis/Cercocarpus ledifolius h. t. limber pinelcurlleaf mountain-mahogany PIFLIJUCO h.t. Pinus flexilis/Juniperus communis h .t . limber pinelcommon juniper PlNUS PONDEROSA SERIES PlPOlSTOC h.t. Pinus ponderosaIStipa occidentalis h. t . ponderosa pinelwestern needlegrass PlPOlAGSP h.t. Pinus ponderosa/Agropyron spicatum h. t ponderosa pinelbluebunch wheatgrass PlPOlFElD h.t. Pinus ponderosa/Festuca idahoensis h. t. ponderosa ~inelldahofescue PlPOlPUTR h.t. Pinus ponderosa/~urshiatridentata h .t. bonderosa binelbitterbrush -AGSP phase -Agropyron spicatum phase -bluebunch wheatgrass phase -FEID phase -Festuca idahoensis phase -Idaho fescue phase PlPOlSYOR h.t. Pinus ponderosa/Symphoricarpos oreophilus h. t . ponderosa pinelmountain snowberry PlPOlSYAL h.t. Pinus ponderosa/Symphoricarpos albus h .t. ponderosa pinelcommon snowberry PlPOlPHMA h.t. Pinus ponderosa/Physocarpus malvaceus h. t ponderosa pinelninebark PSEUDOTSUGA MENZlESll SERIES PSMEIAGSP h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Agropyron spicatum h. t Douglas-firlbluebunch wheatgrass PSMElFElD h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Festuca idahoensis h. t . Douglas-firlldaho fescue -FEID phase -Festuca idahoensis phase -Idaho fescue phase -PIP0 phase -Pinus ponderosa phase -ponderosa pine phase PSMEISYOR h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Symphoricarpos oreophilus h. t. Douglas-firlmountain snowberry PSMEIARCO h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Arnica cordifolia h. t . Douglas-firlheartleaf arnica -ASMI phase -Astragalus miser phase -weedy milkvetch phase -ARC0 phase -Arnica cordifolia phase -heartleaf arnica phase PSMEIJUCO h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Juniperus communis h. t . Douglas-firlcommon juniper PSMEICAGE h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiiVCarex geyeri h.t. Douglas-firlelk sedge -SYOR phase -Symphoricarpos oreophilus phase -mountain snowberry phase -PIP0 phase -Pinus ponderosa phase -ponderosa pine phase -CAGE phase -Carex geyeri phase -elk sedge phase PSMEIBERE h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Berberis repens h. t. Douglas-firloregon grape -SYOR phase -Symphoricarpos oreophilus phase -mountain snowberry phase -CAGE phase -Carex geyeri phase -elk sedge phase -BERE phase -8erberis repens phase -Oregon grape phase PSMEICELE h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Cercocarpus ledifolius h. t . Douglas-firlcurlleaf mountain-mahogany PSMEICARU h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Calamagrostis rubescens h. t . Douglas-firlpinegrass -FEID phase -Festuca idahoensis phase -Idaho fescue phase -PIP0 phase -Pinus ponderosa phase -ponderosa pine phase -CAW phase -Calamagrostis rubescens phase -pinegrass phase PSMEIOSCH h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Osmorhiza chilensis h. t. Douglas-firlmountain sweet-root PSMEISPBE h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiiVSpiraea betulifolia h.t. Douglas-firlwhite spirea -PIP0 phase -Pinus ponderosa phase -ponderosa pine phase -CARU phase -Calamagrostis rubescens phase -pinegrass phase -SPBE phase -Spiraea betulifolia phase -white spirea phase PSMEISYAL h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Symphoricarpos albus h. t . Douglas-firlcommon snowberry -PIP0 phase -Pinus ponderosa phase -ponderosa pine phase -SYAL phase -Symphoricarpos albus phase -common snowberry phase PSMEIVAGL h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Vaccinium globulare h.t. Douglas-firlblue huckleberry PSMEIACGL h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Acer glabrum h .t. Douglas-firlmountain maple -SYOR phase -Syrnphoricarpos oreophilus phase -mountain snowberry phase -ACGL phase -Acer glabrum phase -mountain maple phase PSMEIPHMA h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/Physocarpus malvaceus h .t. Douglas-firlninebark -CAW phase -Calamagrostis rubescens phase -pinegrass phase -PIP0 phase -Pinus ponderosa phase -ponderosa pine phase -PSME phase -Pseudotsuga menziesii phase -Douglas-fir phase PSMElLlBO h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesii/~innaeaborealis h.t. Douglas-firltwinflower PSMEIVACA h.t. Pseudotsuga menziesiiNaccinium caespitosum h.t Douglas-firldwarf huckleberry PlCEA ENGELMANNll SERIES PlENlHYRE h.t. Picea engelmannii/Hypnum revolutum h .t. sprucelhypnum PlENlGATR h.t. Picea engelmannii/Galium triflorum h.t. sprucelsweetscented bedstraw PIENICADI h.t. Picea engelmannii/Carex disperma h.t. sprucelsoft-leaved sedge PIENIEQAR h.t. Picea engelmannii/Equisetum arvense h.t. sprucelcommon horsetail (con.) APPENDIX A. (Con.) ---- Habitat types and phases ADP code1 Abbreviation Scientific name Common name

ABlES GRANDIS SERIES ABGRICARU h.t. Abies grandis/Calamagrostis rubescens h.t. grand firlpinegrass ABGRISPBE h.t. Abies grandislspiraea betulifolia h.t. grand firlwhite spirea ABGRIVAGL h.t. A bies grandisflaccinium globulare h .t . grand firlblue huckleberry ABGRIXETE h.t. Abies grandis/Xerophyllum tenax h .t. grand firlbeargrass ABGRIACGL h.t. Abies grandis/Acer glabrum h .t. grand firlmountain maple -PHMA phase -Physocarpus malvaceus phase -ninebark phase -ACGL phase -Acer glabrum phase -mountain maple phase ABGRlLlBO h.t. Abies grandis/Linnaea borealis h.t. grand firltwinflower -VAGL phase -Vaccinium globulare phase -blue huckleberry phase -XETE phase -Xerophyllum tenax phase -beargrass phase -LIB0 phase -Linnaea borealis phase -twinflower phase ABGRIVACA h.t. Abies grandisflaccinium caespitosum h.t. grand firldwarf huckleberry ABGRICOOC h.t. A bies grandis/Coptis occidentalis h .t . grand firlwestern goldthread ABGRICLUN h.t. Abies grandis/Clintonia uniflora h .t . grand firlqueencup beadlily ABlES LASIOCARPA SERIES ABLAICABI h.t. Abies IasiocarpdCaltha biflora h. t . subalpine firlmarsh marigold ABLAICACA h.t. Abies lasiocarpa/Calamagrostis canadensis h.t. subalpine firlbluejoint -LEGL phase -Ledurn glandulosum phase -Labrador-tea phase -VACA phase -Vaccinium caespitosum phase -dwarf huckleberry phase -LICA phase -Ligusticum canbyi phase -Canby's ligusticum phase -CACA phase -Calamagrostis canadensis phase -bluejoint phase ABLAISTAM h.t. Abies lasiocarpa/Streptopus amplexifolius h. t . subalpine firltwisted stalk -LICA phase -Ligusticum canbyi phase -Canby's ligusticum phase -STAM phase -Streptopus amplexifolius phase -twisted stalk phase ABLAICLUN h.t. Abies lasiocarpa/Clintonia uniflora h .t . subalpine firlqueencup beadlily -MEFE phase -Menziesia ferruginea phase -menziesia phase -CLUN phase -Clintonia uniflora phase -queencup beadlily ABLAICOOC h.t. Abies lasiocarpa/Coptis occidentalis h .t . subalpine firlwestern goldthread ABLAIMEFE h.t. Abies lasiocarpdMenziesia ferruginea h .t . subalpine firlmenziesia -LUHI phase -Luzula hitchcockii phase -smooth woodrush phase -MEFE phase -menziesia ferruginea phase -Menziesia phase ABLAIACGL h.t. Abies lasiocarpa/Acer glabrum h .t. subalpine firlmountain maple ABLAIVACA h.t. Abies IasiocarpaNaccinium caespitosum h.t . subalpine firldwarf huckleberry ABLAlLlBO h.t. Abies IasiocarpdLinnaea borealis h.t. subalpine firltwinflower -LIB0 phase -Linnaea borealis phase -twinflower phase -XETE phase -Xerophyllum tenax phase -beargrass phase -VASC phase -Vaccinium scoparium phase -grouse whortleberry phase ABLAlALSl h.t. Abies lasiocarpdAlnus sinuata h.t. subalpine firlSitka alder ABLAIXETE h.t. Abies lasiocarpa/Xerophyllum tenax h.t. subalpine firlbeargrass -VAGL phase -Vaccinium globulare phase -blue huckleberry phase -VASC phase -Vaccinium scoparium phase -grouse whortleberry phase -LUHI phase -Luzula hitchcockii phase -smooth woodrush phase ABLAIVAGL h.t. A bies lasiocarpaNaccinium globulare h .t . subalpine firlblue huckleberry -VAGL phase -Vaccinium globulare phase -blue huckleberry phase -VASC phase -Vaccinium scoparium phase -grouse whortleberry phase ABLAISPBE h.t. Abies lasiocarpa/Spiraea betulifolia h. t. subalpine firlwhite spirea ABLAlLUHl h.t. Abies lasiocarpaLuzula hitchcockii h.t. subalpine firlsmooth woodrush -VASC phase -Vaccinium scoparium phase -grouse whortleberry phase -LUHI phase -Luzula hitchcockii phase -smooth woodrush phase ABLAIVASC h.t. Abies lasiocarpaNaccinium scoparium h.t. subalpine firlgrouse whortleberry -CARU phase -Calamagrostis rubescens phase -pinegrass phase -VASC phase -Vaccinium scoparium phase -grouse whortleberry phase -PIAL phase -Pinus albicaulis phase -whitebark phase ABLAICARU h.t. Abies lasiocarpa/Calamagrostis rubescens h .t. subalpine firlpinegrass h.t. ABLAICAGE h.t. Abies lasiocarpa/Carex geyeri h. t . subalpine firlelk sedge h.t. -CAGE phase -Carex geyeri phase -elk sedge phase -ARTR phase -Artemisia tridentata phase -big sagebrush phase

(con.) APPENDIX A. (Con.)

Habitat types and phases ADP code1 Abbreviation Scientific name Common name ---

ABlES LASIOCARPA SERIES (con.) 745 ABLAIJUCO h.t. Abies lasiocarpa/Juniperus communis h.t. subalpine firlcomrnon juniper 81 0 ABLAlRlMO h.t. Abies IasiocarpalRibes montigenum h.t . subalpine firlrnountain gooseberry 780 ABLAIARCO h.t. Abies lasiocarpa/Arnica cordifolia h.t. subalpine firlheartleaf arnica 850 PIAL-ABLA h.t.'s Pinus albicaulis-Abies lasiocarpa h.t.'s whitebark pine-subalpine fir 870 PINUS ALBlCAULlS SERIES 870 PlAL h.t.'s Pinus albicaulis h.t.'s whitebark pine 900 PINUS CONTORTA SERIES 920 PICONACA c.t. Pinus contortaNaccinium caespitosum c.t. lodgepole pineldwarf huckleberry 940 PlCOlVASC c.t. Pinus contortaNaccinium scoparium c.t. lodgepole pinelgrouse whortleberry 950 PICOICAGE c.t. Pinus contortalcarex geyeri c. t . lodgepole pinelelk sedge 905 PlCOlFElD h.t. Pinus contortalFestuca idahoensis h.t. lodgepole pinelldaho fescue -- 'Automatic data processing codes. APPENDIX B: OCCURRENCE AND ROLES OF TREE SPECIES BY HABITAT TYPES

Occurrence of tree species through the series of habitat types, showing their status in forest succession as interpreted from central Idaho reconnaissance plot data (Steele and others 1981). C = major climax species S = major seral species a = accidental c = minor climax species s = minor seral species () = only in certain areas of h.t.

Habitat type- phase JUSC POTR PlFL PIP0 PSME PIC0 PlEN LAOC ABGR ABLA PlAL

PlFLlFElD PlPOlSTOC PIPOIAGSP PlPOlFElD PIPOIPUTR, AGSP PIPOIPUTR, FElD PlPOlSYOR PlPOlSYAL PSMEIAGSP PSMEIFEID, FElD PSMEIFEID, PIP0 PSMEISYOR PSMEIARCO, ASMl PSMEIARCO, ARC0 PSMEIJUCO PSMEICAGE, SYOR PSMEICAGE, PIP0 PSMEICAGE, CAGE PSMEIBERE, SYOR PSMEIBERE, CAGE PSMEICAGE, BERE PSMEICELE PSMEICARU, FElD PSMEICARU, PIP0 PSMEICARU, CARU PSMEIOSCH PSMEISPBE, PIP0 PSMEISPBE, CARU PSMEISPBE, SPBE PSMEISYAL, PIP0 PSMEISYAL, SYAL PSMEIACGL, SYOR PSMEIACGL, ACGL PSMEIPHMA, PIP0 PSMEIPHMA, PSME PlENlHYRE PlENlCADl ABGRICARU ABGRISPBE ABGRNAGL ABGRIACGL, PHMA ABGRIACGL, ACGL ABGRILIBO, VAGL ABGRILIBO, LIB0 ABG RIVACA ABGRICLUN ABLNCABI ABLNCACA, LEGL ABLNSTAM, LlCA ABLNSTAM, STAM APPENDIX B. (Con.) ------Habitat type- phase JUSC POTR PlFL PIP0 PSME PIC0 PlEN LAOC ABGR ABLA PlAL

ABLAICLUN, CLUN ABLAIMEFE, MEFE ABLAIACGL ABLNVACA ABLAILIBO, LIB0 ABLAIXETE, VAGL ABLAIXETE, VASC ABLAIXETE, LUHl ABLAIVAGL, VAGL ABLAISPBE ABLAILUHI, VASC ABLAILUHI, LUHl ABLNVASC, CARU ABLAIVASC, VASC ABLAIVASC, PlAL ABLNCARU ABLAICAGE, CAGE ABLAICAGE, ARTR ABLAIJUCO ABLAIRIMO ABLAIARCO PIAUABLA PlCOlFElD APPENDIX C: SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF PLANTS MENTIONED IN TEXT

Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name alder Ahus spp. mountain sweet-root Osrnorhiza chilensis alpine knotweed Polygonurn phytolaccaefoliurn myrtle pachistima Pachistirna rnyrsinites antelope bitterbrush Purshia tridentata Nevada peavine Lathyrus nevadensis arrowleaf balsamroot Balsarnorhiza sagittata ninebark Physocarpus rnalvaceus arrowleaf groundsel Senecio triangularis oceanspray Holodiscus discolor aspen Populus trernuloides oniongrass Melica bulbosa baldhip rose Rosa gyrnnocarpa pathfinder Adenocaulon bicolor ballhead sandwort Arenaria congesta Parry rush Juncus parryi bearberry Arctostaphylos uva-ursi pinegrass Calarnagrostis rubescens beargrass Xerophyllurn tenax Piper's anemone Anemone piperi bigleaf sandwort Arenaria rnacrophylla pokeweed fleeceflower Polygonurn phytolaccaefoliurn big sagebrush Arternisia tridentata ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa birch Betula spp. prickly currant Ribes lacustre bitterbrush Purshia tridentata pussytoes Antennaria racernosa blue huckleberry Vacciniurn globulare pyramid spirea Spiraea pyrarnidata bluebunch wheatgrass A gropyron spicaturn quaking aspen Populus trernuloides bluejoint Calarnagrostis canadensis queencup beadlily Clintonia uniflora bracted pedicularis Pedicularis bracteosa red baneberry Actaea rubra broadleaf arnica Arnica latifolia Richardson geranium Geranium richardsonii brook saxifrage Saxifraga arguta Rocky Mountain maple Acer glabrurn Canby's ligusticum Ligusticurn canbyi rose Rosa spp. chokecherry Prunus virginiana Ross sedge Carex rossii coiled lousewort Pedicularis contorta rosy pussytoes Antennaria rnacrophylla Columbia clematis Clematis colurnbiana russet buffaloberry Shepherdia canadensis Columbian monkshood Aconiturn colurnbianurn Scouler willow Salix scoulerana common horsetail Equiseturn arvense sedge Carex spp. common juniper Juniperus cornrnunis sewiceberry Arnelanchier alnifolia common snowberry Syrnphoricarpos albus shooting star Dodecatheon jeffreyi cottonwood Populus spp. showy aster Aster conspicuus creeping barberry Berberis repens shrubby cinquefoil Potentilla fruticosa creeping Oregon grape Berberis repens sidebells pyrola Pyrola secunda curlleaf mountain-mahogany Cercocarpus ledifolius silvery lupine Lupinus argenteus currant Ribes spp. Sitka alder Alnus sinuata dampwoods blueberry Vacciniurn globulare Sitka valerian Valeriana sitchensis darkwoods violet Viola orbiculata smooth woodrush Luzula hitchcockii Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga rnenziesii snowberry Syrnphoricarpos spp. dwarf huckleberry Vacciniurn caespitosurn snowbrush ceanothus Ceanothus velutinus elk sedge Carex geyeri snowlover Chionophila tweedyi Engelmann spruce Picea engelrnannii soft-leaved sedge Carex disperrna fairybells Disporurn trachycarpurn spikefescue Hesperochloa kingii false bugbane Trautvetteria caroliniensis spreading sweet-root Osrnorhiza chilensis false-hellebore Veratrurn viride spruce Picea engelrnannii false Solomon's seal Srnilacina racernosa starry Solomon-plume Srnilacina stellata firestamen miterwort Mitella pentandra starry Solomon's seal Srnilacina stellata fireweed Epilobiurn angustifoliurn sticky geranium Geranium viscosissirnurn grand fir Abies grandis strawberry Fragaria spp. grouse whortleberry Vacciniurn scopariurn subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa hawthorn Crataegus spp. sweetscented bedstraw Galiurn triflorurn heartleaf arnica Arnica cordifolia thimbleberry Rubus parviflorus Hook violet Viola adunca Thurber fescue Festuca thurberi Hooker fairybells Disporurn hookeri twinflower Linnaea borealis honeysuckle Lonicera caerulea twisted stalk Streptopus arnplexifolius hypnum Hypnurn revoluturn Utah honeysuckle Lonicera utahensis Idaho fescue Festuca idahoensis wax currant Ribes cereurn Indian poke Veratrurn viride weedy milkvetch Astragalus miser junegrass Koeleria cristata western goldthread Coptis occidentalis kinnikinnick Arctostaphylos uva-ursi western larch Larix occidentalis Labrador-tea Ledurn glandulosurn western meadowrue Thalictrurn occidentale larch Larix occidentalis western needlegrass Stipa occidentalis limber pine Pinus flexilis western pipsissewa Chirnaphila urnbellata lodgepole pine Pinus contorta Wheeler bluegrass Poa nervosa marsh marigold Caltha biflora white spirea Spiraea betulifolia menziesia Menziesia ferruginea whitebark pine Pinus albicaulis mountain arnica Arnica latifolia Wilcox's penstemon Pensternon wilcoxii mountain ash Sorbus scopulina wild strawberry Fragaria spp. mountain big sagebrush Arternisia tridentata ssp. vasey'aria willow Salix spp. mountain gooseberry Ribes rnontigenurn woodrush Luzula hitchcockii mountain-mahogany Cercocarpus ledifolius Woods rose Rosa woodsii mountain maple Acer glabrurn Yarrow Achillea rnillefoliurn mountain snowberry Syrnphoricarpos oreophilus

* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1986-773-039141029 86 Crane, M. F.; Fischer, William C. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of central Idaho. General Technical Report INT-218. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station; 1986. 86 p. Discusses fire as an ecological factor for forest habitat types occurring in central Idaho. Identifies "Fire Groups" of habitat types based on fire's role in forest succes- sion. Considerations for fire management are suggested.

KEYWORDS: fire ecology, forest ecology, forest fire, fire management, habitat types