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University of Newcastle Upon Tyne Faculty of Humanities UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES SCHOOL OF GEOGRAPHY, POLITICS AND SOCIOLOGY ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION: A CASE STUDY OF NUCLEAR WASTE MANAGEMENT AND POLICY IN TAIWAN GILLAN CHI-LUN HUANG THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHLOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES SCHOOL OF GEOGRAPHY, POLITICS AND SOCIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE 9 OCTOBER 2012 i Abstract The politics and management of nuclear waste has always been a controversial issue. This research critically assesses the management and politics of nuclear waste in Taiwan using an environmental justice approach. This research comprises three parts: first, the nature of radioactive waste; second, the theory of environmental justice; and third, the case study of nuclear waste siting policy in Taiwan. In the first part, background information is provided to understand what nuclear waste is; how it has been managed in different countries; and the difficulties and uncertainties of nuclear waste management. In the second part of this research, the idea of environmental justice is employed as a theoretical framework to interpret nuclear waste policy and the policy process in Taiwan. Environmental justice is derived from the environmental justice movement in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Environmental justice issues are two-fold: distributive justice refers to the distribution of environmental risks among different communities, and procedural justice refers to the access of citizens to decision-making processes that affect their environment. Finally, the case study of nuclear waste management and politics in Taiwan serves as the third part of this project. Through the lens of principles of environmental justice, the historical development of nuclear waste in Taiwan is examined. The process and progress of protracted attempts to site a new nuclear waste repository in Taiwan is investigated in considerable detail by conducting interviews with government officials, NGOs, and members of local communities. Particular attention was paid to the decision-making process and to the involvement of minority and low income ii communities in that process. The overall purpose of this project is to determine how far the ideas and principles of environmental justice have informed the nuclear waste management policies of Taiwan. By examining how consistent nuclear waste management in Taiwan complies with the idea of environmental justice, this project contributes to the growing literature on an urgent policy issue, and helps members of local communities, government officials and politicians to develop a greater awareness of the problems and issues of nuclear waste. iii Acknowledgements I would like to express my enormous thanks towards my Supervisors, Dr Derek Bell and Professor Tim Gray for their patience, enthusiasm, encouragement and valuable comments during the time of my doctoral study. No words can describe how grateful and how fortunate I am to work with them in my study. Also, I would like to thanks the people in Wang-An and Da-Ren for their help with interviews. Without them, this thesis would not be complete. Thanks to Maggie and Chris Stringer in 13 Southcliff, Whitley Bay, for support and encouragement during the time of my study. Finally, please allow me to express my thanks to my parents, Han-Pin Huang and Shao-Jen Chang, and my girlfriend, Linda Ng, for their unconditional love and support throughout my research and writings. iv Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv Contents v Lists of Tables xiv Glossary of Mandarin-Chinese and English Translation xvi Chapter1. Introduction 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2 . Why is nuclear waste such a controversial issue? 1 1.3. Management of nuclear waste 2 1.4. Case study of Taiwan 4 1.5. Research Questions 5 1.6. Methodology 5 1.6.1. Data Analysis 9 v 1.7. Chapter outline 10 1.8. Conclusion 13 Chapter 2. Nuclear Waste Disposal 14 2.1. Introduction 14 2.2. Nuclear waste 15 2.2.1. Nuclear fuel cycle 15 2.2.2. Classification of radioactive waste 17 2.2.2.1. Very Low Level Waste (VLLW) 17 2.2.2.2. Low Level Waste (LLW) 18 2.2.2.3. Intermediate Level Waste (ILW) 18 2.2.2.4. High Level Waste (HLW) 18 2.3. Radiation 19 2.3.1. Measurement of radiation 20 2.3.2. Types of radiation 20 2.3.2.1. Alpha 21 2.3.2.2. Beta 21 2.3.2.3. Gamma 21 2.4. Health risks of nuclear waste 22 2.4.1. ‘Deterministic’ and ‘stochastic’ effects 23 2.4.2. Safe limits of radiation 24 2.4.3. Epidemiological evidence 25 vi 2.4.4. Fear 26 2.5. Management of nuclear waste 26 2.5.1. Principles of nuclear waste management 26 2.5.2. Technical aspects of nuclear waste management 28 2.5.2.1. Pre-disposal 29 2.5.2.2. Disposal 30 2.5.3. Ethical aspects of nuclear waste management 32 2.5.3.1. Intereginal Inequality 32 2.5.3.2. Intergenerational Inequality 33 2.5.3.3. Compensation 33 2.5.4. Political aspects of radioactive waste 34 2.6. International comparisons of nuclear waste management practice 35 2.6.1. USA 36 2.6.2. Canada 38 2.6.3. The U.K. 40 2.6.4. Germany 42 2.6.5. France 43 2.6.6. Sweden 45 2.7. Literature review on the politics of nuclear waste 48 2.7.1 Single case studies 48 2.7.2 Comparative studies 49 2.7.3 Studies of oppositional groups 49 vii 2.7.4 Studies on environmental justice 50 2.7.5 Studies of environmental justice in Taiwan 53 2.8. Conclusion 55 Chapter 3. Storing Nuclear Waste – An Environmental Justice Perspective 56 3.1. Introduction 56 3.2. The origin of environmental justice in the USA 56 3.2.1. Love Canal 56 3.2.2. Warren County 59 3.2.3. Consolidation of the environmental justice movement in the USA 60 3.3. Environmental Justice in Taiwan 63 3.4. The meaning of environmental justice 66 3.4.1. Concept of risk 67 3.5. Distributive environmental justice 68 3.5.1. Who are the recipients of environmental justice? 68 3.5.2 What should be distributed? 68 3.5.3. Principles of distribution 70 3.5.3.1. Equality 70 3.5.3.2. Priority 73 3.5.3.3. Sufficiency 74 3.5.3.4. Compensation 75 viii 3.6. Procedural environmental justice 75 3.6.1. Non-discrimination 76 3.6.2. Participation 76 3.6.3 Information 78 3.6.4 Local knowledge 79 3.6.5 Trust 80 3.7. Economic injustice 81 3.8. Political injustice 84 3.9. Cultural injustice 85 3.10. Understanding the opposition: using environmental justice framework 87 3.11. Conclusion 88 Chapter4. Taiwan – the Geo-Political Context 90 4.1. Introduction 90 4.2. The geography and demography of Taiwan 90 4.2.1. Geography 90 4.2.2. Demography 91 4.3. Political history of Taiwan 92 ix 4.3.1. Pre-1945 93 4.3.2. 1945-1975: Chiang Kai-Shek 93 4.3.3. 1975-88: Chiang Ching-Kuo and the end of martial law 96 4.3.4. 1988-2000: Lee Teng-Hui and Democratization 97 4.3.5. 2000-2008: Chen Shui-Bian and the DPP Government 102 4.3.6. Ma Ying-Jeou (馬英九 ) 2008- 107 4.4. Political Economy 109 4.4.1. Taiwan’s economy 1945-1988 109 4.4.2. 1988-2000 111 4.4.3. 2000-2008 111 4.4.4. 2008-to present 112 4.5. Civil Society in Taiwan 117 4.5.1. Presbyterian Church 117 4.5.2. Women’s movement 118 4.5.3. Labour movement 120 4.5.4. Aboriginal movement 122 4.5.5. Environmental movement 123 4.5.6. Anti-nuclear movement 127 4.6. Conclusion 135 Chapter 5. History of Nuclear Waste in Taiwan 136 5.1. Introduction 136 x 5.2. Regulatory framework 137 5.3. Orchid Island national repository for radioactive waste 140 5.3.1. Decision options 140 5.3.2. A fish canning factory or a radioactive waste repository? 144 5.3.2.1. Lack of trust in the government 146 5.3.3. Protest against nuclear waste 147 5.3.4. A two-faced approach? 149 5.4. Siting for a final repository for nuclear waste 156 5.4.1. Financial support – a nuclear backend fund 156 5.4.2. Siting a permanent LLW repository in Taiwan 158 5.4.2.1. Wuciou 159 5.4.2.2. Da-Wu 166 5.4.2.3. Da-Ren 172 5.4.2.4. Wang-An 173 5.4.3. HLW and spent fuel management 175 5.4.4. Exporting Radioactive Waste from Taiwan 176 5.4.4.1. China 177 5.4.4.2. North Korea 177 5.4.4.3. Marshall Islands 182 5.4.4.4. Russia 183 5.5. Conclusion 186 xi Chapter 6. Understanding Opposition I: Empirical Analysis 188 6.1. Introduction 188 6.2. The selection of Da-Ren and Wang-An 189 6.2.1. Identification of the potential sites 189 6.2.2. Important opportunity to understand opposition 191 6.2.3. Previous work on the environmental justice of nuclear waste storage in Taiwan 192 6.3. The geo-political context of the two cases 194 6.3.1. Geography and demography 194 6.3.2. Economics 199 6.3.3. Culture 201 6.3.4. Local politics 204 6.3.4.1. Local Politics in Taiwan 204 6.3.4.2.
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