Hanson’s theory courses at the Eastman School of Music, Walker gained full control over unity through the consistent projection of an interval in composition. This is a performer’s document that analyzes the first four piano sonatas by focusing on how they are unified with intervals. Walker uses certain intervals as the basis for the four sonatas by constructing motives, chords or clusters, and key relationships within and between movements from the given interval/intervals—this is intervallic coherence. The First

Sonata is constructed from fourths, the Second is based on thirds, the Third Sonata is built from seconds, and the Fourth Sonata uses octaves, seconds, and fourths.

The first chapter is an introduction that includes a brief biography with a description of the document and my purpose for writing it, the second chapter systematically gives a brief outline of the form of each sonata and analyzes the specific interval/intervals used, the next chapter is a small section that surveys the sonatas with performance suggestions and descriptions of each work, and the last chapter is the conclusion of the document.

Everett N. Jones III

2005

TABLE OF CONTENTS

MUSICAL EXAMPLES………………………………………………………………...……… iii

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION……………………………….………………………………………..…… 1

II. THE FOUR PIANO SONATAS……………………..………………………..……………….6

A Survey and Methodology…………………………………………………..…….... 6

Sonata No. 1 Form ………………………………………………..…………………. 8 Intervallic-based motive Quartal harmony Fourth relationships Sonata No. 2 Form…………………..……………………………………………….16 Tertian construction Tertian projection of chords Tertian relationships Sonata No. 3 Form…………………..……………………………………………….26 Intervallic construction Sonata No. 4 Form…………………………………………………………………...32 Intervallic motives Intervallic clusters Intervallic form

III. TO THE PERFORMER…………...………………………………………………………...39

IV. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………42

V. BIBLIOGRAPHY…….………………………………………………………………………44

MUSICAL EXAMPLES

FIGURE

1. Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 20–22……….……………………...………….8

2. Sonata No. 1, first movement, m. 1……………………………………………...…11

3. Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 8 & 10……………………………………...…12

4. Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 78–79…………………………………………12

5. Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 146–47………………………………………..13

6. Sonata No. 1, second movement, mm. 11–12…………………………...………....13

7. Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 23–27, secondary theme……...…...………....14

8. Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 60–61, 68–69………………………………....15

9. Sonata No. 2, first movement, mm. 1–4…………………………...………...... 19

10. Sonata No. 2, first movement, mm. 13–17………………………………………...20

11. Sonata No. 2, first movement, mm. 22–25……………………………………..….21

12. Sonata No. 2, second movement, mm. 1–9 …………………………....……....…..22

13. Sonata No. 2, third movement, m. 1……………………………………………….23

14. Sonata No. 2, third movement, m. 20…………….………………………..………23

15. Sonata No. 2, fourth movement, mm. 49–56………………………………………24

16. Sonata No. 3, first movement, mm. 1–2…………………………………………...26

17. Sonata No. 3, first movement, mm. 25–27………………………………………...27

18. Sonata No. 3, second movement and reduction, mm. 1–10………………….……28

19. Sonata No. 3, second movement, reduction of mm. 1–20………………..………..30

iii 20. Sonata No. 3, third movement, m. 16…………………………………….………..30

21. Sonata No. 3, third movement, m. 17…………………………………….………..31

22. Sonata No. 4, first movement, m. 1, second movement, m. 1……………………..34

23. Sonata No. 4, first movement, m. 12………………………………………………35

24. Sonata No. 4, second movement, m. 72 ...…………………………………………35

25. Sonata No. 4, first movement, m. 21…….………………………………………...36

26. Sonata No. 4, first movement, mm. 34–35………………………………………...37

27. Sonata No. 4, first movement, reduction of mm. 34–35…………..………….……37

28. Sonata No. 4, first movement, mm. 98–99………………………..………….……38

iv CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

George Walker was born in Washington D.C. on 27 June 1922 and received the best musical education available. He earned a Bachelors of Music degree (with the highest honors) from Oberlin Conservatory in 1941 and studied piano with David Moyer and composition with

Normand Lockwood. He received an Artist Diploma from the Curtis School of Music in 1945 while studying with Rudolf Serkin and Mieczyslaw Horsowski; his composition instructors were

Rosario Scalero and Gian Carlo Menotti. He then attended the American Conservatory of Music at Fontainbleau, France and graduated with an Artist Diploma in 1947; his piano instructor was

Robert Casadesus. Walker received a Doctor of Musical Arts degree from the Eastman School of Music in 1957, before returning to study composition in Paris privately with Nadia Boulanger

(1957–1959) and piano with Clifford Curzon (this was with the aid of a Fulbright Fellowship and the John Hay Whitney Grant).

Walker’s teaching career includes positions at Dillard University, the New School of

Music in New York, Peabody Conservatory, Rutgers University (Newark), Smith College, the

University of Colorado, and the University of Delaware.

His productive pen has produced solo piano works like the Prelude and Caprice (1945

& 1941), the twelve-tone variations Spatials (1961), the one-movement Spektra (1971), Bauble

(which was composed in 1979 for the Maryland International Piano Competition), Guido’s Hand

(1986), five piano sonatas (1953 [revised in 1991], 1956, 1975 [revised in 1994], 1985, and 2003 respectively), and a piano concerto.

1 George Walker was a pioneer on many fronts: he was the first African-American to win

the Philadelphia Orchestra youth auditions, to sign a major management contract, to graduate

from the Curtis School of Music, to receive a doctorate from the Eastman School of Music, to

debut in New York’s Town Hall, and to earn a Pulitzer Prize as a living black composer (Scott

Joplin had been awarded one posthumously in 19751). Walker has been awarded many honorary doctorates, received several large commissions from orchestras like the Cleveland, Atlanta, and

New York Philharmonic, and has made many recordings. Many notable performers like Natalie

Hinderas and Leon Bates have also recorded his works. In addition to performing with renowned ensembles like the Philadelphia Orchestra and the Detroit Symphony, he has published

over ninety works in major genres. There are five piano sonatas, two violin sonatas, two string

quartets, a piano concerto, music for brass, three sinfonias, and a symphony.

Despite Walker’s accomplishments, his music is not performed as frequently as some

of his contemporaries’. This is vexing because there is a dearth of American composers who

were virtuoso pianists and significantly contributed to twentieth-century piano repertoire with a

body of piano sonatas (Walker wrote five). Walker feels the lack of performance of his and

other black composers’ music is partly because of prejudice. He expressed his opinion when

asked, “Why is the music of black composers not better known?”

Racism is alive and well in classical music. Its legacy, which has affected society in general, has left its imprint on performers and academics as well as marketing moguls. There appears to be a systematic and exclusionary view of the importance and value of black composers’ works by musicologists and music critics…In the 1970s, this would be considered benign neglect. But today, it is better described as arrogant disdain…The white press promotes John Adams, Steve Reich, Aaron Kernis, John Harbison, and others while ignoring Hale Smith, T. J. Anderson, Olly Wilson, Adolphus Hailstork, David Baker, Wendell Logan, and other black artists who are more interesting and equally

1 Edward Berlin, King of Ragtime: Scott Joplin and His Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 252.

2 competent.2

Although Walker’s music speaks for itself, many remain unaware of his contributions

because of his omission in some histories of twentieth-century music, and in the lack of

incorporating black composers in many classroom curriculums. Although this may be an uncomfortable topic for some, race is a relevant reality to the biography of a black composer living in a period of inequality from the 1920’s on. For example, the first two sonatas were written a decade before many civil rights laws were in place, segregation was legal and prevalent, and racism was overt. Race has played a direct role in Walker’s career—he turned to composition because managers felt the audiences at the time (in the 40s and 50s) were not ready to accept a black pianist.3 The subject of exclusion and discrimination influencing Walker’s compositional language is just as pertinent to his background as the National Socialist Party and

the Soviet government is to the biographies of Weill and Shostakovich, respectively.

Fortunately, positive strides made in equal rights of class, gender, and race, are because these

uncomfortable issues are discussed.

Wilfred Delphin said, “It is significant that George Walker is a black composer in the

same sense that it is historically important to know that Bach was German, Debussy French, or

Bartók Hungarian. This fact does not in any way imply that his music needs patronage or

defense—it stands on its own merit. What is necessary is that it be carefully studied and

performed.”4 It is for this reason that I’ve decided to write my document on the first four piano sonatas of George Walker. I wish to contribute to the small number of writings on the sonatas by

2 Ingrid Monson, “An Interview with George Walker,” The Musical Quarterly 84 (2000): 380. 3 Ibid, 377. 4 Wilfred Jerome Delphin, “A Comparative Analysis of Two Sonatas by George Walker: ‘Sonata No. 1’ and ‘Sonata No. 2’” (D. M. A. thesis, The University of Southern Mississippi, 1976), 40.

3 providing current information on their basic form and intervallic unification. My purpose is

introduce more performers to the music of George Walker, and offer specific information on the

intervallic structure of these sonatas as an alternative to some of the canonized and sometimes

overplayed works currently in twentieth-century American piano repertoire.

The publications on Walker include six theses, numerous articles, encyclopedia entries,

and interviews. The articles give a scope of the composer’s works and his accomplishments,

while the interviews give insight into the composer’s thoughts on music. While reading the

theses, I found they included little information on the performance of these works, or

concentrated on the constant projection of intervals through form, harmonic language, texture,

and other salient features. Four of the theses were written thirty years ago and mainly outline

form, provide little analysis, and do not concentrate on interval usage. Wilfred Delphin’s5 1976 thesis concerns only the first two sonatas, and Roosevelt Newson’s6 1977 thesis is on the first three sonatas. Both of the theses generally concentrate on form, compare the sonatas to each other, and provide a small dated analysis without knowledge of the Fourth Sonata and the

established intervallic pattern between all of them. Leonard Boe’s thesis7 analyzes the evolution

of Walker’s compositional technique and concentrates on the Fourth Sonata. Although it is the

most extensive, it generally discusses Walker’s life, gives a broad survey of his works, has an

extended interview, and includes portions of all of the components in Walker’s sonatas—these

include traditional forms, interval relationships, folk music, scalar material, texture, and cyclical

treatment.

5 Ibid. 6 Roosevelt Newson, “A Style Analysis of the Three Piano Sonatas of George Theophilus Walker.” (Ph. D. diss,. Peabody Conservatory, 1977). 7 Dennis Leonard Boe, “The Evolutionary Development of Compositional Technique and Style in the Piano Sonatas of George Walker: a Study of the Sonata No. 4 and Analytical Comparison of the Four Sonatas.” (D. M. A. thesis, The University of North Texas, 1995).

4 This is a performer’s document that analyzes the four piano sonatas by focusing on how they are unified with intervals. First, I will only give a brief overview of the forms because the theses mentioned earlier (by Boe, Delphin, and Newson) elaborate more on the subject. I will then show how Walker uses certain intervals as the basis for the four sonatas by constructing motives, chords, and relationships within and between movements from the given interval/intervals—this is intervallic coherence. Lastly, the document also includes a small section that surveys the sonatas with performance suggestions and descriptions of each work.

This document is a continuation on my Lecture-Recital (on the first two sonatas and their interval relationships) and my analysis of the four sonatas concentrate on the principle of intervallic unity in relation to form and how it governs motivic structure without consideration to traditional analyses and folk influences.

5 CHAPTER II

ANALYSIS OF THE FOUR SONATAS

(A SURVEY AND METHODOLOGY)

The first four piano sonatas are all based on intervallic construction. Walker uses a particular interval in each of the sonatas to construct motives, chords or clusters, and key relationships within and between movements (in the first two sonatas). The First Sonata is constructed from fourths, the Second is based on thirds, the Third Sonata comprises three fantasies and is based on seconds, and the Fourth Sonata uses octaves, seconds, and fourths in a tintinnabulation-like fashion. The established intervallic compositional pattern Walker uses across the First, Second, Third, and Fourth sonatas are as follows: 4ths, 3rds, 2nds, and a build-up of octaves, 2nds, and 4ths (resulting in huge clusters).

I will illustrate how each of the four piano sonatas of Walker is unified by the intervals of a fourth, third, second, and the combination of octaves, seconds, and fourths respectively. I will do so by analyzing all works intervallically and revealing that particular intervals are used in the following ways: the construction of themes or motives, chords or clusters (e.g. quartal harmonies and extended triads in the first two sonatas), shifts to new key areas within movements, and key relationships between movements (moving to key areas a fourth or third apart).

My analytical remarks are framed strictly in this intervallic-based sense without consideration of a standard analysis like Schenkerian or Roman numeral. The use of folk idioms, classical forms, Roman numeral analysis, set theory, and interval relationships are all different ways to analyze Walker’s sonatas. Again, my analysis deals only with the intervals

6 mentioned above, and their spawning of motives, chordal creation, movements to new key areas, and the creation of clusters.

One could dedicate an entire detailed thesis to the form, harmony, or other salient features in just one of these sonatas. My goal is not to give a blow by blow account of form, illustrate every intervallic relationship, or explain the compositional process in deep theoretical prose of harmony or pedantic methods. I wish to provide the performer with a comprehensive and general understanding of the form and how the composer unifies all four sonatas with the idea of intervallic unity. This general understanding of intervallic coherence will aid in the performer’s overall individual interpretation of the sonatas.

7 SONATA NO. 1

FORM

Walker shows a preference for traditional forms which he employs with a twentieth-

century vocabulary. The first movement is a sonata-allegro form that begins in c# minor with an

energetic principal theme (P) that extends from measures 1 through 8; this forte section closes

with a ritard. The transition to the secondary theme (S) begins on the last two beats of measure

8 and builds sequential energy before a German augmented sixth chord (measures 20 through 22)

that prepares the medial caesura8 at measure 22. Look at Figure 1. to see how the C, E, G, and

A# of this augmented sixth chord lead into the medial cadence (MC) of B octaves creating a

sudden halt of motion.

Figure 1. Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 20–22, and reduction of mm. 20–22.

The MC (in the example above, measure 22) is later interrupted by a V-I cadence to an

A tonality (this is the fourth scale degree of the relative major) that starts the secondary key area at measure 23. This section is marked piano and is more lyrical and serene than the first

8 Warren Darcy and James Hepokoski, “The Medial Caesura and Its Role in the Eighteenth-Century Sonata Exposition,” Music Theory Spectrum 19 (1997): 115–154.

8 theme—this contrast of tempo, dynamic levels, and mood can be expected in a sonata-allegro

form. S ends with a ritard at measures 34 and 35, and the transition to the development begins

with the new tempo marking at measure 36. This transition area generates energy to a virtuosic

cadenza-like closing area at measure 41, and the essential expositional closure (EEC) occurs at

measure 48.

Although there is a new tempo marking at measure 44 (Delphin believes this is the

development),9 the development section begins at measure 48 with another sudden disruption of motion—the parallel octaves on the V chord (G#, m. 48). The development begins at measure

48 because the material at measure 44 is also repeated in the recapitulation (making it part of the exposition), and Walker uses a halt of motion with octaves to create sectional breaks at the following places: the beginning of the S-theme (with octaves on B followed by a change in texture, m. 22 shown in Figure 1), the development (octaves on G# followed by a change in texture, m. 48), the recapitulation (ending with octaves on G followed by a rest, m. 96), and the coda (octaves on C# followed by a rest, m. 141). The octaves and disruption of motion at the beginning of these sections articulate this sonata-allegro form.

The retransition to the recapitulation (mm. 89–95) culminates in an explosion of parallel chromatic octaves in measures 94 and 95, followed by unexpected rests—a halt of motion. The recapitulation repeats the material from the exposition with minor changes; P remains intact while S now seems to be transposed to an F# tonality (the fourth scale degree of c# minor). The recapitulation ends and the coda begins with a solid resting on a C# octave at measure 141; this is the essential sonata closure (ESC). The first movement ends with a coda constructed almost entirely of ascending and descending fourths.

9 Delphin, 51.

9 The second movement is a theme in A major based on the Kentucky folk song, “Oh

Bury Me Beneath the Willow,” with six variations that derive from material from the folk theme, and motivic references to the principal theme of fourths in the first movement (later explained).

Five of the variations are ten measures long and all are in A major; Variations 1, 3, and 6 are rhythmic and toccata-like, while 2, 4, and 5 are more melodic. The second movement ends with a return of the folk theme.

The last movement returns to the key of c# minor and is a toccata in arch form (A-B-C-

B-A); it should be noted that other than the return to c# minor, this movement does not consistently rely on fourths. The powerful A section extends from measures 1 through 44. The

B section begins in F# with a new tempo and dynamic marking at measure 45, and ends at measure 74. The C section (mm. 75–90) is the pinnacle of the movement with its hand-crossing sixteenth-note trills that engulf the entire keyboard. The B section returns to c# in measures 90 through 119, and the A section ends in c# and spans from measures 120 through 149. The A theme is stated again in the coda in measures 150–60. Below is general outline of the structure of the first sonata:

MOVEMENT I (SONATA-ALLEGRO) Exposition: Principal theme (mm. 1–8), transition (mm. 8–22, MC), Secondary theme (mm. 23–35), transition (mm. 36–48, EEC). Two-part Development (mm. 48–95): 1st part is based on the principal theme (mm. 48–77), 2nd part is based on the secondary theme (mm. 78–89 transition to recapitulation [mm. 89-95]). Recapitulation: Principal theme (mm. 96–102), transition (mm. 102–117, MC), Secondary theme (mm. 118–30), transition (mm. 131–40, ESC). Coda (mm. 141–156).

MOVEMENT II (THEME AND VARIATIONS) Theme (mm. 1–10):Var. I (mm. 11–20), Var. II (mm. 21–30), Var. III (31–40), Var. IV (mm. 41–51), Var. V (mm. 52–61) Var. VI (mm. 62–71), Theme (mm. 72–82).

MOVEMENT III (TOCCATA IN ARCH FORM)

10 A (mm. 1–44), B (mm. 45–74 [uses the Kentucky folk song, “Liza in the Summertime”]), C (mm. 75–90), B (mm. 90–119), A (mm. 120–49), Coda (mm. 150–60).

INTERVALLIC-BASED MOTIVE

Walker achieves unification in the First Piano Sonata by consistently using the interval of a fourth. I will cite examples that reveal the construction of fourths and how they unify this sonata in the following ways: in the construction of the principal motive and its motivic development throughout the sonata, the substitution of tertian triads with quartal chords, the stacking of intervals to create quartal harmonies, and fourth relationships within and between movements.

The fourths presented in the first measure are the foundation for this sonata. This principal motive is built from two ascending fourths (E to A and A to D natural) and is later used in transition to the S-theme, the development, coda, and variations of the second movement.

Walker admires the motivic development of Beethoven and this small three-note motive along with its development throughout the sonata, will show the influence of the first Viennese school master in the remaining examples (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Sonata No. 1, first movement, m. 1, the opening three-note motive.

On the last beats of measures 8 and 10, this theme is motivically used in transition to the S-theme and can be seen diminuted in the left hand—again we have the two successive fourths of E, A,

11 and D natural that was seen in measure 1 (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 8 & 10, motive used in transition to the S-theme.

When the S-theme reappears in the development, the fourth motive (seen in Figure 2, page 11) is arpeggiated and continues the extension of fourths to G and C to support the melody.

Look at the arpeggiated fourth motive of E, A, D natural, G, and C natural on the second and third beats of measure 78 (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 78–79., S-theme in the development.

Walker ends this movement in a grand way with a demanding coda constructed

almost entirely of ascending and descending fourths. You can see the principal motive in the left

hand of measure 146 (second and third beats), and the subsequent sequential development of

fourths in measures 146–47. Here, Walker develops and extends the principal motive in the

rising and falling chromatic pattern outlined in my reduction. The circled notes in the example

illustrate how the fourth pattern starts on E and extends up to F#, down to D# then D, back up to

F natural, etc. (Figure 5).

12 Figure 5. Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 146–47, and reduction of mm. 146–47.

The second movement has a colorful theme with six variations that are rooted in fourths and are based on the principal motive of the first movement. Variation 1 inverts and melodically transposes the principal motive of the first movement; notice the A-E-B (an inverted variant of the principal motive) in the right hand of the pick-up to measure 11, on the second and last beats of measure 11, and finally a return of the principal motive on the first beat of measure 12 (Figure

6).

Figure 6. Sonata No. 1, second movement, mm. 11–12.

13 QUARTAL HARMONY

Walker often uses fourths in place of traditional triads. The S-theme is in the key of A,

and the altered quartal chord on the first beat of measure 27 functions as a half cadence on E; this

chord is normally spelled E, G#, and B—Walker uses E, A, F#, and B. He uses the interval of a

fourth to create a quartal chord in substitution of a tertian triad (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 23–27., S-theme.

Walker’s model of fourths naturally results in quartal harmonies related to the construction of the principal motive. If you turn back to Figure 2 (page 11), you will see the first three notes are E, A, and D natural. The quartal cadences on the downbeats of measures 61 and

69 contain the notes previously mentioned stacked vertically, with additional fourth extensions that avoid expected tertian harmony. Measure 61 has B, E, A, and D natural while measure 68

has E, A, D natural, G, and C. (Figure 8).

14 Figure 8. Sonata No. 1, first movement, mm. 61 & 69.

FOURTH RELATIONSHIPS

The fourth relationships within and between movements are numerous. The P-theme of the first movement is in c# minor. The S-theme goes to an A major/minor tonality; this A key area is the fourth scale degree of the relative E major (this theme does not move to E major, which traditional practice advises). In the recapitulation, the P-theme is in c# and moves a fourth away to the secondary area of F# (it does not stay in the expected tonic). Finally, the first movement is in c# minor, the second movement is in A major (again, the fourth scale degree of the relative major of c# minor), and the last movement returns to c# minor. There are additional fourth relationships the performer may find (too numerous for me to cover in this document), but even from the selected examples of intervallic motives, harmony, and fourth relationships within and between movements, it is clear that Walker achieves unity through interval of a fourth.

15 SONATA NO. 2

FORM

Walker wrote Sonata No. 2 as his dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the Doctor of Musical Arts degree at the Eastman School of Music. At Eastman, Howard

Hanson required all students to take a theory course that reflected his philosophy of the

consistent projection of an interval in composition.10 Hanson’s Harmonic Materials of Modern

Music explains his theory by analyzing the chromatic scale using four devices: interval analysis

[interval class], projection [interval cycle], involution [inversion], and complementary scales.11

Below is a brief explanation of these four categories:

Interval analysis reduces all intervals into six basic categories: the minor second, major second, minor third, major third, tritone, and the perfect fifth; each interval considers the relationship above and below the initial tone. Projection is the construction of scales or chords by a consistent process of addition or superimposing intervals. Involution (musical mirroring) is the musical relationship “up” or “down” (e.g. a perfect fifth–perfect fourth). Complementary scales consist of notes not present in the original scale— the remaining tones of the twelve-tone scale.

It is important for the performer to know Hanson’s intervallic theory course was Walker’s inspiration for building his second piano sonata on the constant manipulation of thirds (although

Walker experimented with intervals in the First Sonata, the Second Sonata was written for

Hanson’s course).

The first movement is an original theme with ten variations in g minor. The theme is constructed from a motive built on thirds with a canonic imitating ostinato under it; the harmonization of the theme incorporates sixths (the natural inversion of the third). Every

10 Boe, 15. 11 Howard Hanson, Harmonic Materials of Modern Music (New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts Inc., 1960).

16 subsequent variation is created from the theme and lasts approximately 3 to 5 measures long.

The theme returns at the end.

The second movement is a clearly defined three-part scherzo in Bb major, with the outer sections written in a three-voice texture. Each section is distinguished by a double bar line, rests, and new key signature. The Bb major A section uses a diatonic ostinato in the middle voice against rhythmic outer voices; it extends from measures 1through 49. In measures 50 through 74, the two-voice B section now has one sharp in the key signature (the tonal center seems to be G major/minor), and it inverts the opening motive and creates a more disjunct ostinato in the lower voice. The A section returns (in measures 74 through 112) with little alterations to the key of Bb major and a three voice-texture.

The third movement is a song in b minor that is stated three times. The first statement of the song is chordal (measures 1 to 8), the second statement is more extended, more contrapuntal, and the melody is in a higher register (measures 9 through 19), and the last statement of the song returns to the lower register with the melody in the left hand (measures 20 through 27).

The final movement is a sonatina in G (or sonata without development) that has a coda with a cyclic reference to the theme of the first movement. The calm A section manipulates thirds in a thin texture of eighth notes and ends with a double bar line in measure 11. The B section begins with a new tempo marking and key signature. This section has fast sixteenth notes with accented octaves in the bass that dissolve into a ritard at the beginning of measure 29.

After a brief rest, both sections return with little change. The coda begins at measure 57; this is based on the theme of the first movement and ends with exciting parallel octaves. Here’s a brief formal outline of this sonata:

17 MOVEMENT I (THEME AND VARIATIONS) Theme (mm. 1–4): Var. I (mm. 5–9), Var. II (mm. 10–12), Var. III (mm. 13– 17), Var. IV (mm. 18–21), Var. V (mm. 22–25), Var. VI (mm. 26-31), Var. VII (mm. 32–35), Var. VIII (mm. 36–39), Var. IX (mm. 40–43), Var. X (mm. 44– 51) Theme (mm. 52–61).

MOVEMENT II (SCHERZO IN TERNARY FORM) A (mm. 1–49), B (mm. 50–74), A (mm. 75–112).

MOVEMENT III (SONG FORM) First statement (mm. 1–8), Second statement, (mm. 9–19), Third statement (mm. 20–27).

MOVEMENT IV (SONATA WITHOUT DEVELOPMENT) A theme (mm. 1–11), B theme (mm. 12–28), A theme (mm. 29–39), B theme (mm. 40–56), Coda (mm. 57–65).

TERTIAN CONSTRUCTION

Just like fourths are the basis for the First Sonata, thirds are the foundation for the

Second Sonata. The following examples illustrate how thirds are used to construct themes and

their variations, how tertian chords are generated through the superimposing of the interval, and

the many tertian relationships within and between movements.

The theme in the first movement (mm. 1–4) alternates between major and minor thirds,

and the first two measures of the right hand are melodically imitated a sixth away in the left

hand. Both the right and left-hand statements of the theme are used in the following variations.

The top voice of the right hand has Eb-Gb (a minor 3rd), D-Bb (a major 3rd), B-D (a minor 3rd),

D-F# (a major 3rd), F#-A# (a major 3rd), and A#-C# (a minor 3rd [there’s also a minor second between third and fourth beats of measure 1, and the first and second beats of measure 2]). The right hand is supported in the lower voice by the inversion of a third—mostly minor sixths—and is later elaborated mainly with arpeggiated thirds in the left hand at measure 3. It should be

18 noted that this alternation between major and minor creates a secondary interval of construction

(a second) that will not be explored because the primary unifying device is still a third. The

chord on the first beat of measure 3 (D, F, and C#) is a voiced projection of both a major and

minor third—D-F is a minor 3rd, and C# (Db)-F is a major third. Look at the concise four- measure theme of the first movement and observe how it is constructed from the third interval

(Figure 9).

Figure 9. Sonata No. 2, first movement, mm. 1–4, canonic theme based on major and minor thirds.

In Variation 3, Walker continues to manipulate thirds with impetuous triplets, mostly

at the interval of a minor third. Fragments of the theme can be heard in most of the accented

downbeats while the other notes are disguised in the low growling register of the keyboard.

Notice how this entire monophonic variation is built from mostly minor thirds, and even the

triplets are the result of the composer’s manipulation of thirds (The theme fragment is circled in

Figure 10).

19 Figure 10. Sonata No. 2, first movement, mm. 13–17.

Variation 5 has a complete statement of the lower voice of the right-hand theme in the accented middle voice. It elaborates the theme with major and minor thirds above it, and closes with a sextuplet trill in minor thirds using a diminuendo and ritard. Observe how this variation is constructed from the tertian-based theme (explained in Figure 9 on page 19), the accompanimental thirds above it, and the sextuplet trills at the third interval (The theme is circled in Figure 11).

20 Figure 11. Sonata No. 2, first movement, mm. 22–25.

The syncopated scherzo is also constructed from thirds. The rhythmic motive (in measures 1 and 2) seems to outline a major and minor Bb chord; the second beat of measure 1 leaps down a minor third from Bb to G, and measure 2 stacks thirds vertically with the Db-F, and the Bb-D. This motive is repeated twice before pausing for three measures on a culminating triad with an added second—according to Hanson’s Harmonic Materials of Modern Music (see page 16), the triad is a projection (or interval cycle) of superimposed intervals. The added second to the triad suggests the simultaneous sounding of a major/minor chord (the secondary interval of a second also creates an octatonic relationship that is explored in the Third and Fourth

Sonatas). The triad could be spelled as Cb-D (Ebb)-Gb (a minor triad), and Cb-Eb-Gb (a major triad). Look at the tertian construction of the beginning of the scherzo in measures 1 and 2, and the triad with an added second in measures 7 through 9 (Figure 12).

21 Figure 12. Sonata No. 2, second movement, mm. 1–9, the beginning of the tertian-based scherzo.

TERTIAN PROJECTION OF CHORDS

Walker generates chords by the consistent addition or stacking of thirds. The lyrical third movement theme is built from voiced thirds, and the extensions of a 7th and 11th can be seen

on the fourth and fifth beats of measure 1. Walker stacks B, D, F#, and A before going up to

E—notice how the pattern alternates between major and minor thirds if we add the implied C#

between the A and E. The hextad in measure 1 (B-D-F#-A-C#-E) is created from stacked major

and minor thirds.

This theme is varied in measure 20 with triplets in the right hand that use major and

minor thirds in the second through fourth beats; the theme is played in the left hand above a

sustained b minor chord. The following are examples of how the composer generates chords by

stacking major and minor thirds, and varies the given theme with thirds as the accompaniment

(The theme is circled in Figures 13 & 14).

22 Figure 13. Sonata No. 2, third movement theme, m. 1.

Figure 14. Sonata No. 2, third movement, m. 20, elaboration of theme.

The repeat of the turbulent B section (mm. 49–56) is the climax of the sonata; it reveals accented right-hand triads and dyads—superimposed thirds—supported by aggressive running octaves at the third interval. The triads are stacked combinations of major and minor thirds, and the left-hand octaves use thirds with chromaticism. Walker ends this sonata by using thirds in the thick texture of triads and octaves already explained (Figure 15 [although the first beat of measure 49 sounds as a perfect fourth, it is written as an augmented third]).

23 Figure 15. Sonata No. 2, fourth movement, mm. 49–56, the B section built from superimposed thirds.

TERTIAN RELATIONSHIPS

Because of the prevailing emphasis on thirds, tertian relationships within and between movements are no surprise. The first movement is in g minor. The A section of the second movement begins in Bb major, the B section centers around a G tonality, and the returning A section is in Bb major; thus, the relationship is Bb to g minor to Bb (a minor third). Remember the first movement is in g minor, the second movement is in Bb, the third movement is in b

24 minor, and the fourth movement begins in G major and ends in g minor. Therefore, the large-

scale relationship between all four movements is as follows: g minor, Bb major, b minor, G

major—these are major/minor third relationships.

Of the first four sonatas, the Second Sonata uses intervallic projection with the utmost consistency. Although it is impossible to list every tertian relationship, this section cited specific examples that show the performer how each movement of this work is built upon the third interval. The construction of themes and their variations, chords, and even key relationships between movements illustrate how Walker achieves unity through an almost obsessive intervallic saturation.

25 SONATA NO. 3

FORM

Walker started viewing musical forms differently in the 1970s and describes Sonata No.

3 as three fantasies: Fantoms, Bell, and Chorale and Fughetta. This 1975 work was

commissioned by Leon Bates and differs from the previous sonatas by not having a key or time

signature—it also has an intervallic vertebra. The first movement is a highly complex

compositional improvisation in ternary form (because of the spontaneous method of

composition, it is not clear if intervals were a factor in this movement’s conception). The A

section extends from measures 1 through 4 and ends with a ritard on low repeated notes. The B

section begins with an a tempo at measure 5 and ends at measure 23. The A section returns at

measure 24 and ends at measure 33. Although its seemingly through-composed nature makes it

very difficult to analyze, Walker revealed the structure that holds this improvisation together.12

In measures 1 and 2 of the first movement (Figure 16), notice the C, C, B, D#, F, and G in the top voice—this is the A theme that comes back in measures 25 through 27 (Figure 17), outlining the ABA form. Walker calls this movement Fantoms because of the hidden combinations of the improvised notes previously mentioned. Observe the A section and its return in Figures 16 and

17.

Figure 16. Sonata No. 3, first movement, mm. 1–2.

12 Boe, 36.

26 Figure 17. Sonata No. 3, first movement, mm. 25–27.

The second movement, Bell, is a unique form based on the interval of a second

(explained in the next section) that reiterates a single expansive chord seventeen times at different dynamic levels. In general, the duration of the chords decreases as the dynamic levels increase, when the duration of chords increase the dynamics decrease; this relationship organizes the movement. These proportions are analogous to the action of striking a bell—a quicker and shorter motion creates a louder sound while a slower and longer motion creates a softer sound.

The first half of this movement displays a clear relationship of the increasing dynamics to decreasing note durations (mm. 1–10). The remaining measures (11 through 20) occasionally deviate from the pattern and eventually fade into a pp chord sustained for 30 beats. Look at measures 1 through 10 in its original form, and the reduction to see how the dynamics increase while the rhythmic values decrease (Figure 18).

27 Figure 18. Sonata No. 3, second movement, mm. 1–10, original form.

Figure 18 (cont’d). Sonata No. 3, Reduction of second movement, mm. 1–10:

Dynamics Rhythmic groupings pp 10+9 beats (mm. 1–2) p 8+7 beats (mm. 3–4) mp 6 beats (m. 5) mf 5 beats (m. 6) f 4 (m. 7) ff 3 (m. 8) fff 2+ 1 beats (mm. 9–10).

The Chorale and Fughetta is the focal point of the sonata that begins with a somewhat traditional German Chorale, is followed by a Fughetta (that also uses improvisatory material from the previous movements), and has a return of the Chorale at the end. The Chorale starts with widely voiced chords and ends at the double bar line in measure 16. The difficult Fughetta

28 begins at measure 17 with a new tempo marking, and it ends at measure 37. The Chorale comes back again in measures 38 through 53. Below is a general outline of the form of Sonata No. 3:

MOVEMENT I (TERNARY FORM) A section (mm. 1–4), B section (mm. 5–23), A section (mm. 24–33).

MOVEMENT II (SINGLE REPEATED CHORD) Unique form (mm. 1–20).

MOVEMENT III (CHORALE AND FUGHETTA) Chorale (mm. 1–16), Fughetta ([with improvisatory episodic material] mm. 17– 37), Chorale (mm. 38–53).

INTERVALLIC CONSTRUCTION

Piano Sonata No. 3 is based on seconds. Walker admitted to experimenting with major and minor seconds attempting to create clusters at the time the Third Sonata was written; this ultimately increased dissonance in his technique of intervallic-based composition.13 Although the first movement is improvisatory, I will show how seconds are used to construct the large repeated chord in the second movement, the fughetta theme in the third movement, and are inverted and stacked into clusters in the third movement.

Bell (the second movement, Figure 18 page 27) is constructed from two pitch clusters a tri-tone apart (0, 1, 3) that generate overtones similar to a bell. These large chords span a diminished 12th in the left hand and a minor 9th in the right hand. The pitch sets 0, 1, 3

are built from a combination of major and minor seconds. My reduction of the chords in the

second movement illustrate how the C#, D#, and E are voiced with the G, A, and Bb. The

C#-D# in the right hand and G-A in the left hand are major seconds—the D#-E in the right

hand and A-Bb in the left hand are minor seconds. Observe how the composer uses minor

13 Ibid, 42.

29 and major seconds to construct the expansive chord in the second movement (Figure 19

[Refer back to Figure 18 on page 27 to see how the composer voices the notes in the second

movement]).

Figure 19. Sonata No. 3, second movement, reduction of mm. 1–20.

The fughetta theme (measure 17 of the third movement) is a rising chromatic subject in the right-hand that is built from the alternation between major and minor seconds.

This octatonic theme is created from the projection of the alternating intervals and is stated several times fragmented and augmented with improvisatory material, before returning to the

Chorale to end the sonata. Look at the D#, E, F#, G, A, A#, B#, and C# in the right hand to see how the octatonic fughetta theme is constructed from the alternation of major and minor

seconds (remember this technique of alternating between major and minor intervals is also

used in the second sonata—it uses major and minor thirds).

Figure 20. Sonata No. 3, third movement, m. 17, octatonic fughetta theme.

While the second movement expansively voices major and minor seconds into one chord, the third movement inverts the interval and creates clusters by stacking seconds

30 vertically in a close position. The chords on the third and fourth beats of the right hand—G-

F and F-E—inverts the interval of a second by voicing them as 7ths. A small dissonant cluster can be seen in the left hand. The accented A#, B, and C are minor seconds that are first presented horizontally in the left hand (on the first beat of measure 16 of the third movement). The A, Bb, and Cb in the second and third beats of the left hand, presents the piled up minor seconds as a small cluster. Figure 21 is an example of how seconds are inverted and stacked into clusters in the third movement.

Figure 21. Sonata No. 3, third movement, m. 16.

Although the third sonata is difficult to analyze because of its impromptu nature,

Walker’s uses the interval of a second to unify it. The first movement is a structured improvisation, the unique second movement manipulates major and minor seconds into a single repeated chord, the third movement fuses improvisatory material with a fughetta—the fughetta theme is an octatonic scale constructed from the alternation between major and minor seconds—and it also inverts and manipulates seconds into clusters.

31 SONATA NO. 4

FORM

The Fourth Piano Sonata was commissioned by Frederick Moyer and the Astral

Foundation in 1985. It is roughly fifteen minutes in length, has two movements, no key or

time signature, and (according to Walker) is constructed from combinations of octaves,

seconds, and fourths to achieve an open sound.14 The first movement is a modified sonata form with a repetition of the exposition, completely new material where the development would be, and a truncated return of the themes in the recapitulation. The first theme begins at measure 1 and eventually expands to the virtuoso octaves at the end of measure 17. The first theme is repeated at the new tempo marking (measure 18) and ends with a ritard at

measure 26. The contrasting second theme starts at measure 27 with a new tempo marking

and ends at measure 30 with another ritard. After an extended transitional section, the

development uses completely new material (measures 54 through 84). Walker stated, “the

development is not a development of previous material, but new material placed where the

development would be.”15 The first theme returns at measure 85 and the movement closes at measure 100 without a repeat of the second theme.

The second movement is a five-part rondo with a slow introduction (mm. 1–9) and coda (m. 91) based on the inversion of the opening material of the first movement. The A section is an aggressive toccata that extends from measures 10 through 30. The waltz-like B section has a new tempo marking and lasts from measures 31 through 43. After the return of the A section (mm. 49–65), the C section discreetly quotes the spiritual, “Sometimes I Feel

14 Boe, 63. 15 Ibid, 55.

32 like a Motherless Child” in measures 66 through 80. Walker marks this section lamentoso

and it dissolves back into the A section that closes with a climax of clusters. Below is a

truncated formal outline of this sonata:

MOVEMENT I (MODIFIED SONATA FORM) Exposition: first theme (mm. 1–17), repetition of first theme (mm. 18–25), transition (m. 26), second theme (mm. 27–30), transition (mm. 31–53). Development: completely new material (mm. 54–68), transition to recapitulation (mm. 69–84). Recapitulation: first theme returns without the second theme (mm. 85–100).

MOVEMENT II (RONDO) Introduction (mm. 1–9), A section (mm. 10–30), B section (mm. 31–43), transition (mm. 44–48), A section (mm. 49–65), C section (mm. 66–80), A section (mm. 81–90), Coda (m. 91).

INTERVALLIC MOTIVES

The Fourth Piano Sonata is based on the combination of octaves, seconds, and

fourths. I will demonstrate the following: how octaves, seconds, and fourths are introduced

in the opening measures of both movements, seconds are used to construct the first theme (of

movement one) and the C section of the rondo, fourths elaborate the repeat of the first theme,

clusters are generated through the projection of octaves, seconds, and fourths, and the

intervals articulate form and are combined in the closing measures.

Because of the cyclical nature of this work, there are many similarities in the motivic construction of themes in both movements. The opening measures of the first movement present Walker’s intervallic material for the sonata in a clear and deliberate way before complexity starts. It begins with fortissimo octaves on F, moves up a second to G, and jumps up a fourth from G to C in measure one; all of these intervals are played in one

pedal. The first measure of the second movement is an inversion of measure 1 of the first

33 movement. It begins with a single D, moves down a major second to C, and down a fourth to

G. As I stated in the analysis of the First Piano Sonata, Walker admires the motivic

development of Beethoven and different presentations of these intervals will be discussed in

the following examples. Look at measure 1 of both movements to see the composer’s initial

statement of his intervallic material: octaves, seconds, and fourths (Figure 22).

Figure 22. Sonata No. 4, first movement, m. 1. Sonata No. 4, second movement, m. 1.

(Initial statement of intervallic material) (Inversion of intervallic material)

After a short transition, the second part of the first theme starts at measure 12 with

alternating major and minor seconds (or whole and half steps) before an altered repetition of

the exposition’s material. This alternation generates an octatonic pattern. According to

Joseph Straus, when the octatonic pattern is presented as a scale, it consists of alternating

major and minor seconds with three distinct tritone-related forms (0, 1)-(1, 2)-(2, 3).16 The three types of octatonic patterns are as follows:

(0, 1 Octatonic collection) C, C#, D#, E, F#, G, A, A# (1, 2 Octatonic collection) C#, D, E, F, G, G#, A#, B (2, 3 Octatonic collection) D, Eb, F, F#, G#, A, B, C

The alternation of intervals is also explained in the analysis of the second and third piano

sonatas. This time, Walker manipulates the 2, 3 octatonic pattern by projecting it into a

16 Joseph Straus, Introduction to Post-Tonal Theory, 2nd ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1990).

34 disjunct and reordered horizontal scale. Look at the alternating seconds: G# (½ step), A

(whole step), B (½ step), C (whole step), D (½ step), D# (whole step), and F. Observe how

Walker alternates between these intervals to create the first theme (Figure 23).

Figure 23. Sonata No. 4, first movement, m. 12, disjunct octatonic scale.

The first theme is later expanded and motivically developed throughout the

sonata. A motivic reference to measure 12 of the first movement, can be seen in measure 72

of the second movement. In this example, Walker uses the 0, 1 octatonic scale to accompany

the spiritual tune in the C section of the rondo. The right hand displaces seconds as widely

spaced 11ths, and the left hand creates the following scale from major and minor seconds: A#,

B#, C#, D#, E, and F#. This is played in one pedal and provides atmospheric dissonance

under the somewhat recognizable spiritual tune. The C section of the rondo uses seconds by

voicing the melody as 11ths and supporting it with an octatonic scale.

Figure 24. Sonata No. 4, second movement, m. 72.

35 When the first theme is repeated in measure 21 of the first movement, it is

elaborated with fourths that continually expand into the second theme area. Here is another

type of disjunct 0, 1 octatonic scale with added fourths on the fourth and fifth beats of

measure 21. Below is an example of how the composer elaborates a theme (constructed from

seconds) with a quartal texture (Figure 25).

Figure 25. Sonata No. 4, first movement, m. 21, octatonic theme elaborated with fourths.

INTERVALLIC CLUSTERS

Walker creates clusters from the expansion of the intervals introduced at the beginning of the first movement (see Figure 22 on page 34). In measures 34 and 35 of the first movement, this cluster accumulation begins with C# and D# played together in octaves

(notice the interval is a second). Seconds are then added upon seconds, which also results in fourths. For example, the D# above the C# (on the first beat of m. 34) is a second, the F# above the C# (the fourth beat of m. 34) is a fourth, and the doubling of the C# and D# (mm.

34 and 35) is an octave (Figure 27 elaborates on this idea). Therefore, this accumulation of clusters is built upon seconds, the seconds also result in fourths, and the doublings of notes produce octaves. Look at Figure 26 to see how Walker uses the intervals of octaves, seconds, and fourths to create clusters.

36 Figure 26. Sonata No. 4, first movement, mm. 34–35, intervallic-based cluster.

Another interesting way to view the construction of this cluster is on the

alternation of major and minor seconds. Walker explores the potentialities of the octatonic

pattern by continuing to add seconds to create the vertical cluster. The B#, C#, D#, E, F#, G,

and A in measure 35 (Figure 26), is an 0, 1 octatonic scale created from the projection of

alternating major and minor seconds. Below is a chart that illustrates this process of

expansion through the alternation of major and minor seconds in this cluster. Every time a

note is added the interval changes to either a major or minor one, increasing texture and

dissonance in the cluster (Figure 27).

Figure 27. Sonata No. 4, first movement, reduction of mm. 34–35. M=major second, m=minor second:

C#-D# (both notes are doubled) (M) C#-D#-E (M, m) B#-C#-D#-E (m, M, m) B#-C#-D#-E-F# (m, M, m, M) B#-C#-D#-E-F#-G (m, M, m, M, m) B#-C#-D#-E-F#-G-A (m, M, m, M, m, M)

37 INTERVALLIC FORM

Octaves, seconds, and fourths also articulate form. Both movements begin and

end with octaves, seconds are often used (as octatonic scales) in transitional sections, and

fourths seem to be used to elaborate themes and are frequently seen in the development

section. A combination of the intervals can be seen in the last measures of the first

movement (measure 98). Although it closes with a heavy octave texture, it combines the

interval relationships of octaves, second, and fourths. It contains heavy left-hand octaves ascending an octatonic scale (based on major and minor seconds), and the octatonic pattern is

broken at the interval of a fourth. The circled G# and C# is where the octatonic pattern breaks at the fourth interval (Figure 28).

Figure 28. Sonata No. 4, first movement, mm. 98–99.

The Fourth Piano Sonata is the culmination of Walker’s intervallic technique.

Unlike the other sonatas, the Fourth Sonata projects multiple intervals: octaves, seconds, and fourths are used in the creation of themes, their development and elaboration, the accumulation of clusters, and the articulation of form. The octatonic pattern that is produced by alternating seconds, the expansion of clusters, and the combination of octaves, seconds,

and fourths can be dissected in one thesis alone. As previously stated, my goal is to provide

the performer with a general understanding of how the composer unifies the work with

intervals.

38 CHAPTER III

TO THE PERFORMER

This section of the document is inspired by Maurice Hinson’s “Guide to the

Pianist’s Repertoire”,17 and is a brief survey of the four sonatas for the performer. As I was

searching for a Beethoven sonata to play, I came across Hinson’s book. He gives a brief

overview of all of Beethoven’s piano sonatas (and other standard piano composers’ works)

listing duration, technical problems, suggestions, and any other pertinent information the

performer should know about the composition.

GEORGE T. WALKER (b. 1922)

Sonata no. 1 (1953, rev 1991). This three-movement work is based on fourths, is roughly fifteen minutes long, and requires a large span. The difficult coda of the first movement presents many technical problems—similar to Chopin’s Etude no. 1 op. 10— because fourths do not rest comfortably between the fourth and fifth fingers. The second movement provides a pleasant contrast to the first, and the sixth variation contains many dangerous leaps. It is followed by a fiery toccata with the principal rondo theme consistently stretching a ninth. Practice can be exhausting for average hands and one should be careful to avoid injury from over practicing. This maybe the most difficult of the Walker sonatas.

Sonata no. 2 (1956) is a compact four-movement work based on thirds, it is the shortest of the sonatas lasting ten minutes long, and is the least technically demanding. The

17 Maurice Hinson, A Guide to the Pianist’s Repertoire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000).

39 serious first movement is followed by a polyrhythmic scherzo that requires rhythmic

accuracy. The sad yet stoic third movement is perhaps the most melodic movement of all the

sonatas, while the fourth movement alternates between a tranquil first theme and an almost

insidious running second theme. Fingering can be tricky in the B section of the fourth

movement and loose and powerful wrists are needed for the virtuoso octaves in the coda of

the last movement.

Sonata no. 3 (1975 rev. 1994) is a puzzle for theorists and performers. Reading is

the biggest challenge in this atonal work and learning the notes takes great patience. With no

key or time signature, the complex 32nds and tuplets can be quite frustrating. The second

movement spans a 9th in the right hand and a 12th in the left. I suggest playing the G written in the bass clef with the right hand. Again, a large hand is required and because this chord resembles a bell struck seventeen times, it should not be rolled. Careful attention should be paid to learning the correct notes and rhythms—using the score during performance is highly advisable.

Sonata no. 4 (1985). There is no key or time signature in this two-movement work.

The first movement begins in a grandiose fashion and majestically quotes Berlioz’s “Scene in the Country” from Symphonie Fantastique. It expands to fleeting passagework and an aggressive octave section. The movement ends with left-hand octaves that should not be split between the two hands (just like the famous opening right-hand passage in Beethoven’s sonata op. 57 is to be played with one hand). The powerful toccata-rondo of the second movement builds to an exciting closing that discreetly quotes the spiritual “Sometimes I Feel like a Motherless Child” and dissolves into a restatement of the opening material of the first

40 movement. This is an effective ending to a program and it requires advanced reading, good octaves, endurance, a large hand, and is one of the most difficult.

41 CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

According to Nadine Hubbs, Charles Ives considered American composers “sissified

and wanted them to shape up, get a spine, and invent a radically new American sound that

embraces American music.”18 Composers like Barber, Copland, Dello Joio, and Gershwin rose to

Ives’ challenge by successfully incorporating jazz (which is undoubtedly American) in their popular piano compositions. However, in Walker’s piano works we see no obvious reference to jazz; this is ironic considering jazz is black in origin—and Walker is a black composer. Why didn’t he fuse jazz and other black vernacular genres in his compositions like his contemporaries did? Why were many white composers able to successfully and deliberately incorporate jazz in their works and Walker chose more clandestine ways within his intervallic language?

I believe the complexity and enigmatic intervallic concepts in many of Walker’s works are a reaction to the prejudice he has experienced and his desire to assimilate with twentieth- century American composers and not to be pigeonholed as “black composer.” Mark Clague wrote in the International Dictionary of Black Composers, “Walker constructs his music so that the unknowing listener should not be able to distinguish it from that of his canonized white contemporaries.”19 This can be seen in the last movement of the Fourth Piano Sonata; it

discreetly quotes the spiritual “Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child” under a veneer of

tintinnabulation, while the piano concerto (written in 1975 in memorial of Duke Ellington)

18 Anthony Tommasini, “What’s So Gay in American Music?,” New York Times, 24 October 2004, sec. 2, p. 28. 19 Mark Clague,“Walker, George,” in The International Dictionary of Black Composers, ed. Samuel A. Floyd, Jr. (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1999), 1174.

42 disguises an Ellington song in augmentation over the entire second movement.20 Both of these quotations are nearly imperceptible to the listener. Because of the history of prejudices Walker has experienced during times of segregation and other forms of oppression, it is not surprising that he chose a complex intervallic musical language without obvious references to jazz and conspicuous ties to heritage.

Walker’s twentieth-century compositional language includes unity through intervallic coherence. This document explores Walker’s first four piano sonatas by briefly outlining the traditional and non-traditional forms used, and illustrating their unity by showing how particular intervals construct motives, harmonic relationships, shifts to new key areas within movements, key relationships between movements, and resultant clusters. The First Sonata is based on fourths, the Second thirds, the Third is governed by seconds, and the Fourth Sonata uses a build up of octaves, seconds, and fourths. This is a performer’s guide to the sonatas with a short survey section devoted to the technical aspects of reading, practicing, and performing. I am confident there will be additional literature written about these works and hopefully more pianists will perform and examine them in the future.

20 Larry Morton, Black Composers Series Vol. 9, Detroit Symphony Orchestra, Paul Freeman conductor, Natalie Hinderas soloist, Columbia Masterworks, 1978.

CHAPTER V

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books Morris, Mark. A Guide to 20th Century Composers. London: Methuen, 1996.

Berlin, Edward. King of Ragtime: Scott Joplin and His Era. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Hanson, Howard. Harmonic Materials of Modern Music. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1960.

Hinson, Maurice. A Guide to the Pianist’s Repertoire. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000.

Hutchenson, Ernest. The Literature of the Piano: A Guide for Amateur and Student. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1964.

Lester, Joel. Analytical Approaches to Twentieth-Century Music. New York: Norton, 1989.

Schonberg, Harold. The Great Pianists. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963.

Straus, Joseph. Introduction to Post-Tonal Theory. Upper Saddle River, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1990.

Dictionaries Clague, Mark. “Walker, George,” in The International Dictionary of Black Composers, 1169. Edited by Samuel A. Floyd, Jr. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1999.

Theses Boe, Dennis Leonard. “The Evolutionary Development of Compositional Technique and Style in the Piano Sonatas of George Walker: a Study of the Sonata No. 4 and Analytical Comparison of the Four Sonatas.” D.M.A. thesis, The University of North Texas, 1995.

Delphin, Wilfred Jerome. “A Comparative Analysis of Two Sonatas by George Walker: ‘Sonata No. 1’ and ‘Sonata No. 2.’” D.M.A. thesis, The University of Southern Mississippi, 1976.

Erinett, Dorothy Maxine. “An Analysis and Comparison of Selected Piano Sonatas by Three Contemporary Black Composers: George Walker, Howard Swanson, and Roque Cordero.” Ph. D. diss., New York University, 1973.

Jackson, Raymond. “The Piano Music of Twentieth Century Black Americans as Illustrated Mainly in the Works of Three Composers.” D. M. A. thesis, The Julliard School, 1973.

Newson, Roosevelt. “A Style Analysis of the Three Piano Sonatas of George Theophilus Walker.” Ph. D. diss., Peabody Conservatory, 1977.

Journals Anderson, Harry L. “Upbeats: IPAM Obtains Outstanding Collection.” Piano & Keyboard 179 (March/April 1996): 13.

Chappell, Jeffrey. “From Sonata to ‘Satin Doll.’” Piano & Keyboard 189 (November/ December 1997): 42.

Darcy, Warren. and Hepokoski, James. “The Medial Caesura and Its Role in the Eighteenth- Century Sonata Exposition,” Music Theory Spectrum 19 (1997): 115–154.

Goldsmith, H. “New York.” American Record Guide 59, no. 2 (March/April 1996): 56.

Haroutounian, J. “Leon Bates Reminisces.” American Music Teacher 47 (August/September 1991): 17.

Martin, Jennifer. “Leon Bates: Performer, Artist, Master Teacher.” American Music Teacher 50 (February/March, 2001): 30.

Monson, Ingrid. “An Interview with George Walker.” The Musical Quarterly 84 (2000): 372–75.

“Music Teachers National Association 2001 Convention Artist.” American Music Teacher 50 (December/January 2000–2001): 42.

Steinberg, Michael. “The Trouble with Concertos.” Symphony 47, no. 2 (March-April 1996): 26– 57.

Sutton, Robert. “Natalie Hinderas: Artist and Person.” American Music Teacher 24 (February/March 1975): 40.

Website The National Association of Negro Musicians [on-line] available at HYPERLINK "http://www.edtech.morehouse.edu/cgrimes/"; Internet; accessed 24 August 2004.

45 Primary Sources Walker, George. “Letters: Concerto Consternation.” Symphony 47, no. 3 (May–June 1996): 4.

Discography of Walker’s Piano Works de Lerma, Dominique-Rene program notes to Natalie Hinderas: Piano Music by African American Composers. Sony Classical Productions Inc., CRI629, 1992, Compact Disc.

Eschelman, Jeffery. Leon Bates Explores Music of the New World. Orion Master Recordings Inc., Ors 76237, 1976. LP.

Morton, Larry. Black Composers Series Vol. 9. Detroit Symphony Orchestra, Paul Freeman conductor, Natalie Hinderas soloist, Columbia Masterworks, 1978. LP.

Moyer, Frederick. Frederick Moyer: Pianist. GunMar Music Inc., 2016, 1986, Compact Disc.

Walker, George. George Walker. Albany Records, 1995, Compact Disc.