This research was supported by National Science Founda- Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and tion Division of Polar Programs grant number DPP 86-10804, the New Zealand Antarctic Program. Brian McNamara assisted the National Aeronautic and Space Administration, the New in obtaining the data.

air is moved by the large-scale pressure field toward a suffi- A satellite study ciently high and extended mountain range, like the Transant- of barrier-wind airflow arctic Mountains, the air cannot pass over the obstruction but around Ross Island turns and blows parallel to it. The direction of mountain-par- allel barrier winds is determined by the geostrophic balance between the pressure gradient force due to the varying depth

DAVID H. BROMWLCH of cold air piled up against the mountains and the Coriolis force (Schwerdtfeger 1984). Analyses of AWS and satellite data have identified barrier-wind events forced by both synoptic- Byrd Polar Research Center scale (Bromwich 1986) and mesoscale cyclones (Bromwich 1987). Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio 43210 This report describes the effect of Ross Island upon a south- erly barrier-wind stream generated by a synoptic-scale low- pressure area centered over the northern Ross Sea. The anal- The meteorology of the Ross Island area is of great interest ysis is primarily based on Defense Meteorological Satellite Pro- for both applied and theoretical reasons. Practical applications gram (DMSP) thermal-infrared satellite imagery but is relate to the safe and efficient movement of aircraft using the supplemented with ground-based data where necessary. The ice runways near McMurdo Station. Theoretical interest cen- ters on the profound modification of the surface windfield by the mountainous topography of Ross Island, which has been known since Simpson (1919) published the meteorological re- 165°E 1700E sults from Captain R.F. Scotts British Antarctic Expedition 77 0 S c.-"-1 + Ross Sea 1910-1913. For most of the year, stably stratified air (in which -4-- the temperature increases with height) approaches the island from the south, and then is forced to blow around the high, Ross Island steep obstruction. This creates a stagnation (calm) zone on the windward (south) side of the island in the area known as Western Windless Bight. The streamline map constructed by Simpson Cape Evans^ (figure 1) succinctly summarizes these ideas. /\V PointfJ Recent research has clarified the kinematics and dynamics S of this topographically forced wind regime. Using automatic 07 weather station (AWS) observations, Savage and Stearns (1985) described the persistent southerly airflow over the north- western Ross Ice Shelf and found that the sea-level pressure distribution around Ross Island is consistent with that ex- Plateau pected for a climatological barrier-wind regime (described be- low). Slotten and Stearns (1987), also from examination of AWS data, obtained tentative support for the theory (Schwerdtfeger 1984) that northward-moving cold stable air is deflected around Ross Island by the pressure gradient associated with the pile- up of air against the southern side of the island. OConnor and Bromwich (1988) modeled the streamline pattern associ- ated with this airflow deflection and the local pressure field required to force it. The maximum perturbation pressure is proportional to the square of the approaching (frictionless) wind speed and ranges from negligible values for the clima- Figure 1. Simpsons (1919) depiction of surface airflow around Ross tological situation to several hectopascals for strong (approx- Island during blizzards (solid lines). Resultant winds for February imately 20 meters per second) southerly winds. A close fit through May 1984 are given for the AWS sites (numbered) listed by Savage et al. (1985) and for Scott Base (S.B.); these observations between the theoretical predictions and observed winds and demonstrate that the time-averaged airflow also follows the same pressures was obtained for one strong-wind case. streamline pattern. The following plotting convention is used for The persistent southerly winds just to the south of Ross resultant speeds: no symbol means less than 1.3 meters per sec- Island are thought to be primarily barrier winds, although as ond, half a barb 1.3-3.8 meters per second, and a full barb 3.9-6.4 discussed by OConnor and Bromwich (1988), katabatic (i.e., meters per second. This diagram is an adaptation of figure 2(a) In downslope) winds may contribute significantly. When stable OConnor and Bromwich (1988).

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satellite perspective allows several otherwise inaccessible as- August barrier-wind event. The dominant cyclone in the above- pects of this airflow deflection phenomenon to be studied. mentioned low-pressure trough is located east-southeast of Twice daily hemispheric synoptic maps produced by the Cape Adare. A frontal cloud band circles the cyclone and cov- Australian Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, generally showed ers the eastern half of Ross Island. The warm signatures of pronounced southeasterly geostrophic winds affecting Ross katabatic winds (e.g., Kurtz and Bromwich 1985; DAguanno Island from 0000 universal coordinated time (about 12 hours 1986) from Byrd, Darwin, Mulock, and Skelton glaciers are behind local time at McMurdo Station) on 13 August 1979 to present on the Ross Ice Shelf and these airflows contribute to 1200 universal coordinated time on 15 August 1979. The marked the barrier-wind stream blowing northward toward Ross Is- pressure gradients were associated with a synoptic-scale low- land. A warm wind shadow area is present on the downstream pressure trough over the northern Ross Sea which contained side (north) of Minna Bluff. This wind shadow is a clear region several low centers during the 2 1/2-day interval. The satellite caused by adiabatic warming of air sinking into a zone pro- images supported the analyzed snyoptic sequence, but showed tected from the low-level barrier winds (a wake) which are that the cyclone centers were generally analyzed several hundred deflected around the end of the 600- to 1,000-meter-high ob- kilometers to the north and east of their actual locations. The stacle. AWS observations show that this upstream blocking resulting southeasterly geostrophic airflow would pile stable situation south of Minna Bluff is a frequent occurrence air up against the Transantarctic Mountains and would cause (OConnor and Bromwich 1988). Once the barrier windstream a barrier wind to approach Ross Island from the south. This encounters the topography of Ross Island, it splits and blows case is similar to the one shown in figure 3 of Bromwich (1986). around the sides forming polynyas (areas of open water sur- Figure 2 gives a schematic representation of a thermal-in- rounded by ice) near Capes Royds and Crozier. Because the frared satellite image of the Ross Sea area during the mid- vast majority of antarctic coastal polynyas are generated by strong surface winds (Knapp 1972; Bromwich and Kurtz 1984), these lateral polynyas are probably caused by topographically enhanced winds near the extremities of the obstacle as the air rounds the island. 1800 Figure 3 summarizes the relationship between the satellite- Cape Adore Warm Feature observed polynyas and the concurrent surface winds at ffff Warmest Features McMurdo Station during the barrier-wind event. The western Fast Ice polynya developed after a day of marked easterly winds at McMurdo Station and persisted for a day or more until these •Low winds abated. This is the late winter polynya described by 1600E\ Stonehouse (1967). The eastern polynya developed more rap- idly than the western one but disappeared at about the same \Ross Sec rate. The satellite image for 1912 universal coordinated time on 13 August 1979 suggests that this behavior difference was \1 due to katabatic airflow, primarily from Byrd Glacier, which at least initially, passed eastward around Ross Island after L +75°S being deflected by Minna Bluff. Approximate boundary (l) \ of high level overcast Satellite images also showed an extensive cold area of fast -_z ice attached to the north side of Ross Island throughout the study period (compare figure 2). This feature is consistent with — \ -5------the idea that this is an area sheltered from the southerly barrier Polynya winds. In this case, light wind areas appear to be present on Ross Island both the upwind and downwind sides of the obstacle.

Royds Ross land\ In summary, satellite imagery provided important details about the mid-August 1979 barrier-wind event at Ross Island St=d Windless that would be difficult or impossible to obtain with even a Subsidence worming Skelton 61 ,—! spatially dense AWS array. Katabatic drainage through the M inn a Bluff Mu/ock Transantarctic Mountains between Byrd Glacier and Minna l5O°E Bluff made an important contribution to the approaching bar- +80°s rier windstream. The barrier airflow overcame Minna Bluffs sheltering effect for Ross Island by skirting the obstacle at low Dorwin 6/ levels, while higher level air subsided into the downwind wake. Near-surface airflow around Ross Island generated enhanced )cSyrdGr Ross Ice Shelf winds adjacent to its eastern and western extremities which in turn lead to polynya formation. There are indications that the area immediately downwind of Ross Island experienced nearly calm conditions for most of the study period. Figure 2. Schematic representation of thermal-infrared DMSP sat- This research was supported by National Science Founda- ellite Image of the Ross Sea neighborhood, 2033 universal coor- tion grants DPP 83-14613 and DPP 85-19977. Bill OConnor dinated time (UTC) 14 August 1979. Data for fast ice anchored to the north side of Ross Island and polynya near Cape Crozier, which provided valuable input on several aspects of this study. The are hidden by the cloud band at 2033 universal coordinated time, DMSP satellite pictures were obtained from CIRES/National are taken from an image at 0551 universal coordinated time on 15 Snow and Ice Data Center, University of Colorado, Campus August. Inset is a location map for Ross Island. Box 449, Boulder, Colorado 80309.

168 ANTARCTIC JOURNAL 200

Polynya Area 800 km2

400

0 McMurdo Surface Wind 5-i

10 Speed ms

0

N NE x E Direction SE SW W NWsl

1 I 00 00 00 °° 00 1 ooUTC 12 13 14 15 16 August, 1979

Figure 3. Satellite-observed areas of the Cape Royds and Cape Crozier polynyas versus surface winds at McMurdo Station. The circled wind observations are once-daily values from Scott Base at 2100 universal coordinated time (UTC). Significantly higher wind speeds are likely at the polynya sites where the topographic speed enhancement Is manifested. (km 2 denotes square kilometer. ms- 1 denotes meters per second.)

References OConnor, W.P., and D.H. Bromwich. 1988. Surface airflow around Windless Bight, Ross Island, Antarctica. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Bromwich, D.H. 1986. Boundary layer meteorology of the western Meteorological Society, 114(482), 917-938. Ross Sea. Antarctic Journal of the U.S., 21(5), 237-240. Savage, ML., and C.R. Stearns. 1985. Climate in the vicinity of Ross Bromwich, D.H. 1987. A case study of mesoscale cyclogenesis over Island, Antarctica. Antarctic Journal of the U.S., 20(1), 1-9. the southwestern Ross Sea. Antarctic Journal of the U.S., 22(5), 254- Savage, ML., C.R. Stearns, G. Weidner, and D. Fleming. 1985. Ant- 256. arctic automatic weather station data for the calendar year 1984. (Depart- Bromwich, D.H., and D.D. Kurtz. 1984. Katabatic wind forcing of the ment of Meteorology, University of Wisconsin, Madison.) Journal of Geophysical Research, 89(C3), 3561- Terra Nova Bay polynya. Schwerdtfeger, W. 1984. Weather and climate of the Antarctic. New York: 3572. Elsevier. Simpson, G.C. 1919. British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-1913, 1986. Use of AVHRR data for studying katabatic winds DAguanno, J. meteorology, volume 1, discussion. Calcutta: Thacker and Spink. in Antarctica. international Journal of Remote Sensing, 7(5), 703-713. Knapp, W.W. 1972. Satellite observations of large polynyas in polar Slotten, H.R., and C.R. Stearns. 1987. Observations of the dynamics waters. In T. Karisson (Ed.), Sea ice. Reykjavik, Iceland: National and kinematics of the atmospheric surface layer on the Ross Ice Research Council. Shelf, Antarctica. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology, 26(12), Kurtz, D.D., and D.H. Bromwich. 1985. A recurring, atmospherically 1731-1743. forced polynya in Terra Nova Bay. In S.S. Jacobs (Ed.), Oceanology Stonehouse, B. 1967. Occurrence and effects of open water in Mc- of the Antarctic continental shelf. (Antarctic Research Series, Vol. 43.) Murdo Sound, Antarctica, during winter and early spring. Polar Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union. Record, 13, 775-778.

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