A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Mudhili Gadaba People of Andhra Pradesh

DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2019-005

Faith Adimathara, Sisy Faith, Chacko Mathew, and Kishore Kumar Vunnamatla A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Mudhili Gadaba People of Andhra Pradesh

Faith Adimathara, Sisy Faith, Chacko Mathew, and Kishore Kumar Vunnamatla

SIL International® 2019

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Abstract

The Gadaba are an ethnic group calling their language by the same name. The language spoken by some of them is Dravidian while the language of others is a completely different family, Austro-Asiatic. A previous study of Gadaba speaking people found that those Dravidian speakers in Andhra Pradesh understood the Dravidian speakers in Odisha (formerly Orissa) poorly. An outcome of this study confirms that the Gadaba ethnic group uses three different languages. The purpose of this study is to examine the Dravidian speaking Mudhili Gadaba [gau] in Andhra Pradesh. This report includes wordlists and results of recorded text testing and interviews. It was found that the state language, Telugu, is understood widely but the language used at home, with neighbors and in religion, is Gadaba. Outsiders coming to trade learn the Gadaba language and it seems likely to remain in use at least for the near future if not longer. While oral bilingualism in Telugu is good, not many can read it with understanding. Mudhili Gadaba is understood throughout Andhra Pradesh and there are no significant dialectal differences. (This survey report, written some time ago, deserves to be made available even at this late date. Conditions were such that it was not published when originally written. The reader is cautioned that more recent research may be available. Historical data is quite valuable as it provides a basis for a longitudinal analysis and helps us understand both the trajectory and pace of change as compared with more recent studies.—Editor) Contents

Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 People 1.2 Geography 1.3 Language 1.4 Purpose and goals 2 Dialect study 2.1 Lexical similarity 2.1.1 Procedures 2.1.2 Site selection 2.1.3 Results 2.2 Dialect intelligibility 2.2.1 Procedures 2.2.2 Site selection 2.2.3 RTT Results 2.2.4 Post-RTT questionnaire results 3 Language use, attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism 3.1 Procedures 3.2 Language use 3.3 Language attitudes 3.4 Language vitality 3.5 Bilingualism 4 Recommendations 4.1 Language and literature development 4.2 Literacy program Appendix A: Lexical Similarity Measurement A.1 Lexical similarity counting procedures A.2 Wordlist information and language assistant biodata A.3 Wordlists Appendix B: Recorded Text Tests B.1 Recorded Text Test procedures B.2 RTT subject biodata, test scores, and post-RTT responses B.3 Results of HTT/RTT tests in three villages using the Kothavalasa Lizard Hunting Story Appendix C: Questionnaires C.1 Sociolinguistic questionnaire C.2 Language use, language attitudes, and bilingualism questionnaire C.3 Subject biodata and responses to the Sociolinguistic Questionnaire C.4 Subject biodata and responses to the language use, language attitudes, and bilingualism questionnaire References

iii 1 Introduction

1.1 People

This sociolinguistic survey was conducted in 1998 among the Mudhili Gadaba people of Andhra Pradesh. Alternate spellings for Gadaba include Gadba, Gadwa, Godwa and Gudwa. Gadaba is the spelling used in this report because it is widely used in books. During this survey, the researchers found that people who belong to this Gadaba subgroup in Andhra Pradesh refer to themselves as Mudhili Gadaba, Gol Gadaba, or simply Gadaba. In this report, we will use Mudhili Gadaba as the name to represent this particular group of Gadaba people in order to distinguish them from other Gadaba subgroups, namely Bodo/Boi Gadaba or Sano/San/Ollar Gadaba, living in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh. The Gadaba community is classified as a Scheduled Tribe by the government of Andhra Pradesh. This includes Mudhili Gadaba and the other subgroups. Singh (1994:264–269) gives a concise overview of the Gadaba people. The following selections provide a basic introduction to this people group. The Gadaba are non-vegetarians who eat beef and pork. Rice and ragi (a millet) are their staple food. Both men and women drink alcohol occasionally and they either purchase it from the market or brew it at home…. The Gadaba are a landowning community who practise shifting cultivation. They also earn by collecting and selling forest produce. The landless among them work mostly as daily-wage labourers…. The Gadaba follow both Hinduism and the traditional tribal religion….The 1981 census records 99.90 per cent of the Gadaba [of Andhra Pradesh] as Hindus and the rest as Muslims, Christians and the followers of ‘other religions’…. In Andhra Pradesh, the Gadaba are distributed in the agency tracts of Vishakapatnam, Vizianagaram and Srikakulam districts. Their population, according to the 1981 census, is 27,732 out of which more than 98 percent are returned from rural areas….According to the 1981 census, 6.81 per cent of them are literate, the male and female literacy rates being 10.60 per cent and 3.04 percent, respectively. The researchers on this survey found that Mudhili Gadaba villages in Andhra Pradesh are concentrated in Salur and Pachipenta Mandals of Vizianagaram District. We estimate that the population of Mudhili Gadaba people numbers eight to ten thousand. The above-mentioned population figure given by Singh likely includes the Mudhili Gadaba people, along with other Gadaba subgroups. The Mudhili Gadaba people live together in hamlets within the villages. They have good contacts with their own people in other villages. They have relatives all over the Mudhili Gadaba area and most often they choose their spouses from their own community, but occasionally from other Gadaba subgroups. In some of the villages, people from other Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes, and other communities also live with them. We met people who belong to other communities but are speaking the Mudhili Gadaba language. The state government is running schools in every hamlet and encouraging parents to send their children to the schools. There are some educated1 Mudhili Gadaba people in government service. The Mudhili Gadaba people work hard, but are still economically backward. They were friendly to the surveyors and cooperative in this research, which indicates their openness to outsiders.

1 In this report, “educated” refers to those who have studied up to at least 5th standard.

1 2

1.2 Geography

This sociolinguistic survey of the Mudhili Gadaba people was conducted in Salur and Pachipenta Mandals of Vizianagaram District of Andhra Pradesh. The Mudhili Gadaba villages are spread over the plains of Salur and Pachipenta Mandals. According to information provided by the people we interviewed, there are at least twenty-seven Mudhili Gadaba villages in Salur and Pachipenta Mandals. Though some villages such as Chinachipuruvalasa and Reyavanivalasa are interior (that is, more than three kilometres from main roads), they are well-connected to other villages and to nearby towns. The land is fertile and good for cultivation of paddy and different vegetables. The government is implementing different schemes aiming for the development of the Mudhili Gadaba people by providing roads, bore wells, electricity, and schools. The researchers observed that the people are receptive to these programs and willing to be personally involved since they realize it is for their well-being.

1.3 Language

Singh and Manoharan (1993:25) note that the Gadaba people are one of fourteen Indian groups recognized by the “People of India Project” (carried out by the Anthropological Survey of India) as speaking languages belonging to at least two different language families. These are Gutob (Austro-Asiatic family, Munda group) and Gadaba (Dravidian language family, Central Dravidian group). Telugu, the state language of Andhra Pradesh, also belongs to the Central Dravidian group of the Dravidian language family. Telugu has its own script.

1.4 Purpose and goals

In a previous survey of Ollar Gadaba in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh (Abraham et al. 1996), the researchers found that speakers in Andhra Pradesh understood the Orissa dialect of this language very poorly.2 The purpose of this survey was to determine the dialect boundaries of the Dravidian Gadaba speech variety found in Andhra Pradesh, and to identify the language variety which would likely be most effective for communicating heart issues with this community. We also wanted to find out whether to initiate a language development program in the Mudhili Gadaba language, and where to locate such work if needed. To fulfill this purpose, we set the following goals:

1. To compile available information on the current population and locations of Mudhili Gadaba- speaking people. 2. To investigate the lexical similarity among Mudhili Gadaba language varieties in Andhra Pradesh. 3. To evaluate the intelligibility of the Mudhili Gadaba language varieties within the dialect area. 4. To identify domains of language use among Mudhili Gadaba speakers. 5. To study attitudes of Mudhili Gadaba speakers toward their own language and toward Telugu, the state language of Andhra Pradesh. 6. To estimate levels of bilingualism of Mudhili Gadaba speakers in Telugu.

2 A story from Hatuguda village of Orissa was tested among Mudhili Gadaba people in Kothavalasa village of Andhra Pradesh. Subjects scored an average of 27 percent, which is very low. (A score of around 80 percent, with a low standard deviation, may be considered adequate understanding.) 3

2 Dialect study

2.1 Lexical similarity

2.1.1 Procedures

This investigation of lexical similarity among Mudhili Gadaba speech varieties involved the comparison of wordlist samples to give an estimate of shared vocabularies. Though lexical similarity percentages alone cannot show the whole picture of linguistic relationships, they can give an initial idea of possible degrees of similarities and differences among the language varieties compared. In this survey, a 210-item wordlist was collected in several locations and transcribed using the International Phonetic Alphabet; this list is included here as Appendix A3. These lists from different speech varieties were then systematically compared. A detailed description of the lexical similarity counting procedures used in this survey is shown in Appendix A1. Wordlist information and language assistant biodata are given in Appendix A2.

2.1.2 Site selection

In this survey, seven Mudhili Gadaba wordlists were utilized for comparison. Three of them were collected in previous surveys and four during this survey. The wordlist collection sites are listed in table 1. A Telugu wordlist was also included for comparison.

Table 1. Mudhili Gadaba wordlist collection sites

Village Mandal District State From Which Survey

Bobbilivalasa Pachipenta Vizianagaram A.P. Present survey

Gogaduvalasa Pachipenta Vizianagaram A.P. Present survey

Reyavanivalasa Salur Vizianagaram A.P. Present survey

Chinachipuruvalasa Pachipenta Vizianagaram A.P. Present survey

Kothavalasa Salur Vizianagaram A.P. Rajan and Kelsall 1995

Suregadivalasa Pachipenta Vizianagaram A.P. Abraham et al. 1996

Panukuvalasa Salur Vizianagaram A.P. Abraham et al. 1996

2.1.3 Results

The lexical similarity percentages are presented in table 2. 4

Table 2. Lexical similarity percentages matrix

Bobbilivalasa 94 Gogadavalasa 94 94 Reyavanivalasa 94 93 93 Chinachipuruvalasa 87 86 84 86 Kothavalasa 85 90 85 87 89 Suregadivalasa 86 87 85 87 89 89 Panukuvalasa 27 28 31 29 29 30 31 Telugu

The lexical similarity percentages among the Mudhili Gadaba varieties compared here range from 84 percent to 94 percent. These percentages indicate that the Mudhili Gadaba samples may be considered related varieties of this language, though dialect intelligibility testing is necessary to further clarify the relationship among these varieties. They are quite distinct from Telugu, with which they showed only 27 percent to 31 percent lexical similarity. The Mudhili Gadaba wordlists from the villages of Bobbilivalasa, Gogadavalasa, Reyavanivalasa, and Chinachipuruvalasa (all collected on this survey) show slightly higher lexical similarities with each other than with the lists from Kothavalasa, Suregadivalasa, and Panukuvalasa (collected on two previous surveys). These small differences may be because different people were eliciting the wordlists, and also due to lack of checking these data with a second mother tongue speaker.

2.2 Dialect intelligibility

2.2.1 Procedures

Dialect intelligibility was studied with the help of Recorded Text Testing (RTT). The RTT procedures used are described in Appendix B1. The transcribed and translated RTT story is found in the survey report by Abraham et al. (1996). The RTT subject biodata, test scores, and post-RTT responses are listed in Appendix B2.

2.2.2 Site selection

Three villages were selected as RTT points: Bobbilivalasa, Reyavanivalasa, and Chinachipuruvalasa, which represent points that are geographically spread out within the Mudhili Gadaba dialect area. These villages are within an estimated maximum radius of 30 kilometres. Since there was a hometown test already developed for Mudhili Gadaba from Kothavalasa village in a previous survey (Abraham et al. 1996), the researchers did not prepare a separate hometown test for these additional villages. Initial informal testing indicated that the people in Bobbilivalasa, Reyavanivalasa, and Chinachipuruvalasa perceived the Kothavalasa speech sample as their own language variety. Therefore, the researchers decided to try administering the Kothavalasa test as a combination hometown test and recorded text test.

2.2.3 RTT Results

Table 3 shows the results of the testing that was carried out in the three selected Mudhili Gadaba test points. 5

Table 3. Mudhili Gadaba RTT results

Test Points Kothavalasa “lizard” story

Kothavalasa Average score: 93 Subjects Standard deviation: 8.2 Number of subjects: 10 (Validated in Abraham et al. 1996) Bobbilivalasa Average score: 97 Subjects Standard deviation: 3.4 Number of subjects: 10 Reyavanivalasa Average score: 97 Subjects Standard deviation: 2.8 Number of subjects: 10 Chinachipuruvalasa Average score: 98 Subjects Standard deviation: 3.5 Number of subjects: 10

The Kothavalasa Mudhili Gadaba “lizard” story received high scores at the three test points. The averages of 97 percent and 98 percent, along with the low standard deviations, show that the subjects understood the story well. Interestingly, these scores are higher than the original Kothavalasa hometown test average. Though the test sites are geographically farthest from each other and from Kothavalasa within the Mudhili Gadaba language area, the RTT results indicate that the Kothavalasa speech variety was well-understood in these locations. In Bobbilivalasa, we tested seven men and three women. Most of them were illiterate.3 We had to clarify the second question for five subjects since they expressed difficulty understanding it due to some dubbing problem with the tape. Those subjects for whom we clarified were given half credit for a correct answer to the question. In Reyavanivalasa, six men and four women were tested. Of these ten subjects, seven were illiterate. Here also we had to clarify the second question for six of them, who were also given half credit for a correct answer. In Chinachipuruvalasa, six men and four women took the test and half of them were illiterate. Here we had to clarify the second question for three subjects. Of these three, one still missed it.

2.2.4 Post-RTT questionnaire results

After subjects listened to the story and answered the comprehension questions, some post-RTT questions were asked to assess their attitudes toward and understanding of the speech variety on the tape. The tabulated Post-RTT responses are given below in table 4.

3 Illiterates are defined here as people who have never been to school and do not know how to read and write. 6

Table 4. Summary of Post-RTT responses

Village 1a. What language 1b. Where is it 2. Is the 3. Is the is the storyteller’s from? speech good? speech pure? speech? Bobbilivalasa Gadaba–9 Know the Yes–10 Yes–10 Mudhili Gadaba–1 speech–2 Not asked–8 Reyavanivalasa Gadaba–8 Kothavalasa–6 Yes–10 Yes–10 Mudhili Gadaba–1 Here–3 Gol–1 Don’t know–1 Chinachipuruvalasa Gadaba–10 Kothavalasa–2 Yes–10 Yes–10 Here–6 Don’t know–2

Village 4a. Is the speech a little 4b. How is it 5. How much did or very different from different? you understand? yours? Bobbilivalasa No difference–9 Not asked–9 Full–10 Little difference–1 Little lengthening–1 Reyavanivalasa No difference–10 Not asked Full–10 Chinachipuruvalasa No difference–10 Not asked Full–10

Subjects in all three sites acknowledged that the story was in their own language, Gadaba, and that the speech on the tape was good and pure. Twenty-nine out of the thirty subjects did not find any difference between the story on the tape and their own speech variety, and only one subject noted a little difference. Some people thought that the story was recorded from their own village and tried to figure out who the storyteller was.

3 Language use, attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism

3.1 Procedures

Language use, attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism were assessed using questionnaires, informal interviews and observations. The Sociolinguistic Questionnaire (Appendix C1) was intended to provide an overview of the Mudhili Gadaba community in terms of general information about the people and language, language variation, language use, language attitudes, language vitality, and bilingualism. The Sociolinguistic Questionnaire was administered to sixteen Mudhili Gadaba subjects from eleven villages in the first phase of this survey. Responses to this questionnaire provided an initial impression of the people, language, and area, but since the questionnaire was collected from only one to three subjects per village, interpretation of results had to be very tentative. In this follow-up phase of the survey, thirty brief modified questionnaires were collected from ten subjects each in three sites. This language use, language attitudes, and bilingualism questionnaire is included as Appendix C2. It was administered in Telugu. This carried a potential effect on subjects’ responses, however, the researchers observed that the people did not seem to be inhibited by the use of Telugu. Subject biodata and responses to the Sociolinguistic Questionnaire are given in Appendix C3, and those for the Language Use, Language Attitudes, and Bilingualism Questionnaire are given in Appendix C4. 7

3.2 Language use

The study of language use attempts to identify one’s choice of which language to speak in a given situation; these situations are called domains (Fasold 1984:183). Domains are social contexts in which community members choose a certain language as more appropriate than another language. Examples of domains include home, religion, market, and government interactions. Questions asked of Mudhili Gadaba subjects relating to language use are displayed in table 5, along with the tabulated responses.

Table 5. Language use responses

Q.1. What language do you speak with your spouse (if married)?

Gadaba Telugu Not asked Bobbilivalasa 6 – 4 Reyavanivalasa 5 – 5 Chinachipuruvalasa 8 – 2

Q.2. What language do you speak with your children/parents?

Gadaba Telugu Bobbilivalasa 10 – Reyavanivalasa 10 – Chinachipuruvalasa 10 –

Q.3. Do you ever speak Telugu to another Gadaba person? If so, why?

No Yes If so, why? Bobbilivalasa 10 – – Reyavanivalasa 9 1 (not specified) Chinachipuruvalasa 10 – –

Q.4. What language do you use for religious discussions in your village?

Gadaba Telugu Bobbilivalasa 10 – Reyavanivalasa 10 – Chinachipuruvalasa 10 –

Q.5. Which language should your children learn first?

Gadaba Telugu Bobbilivalasa 10 – Reyavanivalasa 10 – Chinachipuruvalasa 10

It is clear from these responses that the Mudhili Gadaba people we surveyed consistently report using their mother tongue in key domains such as home, village, and religion. Subjects said that even if they go out to a Telugu area, if they are two Gadaba people they use only Gadaba. We also observed some outsiders such as shopkeepers using Gadaba to communicate with these people. 8

3.3 Language attitudes

Language attitudes are the opinions people hold about various languages. These may range from strongly positive to strongly negative (Blair 1990:109). Attitudes depend on several factors, such as the impact of the respective state language and available resources. The following questions in table 6 give information about language attitudes among Mudhili Gadaba people.

Table 6. Language attitude responses

Q.1. Would you be interested to have books in Gadaba?

Yes No

Bobbilivalasa 10 – Reyavanivalasa 10 – Chinachipuruvalasa 10 –

Q.2. Are the young people proud of their language?

Yes No

Bobbilivalasa 10 – Reyavanivalasa 10 – Chinachipuruvalasa 10 –

Q.3. Where do you think the purest Gadaba is spoken?

Here Nearby All villages

Bobbilivalasa 9 1 1* Reyavanivalasa 10 – 1 Chinachipuruvalasa 8 – 3 *The questionnaire was administered to ten people in each location, but some people gave more than one answer.

In all three villages surveyed, Mudhili Gadaba subjects showed strong positive attitudes toward their mother tongue. The young people are reportedly proud of their language, and the young educated subjects also welcomed the idea of literature in their mother tongue. The researchers interviewed one young man who has already translated some of the Telugu film songs into his mother tongue using Telugu script. Subjects in all three locations showed interest in books in their mother tongue. Most of the subjects reported that the best and purest Gadaba is spoken in their own village, while some said it is pure in all villages. All subjects answered that children should learn Gadaba first and Telugu after that. It is important to note that the Mudhili Gadaba people recognize the necessity of Telugu, the state language, for wider communication, higher education, and social uplifting. They encourage their children to learn Telugu along with their mother tongue.

3.4 Language vitality

Language vitality in this context involves looking at indications of whether people seem likely to continue to speak their mother tongue in future generations, or whether they might shift to another language. Though it is difficult to predict with any certainty whether people will maintain their mother 9 tongue or not, it is possible to make some inferences based on the present language use and attitudes reported by people. The responses of Mudhili Gadaba subjects in this survey appear to indicate that their own language is likely to continue to be used as their community’s mother tongue for the near future. The Mudhili Gadaba language is reported to be widely used in the key domains of home, village, and religion. Even after the constant influence of Telugu as the state language, the Mudhili Gadaba people still seem to regard Telugu as the language to use with outsiders and not within their own community. The responses of the younger subjects indicate the motivation to retain their mother tongue even with a move towards extended use of Telugu in education and for socioeconomic advancement. This situation of using Mudhili Gadaba for in-group communication and Telugu with outsiders appears to be fairly widespread in the Mudhili Gadaba community at this time.

3.5 Bilingualism

Bilingualism is the ability to speak a language other than the mother tongue. In this survey, we wanted to look at indications of whether the Mudhili Gadaba people might be fluent enough in Telugu to understand literature that is already available in the standard variety of that language. Table 7 shows questions and responses related to the topic of self-reported bilingual ability among the Mudhili Gadaba people.

Table 7. Bilingualism responses

Q.1. Is the Telugu you speak different from the Telugu that people speak in town?4

No Yes Bobbilivalasa 10 – Reyavanivalasa 10 – Chinachipuruvalasa 10 –

Q.2. When you travel outside your home area and you hear people speak in Telugu, how much can you understand?

All Half Some None Bobbilivalasa 8 1 1 – Reyavanivalasa 10 – – – Chinachipuruvalasa 10 – – –

Q.3. Can you describe your family in Telugu?

Yes No Bobbilivalasa 10 – Reyavanivalasa 10 – Chinachipuruvalasa 10 –

4 Salur town is four to fifteen kilometres away from their villages. 10

Q.4. When you go for day labour and the supervisor speaks only Telugu, can you fully understand his instructions?

Yes No Bobbilivalasa 10 – Reyavanivalasa 10 – Chinachipuruvalasa 10 –

Q.5. Can you tell in Telugu what someone should do if they get a fever?

Yes No Bobbilivalasa 10 – Reyavanivalasa 10 – Chinachipuruvalasa 10 –

Q.6. {For educated people} Do you read Telugu newspapers? If so, how much can you understand?

Not No Yes If so, how much can asked you understand? Bobbilivalasa 7 – 3 All–3 Reyavanivalasa 7 – 3 Little–1, Half–1, All–1 Chinachipuruvalasa 5 1 4 All–4

According to the table 7 responses, the self-reported bilingual abilities among these Mudhili Gadaba subjects indicate that they are confident about handling basic tasks of daily living using Telugu. The surveyors (one of whom speaks Telugu as his mother tongue) observed that most of the Mudhili Gadaba people encountered during this research can understand and communicate well orally in Telugu. However, it is likely that people who do not speak Telugu well did not come forward to interact with the researchers. In addition, oral proficiency does not necessarily indicate that all Mudhili Gadaba people can understand standard Telugu literature well. Only eleven out of the thirty subjects were educated. Of those eleven, ten said that they read Telugu newspapers. Eight of these ten reported that they can understand everything they read in Telugu newspapers, while one said half and one said a little. Since education appears to be a key factor in Telugu proficiency, it is useful to review information about both the availability of schools and school attendance in Mudhili Gadaba communities. It was reported that in the past many Mudhili Gadaba children did not go to school, but in recent times more children are attending. The state government is making efforts to motivate people to educate their children. Today it is reported that most Mudhili Gadaba children are attending school on a rotation basis. In this plan, every day one third of the children will work in the fields and the rest will attend school. The teacher we interviewed told us that this plan is working well. If school attendance continues to rise and to be consistent among Mudhili Gadaba children, we may expect to see increasing Telugu proficiency, both spoken and written, in the coming generations. This teacher also informed us that he had been having difficulty teaching the students using Telugu. The children could not understand the lessons, so he started using Gadaba words in Telugu script. The children like this and are learning relatively faster. This would doubtless suggest the advantage of using the mother tongue in primary schools. It also points toward the present need for vernacular language development and literacy work as a “bridge” for the Mudhili Gadaba people to be able to transition into Telugu literacy as well. 11

4 Recommendations

4.1 Language and literature development

Results of this survey indicate that Mudhili Gadaba is a vital language. It is being used in the key domains of home, village, and religion, and will likely continue in the future as the Mudhili Gadaba people’s mother tongue. All Mudhili Gadaba subjects expressed strong positive attitudes toward their own language and an interest in having books in the vernacular. Therefore it is highly recommended that a vernacular language development program be initiated among the Mudhili Gadaba people. The high RTT scores and positive post-RTT responses of the thirty subjects (ten each in three selected locations) support previous reports that all the people in the villages of the Mudhili Gadaba area of Andhra Pradesh speak one and the same language and can understand one another well. Therefore, it appears that any of these villages may initially be considered for a team to settle in for language learning in preparation to carry out a vernacular language development project. Since Chinachipuruvalasa is located in the geographical center of the Mudhili Gadaba area, it may be advantageous to base such a project in this village. Ongoing review is needed to reassess the level of bilingualism and acceptability of Telugu literature already available. In the same way that Mudhili Gadaba subjects expressed preferences for Mudhili Gadaba rather than Telugu in certain spoken language domains, they may also have strong opinions about which language they would prefer for certain types of literature, such as folk stories, songs, and health materials.

4.2 Literacy program

Although Mudhili Gadaba subjects in this survey reported confidence in their ability to use Telugu, and although Mudhili Gadaba people in this region of Andhra Pradesh have somewhat better access to education in the state language than many tribal groups elsewhere, the education levels and literacy rates among Mudhili Gadaba people are still low. Thus it is recommended to commence a literacy program to teach the people to read and write in the vernacular, using the Telugu script. Using the mother tongue as a “bridge” to transition into Telugu could certainly benefit a literacy program. Diglot materials using Mudhili Gadaba along with Telugu may be effective in such a program. Appendix A: Lexical Similarity Measurement

A.1 Lexical similarity counting procedures

A standardised list of 210 vocabulary items was collected from speakers at key locations for each of the language varieties studied in this survey. In standard procedure, the 210 words are elicited from a person who has grown up in the target locality. Ideally, the list is then collected a second time from another speaker at the same site. Any differences in responses are examined in order to identify (1) inaccurate responses due to misunderstanding of the elicitation cue, (2) loan words offered in response to the language of elicitation when indigenous terms are actually still in use, and (3) terms which are at different places along the generic-specific lexical scale. Normally, a single term is recorded for each item of the wordlist. However, more than one term is recorded for a single item when more than one specific term occupies the semantic area of a more generic item on the wordlist. The wordlists are compared to determine the extent to which the vocabulary of each pair of speech forms is similar. No attempt is made to identify genuine cognates based on a network of sound correspondences. Rather, two items are judged to be phonetically similar if at least half of the segments compared are the same (category 1), and of the remaining segments at least half are rather similar (category 2). For example, if two items of eight segments in length are compared, these words are judged to be similar if at least four segments are virtually the same and at least two more are rather similar. The criteria applied are as follows:

Category 1

• Contoid (consonant-like) segments which match exactly • Vocoid (vowel-like) segments which match exactly, or differ by only one articulatory feature • Phonetically similar segments (of the sort which frequently are found as allophones), which are seen to correspond in at least three pairs of words

Category 2

• All other phonetically similar non-vocalic pairs of segments which are not supported by at least three pairs of words • Vowels which differ by two or more articulatory features

Category 3

• Pairs of segments which are not phonetically similar • A segment which is matched by no segment in the corresponding item and position

Blair (1990:32) writes, “In contextualizing these rules to specific surveys in South Asia, the following differences between two items are ignored: (a) interconsonantal [ə], (b) word initial, word final, or intervocalic [h, ɦ], (c) any deletion which is shown to be the result of a regularly occurring process in a specific environment.” Table 8 summarizes lower threshold limits for considering words as phonetically similar with a specified length (number of segments or phones).

12 13

Table 8. Phonetic similarity comparisons in vocabulary

Word length Category 1 Category 2 Category 3

2 2 0 0 3 2 1 0 4 2 1 1 5 3 1 1 6 3 2 1 7 4 2 1 8 4 2 2 9 5 2 2 10 5 3 2 11 6 3 2 12 6 3 3

After pairs of items on two wordlists had been determined to be phonetically similar or dissimilar according to the criteria stated above, the percentage of items judged similar was calculated. This procedure was repeated for all linguistic varieties under consideration in the survey. The pair by pair counting procedure was greatly facilitated by use of the WordSurv computer program. It should be noted that the wordlist data as well as transcribed texts included in subsequent appendices are field transcriptions and have not undergone thorough phonological and grammatical analysis.

A.2 Wordlist information and language assistant biodata

Wordlist information

Language Place (Village, Mandal, Date Elicited by Transcribed by Lang. of District, State) elicitation

Mudhili Kothavalasa, Salur, 18 Apr 1995 Not available LA Telugu Gadaba Vizianagaram, AP Mudhili Suregadivalasa, Pachipenta, 14 Apr 1996 SK LA, Telugu Gadaba Vizianagaram, AP Chacko Mathew Mudhili Panukuvalasa, Salur, 23 Mar 1996 SRR LA, Telugu Gadaba Vizianagaram, AP Chacko Mathew Mudhili Bobbilivalasa, Pachipenta, 17 Nov 1997 D Chacko Mathew, Telugu Gadaba Vizianagaram, AP Faith Adimathara Mudhili Reyavanivalasa, Salur, 18 Nov 1997 D Chacko Mathew, Telugu Gadaba Vizianagaram, AP Faith Adimathara Mudhili Gogaduvalasa, Pachipenta, 19 Nov 1997 D Chacko Mathew, Telugu Gadaba Vizianagaram, AP Faith Adimathara Mudhili Chinachipuruvalasa, 23 Jul 1998 Kishore Kumar Kishore Kumar Telugu Gadaba Pachipenta, Vizianagaram, AP Telugu Srikakulam, AP 21 Mar 1996 LA LA English 14

Language assistant biodata

Language Place Sex Age Education Mother How long tongue resident of village?

Mudhili Gadaba Kothavalasa M 20 Nil Gadaba Life Mudhili Gadaba Suregadivalasa M 23, 24 10th Gadaba Life Mudhili Gadaba Panukuvalasa M 30 5th Gadaba Life Mudhili Gadaba Bobbilivalasa M 40 Nil Gadaba Life Mudhili Gadaba Reyavanivalasa M 50 Nil Gadaba Life Mudhili Gadaba Gogaduvalasa M 50 Nil Gadaba Life Mudhili Gadaba Chinachipuruvalasa M 24 PUC Gadaba Life Telugu Srikakulam M 17 PDC Telugu –

A.3 Wordlists

15 16

Appendix B: Recorded Text Tests

B.1 Recorded Text Test procedures

The extent to which speakers of related linguistic varieties understand one another can be studied by means of tape-recorded texts. Such studies investigate whether speakers of one variety understand a narrative text of another variety and are able to answer questions about the content of that text. The accuracy with which subjects answer these questions is taken as an index of their comprehension of that speech form. From the percentage of correct answers, the amount of intelligibility between speech forms is inferred. The recorded text testing (RTT) used in this survey is based on the procedures described in Casad 1974 and Blair 1990. Short, personal experience narratives are deemed to be most suitable for recorded text testing in that the content must be relatively unpredictable and the speech form should be natural. Folklore or other material thought to be widely known is avoided. A three- to five-minute story is recorded from a speaker of the regional vernacular, and then checked with a group of speakers from the same region to ensure that the spoken forms are truly representative of that area. The story is then transcribed and a set of comprehension questions is constructed based on various semantic domains covered in the text. Normally, a set of fifteen or more questions is initially prepared. Some of the questions will prove unsuitable—perhaps because the answer is not in focus in the text or because the question is confusing to native speakers of the test variety. Unsuitable questions are deleted from the preliminary set, leaving a minimum of ten final questions for each RTT. To ensure that measures of comprehension are based on subjects’ understanding of the text itself and not on a misunderstanding of the test questions, these questions must be recorded in the regional variety of the test subjects. This requires an appropriate dialect version of the questions for each RTT at each test location. In the RTTs used in this study, test subjects heard the complete story text once, after which the story was repeated with test questions and the opportunities for responses interspersed with necessary pauses in the recorded text. Appropriate and correct responses are directly extractable from the segment of speech immediately preceding the question, such that memory limitations exert a negligible effect and indirect inference based on the content is not required. Thus the RTT aims to be a close reflection of a subject’s comprehension of the language itself, not of his or her memory, intelligence, or reasoning. The average or mean of the scores obtained from subjects at one test location is taken as a numerical indicator of the intelligibility between speakers of the dialects represented. In order to ensure that the RTT is a fair test of the intelligibility of the test variety to speakers from the regions tested, the text is first tested with subjects from the region where the text was recorded. This initial testing is referred to as the hometown test (HTT). The hometown test serves to introduce subjects to the testing procedure in a context where intelligibility of the dialect is assumed to be complete since it is the native variety of test subjects. In addition, hometown testing ensures that native speakers of the text dialect could accurately answer the comprehension questions used to assess understanding of the text in non-native dialect areas. Once a text has been hometown tested with a minimum of ten subjects who have been able to correctly answer the selected comprehension questions with an average score of 90 percent or above, the test is considered validated. It is possible that a subject may be unable to answer the test questions correctly simply because he or she does not understand what is expected. This is especially true with unsophisticated subjects or those unacquainted with test-taking. Therefore a very short pre-test story with four questions is recorded in the local variety before beginning the actual testing. The purpose of this pre-test is to teach the subject what is expected according to the RTT procedures. If the subject is able to answer the pre-test questions, it is assumed that he or she would serve as a suitable subject. Each subject then participates in the hometown test in his or her native variety before participating in RTTs in non-native varieties. Occasionally, even after the pre-test, a subject fails to perform adequately on an already validated hometown test. Performances of such subjects are eliminated from the final evaluation, the assumption being that uncontrollable factors unrelated to the intelligibility of speech forms are skewing such test results. In this study, subjects performing at levels of less than 80 percent on their hometown test were eliminated from further testing. 34

When speakers of one linguistic variety have had no previous contact with that represented by the recorded text, test scores of the subjects from the test point tend to be more similar, especially when the scores are in the higher ranges. Such consistent scores are often interpreted to be closer reflections of the inherent intelligibility between speech forms. If the sample of subjects (a minimum of ten) accurately represents the speech community being tested in terms of the variables affecting intelligibility, and the RTT scores show such consistency, increasing the number of subjects should not significantly increase the range of variation of the scores. However, when some subjects have had significant previous contact with the speech form recorded on the RTT, while others have not, the scores usually vary considerably, reflecting the degree of learning that has gone on through contact. For this reason, it is important to include a measure of dispersion which reflects the extent to which the range of scores varies from the mean—the standard deviation. On an RTT with 100 possible points (that is, 100 percent), a standard deviation of more than 12 to 15 is considered high. If the standard deviation is relatively low, say 10 or below, and the mean score for subjects from the selected test point is high, the implication is that the community as a whole probably understands the test variety rather well, either because the variety in the RTT is inherently intelligible or because the variety has been acquired rather consistently and uniformly throughout the speech community. If the standard deviation is low and the mean RTT score is also low, the implication is that the community as a whole understands the test variety rather poorly and that regular contact has not facilitated learning of the test variety to any significant extent. If the standard deviation is high, regardless of the mean score, one implication is that some subjects have learned to comprehend the test variety better than others. In this last case, inherent intelligibility between the related varieties may be mixed with acquired proficiency which results from learning through contact. The relationship between RTT scores and their standard deviation can be seen in table 9.

Table 9. Relationship between RTT scores and their standard deviation

Standard deviation High Low Situation 1 Situation 2 Many people understand Most people understand the High the story on the test tape story on the test tape. well, but some have difficulty. Situation 3 Situation 4 Many people cannot Few people are able to Average score Average Low understand the story, but a understand the story on the few are able to answer test tape. correctly.

High standard deviations can result from other causes such as inconsistencies in the circumstances of test administration and scoring, or differences in attentiveness or intelligence of subjects. Researchers involved in recorded text testing need to be aware of the potential for skewed results due to such factors, and to control for them as much as possible through careful test development and administration. Questionnaires administered at the time of testing can help researchers discover which factors are significant in promoting contact which facilitates acquired intelligibility. Travel to or extended stays in other dialect regions, intermarriage between dialect groups, or contacts with schoolmates from other dialect regions are examples of the types of contact that can occur. In contrast to experimentally controlled testing in a laboratory or classroom situation, the results of field-administered methods such as the RTT cannot be completely isolated from potential biases. Recorded texts and test questions will vary in terms of their relative difficulty and complexity, or of the clarity of the recording. Comparisons of RTT results from different texts need to be made cautiously. It is therefore recommended that results from RTTs not be interpreted in terms of fixed numerical thresholds, but rather be evaluated in light of other indicators of intelligibility such as lexical similarity, dialect 35 opinions, and reported patterns of contact and communication. In general, however, RTT mean scores of around 80 percent or higher with accompanying low standard deviations are usually taken to indicate that representatives of the test point dialect display adequate understanding of the variety represented by the recording. Conversely, RTT means below 60 percent are interpreted to indicate inadequate intelligibility.

B.2 RTT subject biodata, test scores, and post-RTT responses

B.2.1 Biodata

The following information was obtained for each subject who took an RTT (designated with a subject ID number). Sex Age Education Birthplace Place brought up Current residence Mother tongue Language now spoken in home Father’s mother tongue Mother’s mother tongue Spouse’s mother tongue Lived or stayed in another place Travelled outside area

B.2.2 Key for RTT scoring charts:

Q1–Q10: Score for each question of the story 10= fully correct 5= partially correct 0= incorrect TTL: Total score for each subject PCT: Percentage for each subject

Average score: Average score of all subjects on test

Standard deviation: Statistical measurement for variation between scores 12 and above = high below 10 = low Number: Number of subjects who took the test

Abbreviations used

QNA Question not asked NA Not Applicable

B.2.3 Questions asked after the Recorded Text Test (RTT)

1a. Where do you think the person who told this story is from? 1b. What helps you know he/she is from that place? 2a. Is the speech good? 36

2b. What is good/not so good about it? 3a. Is the speech pure? 3b. Is the speech mixed? How much? 4a. Is the storyteller’s speech a little different or very different from your speech? 4b. How is it different? 5. How much of the story did you understand?

B.3 Results of HTT/RTT tests in three villages using the Kothavalasa Lizard Hunting Story

B.3.1 HTT/RTT in Reyavanivalasa

Subject biodata

Subj. ID Date Sex Age Education Birthplace Where Current How level brought up residence long?

RSA01 30 Jul 98 M 21 10+2 Reyavanivalasa same place same place NA RSA02 30 Jul 98 M 28 nil Reyavanivalasa same place same place NA RSA03 30 Jul 98 M 35 nil Reyavanivalasa same place same place NA RSA04 30 Jul 98 M 50 nil Reyavanivalasa same place same place NA RSA05 30 Jul 98 M 20 nil Reyavanivalasa same place same place NA RSA06 30 Jul 98 M 55 read Reyavanivalasa same place same place NA RSA07 30 Jul 98 F 60 nil Palikivalasa same place Reyavanivalasa 40 yrs RSA08 30 Jul 98 F 20 nil Reyavanivalasa same place same place NA RSA09 30 Jul 98 F 28 nil Reyavanivalasa same place same place NA RSA10 30 Jul 98 F 32 6th Reyavanivalasa same place same place NA

Subj. ID Mother Language Father’s Mother’s Spouse’s Lived elsewhere Travelled to tongue now used MT MT MT another place at home

RSA01 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba NA 2 yrs in Gummalak- Visakhapatnam, shmipuram for studies Parvathipuram RSA02 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no no RSA03 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no no RSA04 Mudhili Mudhili Mudhili Mudhili Mudhili One month in Tikkiri Vizianagaram Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba (Orissa) once in a while RSA05 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba NA no no RSA06 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Visakhapatnam, Parvathipuram RSA07 Gutob Mudhili Gutob Gutob Mudhili no no Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba RSA08 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba NA no Bobbili, Vizianagaram RSA09 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram

RSA10 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba NA no Bobbili 37

RTT scores

Subj. ID Sex Age Educ Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 TTL

RSA01 M 21 10+2 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 RSA02 M 28 nil 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 RSA03 M 35 nil 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 RSA04 M 50 nil 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 RSA05 M 20 nil 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 RSA06 M 55 read 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 RSA07 F 60 nil 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 RSA08 F 20 nil 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 RSA09 F 28 nil 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 RSA10 F 32 6th 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95

Average score: 97.0 Standard deviation: 2.8 Number: 10

Post–RTT responses

Subj. ID 1a. What is the 1b. Where is it 1c. How 2a. Is 2b. If not 3a. Is 3b. If not storyteller’s from? do you the good, what the pure, language? know? speech is bad speech why not? good? about it? pure?

RSA01 Gol or Mudhili Kothavalasa he is his yes NA yes NA Gadaba Seetharam relative RSA02 Gadaba Kothavalasa knows him yes NA yes NA RSA03 Gadaba here we speak NA yes NA yes NA like this RSA04 Mudhili Gadaba Kothavalasa he is his yes NA yes NA Seetharam relative RSA05 Gadaba Kothavalasa he is his yes NA yes NA Seetharam relative RSA06 Gadaba Don’t know, NA yes NA yes NA maybe Manchadavalasa, Kothavalasa RSA07 Gadaba here we speak NA yes NA yes NA like this RSA08 Gadaba Kothavalasa she knows yes NA yes NA him RSA09 Gadaba here we speak NA yes NA yes NA like this RSA10 Gadaba Kothavalasa he has yes NA yes NA relatives

4a. Is the 4b. How 5. How much 6. How many 7. Do people from that language a little is it did you times have you area come to your village? different, or very different? understand? gone to the different, from storyteller’s yours? area?

RSA01 no difference NA full weekly once yes RSA02 no difference NA full now and then yes RSA03 no difference NA full NA NA RSA04 no difference NA full monthly once yes RSA05 no difference NA full once in ten days yes, now and then RSA06 no difference NA full NA NA RSA07 no difference NA full NA NA RSA08 no difference NA full she goes there yes RSA09 no difference NA full NA NA RSA10 no difference NA full we go there yes

B.3.2 HTT/RTT in Chinachipuruvalasa

Subject biodata

Subj. ID Date Sex Age Educ Birthplace Brought up Current residence How long

CSA01 03 Aug 98 M 45 5th Kostuvalasa same place same place NA CSA02 03 Aug 98 F 32 nil Kostuvalasa same place same place NA CSA03 03 Aug 98 M 40 nil Kostuvalasa same place same place NA CSA04 03 Aug 98 M 20 7th Kostuvalasa same place same place NA CSA05 03 Aug 98 F 45 nil Seethampeta same place Chinachipuruvalasa 20 yrs CSA06 03 Aug 98 F 50 nil Chinachipuruvalasa same place same place NA CSA07 03 Aug 98 F 19 10th Chinachipuruvalasa same place same place NA CSA08 03 Aug 98 M 20 5th Chinachipuruvalasa same place same place NA CSA09 03 Aug 98 M 22 nil Chinachipuruvalasa same place same place NA CSA10 03 Aug 98 M 26 10th Chinachipuruvalasa same place same place NA

Subj. ID Mother Language Father’s Mother’s Spouse’s Lived Travelled to tongue now in MT MT MT elsewhere another place home

CSA01 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Pithapuram, Gummu- narsipuram CSA02 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram CSA03 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Visakhapatnam CSA04 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba NA 2 yrs in Visakhapatnam Vizianagaram for work CSA05 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram CSA06 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Salur CSA07 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram CSA08 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram CSA09 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram CSA10 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 1 yr. in no Vizianagaram for studies

RTT scores

Subj. ID Sex Age Educ Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 TTL

CSA01 M 45 5th 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CSA02 F 32 nil 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CSA03 M 40 nil 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CSA04 M 20 7th 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CSA05 F 45 nil 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 CSA06 F 50 nil 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 CSA07 F 19 10th 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CSA08 M 20 5th 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 CSA09 M 22 nil 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 CSA10 M 26 10th 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100

Average score: 98.0 Standard deviation: 3.5 Number: 10 40

Post-RTT responses

Subj. ID 1a. What is 1b. Where is 1c. How do 2a. Is the 2b. If not 3a. Is the 3b. If not the story- it from? you know? language good, language pure, why teller’s good? what is pure? not? language? bad about it?

CSA01 Gadaba Who is NA yes NA yes NA Ramarao? Not from my village CSA02 Gadaba here we speak NA yes NA yes NA like this CSA03 Gadaba here we speak NA yes NA yes NA like this CSA04 Gadaba here we speak NA yes NA yes NA like this; person may be from here CSA05 Gadaba Don’t know, NA yes NA yes NA but here we speak like this CSA06 Gadaba Don’t know, NA yes NA yes NA but here we speak like this CSA07 Gadaba Kothavalasa I know him yes NA yes NA CSA08 Gadaba Kothavalasa I know him yes NA yes NA CSA09 Gadaba Don’t know NA yes NA yes NA CSA10 Gadaba Don’t know NA yes NA yes NA

Subj. ID 4a. Is the 4b. How is it 5. How much 6. How many 7. Do people from language a little different? did you times have you that area come to different, or understand? gone to the your village? very different, storyteller’s from yours? area?

CSA01 no difference NA full NA NA CSA02 no difference NA full NA NA CSA03 no difference NA full NA NA CSA04 no difference NA full NA NA CSA05 no difference NA full NA NA CSA06 no difference NA full NA NA CSA07 no difference NA full now and then yes CSA08 no difference NA full we go there they come here CSA09 no difference NA full NA NA CSA10 no difference NA full NA NA 41

B.3.3 HTT/RTT in Bobbilivalasa

Subject biodata

Subj. Date Sex Age Educ Birthplace Where Current How Mother Lg now ID brought residence long? tongue in home? up

BSA01 29 Jul M 35 10th Seethampeta same place same place NA Gadaba Gadaba 1998 BSA02 29 Jul F 45 nil Ammavalasa same place Seethampeta 10 yrs Gadaba Gadaba 1998 BSA03 29 Jul M 27 nil Seethampeta same place same place NA Gadaba Gadaba 1998 BSA04 29 Jul M 60 5th Seethampeta same place same place NA Gadaba Gadaba 1998 BSA05 29 Jul M 20 nil Seethampeta same place same place NA Gadaba Gadaba 1998 BSA06 29 Jul F 24 nil Seethampeta same place Bobbilivalasa 6 yrs Gadaba Gadaba 1998 BSA07 29 Jul F 48 nil Bobbilivalasa same place same place NA Gadaba Gadaba 1998 BSA08 29 Jul M 20 nil Bobbilivalasa same place same place NA Gadaba Gadaba 1998 BSA09 29 Jul M 36 nil Bobbilivalasa same place same place NA Gadaba Gadaba 1998 BSA10 29 Jul M 19 nil Bobbilivalasa same place same place NA Gadaba Gadaba 1998

Subj. ID Father’s Mother’s Spouse’s MT Lived in Travelled to another MT MT another place place

BSA01 Gadaba Gadaba Gutob Gadaba 5, 6 yrs in Vizianagaram, if needed Makkuva BSA02 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no no BSA03 Gadaba Gadaba NA no no BSA04 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada BSA05 Gadaba Gadaba NA no Visakhapatnam, Jeypore, S. Kota BSA06 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram, Parvathipuram BSA07 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no no BSA08 Gadaba Gadaba NA no Guntur for 2 months BSA09 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba no Vissakhapatnam BSA10 Gadaba Gadaba NA no Srikakulam 42

RTT scores

Subj. ID Sex Age Educ Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 TTL

BSA01 M 35 10th 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 BSA02 F 45 nil 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BSA03 M 27 nil 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 BSA04 M 60 5th 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 BSA05 M 20 nil 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 BSA06 F 24 nil 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BSA07 F 48 nil 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 BSA08 M 20 nil 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 BSA09 M 36 nil 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 BSA10 M 19 nil 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100

Average score: 96.5 Standard deviation: 3.4 Number: 10

Post-RTT responses

Subj. ID 1a. What lg 1b. Where is 1c. How do 2a. Is the 2b. If not 3a. Is the 3b. If not is the it from? you know? language good, what is language pure, storyteller’s good? bad about it? pure? why not? language?

BSA01 Gadaba Don’t know, know the yes NA yes NA maybe language Chipuruvalasa or Kothavalasa BSA02 Gadaba Don’t know NA yes NA yes NA BSA03 Gadaba Don’t know NA yes NA yes NA BSA04 Mudhili Don’t know, NA yes NA yes NA Gadaba maybe here BSA05 Gadaba Don’t know, I know my yes NA yes NA here or language Kostuvalasa BSA06 Gadaba here we speak NA yes NA yes NA like this BSA07 Gadaba Don’t know NA yes NA yes NA here we speak like this BSA08 Gadaba Don’t know, NA yes NA yes NA here we speak like this BSA09 Gadaba Bobbilivalasa, NA yes NA yes NA Ammavalasa… …maybe any other village 43

BSA10 Gadaba Bobbilivalasa, NA yes NA yes NA Ammavalasa, Kothavalasa; maybe any other village

Subj. ID 4a. Speech a 4b. How is 5. How much did 6. How many 7. Do people from little or very it different? you understand? times have you that area come to different gone to the your village? from yours? storyteller’s area?

BSA01 no difference NA full NA NA BSA02 little little full NA NA difference lengthening BSA03 no difference NA full NA NA BSA04 no difference NA full NA NA BSA05 no difference NA full NA NA BSA06 no difference NA full NA NA BSA07 no difference NA full NA NA BSA08 no difference NA full NA NA BSA09 no difference NA full NA NA BSA10 no difference NA full NA NA Appendix C: Questionnaires

C.1 Sociolinguistic questionnaire

C.1.1 Subject’s background information

1. Date 2. Place 3. Description to locate place 4. Subject’s name 5. Subject’s MT 6. Age 7. Sex 8. Education

C.1.2 General language information

9. What do you call your language? 10. What do others call your language? 11. Gadaba has a different name? 12 a. States where Gadaba is spoken? b. Districts? c. Taluks/Tehsils? d. Villages?

C.1.3 Language variation

13. How far away from your village before Gadaba language changes? 14. Where do people speak Gadaba exactly the same as you? 15. Where do people speak Gadaba, but so differently that you can’t understand everything?

C.1.4 Relationship with other languages

16. What other languages are spoken in this area? 17. What other groups are living in your village?

C.1.5 Language attitudes

18. Where is the best Gadaba spoken? 19. Why do you say this is the best Gadaba? 20. What language should your children learn first? 21. Best language for a Gadaba mother? 22. Would you like to read books in Gadaba language? 23. Literacy classes in Gadaba language? 24. Would you like for your son or daughter to marry someone who spoke only Telugu? 25. If a young Gadaba person spoke Telugu in the home, would you be happy or unhappy about it? 26. Are the young people proud about Gadaba language? 27. a. Will the coming generation continue to speak your mother tongue in the future? b. If no, is that good or bad?

44 45

C.1.6 Bilingualism

28. Are there people in your village who do not speak your language? 29. What language do they speak? 30. Are there people in your village who don’t like to speak Gadaba? 31. a. Is there anyone in your village who does not speak any Telugu? b. Who? 32. Are all the children in your village attending school regularly? 33. Can all the people in your village speak Telugu as well as they speak Gadaba? 34. When you travel outside of this area and have to use Telugu, do people sometimes not understand your Telugu? 35. If someone comes from outside and speaks Telugu, can you understand everything they say? 36 a. Do you ever listen to radio programs in Telugu? b. If so, can you understand fully? 37. Can you read and write in Telugu?

C.1.7 Language use

38. What language do children in your village learn first? 39. What language is used by village children at play? 40. What language do you use with your parents? 41. What language do you use with your brothers and sisters? 42. What language do you use with your children? 43. What language do you use with village friends? 44. What language do you use in the market? 45. What language do you use with government officials? 46. What language do you use for personal prayer? 47. What language do you use for religious discussion with friends?

C.1.8 Other general information about the Gadaba people and language

48. Population of the village? 49. Main area where Gadaba people live? 50. From which villages do the men here get women to marry? 51. Do Gadaba men ever marry women who are not Gadaba? 52. Do Gadaba people from other villages come to your village very often? 53. Where do they come from? 54. Do people from your village go to other Gadaba villages in A.P.? 55. Do people from your village go to other Gadaba villages in Orissa? 46

C.2 Language use, language attitudes, and bilingualism questionnaire

C.2.1 Subject’s language use

1. What language do you speak with your spouse? 2. What language do you speak with your children/parents? 3. Do you ever speak Telugu to another Gadaba person? If so, why? How often? 4. What language do you use for religious discussions in your village? 5. What language should your children learn to speak first?

C.2.2 Language attitudes

6. Would you be interested to have books in Gadaba? 7. Are the young people proud of their language? 8. Where do you think the purest Gadaba is spoken?

C.2.3 Bilingualism

9. Is the Telugu you speak different from the Telugu that people speak in town? 10. When you travel outside your home area and you hear people speak in Telugu, how much can you understand? 11. Can you describe your family in Telugu? 12. When you go for day labour and the supervisor speaks only Telugu, can you fully understand his instructions? 13. Can you tell in Telugu what someone should do if they get a fever? 14. (If educated) Do you read Telugu newspapers? If so, how much can you understand?

C.3 Subject biodata and responses to the Sociolinguistic Questionnaire (Questions listed in C1.1–C1.8)

Subj. # 1. Date 2. Place* 3. Description in relation to Salur 1 14 Nov 1997 Panukkuvalasa 5 kms on the road to Orissa 2 14 Nov 1997 Panukkuvalasa 5 kms on the road to Orissa 6 kms on the road to Orissa, and 1km from 3 14 Nov 1997 Manchadavalasa Panukkuvalasa 6 kms on the road to Orissa, and 1km from 4 14 Nov 1997 Manchadavalasa Panukkuvalasa 6 kms on the road to Orissa, and 1km from 5 15 Nov 1997 Peddacheepruvalasa Panukkuvalasa 6 kms on the road to Orissa, and 1km from 6 15 Nov 1997 Peddacheepruvalasa Panukkuvalasa 7 kms on the road to Orissa, and 2 km from 7 15 Nov 1997 Chinachipuruvalasa Panukkuvalasa 8 15 Nov 1997 Kostavalasa 8 kms, and 3 km from Panukkuvalasa 9 15 Nov 1997 Kostavalasa 8 kms, and 3 km from Panukkuvalasa 10 15 Nov 1997 Kostavalasa 8 kms, and 3 km from Panukkuvalasa 11 17 Nov 1997 Bobilivalasa 10 kms on the road to Pachpenta 47

12 17 Nov 1997 Seethampetta 10 kms on the road to Pachpenta Chinachipuruvalasa 13 18 Nov 1997 (near Mamidipalli) 12 kms on the road to Mamidipalli Reyavanivalasa 14 18 Nov 1997 (near Mamidipalli) 12 kms on the road to Mamidipalli 15 18 Nov 1997 Kothavalasa 7 kms on the road to Mamidipally 16 19 Nov 1997 Gogadavalasa 12 kms on the road to Pudi *all: Salur Taluk, Vizianagaram districts, Andhra Pradesh state

Subj. # 5. Subject’s 6. Age 7. Sex 8. Education 9. You call your 10. Others MT language call your language

1 Gadaba 22, 19 M Intermediate Gadaba Gadaba 2 Gadaba 30, 32 M, F Nil Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 3 Gadaba 34 M Intermediate Gadaba, Kondekor, Gadaba Mudhili 4 Gadaba 35 F Nil Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 5 Gadaba 24 M Nil Gadaba Gadaba 6 Gadaba 30 M Nil Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 7 Gadaba 50 F Only name Gadaba Gadaba 8 Gadaba 26 F Nil Gadaba Gadaba 9 Mudulu 50 F Nil Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 10 Gadaba 60 M Nil Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 11 Gadaba 60 M Nil Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 12 Gadaba 35 M 10th std Gadaba, Kondek bhasha Gadaba 13 Gol bhasha 35 M Nil Gol bhasha Gol bhasha (Gadaba) 14 Gadaba 50 M Nil Gol bhasha, Mudhili Kondekor 15 Gadaba 60 M Nil Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 16 Gadaba 50 M Nil Kondekor, Gol bhasha Gadaba, Mudhili

Subj. # 11. 12a. 12b. 12c. 1 No Some people in Orissa but Vizianagaram Dist. in A.P. Salur not familiar, also in A.P. 2 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 3 No Orissa and A.P Koraput Dist. in Orissa and Salur Vizianagaram Dist. in A.P. 4 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 5 No Orissa and A.P Koraput Dist. in Orissa and Vizianagaram Dist. in A.P. 6 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 7 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 8 No Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 9 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 10 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 11 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 12 No A.P and Orissa Vizianagaram District and Didn’t ask Koraput District 13 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 14 No Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 15 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 16 No Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask

Subj. # 12d. 13. 14. 1 In Pachipenta and Salur In Pachipenta and Salur all all places are same, no places are same, no difference difference 2 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 3 Up to Kothavalasa; Up to Kothavalasa same after that to Gutob 4 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 5 Sunki, Miriyalpadu, Mamidipally, Sunki and Nearby villages Ralagada and Gugaguda in Pottangi Koraput district of Orissa 6 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 7 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 8 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 9 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 10 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 11 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 12 Didn’t ask No changes Didn’t ask 13 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Thadanguvalasa and Rayavanivalasa 14 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Up to Palukkuvalasa, it is 4 km from this village and only 4 Gol houses are there 49

15 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 16 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask All Dravidian varieties in A.P. are same

Subj. # 15. 16. 17. 18. 1 Yes, Makkuva, No Some Telugu people Panukkuvalasa Mamidipalli and Parvathipuram, they speak Gutob 2 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Panukkuvalasa 3 Only Gutob No Backward community Manchadavalasa 4 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Manchadavalasa 5 No Konda Dora, Jadab Manchadavalasa and Panukkuvalasa. 6 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Manchadavalasa 7 After Mamidipally, it is Telugu Konda Dora Here only Gutob 8 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Don’t know 9 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Kostavalasa 10 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Kostavalasa 11 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Bobilivalasa and nearby 12 After Mamidipally, it is No Only Gadaba All villages are same Gutob and best 13 Gutob Gutob Manchadvalasa, Panukkuvalasa and nearby 14 Telugu Harijans-5, Telagalu-1 Here only 15 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask My village 16 Orissa and Makuva area Telugu No All villages are same and Palukuvalasa in and best A.P.

Subj. # 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 1 Because others cannot speak fluently Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes 2 No answer Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes 3 Because the style or tone of the speech Gadaba Gadaba (the Yes Yes has a very little difference in other ladies agreed) villages 4 Here we speak clear language Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes 5 Because here we do not speak very well Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes 6 Because here we are not speaking very Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes well 7 Others speak little differently, e.g., Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes lengthening 8 Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes 9 We speak pure, others mix with Telugu Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes 50

10 We speak pure, others mix with Telugu Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes 11 Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes 12 Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes 13 Gol bhasha Gol bhasha Yes Yes 14 Because other villagers are able to Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes understand our language very well 15 Because other people have different Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes accent 16 Gadaba Gadaba Yes Yes

Subj. # 24. 25. 26. 27a. 27b.

1 Yes Happy Yes Yes 2 Only to Gadaba Happy Yes Yes 3 Yes Happy Yes Yes 4 Yes Happy Yes Yes 5 Yes Happy Yes Yes 6 Only Gadaba, because if Happy Yes Yes he married a Telugu girl, then he will shift to Telugu, he doesn't want (it) to happen 7 Only Gadaba Happy, because Young people No, if they learn our language has after going to Telugu they began to some limitations, school slowly they speak in Telugu only. Telugu is good to change to Telugu, use in outside. before that they were proud. 8 Prefer Gadaba people Happy Yes Yes 9 Yes Happy Yes Yes, they also should learn Telugu 10 Only Gadaba Happy Yes Yes 11 Yes Happy Yes Yes 12 Yes Happy, he also Yes He is not sure they wants them to will continue. learn Telugu. 13 Only Gadaba Happy Yes Yes 14 Only Gadaba Happy Yes Yes 15 Only Gadaba Happy Yes Yes 16 Only to Gadaba Unhappy, if the Yes Yes young person answers in Telugu when he speaks to him in Gadaba

Subj. # 28. 29. 30. 31a.

1 Yes Telugu (Telugu people) No No 2 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 3 Yes Telugu (Telugu people) No No 4 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 5 No No No 6 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 7 No Didn’t ask Yes, some educated No people 8 No Didn’t ask Yes, some educated No people 9 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 10 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 11 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 12 No Didn’t ask No Some old and young people cannot understand fluently. 13 No Didn’t ask No Yes 14 No, even Didn’t ask No No others know their language 15 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 16 No Didn’t ask No No

Subj. # 31b. 32. 33. 34. 35.

1 Yes Yes No Yes 2 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Sometimes, Yes because our way of speaking is tribal type. 3 Yes Yes No Yes 4 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask No Yes 5 Yes No Sometimes they Yes don’t understand. 6 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask No Yes 7 Didn’t ask Yes Yes No Yes 8 Out of 176 No Sometimes they Yes children 82 are don’t understand going to school regularly 9 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask No Yes 10 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask No Yes 11 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask No Yes 52

12 Didn’t ask Yes Some old and Sometimes Yes young people can- because of Gadaba not speak fluently accents. 13 Yes Yes No Yes 14 Yes Both Gadaba and No Yes Telugu 15 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask No Yes 16 Didn’t ask Yes Yes No Yes

Subj. # 36a. 36b. 37. 38. 39. 40.

1 Yes Yes Yes Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 2 Yes Yes No Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Gadaba 3 Yes Yes Yes Gadaba Both Gadaba and Gadaba Telugu 4 Yes Yes Only Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Gadaba name 5 Yes Yes No Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 6 Yes Yes No Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Gadaba 7 No Only Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba name 8 No No Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 9 Yes Yes No Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Gadaba 10 Yes Yes No Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Gadaba 11 Yes Yes No Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 12 Yes Yes Yes Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 13 Yes Yes No Gol Bhasha Gol bhasha, Gol bhasha Gutob and Telugu 14 Yes Yes No Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 15 Yes Yes No Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 16 Yes Yes No Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba

Subj. # 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46.

1 Gadaba Gadaba Both Telugu and Telugu Telugu Both Gadaba and Gadaba Telugu 2 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Telugu Telugu Gadaba 3 Gadaba Gadaba Both Telugu and Telugu Telugu Gadaba Gadaba 4 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Telugu Telugu Gadaba 5 Gadaba Gadaba Both Telugu and Telugu Telugu Telugu Gadaba 6 Gadaba Gadaba Telugu Telugu Telugu Gadaba 7 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Telugu Telugu Telugu 8 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Telugu Telugu Gadaba 53

9 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Telugu Telugu Gadaba 10 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Telugu Telugu Gadaba 11 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba and Telugu Telugu Gadaba Telugu 12 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Telugu Telugu Gadaba 13 Gol Bhasha Gol Bhasha Gol bhasha and Telugu Telugu Gol bhasha Gutob 14 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Telugu Telugu Gadaba 15 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Telugu Telugu Gadaba 16 Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba Telugu Telugu Gadaba

Subj. # 47. 48. 49.

1 Telugu 1000 people, 20 are Telugu people, total Salur 100 houses, 7 Telugu houses 2 Both Telugu and Gadaba Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 3 Telugu Including children, more than 2000 people, Vizianagaram 224 houses, 4–5 members in each house district. 4 Gadaba Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 5 Telugu Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 6 Both Telugu and Gadaba 110 houses Nearby area 7 Gadaba 70 houses Nearby area 8 Gadaba 80 houses Nearby area 9 Gadaba Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 10 Gadaba Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 11 Gadaba to Gadaba 52 houses, Konda Dora-4, Telaga-2 Didn’t ask people and Telugu to others 12 Gadaba 42 houses Nearby area 13 Gol bhasha Total houses are 80, 20 are Dravidian Gadaba and rest are Gutob 14 Gadaba Total houses are 40, including children; there are around 250 people. 15 Gadaba Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 16 Both Gadaba and Telugu 40 houses and around 250 people Nearby area

Subj. # 50. 51. 52. 53.

1 Nearby and Parvathipuram Yes Yes Nearby villages (relatives) (Gutob) 2 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 3 Nearby Yes Yes Nearby villages (relatives) 4 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 5 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 6 Nearby villages Yes Yes Nearby villages (relatives) 54

7 Nearby villages No Yes Nearby villages (relatives) 8 Nearby villages No Yes Nearby villages (relatives) 9 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 10 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 11 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 12 Nearby villages Yes Yes Nearby villages (relatives) 13 Kommaduvalasa and No Yes Kommaduvalasa and nearby Manchadavalasa 14 All nearby villages, No Yes Nearby villages including Gutob. 15 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 16 Nearby villages No Yes Nearby villages and Orissa (relatives)

Subj. # 54. 55.

1 Yes (nearby) No 2 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 3 Yes Yes, to meet relatives and for buying anything or meet anybody 4 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 5 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 6 Yes Yes, to meet relatives in Ralagada 7 Yes No 8 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 9 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 10 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 11 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 12 Yes Yes, for work or social gathering. 13 Yes No 14 Yes No 15 Didn’t ask Didn’t ask 16 Yes Yes, for work or to meet relatives (this village people said they can understand Orissa Gadaba).

C.4 Subject biodata and responses to the language use, language attitudes, and bilingualism questionnaire (Questions listed in C2.1–C2.3)

Subj. # Village Location

1 Seethampeta From Salur 10 kms on the road to Pachipenta 2 Seethampeta From Salur 10 kms on the road to Pachipenta 3 Seethampeta From Salur 10 kms on the road to Pachipenta 4 Seethampeta From Salur 10 kms on the road to Pachipenta 5 Seethampeta From Salur 10 kms on the road to Pachipenta 6 Seethampeta From Salur 10 kms on the road to Pachipenta 7 Bobbilivalasa From Salur 10 kms on the road to Pachipenta 8 Bobbilivalasa From Salur 10 kms on the road to Pachipenta 9 Bobbilivalasa From Salur 10 kms on the road to Pachipenta 10 Bobbilivalasa From Salur 10 kms on the road to Pachipenta 11 Reyavanivalasa From Salur 12 kms on the road to Mamidipalli 12 Reyavanivalasa From Salur 12 kms on the road to Mamidipalli 13 Reyavanivalasa From Salur 12 kms on the road to Mamidipalli 14 Reyavanivalasa From Salur 12 kms on the road to Mamidipalli 15 Reyavanivalasa From Salur 12 kms on the road to Mamidipalli 16 Reyavanivalasa From Salur 12 kms on the road to Mamidipalli 17 Reyavanivalasa From Salur 12 kms on the road to Mamidipalli 18 Reyavanivalasa From Salur 12 kms on the road to Mamidipalli 19 Reyavanivalasa From Salur 12 kms on the road to Mamidipalli 20 Reyavanivalasa From Salur 12 kms on the road to Mamidipalli 21 Kostuvalasa From Salur 8 kms, and 3 kms from Panukuvalasa 22 Kostuvalasa From Salur 8 kms, and 3 kms from Panukuvalasa 23 Kostuvalasa From Salur 8 kms, and 3 kms from Panukuvalasa 24 Kostuvalasa From Salur 8 kms, and 3 kms from Panukuvalasa 25 Chinachipuruvalasa From Salur 8 kms, and 2 kms from Panukuvalasa 26 Chinachipuruvalasa From Salur 8 kms, and 2 kms from Panukuvalasa 27 Chinachipuruvalasa From Salur 8 kms, and 2 kms from Panukuvalasa 28 Chinachipuruvalasa From Salur 8 kms, and 2 kms from Panukuvalasa 29 Chinachipuruvalasa From Salur 8 kms, and 2 kms from Panukuvalasa 30 Chinachipuruvalasa From Salur 8 kms, and 2 kms from Panukuvalasa

Subj. # Date Sex Age Education Birthplace Brought up

1 29 Jul 1998 M 35 10th Seethampeta same place 2 29 Jul 1998 F 45 nil Ammavalasa same place 3 29 Jul 1998 M 27 nil Seethampeta same place 4 29 Jul 1998 M 60 5th Seethampeta same place 5 29 Jul 1998 M 20 nil Seethampeta same place 6 29 Jul 1998 F 24 nil Seethampeta same place 56

7 29 Jul 1998 F 48 nil Bobbilivalasa same place 8 29 Jul 1998 M 20 nil Bobbilivalasa same place 9 29 Jul 1998 M 36 nil Bobbilivalasa same place 10 29 Jul 1998 M 19 nil Bobbilivalasa same place 11 30 Jul 1998 M 21 10+2 Reyavanivalasa same place 12 30 Jul 1998 M 28 nil Reyavanivalasa same place 13 30 Jul 1998 M 35 nil Reyavanivalasa same place 14 30 Jul 1998 M 50 nil Reyavanivalasa same place 15 30 Jul 1998 M 20 nil Reyavanivalasa same place 16 30 Jul 1998 M 55 read Reyavanivalasa same place 17 30 Jul 1998 F 60 nil Palikivalasa same place 18 30 Jul 1998 F 20 nil Reyavanivalasa same place 19 30 Jul 1998 F 28 nil Reyavanivalasa same place 20 30 Jul 1998 F 32 6th Reyavanivalasa same place 21 03 Aug 1998 M 45 5th Kostuvalasa same place 22 03 Aug 1998 F 32 nil Kostuvalasa same place 23 03 Aug 1998 M 40 nil Kostuvalasa same place 24 03 Aug 1998 M 20 7th Kostuvalasa same place 25 03 Aug 1998 F 45 nil Seethampeta same place 26 03 Aug 1998 F 50 nil Chinachipuruvalasa same place 27 03 Aug 1998 F 19 10th Chinachipuruvalasa same place 28 03 Aug 1998 M 20 5th Chinachipuruvalasa same place 29 03 Aug 1998 M 22 nil Chinachipuruvalasa same place 30 03 Aug 1998 M 26 10th Chinachipuruvalasa same place

Subj. # Current residence How long? Mother tongue Language now Father’s MT spoken in home

1 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 2 Seethampeta 10 yrs Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 3 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 4 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 5 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 6 Bobbilivalasa 6 yrs Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 7 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 8 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 9 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 10 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 11 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 12 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 13 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 14 same place life Mudhili Gadaba Mudhili Mudhili Gadaba Gadaba 57

15 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 16 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 17 Reyavanivalasa 40 yrs Gutob Gadaba Mudhili Gutob Gadaba Gadaba 18 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 19 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 20 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 21 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 22 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 23 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 24 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 25 Chinachipuruvalasa 20 yrs Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 26 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 27 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 28 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 29 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba 30 same place life Gadaba Gadaba Gadaba

Subj. # Mother’s MT Spouse’s MT Lived or stayed in Travel outside area; another place? how often?

1 Gadaba Gutob Gadaba 5, 6 yrs in Makkuva Vizianagaram, if needed 2 Gadaba Gadaba no no 3 Gadaba NA no no 4 Gadaba Gadaba no Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada 5 Gadaba NA no Visakhapatnam, Jeypore, S. Kota 6 Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram, Parvathipuram 7 Gadaba Gadaba no no 8 Gadaba NA no Guntur for 2 months 9 Gadaba Gadaba no Vissakhapatnam 10 Gadaba NA no Srikakulam 11 Gadaba NA 2 yrs in Visakhapatnam, Gummalakshmipuram Parvathipuram for studies 12 Gadaba Gadaba no no 13 Gadaba Gadaba no no 14 Mudhili Mudhili Gadaba One month in Tikkiri Vizianagaram once in a Gadaba (Orissa) while 15 Gadaba NA no no 16 Gadaba Gadaba no Visakhapatnam, Parvathipuram 17 Gutob Gadaba Mudhili Gadaba no no 18 Gadaba NA no Bobbili, Vizianagaram 58

19 Gadaba NA no Vizianagaram 20 Gadaba NA no Bobbili 21 Gadaba Gadaba no Pithapuram, Gummunarsipuram 22 Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram 23 Gadaba Gadaba no Visakhapatnam 24 Gadaba NA 2 yrs in Vizianagaram Visakhapatnam for work 25 Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram 26 Gadaba Gadaba no Salur 27 Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram 28 Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram 29 Gadaba Gadaba no Vizianagaram 30 Gadaba Gadaba 1 yr. in Vizianagaram no for studies

Subj. # 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

1 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 2 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba, Yes though they are educated 3 NA Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes, I like to read 4 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 5 NA Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 6 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 7 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 8 NA Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 9 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 10 NA Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 11 NA Gadaba Yes, but Gadaba Gadaba Yes unusual 12 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 13 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 14 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 15 NA Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 16 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 17 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 18 NA Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 19 NA Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 20 NA Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 21 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 22 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 23 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 59

24 NA Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 25 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes, I want to read 26 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 27 NA Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 28 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 29 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes 30 Gadaba Gadaba No Gadaba Gadaba Yes

Subj. # 7. 8. 9. 10.

1 Yes Here No All 2 Yes Here No If they are very fast then difficult 3 Yes Here No All 4 Yes All our villages are best No All 5 Yes Here No All 6 Yes Here No Most 7 Yes Here and nearby No All 8 Yes Here No All 9 Yes Here No All 10 Yes Here No All 11 Yes Here No All 12 Yes Here No All 13 Yes Here, Kothavalasa, Manchadavalasa, No All Kandirivalasa 14 Yes Here No All 15 Yes Here No All 16 Yes Here No All 17 Yes Here No All 18 Yes Here No All 19 Yes Here No All 20 Yes Here No All 21 Yes All our villages No All 22 Yes Here No All 23 Yes Here No All 24 Yes All villages No All 25 Yes Here and every village No All 26 Yes Here No All 27 Yes Here No All 28 Yes Here No All 29 Yes Here No All 30 Yes Here No All

Subj. # 11. 12. 13. 14.

1 Yes Yes Yes Yes, all 2 Yes Yes Yes NA 3 Yes Yes Yes NA 4 Yes Yes Yes Yes, all 5 Yes Yes Yes Yes, all 6 Yes Yes Yes NA 7 Yes Yes Yes NA 8 Yes Yes Yes NA 9 Yes Yes Yes NA 10 Yes Yes Yes NA 11 Yes Yes Yes Yes, all 12 Yes Yes Yes NA 13 Yes Yes Yes NA 14 Yes Yes Yes NA 15 Yes Yes Yes NA 16 Yes Yes Yes Yes, half 17 Yes Yes Yes NA 18 Yes Yes Yes NA 19 Yes Yes Yes NA 20 Yes Yes Yes Yes, little 21 Yes Yes Yes Yes, all 22 Yes Yes Yes NA 23 Yes Yes Yes NA 24 Yes Yes Yes Yes, all 25 Yes Yes Yes NA 26 Yes Yes Yes NA 27 Yes Yes Yes Yes, all 28 Yes Yes Yes No 29 Yes Yes Yes NA 30 Yes Yes Yes Yes, all References

Abraham, Liju, Chacko Mathew, and Juliana Kelsall. 1996. Ollar Gadaba of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh: A sociolinguistic profile. Unpublished manuscript. Blair, Frank. 1990. Survey on a shoestring: A manual for small-scale language surveys. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and University of Texas at Arlington. Casad, Eugene. 1974. Dialect intelligibility testing. Norman, Oklahoma: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Fasold, Ralph. 1984. The sociolinguistics of society. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Rajan, Herold, and Juliana Kelsall. 1995. The Gadaba people of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh: A sociolinguistic profile. Unpublished manuscript. Singh, K. S. 1994. The Scheduled Tribes. People of India national series. Vol. III. Delhi: Oxford University Press. (Anthropological Survey of India.) Singh, K. S., and S. Manoharan. 1993. Languages and scripts. People of India national series. Vol. IX. Delhi: Oxford University Press. (Anthropological Survey of India).