Akropolis 3 (2019) 109-128

Elena Ene D-Vasilescu*

The ‘Gospel of freedom’ or a Letter of warning? The use of Paul’s Epis- tle to the Galatians in the Byzantine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom

Abstract: The article remarks on the earliest sources containing the Liturgy of St. John Chrysos- tom and introduces commentaries concerning it. It also presents the moments of the liturgical year in which the Letter to the Galatians is read. The novelty the material brings to the field of Byzantine Studies is the fact that it conceives this Pauline text as being a manifest concerning human freedom.

1. Introduction

Within the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom (ca. 349 – 407)1 practiced in Byzantium and currently in the Orthodox Church, the Epistle to the Galatians is read on important Christian feasts and on days dedicated to particular saints. A few of these celebrations fall on the same day every year and other vary, depend- ing on the date of Easter (which, as we know, changes annually). The scholarship still needs to cover the reception of Pauline theology in the Liturgy of John Chrysostom (as well as in that of Basil the Great/of Caesarea). In this particular paper I only propose a survey of possible future topics within this area; further research could delve into the profundities on the comparison proposed above. Some personal thoughts on the most frequently read excerpts from the letter to the Galatians as they occur in the Byzantine Liturgy will be introduced. These are Gal. 5:22-6:2 and 3: 24-4: 3, and those read at Easter (Gal. 3: 13-14), and Christmas (4: 4-7). The fragment Gal 4: 22-27, where there is a clear distinction between the Church and the Synagogue, will also be commented

* Wolfson College & Department of Continuing Education, University of Oxfordd ([email protected]) 1 John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople, was educated by Libanius. The information regarding his teacher is from Cameron, “Education and literary culture”, 668-669. Libanius was also the teacher of Theo- dore of Mopsuestia ll (of Antioch, d. c. 350 – c. 428); see Chrysostom, ad Th. Laps. Ii. 110 Elena Ene D-Vasilescu upon; this is the text recited on the 25th July, which is the day that marks the Dor- mition of St. Anne. We shall elaborate at some length on all those, and only intro- duce in passing other occasions when Paul’s message to the Christian inhabitants of Galatia is mentioned in the Eucharistic service (it is evoked thirty five times). I will firstly present the most known bibliographical resources concerning St. Paul’s text and then the historical-theological framework in which it was written.

2. Sources regarding the Eucharistic service

The earliest manuscript of John Chrysostom’s Liturgy is the ninth-century codex Vaticanus graecus 2282; its rubrics were translated in English by Frank Edward Brightman within the book he edited, Liturgies, Eastern and Western.2 He also rendered the Armenian Liturgy of the Byzantine Rite in its entirety, as well as other similar Church services. According to Alexander Schmemann, the Liturgy had reached full form in the twelfth century.3 Before the liturgies of St. Basil and of St. John were composed (in the fourth century), in Jerusalem and the Syriac speaking areas, that of St. James was practiced/celebrated – as is still the case today in some areas of the Middle East – especially in Syria; the performing of St. Mark’s liturgy is still the norm in Egypt.4 Robert F. Taft affirms that the structure of the Eucharist service became complete in the time of Philotheus I of Constantinople, b. 1300.5 One should not see the last two mentioned dates in contradiction since, despite the actuality of a typicon6, small variations existed and still exists today within both Eastern (‘the Byzantine’)7 and Western Litur-

2 Brightman (ed. end trans.), Liturgies, Eastern and Western. 3 Schmemann, The Historical Road of Eastern Orthodoxy, 199. See also Schmemann, Introduction to Liturgical Theology. The most recent edition of the Liturgy in English isThe Divine Liturgy of our Father among the saints John Chrysostom. This book has been edited and translated by a committee appointed by the Ecumen- ical Patriarch Bartholomew I and Archbishop Gregorios of Thyateira and Great Britain (in Greek and En- glish). See also Field (ed.), Interpretatio omnium epistolarum Paulinarum. This has been translated in English as Commentary of S. John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople on the Epistle of S. Paul the Apostle to the Galatians. Among the newest publications referring to Paul’s letter to the Galatians, see Edwards (ed.), An- cient Christian Commentary on Scripture. 4 Lester, “The Liturgy of St. James”,96-115. 5 Taft, The Liturgy of the Great Church, 45-46 [45-75]. On this see also Dix, The Shape of the Liturgy, 445; Wybrew, The Orthodox Liturgy, St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, Crestwood, 1990, 38; Bouyer, Eucharist, 136. 6 The typicon consists in a set of “definite regulations according to an order or rite established once and for all;” that is the collection of rules and prescriptions – or ‘rubrics. Schmemann, Introduction to Liturgical Theology, 33. 7 About Byzantine Liturgy especially Schmemann wrote in his Introduction to Liturgical Theology, 35-41, and The ‘Gospel of freedom’ or a Letter of warning? The use of Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians in the Byzantine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom 111 gy8, as well as between these two geographically determined types of Eucharis- tic services. Also according to Alexander Schmemann, “the development of the Rule of worship was completed in Byzantium; [this was] a Rule which makes of it a system permitting almost no progress or change. The Byzantine typicons and euchologia of the thirteenth and fourteenth century differ hardly at all from our own missals and rule-books […] The modern Orthodox Church is –from the point of view of history – the Church of Byzantium, which has survived the Byzantine Empire by five hundred years.”9 But perhaps that statement should be relativized to a certain extent since the Byzantine/Greek, Romanian, Bulgarian Orthodox typicon is the slightly modified Typicon of the Monastery of Studios in Constantinople, and the Slavonic one is closer to that of St Sabas’s Monas- tery in Jerusalem.10 Widely used editions of Chrysostom’s works are available in Greek, Latin, English, and French. The Greek edition was edited by Sir Henry Savile (eight volumes, Eton, 1613); the most complete Greek and Latin edition was edited by Bernard de Montfaucon (thirteen volumes, Paris, 1718–38, republished in 1834-40, and reprinted in Migne (ed.), Patrologia Graeca, volumes 47- 64. Here I have used information from the latter. An English translation of St. John Chrysostom’s works exists in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.11 A selection of his writings has been published more recently in the original with facing French translation in Sources Chrétiennes12 and also one in English.13

The Historical Road of Eastern Orthodoxy; also Taft, The Byzantine Rite: A Short History, and Taft (ed.), The Christian East. See also Healey (ed.), The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity, 268-269, and Wybrew, The Orthodox Liturgy: the development of the Eucharistic liturgy in the Byzantine rite, and Wybrew, The Or- thodox Liturgy. 8 About the Eucharistic service in the West, see Dix, The Shape of the Liturgy and Taft,The Liturgy of the Hours in East and West. See more about Dix’s work in Jones (ed.), The Sacramental Life. 9 Schmemann, The Historical Road of Eastern Orthodoxy, 199. 10 Schmemann, Introduction to Liturgical Theology, 35. 11 John Chrysostom, NPNF1, 1907. See also John Chrysostom, Commentary of S. John Chrysostom, Archbish- op of Constantinople on the Epistle of S. Paul the Apostle to the Galatians. 12 John Chrysostom, “La Divine liturgie de saint Jean Chrysostome”, (in the original with facing French trans�- lation). 13 John Chrysostom, The Divine Liturgy of our Father among the saints John Chrysostom. 112 Elena Ene D-Vasilescu

3. Paul in Galatia

Before indicating how Paul’s epistle is deployed in the Byzantine Liturgy, we should remark that, after founding churches in Galatia,14 the Apostle had to leave the area in order to carry out other missionary assignments. On his return some heretics and conservative [strict law observing] recipients of the letter pro- tested against one of the letters he sent to them – that which we discuss in this article and was called the ‘Gospel of freedom’.15

Fig. 2a. The Ancient Galatia Fig. 2b. Antioch, where John was born.

14 Ancient Galatia (in Greek, Γαλατία) was an area in the highlands of central Anatolia (Ankara, Çorum, Yozgat Province) in modern Turkey. Galatia was named for the immigrant Gauls from Thrace, who settled here and became its ruling caste in the third century BC, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC (The Gauls/Celts were invited to participate in a Bithynian civil war in 278 bc). The territory was called “Gallia” because the Roman writers called these people Galli/ Gauls/Galatae/Galatians. They attacked the neighbouring Hellenistic states, but the Seleucid king Antiochus I defeated them at the so-called Elephant Battle (275 bc). After that they had to join the Seleucids against Rome (winter 190-189 BC). That brought upon them a Roman punitive expedition (189 BC) from which they never recovered. Passing successively un- der the rule of Pergamum and Pontus, Galatia became a Roman protectorate (85 BC) ruled by puppet kings. Though originally possessing a strong cultural identity, by the second century ad the Galatians had become absorbed into the Hellenistic civilization of Anatolia. They were still speaking the Galatian language in the time of St. Jerome (347-420 AD), who wrote that the Galatians of Ancyra and the Treveri of Trier (in what is now the Rhineland) spoke the same language (Comentarii in Epistolam ad Galatos, 2.3, composed c. 387). In an administrative reorganisation (circa 386–95) two new provinces succeeded it, Galatia Prima and Galatia Secunda or Salutaris, which included part of Phrygia. Among the publications about the Galatians, see Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 25.2 and 26.2 [Marcus Junianus, Justinus Epitome of the Philippic History of Pom- peius Trogus, translated, with notes, by the Rev. John Selby Watson, Henry G. Bohn, and York Street, Convent Garden, London, 1853]; Pliny the Elder, Natural History, trans. and Introduction J. F. Healey, 5.42; Granville Hatcher, Modern English Word-Formation and Neo-Latin: A Study of the Origins of English, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1951; Ramsay (revised by Wilson), Historical Commentary on Galatians, 302. See also Mitchell, “The Celts and the Impact of Roman Rule”, vol. 1 ofAnatolia … 15 Alan, The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Galatians, 32. The ‘Gospel of freedom’ or a Letter of warning? The use of Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians in the Byzantine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom 113

Fig. 2c. Galatia as a Roman province Fig. 2d. Part of a fifteenth century map showing in 117 AD Galatia in more detail.

These images are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic license. Those people accused Paul of not being an ‘authentic’ apostle, in contrast to the original messengers of God, who met Jesus. In the beginning of the letter under discussion here and many times throughout it the Apostle defended him- self against this charge. He states that he is equal with the others and that this is so because Christ directly called him to apostleship. He makes a further point by emphasizing that nothing in his previous life would have suggested a predisposi- tion to accept this type of Gospel and the news of sheer grace. He was convincing since John Chrysostom felt that it was important to include fragments from this epistle within the Byzantine Liturgy.

4. The fragments from the Letter to the Galatians included in the Eucharist service

Here are the most cited passages from the Letter to the Galatians that aid in conveying the message of the Liturgy; some of them are repeated through- out the year. - On the Second of January – the feast of St. Sylvester, Pope of Rome (335) and St. Seraphim of Sarov (1833), Gal. 5:22 - 6:2 is read:

Ὁ δὲ καρπὸς τοῦ πνεύματός ἐστιν ἀγάπη χαρὰ εἰρήνη, μακροθυμία χρηστότης ἀγαθωσύνη, πίστις πραΰτης ἐγκράτεια· κατὰ τῶν τοιούτων οὐκ ἔστιν νόμος. οἱ δὲ τοῦ Χριστοῦ [Ἰησοῦ] τὴν σάρκα ἐσταύρωσαν σὺν τοῖς παθήμασιν καὶ ταῖς ἐπιθυμίαις. 114 Elena Ene D-Vasilescu

Εἰ ζῶμεν πνεύματι, πνεύματι καὶ στοιχῶμεν. μὴ γινώμεθα κενόδοξοι, ἀλλήλους προκαλούμενοι, ἀλλήλοις φθονοῦντες.

Ἀδελφοί, ἐὰν καὶ προλημφθῇ ἄνθρωπος ἔν τινι παραπτώματι, ὑμεῖς οἱ πνευματικοὶ καταρτίζετε τὸν τοιοῦτον ἐν πνεύματι πραΰτητος, σκοπῶν σεαυτὸν μὴ καὶ σὺ πειρασθῇς. Ἀλλήλων τὰ βάρη βαστάζετε καὶ οὕτως ἀναπληρώσετε τὸν νόμον τοῦ Χριστοῦ.

But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, longsuffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, Meekness, temperance: against such there is no law. And they that are Christ’s have crucified the flesh with the affections and lusts. If we live in the Spirit, let us also walk in the Spirit. Let us not be desirous of vain glory, provoking one another, envying one another. Brethren, if a man be overtaken in a fault, ye which are spiritual, restore such an one in the spirit of meekness; considering thyself, lest thou also be tempted. Bear ye one another’’s burdens, and so fulfil the law of Christ.

This fragment [5: 22 - 6. 2] appears six more times in the Lectionary; so it is delivered most frequently throughout the liturgical year. It is about the liberty of the Spirit, the freedom of the apostles and of all people who follow Christ, and about the struggle with the flesh.16 By flesh Paul does not mean the body. Here this word is a general term for evil actions, the corrupted will, the earthy mind, the indolent and careless soul – things that are under one’s control, not part of human nature. Thisflesh is crucified with Christ (v. 24); it is not human nature that is mortified, but its evil deeds. John Chrysostom underlines that “He [Paul] didn’t mention ‘the works of the Spirit’ but its ‘fruits’. Therefore [it may seem that] the soul is superfluous. The Litur- gist rhetorically asks if Paul is speaking of soulless beings”. John queries: “For if the statement mentions the flesh and the Spirit, where is the soul? For if the Evil belongs to the flesh and the good asks to the Spirit, then the soul would be superfluous. Not at all; for the ordering of the passions is the work of the soul and concerns the soul. The soul is situated in the middle of the struggle between virtues and vices. If the soul uses the body as it should, it makes itself more spiritual. But if it departs from the Spirit and yields itself to evil desires, it renders it more earthy. Do you see how everywhere he is not speaking of the essence of the flesh but of the moral choice that is inclined toward virtue of vice? So why does he refer to ‘the fruits of the Spirit?’” And the John gives his own response: “Because evil works come from us alone, and

16 The Orthodox Bible, p. 434. The ‘Gospel of freedom’ or a Letter of warning? The use of Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians in the Byzantine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom 115 hence he call them works, while the good works require not only the resolution of our will but the kindness of God;”17 [Homily on Galatians 5. 22].

24th January – St. Xenia (both of Rome and of St. Petersburg): Gal 3: 24 - 4: 3

“24 ὥστε ὁ νόμος παιδαγωγὸς ἡμῶν γέγονεν εἰς Χριστόν, ἵνα ἐκ πίστεως δικαιωθῶμεν· 25 ἐλθούσης δὲ τῆς πίστεως οὐκέτι ὑπὸ παιδαγωγόν ἐσμεν. 26 Πάντες γὰρ υἱοὶ θεοῦ ἐστε διὰ τῆς πίστεως ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ· 27ὅσοι γὰρ εἰς Χριστὸν ἐβαπτίσθητε, Χριστὸν ἐνεδύσασθε. 28οὐκ ἔνι Ἰουδαῖος οὐδὲ Ἕλλην, οὐκ ἔνι δοῦλος οὐδὲ ἐλεύθερος, οὐκ ἔνι ἄρσεν καὶ θῆλυ· πάντες γὰρ ὑμεῖς εἷς ἐστε ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ. 29εἰ δὲ ὑμεῖς Χριστοῦ, ἄρα τοῦ Ἀβραὰμ σπέρμα ἐστέ, κατ’ ἐπαγγελίαν κληρονόμοι.

1Λέγω δέ, ἐφ’ ὅσον χρόνον ὁ κληρονόμος νήπιός ἐστιν, οὐδὲν διαφέρει δούλου κύριος πάντων ὤν, 2 ἀλλ’ ὑπὸ ἐπιτρόπους ἐστὶν καὶ οἰκονόμους ἄχρι τῆς προθεσμίας τοῦ πατρός. 3οὕτως καὶ ἡμεῖς, ὅτε ἦμεν νήπιοι, ὑπὸ τὰ στοιχεῖα τοῦ κόσμου ἤμεθα δεδουλωμένοι·”.

Wherefore the law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ, that we might be justified by faith. But after that faith is come, we are no longer under a schoolmaster. For ye are all the children of God by faith in Christ Jesus. For as many of you as have been baptized into Christ have put on Christ. There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus. And if ye be Christ’s, then are ye Abraham’s seed, and heirs according to the promise. Now I say, That the heir, as long as he is a child, differeth nothing from a servant, though he be lord of all; But is under tutors and governors until the time appointed of the father. Even so we, when we were children, were in bondage under the elements of the world.

17 John Chrysostom, Commentary of S. John Chrysostom, 85-86; and Sancti ... Joannis Chrysostomi, Interpre- tatio omnium epistolarum Paulinarum [herewith IOEP]; 4. 90. See also Edwards (ed.), Ancient Commentaries Galatians, 84; the editor’s translation. 116 Elena Ene D-Vasilescu

Chrysostom remarks that the time of the law as a ‘custodian’ should be lim- ited; when active, the law should work in concord with grace; once it becomes internalised (‘grace has come’) the law should not bind any longer. Through bap- tism people ‘put on Christ’, i.e. take him in their souls, and become like him, and in turn are adopted as his sons. In this way people are being made ‘one in kind and form’. This is the outcome of faith. But the soul wants an even more intimate association with Christ; it requires and attains the character of Christ. So any Jew and any slave has the chance to do so.18

February: - Saturday of Cheesefare – Commemoration of All Monks and Nuns, and of St. Eustathius, Archbishop of Antioch (d. ca. 337). On this particular day Gal. 5:22 - 6:2 is read. To the words of this fragment, one can add that “The Holy monks crucified their flesh that they might bear the burden of others.”19

- FifthSunday of Lent - Usually in March or April - Gal 3: 23 - 4: 5

- On Holy Saturday Gal. 3: 13-14

Χριστὸς ἡμᾶς ἐξηγόρασεν ἐκ τῆς κατάρας τοῦ νόμου γενόμενος ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν κατάρα, ὅτι γέγραπται· ἐπικατάρατος πᾶς ὁ κρεμάμενος ἐπὶ ξύλου, 14ἵνα εἰς τὰ ἔθνη ἡ εὐλογία τοῦ Ἀβραὰμ γένηται ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ, ἵνα τὴν ἐπαγγελίαν τοῦ πνεύματος λάβωμεν διὰ τῆς πίστεως.

Christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law, being made a curse for us: for it is written, Cursed is every one that hangeth on a tree: That the blessing of Abraham might come on the Gentiles through Jesus Christ; that we might receive the promise of the Spirit through faith.

One should notice that the Liturgist does not say that Christ is a ‘curse’, but that ‘he was made a curse’ meaning that he took up our transgressions, sicknesses, that is ‘curses’ in order to relief us from them. Chrysostom’s thoughts here (in v. 3: 14) are that despite our faults, we receive the blessing and grace of the Holy Spirit (‘draw

18 Edwards, Galatians…, 48-49. 19 The Orthodox Bible, 434. The ‘Gospel of freedom’ or a Letter of warning? The use of Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians in the Byzantine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom 117 to ourselves’ – NPNF 1 13:27, or ‘procure’ IOEP 4: 60), after having the curse taken away. Therefore, “the cross has dissolved the curse, faith has brought righteousness, and by God’s own righteousness the grace of the Spirit has been given.”20

May - St. Pachomius the Great (d. 346) Gal. 5: 22 - 6: 2 - 5th July - St. Athanasius (d. 1000), Founder of the Great Lavra on Mt Athos, and his disciple Gal. 5: 22 - 6: 2 - 7th July- Great Martyr Kyriake (d. ca 303) Gal. 3: 23 - 4: 7

17th July- Great Martyr Marina (Margaret) of Antioch in Pisidia (d. ca 303) Gal. 3: 23 - 4: 7 19th July- Commemoration of the Fathers of the Fourth Ecumenical Council (451) Gal. 5: 22 - 6: 2

25th July - The Dormition of the Righteous Anna, mother of the Most Holy Theotokos Gal 4: 22 – 27

γέγραπται γὰρ ὅτι Ἀβραὰμ δύο υἱοὺς ἔσχεν, ἕνα ἐκ τῆς παιδίσκης καὶ ἕνα ἐκ τῆς ἐλευθέρας. ἀλλ’ ὁ μὲν ἐκ τῆς παιδίσκης κατὰ σάρκα γεγέννηται, ὁ δὲ ἐκ τῆς ἐλευθέρας δι’ ἐπαγγελίας. ἅτινά ἐστιν ἀλληγορούμενα· αὗται γάρ εἰσιν δύο διαθῆκαι, μία μὲν ἀπὸ ὄρους Σινᾶ εἰς δουλείαν γεννῶσα, ἥτις ἐστὶν Ἁγάρ. τὸ δὲ Ἁγὰρ Σινᾶ ὄρος ἐστὶν ἐν τῇ Ἀραβίᾳ· συστοιχεῖ δὲ τῇ νῦν Ἰερουσαλήμ, δουλεύει γὰρ μετὰ τῶν τέκνων αὐτῆς. ἡ δὲ ἄνω Ἰερουσαλὴμ ἐλευθέρα ἐστίν, ἥτις ἐστὶν μήτηρ ἡμῶν· γέγραπται γάρ·εὐφράνθητι, στεῖρα ἡ οὐ τίκτουσα, ῥῆξον καὶ βόησον, ἡ οὐκ ὠδίνουσα· ὅτι πολλὰ τὰ τέκνα τῆς ἐρήμου μᾶλλον ἢ τῆς ἐχούσης τὸν ἄνδρα.

For it is written, that Abraham had two sons, the one by a bondmaid, the other by a freewoman. But he who was of the bondwoman was born after the flesh; but he of the

20 Edwards, Galatians…, 41. 118 Elena Ene D-Vasilescu

freewoman was by promise. Which things are an allegory: for these are the two covenants; the one from the Mount Sinai, which gendereth to bondage, which is Agar. For this Agar is Mount Sinai in Arabia, and answereth to Jerusalem which now is, and is in bondage with her children. But Jerusalem which is above is free, which is the mother of us all. For it is written, Rejoice, thou barren that bearest not; break forth and cry, thou that travailest not: for the desolate hath many more children than she which hath a husband.

In his Homily – or Commentary on the Galatians Chrysostom refers a few times to Abraham because the great reputation he had among Jews. In this particular verse, he does it again in order to show that all present things were touched upon by this Patriarch of the Old Testament.21 In v. 27 he explains that the once barren church surpasses the synagogue in childbearing. The synagogue is married to the Law and the Church to Christ; the first only contains a nation, while the Church the whole inhabited world (Chrysostom refers to land and sea, to Greece and Africa).22

- 3rd of September- St. Poebe, Deaconess at Cenchreae near Corinth (first century) Gal 1:1-3, 20 - 2:5 - 6th of September -Sunday before the Exaltation of the Cross; Commemoration of the Miracle of the Archangel Michael at Colossae (Chonae) Gal. 6: 11-18 -7th of September - Forefeast of the Nativity of the Theotokos Gal 2: 11-16 - 8th of September - The Nativity of our Most Holy Lady the Theotokos and ever-virgin Mary Gal. 2: 21 - 3:7 - 9th of September- Afterfeast of the Nativity of the Theotokos: her parents Joachim and Anna Gal 3: 15-22. - 10th of September- Afterfeast of the Nativity of the Theotokos Gal. 3: 23-29; 4:1-5 -13th September - Sunday before the Exaltation of the Cross Gal. 6: 11-18 -15th September – Afterfeast of the Exaltation of the Cross Gal. 5: 11-21 - 16th September – Afterfeast of the Exaltation of the Cross Gal. 6: 2-10

21 Edwards, Galatians…, 65. 22 Edwards, Galatians…, 67. The ‘Gospel of freedom’ or a Letter of warning? The use of Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians in the Byzantine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom 119

- 20th September – Sunday after the Exaltation of the Cross Gal. 2: 16 - 20 - 25th September – St. Sergius, Abbot and Wonderworker of Radonezh (1392); St. Euphrosyne of Alexandria (5th century) Gal. 5: 22 - 6: 2 - 23th October – Holy Apostle James, the brother of Christ (d. ca. 63) Gal. 1: 11 – 19 - The first of November – Sts. Cosma, Damian, and their mother (third century?) Gal. 6: 11-18 - 25th of November – Leavetaking of the Entry into the Temple; St. Catherine of Alexandria (303-313) Gal. 3: 23 - 4. 5 - 28th of November – Martyr Stephen the New, Monk of Mt. St. Auxentius (764) Gal. 3: 8 – 12 - 4th December - Great Martyr Barbara and Martyr Juliana at Heliopolis in Syria (c. 306); John of Damascus (c. 749) Gal. 3: 23 - 4. 5 - 5th December – St. Sabas the Sanctified (532) Gal. 5: 22 - 6.2 9th December –The conception of the Most Holy Theotokos by the Righteous Anna Gal. 4: 22 - 27 - 13th December –Sunday of the Forefathers Gal. 5: 22 - 6.2

- 25th December – The Nativity of Christ Gal. 4: 4-7

4ὅτε δὲ ἦλθεν τὸ πλήρωμα τοῦ χρόνου, ἐξαπέστειλεν ὁ θεὸς τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ, γενόμενον ἐκ γυναικός, γενόμενον ὑπὸ νόμον, 5ἵνα τοὺς ὑπὸ νόμον ἐξαγοράσῃ, ἵνα τὴν υἱοθεσίαν ἀπολάβωμεν. Ὅτι δέ ἐστε υἱοί, ἐξαπέστειλεν ὁ θεὸς τὸ πνεῦμα τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ εἰς τὰς καρδίας ἡμῶν κρᾶζον· αββα ὁ πατήρ. ὥστε οὐκέτι εἶ δοῦλος ἀλλ’ υἱός· εἰ δὲ υἱός, καὶ κληρονόμος διὰ θεοῦ.

But when the fullness of the time was come, God sent forth his Son, made of a woman, made under the law, To redeem them that were under the law, that we might receive the adoption of sons. 120 Elena Ene D-Vasilescu

And because ye are sons, God hath sent forth the Spirit of his Son into your hearts, crying, Abba, Father. Wherefore thou art no more a servant, but a son; and if a son, then an heir of God through Christ.

In the fullness of time, God sent his Son as a subject to human laws, and to the Law of Israel to liberate others from it and to make them his sons. This paradox which encapsulates the essence of Christianity, expresses the fact that after becoming God’s children the law does not have the power over them. There are no longer slaves, but heirs of the heavenly kingdom.

- 27th December – St. Joseph the Betrothed Gal. 1:11-19

Paul’s letter to the Galatians constitutes the object of interest for referen- tial theologians as Thomas Aquinas23 and Martin Luther,24 who liked it; both Doctors of the Church wrote commentaries on this Pauline epistle. Some con- temporary Protestant theologians use Gal. 3:28 to serve very concrete purposes. One such example is Steven Clark, who employs it in the service of a discussion about the gender in the Church. He comments: “Nowadays many assume that Gal. 3:28 is the place in which we find the heart of the scriptural teaching about the roles of men and women”, and that “here are no role differences between men and women.”25 I am not sure that Paul really says this, but from empirical observations it seems that necessity determines the roles of people in the Church as well as in other places. Probably the first Fathers of the Church would have agreed with this remark; certainly Jesus granted an important role to women around his person and in his presence.

23 Aquinas, The Collected Works. 24 Luther, Commentary on St. Paul’s Epistle to Galatians. 25 Clark, Man and Woman in Christ, ch. 6, para. 3. The ‘Gospel of freedom’ or a Letter of warning? The use of Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians in the Byzantine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom 121

6. A Letter of Warnings. Saint Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians

A title that might be appropriate for the Apostle’s Epistle to the Galatians is ‘The Letter of warnings’. I state that because, as we have noticed, John Chrys- ostom, in his commentary on this missive, draws our attention to the warnings Paul issued,26 thus: a. Even the apostles are correctible – Peter’s attitude in Antioch needed amendment and Paul had to act as his ‘rectifier’ b. One should not differentiate between grace and works in the process of redemption c. In terms of salvation there should not be any distinction among people: nationality, sex, and wealth are not important. St. Paul repeats this in Colos- sians: “Here there is no Gentile or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all.” In elaborating on the three ‘warnings’ we should perhaps remind the reader that when each of the two apostles, Paul and Peter, received the mission to evange- lize, Paul was given in care the Gentiles and Peter the Jews. 1. However, faced with pressure from the Judaisers on the keeping on the Law, especially that on eating with the Gentiles, Peter wavered and separated himself from them when eating (he did so even from Titus, who had worked with Paul for a long time). Therefore, Paul had to confront Peter on this matter: ‘But when Peter was come to Antioch, I withstood him to the face, because he was to be blamed’ (Gal. 2. 11). It was not because the two evangelisers taught a different Gospel, but because Peter did not always have the courage to openly act upon his convictions. Saint John Chrysos- tom thinks that a reason for Peter’s behaviour was not only the fact that he did not have a strong enough character to keep consistent, but also the fact that he was a timid person.27 [Jerome thinks that Paul was speaking about someone else in 5. 10 or 3. 5.10.28]. In St. John Chrysostom’s “Monitum ad Homiliam in illud”29 [A homily which contains warnings within it], within Patrologia Graeca 51. 371- 388, an extensive explanation is given with respect to the situation of both Paul and Pe-

26 John Chrysostom, IOEP; and Commentary of S. John Chrysostom, Galatians, ed. J. H. Parker. 27 John Chrysostom, Commentary on the Epistle of S. Paul the Apostle to the Galatians. 28 Jerome, “Commentary on the Letter to the Galatians”, PL 26, 403 C-D. 29 The version of St. John Chrysostom’s homily about Gal. 2: 11, “Monitum ad Homiliam in illud” in PG 51. 371- 388 was collated from Mss. Regio 2343 (which was identified with Parisianus gr. 759; eleventh century) and Colbertinus 970 (identified with Parisianus gr. 768; eleventh century) and 1030 (thirteenth century), see PG 51. 370, note a. For the dates of these manuscripts see Zincone, “Le omelia di Giovanni Chrisostomo”, 396 122 Elena Ene D-Vasilescu ter. In the PG 51, additionally to this homily constructed around Gal. 2. 11 (‘But when Peter was come to Antioch, I withstood him to the face, because he was to be blamed’), there is another one by John Chrysostom that contains the Liturgist’s references to the Galatians. This is entitled “Non oportere quxmquam de seipso desperare, aut preces contra inimicos fundere aut animo deficere, quamvis petens non accipiat; et ad maritos de pace erga uxores conservanda/[Homily] about the fact that people must not be inclined to despair about themselves and about their minds, nor if the prayers against the enemies of their estate fail so that the claimant has not received satisfaction; husbands and wives to keep peace.30 This homily con- tains references to Gal. 4. 31, Gal. 4. 28, Gal 4. 26, and Gal. 2. 24-26. Going back to the warnings contained in the Epistle to the Galatians, a more extensive note can made about the fact that it is inappropriate to antagonistically posit grace and good works in the process of redemption. This is an important as- pect to be emphasized since in the twentieth century and still today scholars make this distinction – the expressions ‘justificationby faith’ and ‘justification by deeds’ are common in contemporary scholarship, for instance, in the book by Stephen Wester- holm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The“ Lutheran” Paul and His Critics.31 John Chrysostom comments throughout the Galatians on Paul’s disbelief towards the common Jewish view that the following of traditional Israelite customs makes a per- son better off before God. It was pointed out by James D. Dunn that that Abraham was righteous before the Torah was given.32 I think that Paul understands the relation between fide (faith) and erga (“deeds” or “actions”) as mutually informing; in Gala- tians he questions circumcision, ‘reading’ in the moon, the offering of sacrifices, the observance of special days-feasts, and of dietary laws, but not good works in general. An additional comment about the fact that Paul and the first Christians did not really believe that it should be a difference between nations, men and women, rich and poor in terms of salvation is the fact that the Letter to the Galatians is read on the day of the Commemoration of All Monks and Nuns; this is the Saturday of Cheese fare.33

30 John Chrysostom, “Non oportere quxmquam de seipso desperare, aut preces contra inimicos fundere aut animo deficere, quamvis petens non accipiat; et ad maritos de pace erga uxores conservanda”/[Homily] about the fact that people must not be inclined to despair about themselves and about their minds, nor if the prayers against the enemies of their estate fail so that the claimant has not received satisfaction; husbands and wives to keep peace. 31 Stephen Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics; Grand Rap- ids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004. 32 James D. Dunn, in Jesus, Paul and the Law: studies in Mark and Galatians, SPCK, London, 1990, p. 104, (there is a revised edition by Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, 2008). 33 Calendar and Lectionary, The Orthodox Fellowship of Saint John the Baptist, Archdiocese of Thyateiraand Great Britain, London, 2015. The ‘Gospel of freedom’ or a Letter of warning? The use of Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians in the Byzantine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom 123

Paul Jewett called Galatians 3: 28 “Magna Carta of humanity;”34 the ‘neighbouring’ verses also support such an intimation. As we know, the fragment from the letter avers: “26 For ye are all the children of God by faith in Christ Je- sus; 27 For as many of you as have been baptized into Christ have put on Christ; 28 There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus; 29 And if ye be Christ’s, then are ye Abraham’s seed, and heirs according to the promise.” This excerpt promulgates that people should live not in bondage or in the fear, but in a genuine freedom of mind and spirit through the power of God. It indicates that only through grace, God’s will is a person enabled to escape the curse of his sin and of the Law, and to live an authentic life. This is because, as St. Paul explains further in Gal. 4:26, all of us have “the Jerusalem above” as our free mother. Thomas Aquinas empha- sized that “Truly, none of these things makes a difference in Christ, because all of you, i.e., believers, are one in Christ Jesus, because through baptism you have all been made members of Christ and you form one body, even though you are distinct individuals”35 In the earlier patristic tradition, both Gregory of Nyssa and Maximus the Confessor in- terpreted St. Paul’s ideas in this passage. Nyssen affirms that “there is no discrimination among people according to God’s nature,”36 and St. Maximus the Confessor that “there is not division among human beings […] whose nature is universal”.37 At the first sight, it seems that there is a contradiction between the Bible and those Church Fathers, since St Paul in 1 Corinthians 11:3 says that “the head of every man is Christ, the head of woman is man, and the head of Christ is God.” But latter, in the same epistle, 1 Corinthians 11:11 he says that “However, in the Lord, though woman is nothing without man, man is nothing without woman.” And further on, in 12 “though woman came from man, so does every man come from a woman, and everything comes from God.” In 1 Timothy 2,38

34 Paul King Jewett, Man as Male and Female: A Study in Sexual Relationships from a Theological Point of View, Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1975, p. 142. 35 Aquinas, Super Epistolam B. Pauli ad Galatas lectura, ch. 3. 9. 36 St Gregory of Nyssa, On the Formation of Man 16, PG 44, 184D-185 A. 37 St Maximus the Confessor, Ambiguorum Liber/Ambigua, PG 91, 1304D f; see also Ambiguorum ad Io- hannem/Ambigua in John, Edward Jeauneau (ed.), CCSG 18, 715-720, Leuven University Press, 1988. 38 “8I will therefore that men pray everywhere, lifting up holy hands, without wrath and doubting./9In like manner also, that women adorn themselves in modest apparel, with shamefacedness and sobriety; not with broided hair, or gold, or pearls, or costly array;/10But (which becometh women professing godliness) with good works./11Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection./12But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence./13For Adam was first formed, then Eve./14And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the transgression.15 Notwithstanding she shall be saved in childbearing, if they continue in faith and charity and holiness with sobriety.” 124 Elena Ene D-Vasilescu

Paul says that the women ‘ought to be quiet’ in the ‘assembly’ explaining that it is so because of Eve’s implication in the downfall of the humankind, and that they can be saved by child-bearing. But he also says that men should attend in prayer by “lifting up holy hands, without wrath and doubting”; that means that they also should be in peace and silence; they should be as respectful as the women are. The times advanced and today the women are also teaching, but they still do it with decency and responsibility; the fact that they have their own children adds a plus of empathy to the process and augments their professionalism. In any case, when he speaks about men in the Church, he refers to the genuinely believ- ing men, the true representatives of Christ. The Pauline letter sent to the citizens of Galatia is also about Resurrection, as especially Gal. 3: 1-14 testifies. And this fact supports the conclusion to our reflections on St. Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians: that it has rightly been consid- ered a missive of freedom. The ‘Gospel of freedom’ or a Letter of warning? The use of Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians in the Byzantine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom 125

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