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MAP Technical Reports Series No. 106 UNEP MEDITERRANEAN ACTION PLAN MED POL UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS ASSESSMENT OF THE STATE OF EUTROPHICATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA EVALUATION DE L'ETAT DE L'EUTROPHISATION EN MER MEDITERRANEE by/par R.A. Vollenweider, A. Rinaldi, R. Viviani and E. Todini MAP Technical Reports Series No. 106 In cooperation with: En coopération avec: WHO/OMS UNEP Athens, 1996 Note: The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP, FAO or WHO concerning the legal status of any State, Territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of their frontiers or boundaries. This document was prepared by Professor R.A. Vollenweider, National Water Research Institute Burlington, Canada; Dr. A. Rinaldi, Laboratory "M.N. Daphne", Region of Emilia-Romagna, Italy; Professor R. Viviani of the University of Bologna; and Professor E. Todini of the University of Bologna. The overall technical responsibility was entrusted to FAO (Responsible Officer: G.P. Gabrielides). Note: Les appelations employées dans ce document et la présentation des données qui y figurent n'impliquent de la part du PNUE, de la FAO ou de l'OMS, aucune prise de position quant au statut juridique des Etats, territoires, villes ou zones, ou de leurs autorités, ni quant au tracé de leurs frontières ou limites. Le présent document a été préparé par M. le Professeur R.A. Vollenweider, National Water Research Institute Burlington (Canada), M. A. Rinaldi, Laboratoire "M.N. Daphne", Région Emilie- Romagne (Italie), M. le Professeur R. Viviani, Université de Bologne et M. le Professeur E. Todini, Université de Bologne. La FAO a été chargée de la responsabilité technique de l'ouvrage (Responsable pour la FAO: G.P. Gabrielides). © 1996 United Nations Environment Programme P.O. Box 18019, Athens, Greece ISBN 92-807-1598-2 This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from UNEP. For bibliographic purposes this volume may be cited as: UNEP/FAO/WHO: Assessment of the state of eutrophication in the Mediterranean sea. MAP Technical Reports Series No. 106. UNEP, Athens, 1996. Pour des fins bibliographiques, citer le présent volume comme suit: PNUE/FAO/OMS: Evaluation de l'état de l'eutrophisation en mer Méditerranée. MAP Technical Reports Series No. 106. UNEP, Athens, 1996. - i - This volume is the one-hundred and sixth issue of the Mediterranean Action Plan Technical Reports Series. This series contains selected reports resulting from the various activities performed within the framework of the components of the Mediterranean Action Plan: Pollution Monitoring and Research Programme (MED POL), Blue Plan, Priority Actions Programme, Specially Protected Areas and Regional Marine Pollution Emergency Response Centre for the Mediterranean. Ce volume constitue le cent-sixième numéro de la série des Rapports techniques du Plan d'action pour la Méditerranée. Cette série comprend certains rapports élaborés au cours de diverses activités menées dans le cadre des composantes du Plan d'action pour la Méditerranée: Programme de surveillance continue et de recherche en matière de pollution (MED POL), Plan Bleu, Programme d'actions prioritaires, Aires spécialement protégées et Centre régional méditerranéen pour l'intervention d'urgence contre la pollution marine accidentelle. ASSESSMENT OF THE STATE OF EUTROPHICATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA by R.A. Vollenweider, A. Rinaldi, R. Viviani and E. Todini TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. 1. INTRODUCTION 1 A. ASSESSMENT 3 2. DEFINITION AND DELINEATION OF THE PROBLEM 3 2.1 Introduction 3 2.2 Definition of eutrophication 3 2.3 Anthropogenic versus natural eutrophication 4 2.4 Delineation of the problem of eutrophication versus other forms of pollution 4 2.5 Potential impact of eutrophication on human and ecosystem health 5 2.6 Beneficial aspects of eutrophication 5 2.7 Adriatic eutrophication in context of marine eutrophication worldwide 6 3. CAUSES AND MECHANISMS OF EUTROPHICATION 6 3.1 Structure and compartments of aquatic ecosystems 6 3.1.1 Primary producers 6 3.1.2 Secondary producers 8 3.1.3 Mineralizers 9 3.1.4 The nutrient pool 9 3.1.5 Concatenation: Food-chain versus food-web 9 3.2 Aquatic ecosystem metabolism 11 3.2.1 Elemental composition of bioseston (primarily phytoplankton, zooplankton, bacteria) 11 3.2.2 Metabolic processes 12 3.2.2.1 Primary production and biomass formation 12 3.2.2.2 Mineralization of bioseston 13 3.2.2.3 Generalization 15 3.2.2.4 Kinetics aspects 17 3.3 Relevance to eutrophication 17 3.3.1 Conceptual and analytical difficulties 18 3.3.2 General conditions for algal growth 18 3.3.3 The limiting factor concept, and the concept of target factors 19 3.3.4 Oceanic versus inshore processes 19 3.3.5 Loading criteria 21 3.3.6 Nutrient limitation in the Mediterranean 21 Page No. 4. NUTRIENT SOURCES, SOURCE TYPES, AND LOAD ASSESSMENT 22 4.1 General 22 4.2 Land use and source identification 22 4.3 Principles of source characterization and assessment 26 4.3.1 Source type 26 4.3.2 Source strength 28 4.3.3 Pathways and flows 30 4.4 Practice of source assessment and source inventory 30 4.5 Load assessment for the Mediterranean as a whole 40 4.6 Concluding remarks 64 5. EXTENT OF EUTROPHICATION AND ALGAL BLOOMS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 65 5.1 General description of the Mediterranean 65 5.2 Review of recorded incidents of eutrophication by regions and countries 67 5.2.1 Spain: Western Mediterranean 67 5.2.2 France: North-western Mediterranean 69 5.2.3 The Coasts of Italy 71 5.2.4 Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro. Eastern Adriatic 81 5.2.5 Mucilage aggregates in the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Seas 85 5.2.6 Greece: Eastern Ionian and Aegean Seas 88 5.2.7 Malta: Central Mediterranean 89 5.2.8 Turkey: North-eastern Mediterranean 89 5.2.9 Lebanon: Eastern Mediterranean 91 5.2.10 Israel: Eastern Mediterranean 91 5.2.11 Egypt: South-eastern Mediterranean 92 5.2.12 Tunisia: Southern Mediterranean 93 5.2.13 Algeria: Southern Mediterranean 94 6. EFFECTS ON MARINE LIFE, RESOURCES AND AMENITIES 94 6.1 Phytoplankton blooms noxious for marine invertebrates and vertebrates 94 6.1.1 Dinophyceae 95 6.1.2 Prymnesiophyceae 97 6.1.3 Raphidophyceae (Chloromonadophyceae) 98 6.1.4 Dictyochophyceae (= Silicoflagellates) 98 6.1.5 General tests on the toxicity of phytoplankton 99 6.1.6 Studies on ichthyotoxic components of phytoplancton in the Mediterranean sea 100 6.2 Damage to communities and the ecosystem by harmful algal blooms 101 6.2.1 Effect of oxygen deficiency on the benthic communities in the Gulf of Trieste 102 Page No. 6.2.2 Effect of the oxygen deficiency on the benthic ecosystem of the North-West Adriatic 103 6.2.3 Immature macrozoobenthic community along the coast of the Emilia- Romagna region 105 6.2.4 Research in the laboratory and in the field on the resistance of bivalves to oxygen deficiency 105 6.3 Direct economic effects 106 6.3.1 Effects on fisheries and coastal fish-farming in regions and subregions of the Mediterranean 106 6.3.2 Effects on tourism in regions and subregions of the Mediterranean Sea 108 7. HUMAN HEALTH ASPECTS 111 7.1 General facts on harmful algal blooms, marine biotoxins in seafood and human biointoxications 111 7.2 The known seafood toxin syndromes in the Mediterranean sea 112 7.2.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) 112 7.2.1.1 PSP-producing or potentially toxic dinoflagellates 112 7.2.1.2 Chemistry of the PSP components 114 7.2.1.3 PSP occurrence in the world 115 7.2.1.4 PSP in the Mediterranean sea 116 7.2.1.5 PSP compromised seafoods 117 7.2.1.6 PSP depuration of live stock of bivalve molluscs and of fish plankton feed 117 7.2.1.7 Methods of analysis for PSP 117 7.2.1.8 Human intoxication: clinical toxicology 118 7.2.1.9 Mechanism of action 118 7.2.1.10 Therapeutical notes 118 7.2.1.11 Tolerance levels and remarks on safety 120 7.2.2 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) 121 7.2.2.1 DSP producing or potentially toxic dinoflagellates 121 7.2.2.2 Chemistry of the components of DSP toxins 121 7.2.2.3 DSP occurrence worldwide 123 7.2.2.4 DSP occurrence in the Mediterranean sea 124 7.2.2.5 DSP compromised seafoods 125 7.2.2.6 DSP detoxification in bivalve molluscs 125 7.2.2.7 Methods of analysis for DSP 126 7.2.2.8 Human intoxication: clinical toxicology 126 7.2.2.9 Mechanism of action 127 7.2.2.10 Therapeutical notes 127 7.2.2.11 Tolerance levels and remarks on safety 127 7.3 Marine algae potentially toxic for seafood and for respiratory and cutaneous symptoms of poisoning in the Mediterranean sea 128 Page No. 7.3.1 Prorocentrum minimum and venerupin Shellfish poisoning 128 7.3.1.1 Organisms producing toxins 128 7.3.1.2 Research on the components of venerupin poisoning 129 7.3.1.3 Prorocentrum minimum and venerupin occurrence worldwide 129 7.3.1.4 Occurrence of Prorocentrum minimum in the Mediterranean sea 130 7.3.1.5 Methods of analysis for venerupin 130 7.3.1.6 Human intoxication 130 7.3.1.7 Therapy 130 7.3.2 Nitzschia spp.
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