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OCCASIONAL PAPERS IN ARCHAEOLOGY 34 Alexandra Sanmark POWER AND CONVERSION - A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CHRISTIANIZATION IN SCANDINAVIA University College London 2002 Ph.D. Thesis Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, 2004 D0ctoral thesis from University College London 2002, revised 2003 ABSTRACT Sanmark, Alexandra 2004. Power and Conversion - a Comparative Study of Chris- tianization in Scandinavia. Occasional Papers in Archaeology 34. Uppsala. 322 pp., 5 maps, 13 figs, 4 diagrams, 1 table. ISSN 1100-6358, ISBN 91-506-1739-7. This book examines the Christianization of Scandinavia with the help of comparative material from Anglo-Saxon England, Old Frisia and Old Saxony. It is shown that Christianity spread from secular rulers and aristocracy downwards in society. In order to achieve widespread acceptance of Christianity, rulers employed specific measures, mainly legislation and material support to clerics. It is clear that in the conversion process, missionaries were necessary, but subordinate to secular rulers. Various kinds of pressure were present in all conversions covered by this study, ranging from mild inducement to brutal force. The conversion of Saxony was particularly violent. While not as harsh, the conversion of Norway belongs in the same part of the spectrum. Forceful conversions included the use of military force, but also the introduction of strict laws and rigorous control systems. Rewards of social, political and material nature were however also significant. Most important among the new laws were those that regulated the daily life of the population according to the Christian calendar, requiring observance of the seasonal fasts, Sundays and feast days. Other early decrees concerned baptism, churchyard burial and marriage regulations. Early Christian legislation, furthermore, provides a different picture of the Scandinavian pre-Christian religious custom than the Icelandic sources, suggesting that this was mainly a ‘nature religion’. The eddaic gods seem to have been either essentially literary creations, or of little significance for the wider population. The popular cultic rituals appear to have focused on other supernatural beings and magical practices. Keywords: Christianisation, legislation, Christian calendar, popular religion Alexandra Sanmark, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för arkeologi och antik historia, Sankt Eriks torg 5, SE-753 10 Uppsala, Sweden © Alexandra Sanmark ISSN 1100-6358 ISBN 91-506-1739-7 Cover design: Svante Norr Series editor: Ola Kyhlberg & Frands Herschend Editor: Svante Norr Published and distributed by the Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, S:t Eriks torg 5, SE-753 10 Uppsala, Sweden Printed in Sweden by Universitetstryckeriet, Ekonomikum, Uppsala 2004 Acknowledgements I am indebted to my first supervisor Wendy Davies at University College London, for providing me with focus and direction, and also continuously spurring me on in my work. Wendy Davies’ abilities as a supervisor are, in my opinion, captured by Orri Vésteinsson’s words: ‘an inspiring teacher and a relentless rectifier of sloppy thought’. I am also deeply grateful to my external supervisor Stefan Brink at the University of Uppsala. His constructive criticism, valuable advice, as well as his positive attitude have been crucial for the completion of this thesis. I would moreover like to thank Peter Heather for reading many draft chapters throughout my time at UCL. He has opened my mind to many issues previously unknown to me. Martin Welch has also contributed with valuable comments, particularly regarding Anglo-Saxon archaeology. There are many others who have helped me at various points of my Ph.D. Bertil Nilsson has provided many references concerning diverse aspects of church history. Olof Sundqvist has offered a great deal of good advice and encouragement, particularly regarding comparative history. Raymond Firth has provided me with information about the conversion of Tikopia. The complex regulations regarding the Christian fast and feast days have been made more explicable by the efforts of Stephan Borgehammar. The laws regarding Christian marriage have been explained to me by David d’Avray. Neil Price has contributed by commenting on the Sámi material, while Torun Zachrisson has shared her knowledge of place-names with me. Rob Meens has provided many helpful comments, particularly regarding the use of medeival penitentials. Robert Bartlett, John Hines, Judith Jesch and Tore Nyberg have also been helpful, especially by letting me read some of their unpublished or forthcoming work. I have received inspiration from Håkan Möller after some interesting discussions. Also Ann Catherine Bonnier has given me useful suggestions and references. I would moreover like to express my gratitude to John Blair for his assistance at a particularly critical stage of this Ph.D. I am, furthermore, indebted to Peter Foote for his valuable help and comments regarding the use of the Norwegian laws as historical sources. A number of people have given me essential advice regarding various aspects of archaeology. Andrew Reynolds helped me during the initial stages of my work. Anne-Sofie Gräslund has given me guidance concerning Scandinavian burial practices and the rune stone material. My understanding of the Swedish rune stones has also greatly benefited from discussions with Linn Lager and 5 Frands Herschend. Sten Tesch has been particularly helpful regarding the archaeology of Sigtuna. Rikard Hedvall and Mark Redknap, who gave me the opportunity to participate in their excavations, boosted my interest in archaeology. Advice from Mathias Bäck, Jan-Henrik Fallgren, Kristina Jonsson, and Jonas Ros has further increased my knowledge of Scandinavian Viking Age and early medieval archaeology. I am also grateful to Michael Müller-Wille, who invited me the Institut für Ur- und Frühgeschichte at the University of Kiel, and gave me access to their excellent library. Brenda Bolton, my teacher during my first degree at Queen Mary and Westfield College, has also played a key role for the existence of this thesis. Through her inspiring lectures, seminars, and excursions my interest to pursue a career in history was awakened. My fellow Ph.D. students at various universities have given me support, friendship, and useful advice; Torsten Blomqvist, Sally Dixon-Smith, Jenifer Dye, Eccy de Jonge, Ralph Kingston, Annika Larsson, Patrik Lundh, Sonja Marzinzik, Gill Murphy, Katarina Romare, Sarah Semple, Victoria Thompson, and Sam Turner need to be specifically named. I would also like to thank everyone at the Department of Archaeology and Ancient History at the University of Uppsala for allowing me to use their facilities during the last months of my Ph.D. Your open and friendly attitude has made me feel welcome, and it has therefore turned out to be a very productive time. The efforts of the librarians Britt-Marie Eklund and Lena Hallbäck need to be especially mentioned. I would also like to express my gratitude to Annagreta Wallgren at Uppsala Public Library for her kind help with inter-library loans. The friendly staff at Humanities 2 in the British Library, who made my visits to the library more enjoyable, also deserves to be mentioned. I am appreciative to Helge Ax:son Johnsons Stiftelse, whose generous grants enabled me carry out this Ph.D. The publication of this book was made possible by a grant from Berit Wallenbergs stiftelse. For this I would like to express my gratitude. There are many persons outside the academic world, without whom, this thesis would not have come into being. I would therefore like to express my gratitude to: Eleanor and Brendan Murphy, for letting me stay at their house during particularly stressful times; Barbara, for listening to me; all my friends, for keeping my spirits up; my parents and my grandmother, for all their support and encouragement; and finally Fredrik, for reading drafts and for being there during this time. 6 Table of Contents Acknowledgements .......................................................................................... 5 Table of Contents ............................................................................................. 7 List of Maps ...................................................................................................... 8 List of Figures ................................................................................................... 9 List of Diagrams and Tables........................................................................... 10 Abbreviations ................................................................................................. 10 Chapter 1. Introduction .............................................................. 13 Notes to Chapter 1 .......................................................................................... 27 PART I. CONVERSION – METHODS AND POPULAR RESPONSE .. 31 Chapter 2. The Conversions of Anglo-Saxon England, Frisia, and Saxony ............................................................................ 34 2.1. The Role of Secular Rulers in Conversion. ......................................... 34 2.2. The Spread of Christianity within Society. ........................................ 39 2.3. Missionary Methods. .......................................................................... 43 2.4. The Role of the Papacy. ...................................................................... 53 2.5. Resistance and Opposition to Christianity. ......................................
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