Inspired by Faith a Background Report “Mapping” Social Economic Development Work in the Muslim World BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

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BERKLEY CENTER for RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY 2008 |

Inspired by Faith A Background Report “Mapping” Social Economic Development Work in the Muslim World BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

A project of the Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs and the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University

Supported by the Henry R. Luce Initiative on Religion and International Affairs Luce/SFS Program on Religion and International Affairs

From 2006–08, the Berkley Center and the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service (SFS) col- laborated in the implementation of a generous grant from the Henry Luce Foundation’s Initiative on Religion and International Affairs. The Luce/SFS Program on Religion and International Affairs convenes symposia and seminars that bring together scholars and policy experts around emergent issues. The program is organized around two main themes: the religious sources of foreign policy in the US and around the world, and the nexus between religion and global development. Topics covered in 2007–08 included the HIV/AIDS crisis, faith-inspired organizations in the Muslim world, gender and development, religious freedom and US foreign policy, and the intersection of religion, migration, and foreign policy.

The Berkley Center

The Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs, created within the Office of the President in March 2006, is part of a university-wide effort to build knowledge about religion’s role in world affairs and promote interreligious understanding in the service of peace. The Center explores the intersection of religion with contemporary global challenges. Through research, teaching, and outreach activities, the Berkley Center builds knowledge, promotes dialogue, and supports action in the service of peace. Thomas Banchoff, Associate Professor in the Department of Government and the School of Foreign Service, is the Center’s founding director.

The Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service

Founded in 1919 to educate students and prepare them for leadership roles in international affairs, the School of Foreign Service conducts an undergraduate program for over 1,300 students and graduate programs at the Master’s level for more than 700 students. Under the leadership of Dean Robert L. Gallucci, the School houses more than a dozen regional and functional programs that offer courses, conduct research, host events, and contribute to the intellectual development of the field of international affairs. In 2007, a survey of faculty published in Foreign Policy ranked Georgetown University as #1 in Master’s degree programs in international relations. About this report

This paper was prepared as background for the Symposium on Global Development and Faith- Inspired Organizations in the Muslim World, held December 17, 2007 in Doha, Qatar at Georgetown University’s School of Foreign Service-Qatar campus.

The December 2007 symposium, focused on the role of faith-based organizations in the Muslim world, is part of a broader comparative project on Religion and Global Development within the Luce/ SFS Program on Religion and International Affairs. The program examines both the role of religious groups and ideas in donor and developing countries, and the prospects for greater religious-secular cooperation in the development field. Its components include graduate student research fellowships; a religion and development database; and the creation and dissemination of “religious literacy” materi-

als for development professionals in government, NGOs, and international organizations. Through a 2008 series of meetings with stakeholders and background reports, the Luce/SFS Program on Religion and | Global Development will map the role of faith-based organizations around the world and point to best practices and areas for collaboration. A symposium in April 2007 explored the role of faith-based organizations in the US, and a workshop in June 2008, held in The Hague, Netherlands, examined the European and African contexts.

About the authors

The report was prepared by a team comprising Jehan Balba, Meredith Connelly, and Carrie Parrott Monahan, working under the supervision of Katherine Marshall, Senior Fellow, Berkley Center and Visiting Associate Professor of Government, Georgetown University. Adrienne Clermont, of the World Faiths Development Dialogue, provided significant input. Support from Melody Fox Ahmed, Program and Business Manager at the Berkley Center, is gratefully acknowledged. BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Comments are welcome to [email protected].

1 Table of Contents

Introduction: The Task ...... 5 Defining theMuslim World? Poverty and Change in the Muslim World Efforts to Fight Poverty in the Muslim World

Framework: Understanding Organizations...... 13 Charity, Development, and Endowments Legal Aspects Typologies of Organizations

Sector Focus...... 21 Children and Youth GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | Education Health HIV/AIDS Microfinance Women’s Programs

Country Stories...... 31 Morocco: Islamic Inspiration and Civic Associations Interact

BERKLEY CENTER Egypt: Ancient Traditions meet Modern Civil Society Jordan: The Delicate Balance India: Large and Special Case Malaysia: Economic Success, Careful Social Balance Turkey: Interplay of Secular State and Religious Traditions Uzbekistan: Control set against Central Asia’s Changing Realities

Partnerships and Relationships: the Broader Development Community...... 45 Islamic Organizations and the United Nations System

Emerging Issues...... 47 Boundaries of Social and Political Financial Flows Gathering Knowledge

2 Appendix 1: The Muslim Brotherhood and Hezbollah: Background...... 51

Appendix 2: Acronyms Used...... 53

Appendix 3: Works Cited...... 54

Index of Tables and Text Boxes

Table 1: The Largest 15 Muslim Countries by Population...... 8

Table 2: Islamic Populations by Region...... 8 2008 |

Table 3: Selected Muslim Countries with Large Muslim Majority Populations...... 9

Table 4: 2007–8 Human Development Indicators of Selected Muslim-Majority Nations High Human Development (70 Countries in group)...... 9

Table 5: OIC Membership and Development Indicators ...... 10

Table 6: AIDS Prevalence in Countries with the Largest Muslim Populations...... 27

Table 7: Muslim Majority Countries with Rising HIV/AIDS Prevalence...... 27

Box 1: The Islamic Development Bank...... 11 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

Box 2: The Aga Khan Development Network...... 12

Inspired by Faith A Background Report “Mapping” Social Economic Development Work in the Muslim World

Introduction: The Task takes many different forms. Because of the wide diversity of countries and their complex legal and cultural settings, remarkable and dynamic array of institutions the report does not limit its investigation to organizations works today to combat poverty and advance explicitly tied to Muslim religious communities but takes Asocial justice. Many are public in character, linked a broader approach to the faith link than was the case in to governments and global public institutions: they operate the earlier report on the United States. Likewise, the pri- at every level, from local to international. On many fronts mary project focus is on non-state institutions. However, this large and growing number of private organizations in some parts of the Muslim world, state and private are is mounting in significance. Among these organizations, not neatly separated, so our mapping includes some pub- which include business, private voluntary (or nongovern- lic dimensions (such as the management of waqf funds mental) organizations, foundations, community organiza- or semi-governmental organizations). The central foci tions, and the like, many, in varying ways, are supported are issues of poverty, welfare, human development, and 2008 or inspired by faith and religious convictions. The term equity, more than any specific category of organization. | “faith-based organizations” (FBOs) has emerged as a widely From there, the paper extends to an effort to “map” the used label referring to this category of institutions among terrain of organizations and issues, with specific reference the civil society, not-for-profit organizations that have seen to their links to faith and Muslim identity. explosive growth over the past two decades. Given their importance for development work and important gaps in This rather complex descriptive task calls for some knowledge about them, they are the focus of a multi-year efforts at definition. The term “faith,” broadly, and investigation led by the Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, Islamic or Muslim more specifically, refers both to the and World Affairs at Georgetown University. source of inspiration for development work and to organizational origins and links between efforts. For As part of the broader project, this report focuses on organizations with an explicit faith link or objective the wide range of institutions and humanitarian aid (Islamic Relief, Catholic Relief Services, or Habitat for that work for development of the Muslim world. The Humanity, for example), the term faith-based organiza-

document is thus part of the overall investigation whose tion, or FBO, fits comfortably, and it is reasonable to BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS common thread is faith inspiration for development. assume that the relevant organization’s work will be explicitly linked in some fashion to religion. In other The approach for the Muslim world component differs cases, the relationship to faith is more tenuous. The somewhat from other research segments. Overall, its aim organizations we explore range from those that simply fits the overarching project: to “map” organizations and operate in majority Muslim communities to those with issues across the remarkably diverse set of countries and an open and central religious affiliation. communities that loosely form the Muslim world, in order to understand and better appreciate their impact The “Muslim world” also defies ready definition. The on development and special issues that face this group paper focuses on those parts of the developing world of organizations. What links these very diverse organiza- that have large or majority Muslim populations. This tions is their faith identity—Islam. However, this identity includes major portions of Africa, South, Central, and

5 East Asia as well as the Middle East. Its treatment of bibliography (available at the Berkley Center website large Muslim populations outside the Organization of page containing this report). This provides the basis for the Islamic Conference (OIC), however, is limited. an institutional “mapping” which also highlights major exemplary institutions and partnerships. The report focuses particular attention on the emerging and evolving role of several global Muslim-inspired Given the wide diversity of sectoral and country institutions, widely different in themselves, notably situations, the report outlines a set of “portraits” of key Islamic Relief, the Aga Khan Network, and the Islamic sectors and of a limited group of illustrative countries. Development Bank. It also explores research, action, The purpose is to show how in each instance the socio- and policy debate that addresses links between develop- economic, political, and historical contexts shape rela- ment and religious identity. tionships between religion and civil society, producing very different patterns of faith-inspired organizations in For the purposes of this report, the term development terms of character and activity. refers to work centered on longer-term social and economic change, which aims to fight poverty and promote Finally, the paper sketches policy issues under discussion. social justice. Use of the term assumes a focus on poorer countries of the world, though the issues involved do The report is largely a “desk study” drawing on a wide arise everywhere. Relief refers largely to short-term emer- range of academic and policy sources as well as infor- gency aid following natural and human-made disasters mation available from the organizations themselves. as well as to charitable, humanitarian support to the Its objective is not to survey either the data about or poorest people. Most organizations we reviewed engage detailed work of faith-based organizations. This calls for at least in some fashion at various points on the spectrum further investigation, as do the financial aspects of faith- of development and emergency assistance, sometimes inspired development work (both by itself and in terms GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | simultaneously in the same region. In practice, many of trends within overall development assistance). We faith-inspired organizations began their work in response note that work on these topics is underway elsewhere, to crises and disasters and have progressively expanded for example at the Gerhart Center at the American their activities to incorporate work with a longer-term University in Cairo, Duke University, the University horizon. However, the lines separating relief and develop- of Birmingham, and, with both the World Economic ment work are not always clear-cut. Forum and Georgetown University, through the report in January 2008 on West-Islam dialogue. The Berkley Center project’s objective is to increase knowledge about institutional arrangements and trends In contrast, this report is an effort to take stock and BERKLEY CENTER in Muslim-majority developing countries. It seeks delineate policy issues and agendas. The analysis has been to explore relationships among public, private, and enriched through dialogue processes, interviews with religiously inspired actors; financing issues, includ- practitioners, and conference discussions. The background ing the new landscape post-September 11, 2001; and research and consultations with a range of practitioners in approaches to leading issues such as children, education, the field provided the backdrop for a consultation at the health, and gender. The report thus focuses on how Georgetown campus in Doha on December 17, 2007. The emerging institutions in the Muslim world, especially development of a database including both organizational those with explicit faith links, are approaching issues of and literature reviews is an integral and continuing part of social and economic development. the Berkley Center’s work.

The report reviews the religious and legal backdrop What is the Muslim World?1 for social welfare organizations, primarily based on The term “Muslim world” (or Islamic world) is quite analysis of the academic and policy literature that widely used but often is not precisely defined. There focuses explicitly on this group of organizations and are good reasons for the ambiguity: Muslim refers to their development work. This “state of the art” discus- religious identity while most organizations focus on sion is summarized in the paper and in an annotated geographic or sectoral dimensions. However, given

6 the importance of Muslim societies in contemporary Finally, in looking at statistical portraits, the situation world affairs and the strong common threads that run of countries which have large Muslim majorities is through them, the lens of Islam is a significant one. The relatively straightforward; for countries with plural drawbacks are the enormous diversity of the societies populations (India, Nigeria, or Sudan, for example), the involved, difficulties in defining what is part of the task is more complex. The relative welfare of Muslim “Muslim world,” since often this world does not match populations within those societies is well understood in nation-states, and its sheer size and complexity. The defi- some, but by no means all, situations. nitions used thus tend to be tentative in various respects and one finds, for example, a blending of discussion of Tables 1 to 3 (pages 8–9) illustrate the largest Muslim Arab and Muslim world in the same documents. populations by country and by region (according to several sources), as well as the percentage of Muslims in The Muslim world is broadly defined for purposes of some Muslim majority countries: this report simply as a geographic and demographic portrait of the world’s Muslim citizens: where they live and Poverty and Change some overall characteristics. It encompasses several key in the “Muslim World” institutions which specifically seek to represent Muslim The more significant task for exploring development communities, most prominently the Organization of challenges is to map poverty and social issues across the the Islamic Conference (OIC). Muslim world, and to situate that portrait within the broader global context of poverty and social challenges, Contemporary statistics on Muslims (whether self- including the Millennium Development Goals. identified or some other definition) vary greatly, but the number is said to range from 1 billion to 1.8 Questions about how poverty presents itself within the billion.2 Contrary to common Western assumptions Muslim world, how Muslim communities compare 2008 that Muslim populations are concentrated in the Arab with other world religious communities, how Muslim | countries of the Middle East, adherents of Islam are in majority countries fare in relative terms, and above all fact scattered worldwide, with especially large popula- why these trends occur, are complex and potentially tions in Asia and Africa. Some countries are recorded controversial. They nonetheless deserve to be asked officially as having populations which are 99 percent or in a far more probing manner than has hitherto been more Muslim; however, the countries with the largest the case. There has been strikingly little focus among populations of Muslims are sometimes not those with global development institutions on the nature of wel- the largest percentage of Muslims (for example, India). fare patterns within one of the world’s largest definable communities. Research and reflection are sparse. The A caveat on data is important. Demographic and following observations highlight preliminary insights socio-economic statistics have uncertainties such as gleaned from available indicators of welfare and human dissonance of time period and differing definitions but development among Muslim populations. the basic parameters and sources of data are generally

well known and statistical problems well aired and The most salient conclusion is the remarkable diversity BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS understood. This does not apply for religious affiliation. of situations—ranging from educated, healthy, wealthy, Apart from the generic difficulty in ascribing beliefs and secure communities in parts of the Muslim world or in counting people in terms of religion (what does to some of the world’s poorest people. affiliation imply in terms of belief and practice? What does “belonging” entail in differing circumstances?) the Also striking is the importance attached to charity and sources of information that are available may relate to humanitarian programs within the Muslim world and very different time periods and may be quite sharply the increasing focus there on poverty and social welfare. contested. Our approach has been to look to a variety of sources in search of some common ground. However, A third issue is less well known: the significance of important questions remain even in the most basic Muslim communities within the global picture of pov- aggregates about Muslim populations and their welfare. erty. Preliminary examination of imperfect statistical

7 Table 1 Largest 15 Muslim Countries By Population

Rank Country Total Population Muslim Population 1 Indonesia 234,693,997 202,071,531 2 Pakistan 164,741,924 159,799,666 3 India 1,129,866,154 151,402,065 4 Bangladesh 150,448,339 124,872,121 5 Egypt 80,335,036 72,301,532 6 Turkey 71,158,647 71,016,329 7 Nigeria 135,031,164 67,515,582 8 Iran 65,397,521 64,089,570 9 Morocco 33,757,175 33,318,331 10 Algeria 33,333,216 32,999,883 11 Afghanistan 31,889,923 31,571,023 12 Saudi Arabia 27,601,038 27,601,038 13 Sudan 39,379,358 27,565,550 14 Iraq 27,499,638 26,674,648 15 Uzbekistan 27,780,059 24,446,451 Primary Source: CIA World Factbook, 2007.3

Table 2 GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | indicators suggests that the share of the world’s poorest Distribution of Muslim Populations people who are Muslim is tragically high. More effort to Worldwide, by Region

understand what lies behind this disproportionate inci- Muslim Region dence of poverty, and to seek better solutions is needed. Population

Asia 927,077,000 As a bald first statistic, the average per capita income of Africa 368,116,300 Muslim majority countries, as of 2002, was just half the Latin America 1,758,000 world average.5 North America 5,334,600 Europe 33,260,800 BERKLEY CENTER Significant insights can be gleaned from data presented Oceania 417,400 in the UNDP Human Development statistics. The basic World 1,335,964,100 message of the composite Human Development Index Source: CIA World Factbook, 2007; is that per capita income gives only a partial indica- Encyclopedia Britannica: 2007 Book of the Year.4 tion of a country’s potential and human assets, and that a composite set of indicators that notably measure educational levels, health indicators, and gender roles the Czech Republic) is the first Muslim majority nation, play important roles in assessing nations’ development followed in rank 33 by Kuwait, 35 by Qatar, 61 Saudi potential and progress. The 2007–8 UNDP Human Arabia, and 63 Malaysia. For reference the United Development Report6 and its widely cited and respected States is number 12, Iceland 1, and Singapore 25 and annual league tables ranking countries from 1 to 177 Mexico 52. See Table 4, (page 9) for details. indicates that the majority of the Muslim world falls into the middle and low categories of human development. Falling in the second grouping (termed Medium Only nine Muslim majority nations fall among the 70 Human Development by UNDP) are a cluster of larger highest ranked countries; Brunei Darussalam ranked Muslim Majority countries including Jordan (ranked number 30 (after Portugal and just above Barbados and 86), Tunisia (91), Iran (94), Algeria (104), Syria (108)

8 Table 3 Countries With Highest Percentage of Reported Muslim Population

Country Total Population % Muslim Saudi Arabia 27,601,038 100 Mauritania 3,270,065 100 Oman 3,204,897 100 Turkey 71,158,647 99.8 Afghanistan 31,889,923 99 Algeria 33,333,216 99 Morocco 33,757,175 98.7 Iran 65,397,521 98 Tunisia 10,276,158 98 Comoros 711,417 98 Pakistan 164,741,924 97 Libya 6,036,914 97 Iraq 27,499,638 97 Djibouti 496,374 94 Source: The CIA World Factbook, 2007. Poverty and Change in the “Muslim World”

Table 4 2007–8 Human Development Indicators of Selected Muslim-Majority Nations 2008

High Human Development (70 Countries in group) |

Human Development Life Expectancy Adult Literacy GDP Per Country Index (HDI) at Birth Rate Capita (Years) (% Age 15 & up) in PPP US $ Rank Brunei Darussalam 30 76.7 92.7 28,160 Kuwait 33 77.3 93.3 26,321 Qatar 35 75.0 89.0 27,664 United Arab Emirates 39 78.3 88.7 25,514 Bahrain 41 75.2 86.5 21,494 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 56 73.4 84.2 10,335 Oman 58 75.0 81.4 15,602 Saudi Arabia 61 72.2 82.9 15,711

Malaysia 63 73.7 88.7 10,822 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS and Egypt (112). And a number of Muslim majority the countries that occupy the bottom five places on that countries are among the 21 bottom ranked countries, list.”7 Additionally, “unemployment rates are double especially in Africa (Mali, Niger–ranked 174). the global average, nearly one-third of the population is illiterate, and women face many disadvantages.”8 One estimate of the “bottom line” of these numbers was presented by Abdullah bin Haji Ahmad Badawi, Causal links between Muslim faith and poverty are not Malaysia’s Prime Minister, in the Financial Times in a topic this review explores directly, though there is May 2007: 31 of the 57 member states of the OIC are speculation around the topic, both explicit and implicit. “classified among the least developed nations, including For example, Arno Tausch, an Austrian political scientist

9 Efforts to Fight Poverty who has done quantitative development research, used in Muslim Countries empirical techniques to investigate how 12 determinants of development influence 14 indicators of development, Muslim social organizations, governments, and develop- and if membership in the OIC correlates with development banks share a keen awareness that the challenges ment indicators positively or negatively. 9 The OIC presented by persistent poverty are urgent. Extensive has 57 member countries and three observers; Tausch efforts to fight poverty and improve welfare across the examined a total of 109 countries. He found that “4 Muslim world have received increasing focus in recent development indicators—2 for the environment, 1 on years. The heightened international focus on poverty, human development, and 1 on democracy—are posi- in conjunction with the Millennium Development tively and significantly determined by membership in Goals, partly explains the attention. Another stimulus the Islamic Conference, once you properly control for to dialogue and analysis is concern about links between the effects of the other influencing variables. However, instability and poverty, including, at one extreme, the gender justice and redistribution among different social underlying assumption that poverty alleviation might groups remain the ‘Achilles heels’ of today’s members help to prevent terrorism. in the Islamic Conference, strengthening the cause of those who advocate—as for example the Arab Human Institutions engaged in fighting poverty range from Development Report—more social inclusion and more global to local, official to private, and humanitarian gender justice in the region.”10 Table 5, below, illustrates to development oriented. Four global institutions the relation between Islamic Conference membership with a Muslim world focus and some link to Islamic and development indicators. inspiration illustrate the span of activities: the Islamic Development Bank, Islamic Relief, the Aga Khan Tausch concludes that the empirical record he found, Development Network, and the International Red “speaks a clear language in favor of Islamic democracy Crescent Movement. GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | and against those in the West that attempt to treat Islamic cultural heritage as a general development In October 2007, the Islamic Development Bank burden.”11 He notes that zakat (Islamic alms) is the first established a $10 billion fund to combat poverty in social security system in the world, and that “the major- the Islamic world.14 The bank’s president, Ahmad ity of Islamic countries transformed their ‘growth’ much Mohamed Ali, highlighted that the program’s aim was better to the benefit of ‘life quality’ (average life expec- to target the basic needs of the poor through education, tancy) than most other societies around the globe.”12 job creation, and disease prevention. In addressing “Islamic culture is not a development blockage; on the poverty, the initiative will also address the “root causes contrary. Membership in the Islamic Conference has, of terrorism.”15 IDB reports strong recent economic BERKLEY CENTER ceteris paribus, a very positive effect on political democ- performance in IDB member countries as a group, with racy, on life expectancy, and on our indicators of the an increase in real GDP growth from an average of 2.9 Kyoto-process and the eco-social market economy.”13 percent in 2001 to 5.6 percent in 2005. However, the

table 5 OIC Membership and Development Indicators

Association with Development Indicator OIC Membership Political Rights Positive GDP output per kg energy use (eco-social market economy) Positive CO2 emissions per capita (Kyoto) Positive Life expectancy, 1995-2000 Positive Share of income/consumption richest 20% to poorest 20% (income redistribution) Negative Female economic activity rate as % of male economic activity rate Negative

10 Bank also indicates that approximately 50 percent of program in Malawi, and a small business loan scheme in the population of member countries lives on less than Palestine.17 For more information, see the organization’s $2 a day; thus the biggest threat to Muslim societies website at http://www.islamic-relief.com. today is poverty and illiteracy.16 Box 1 gives a brief portrait of the IDB. The Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN), through several of its eleven organizations, implements The charity Islamic Relief is an entirely private organiza- wide-ranging development programs that focus on eco- tion that is explicitly inspired by Islamic values. It oper- nomic development and poverty alleviation. Notable ates in an increasing number of countries worldwide, for their variety, activities span direct private invest- both Muslim-majority and other. Its origins were in ment, a long-standing focus on education, and poverty humanitarian relief but its focus today is broader, cen- and sustainable agriculture work. See Box 2 for further tering on income-generation projects to address poverty. information on what the network represents and its It stresses giving people the means to lift themselves out principle areas of work. of poverty through improved resources and training in diversified skills. The organization offers loans that are The International Red Cross and Red Crescent acceptable under Islam, and attempts to redress gender Movement is the world’s largest humanitarian network, inequalities in the Muslim world. Recent income gen- with a presence and activities in almost every coun- eration projects supported by Islamic Relief include a try. The Movement incorporates the Geneva-based project to improve widows’ welfare through microcredit International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in Albania, an integrated small farmer empowerment and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red

Box 1 2008 The Islamic Development Bank (http://www.isdb.org) |

The Islamic Development Bank (IDB) is a sui generis Dinars authorized capital and 15 billion Islamic Dinars multilateral development bank established to foster subscribed capital ..IDB’s staff stood at about 950 in economic development and social progress ..It works in early 2007 . accordance with the principles of sharia (Islamic law) .. IDB Group activities range widely, from advice to train- Founded in 1973 at the start of the oil crisis, IDB began operations in 1975; its headquarters are in Jeddah, Saudi ing to direct investment ..A recently established US$10 Arabia, with branch offices in Almaty, Kazakstan, Kuala billion poverty fund has initial financing from Saudi Lumpur, Malaysia, and Rabat, Morocco; a further office Arabia and Kuwait ..IDB extends financing to its mem- is planned in Dakar, Senegal, and IDB has representa- ber countries for infrastructure and agriculture projects, tives in 13 countries ..The IDB “Group” is comprised of such as roads, canals, dams, schools, hospitals, housing, five separate entities: the Islamic Development Bank and rural development, both in the public and private sectors; it is guided by the priorities of the governments

(IDB), the Islamic Research and Training Institute (IRTI), BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS the Islamic Corporation for the Development of the concerned and the impact on their economic and social Private Sector (ICD), the Islamic Corporation for the development ..In conformity with sharia, loans are inter- Insurance of Investment of Export Credit (ICIEC), and est-free and IDB recovers its administrative expenses the International Islamic Trade Finance Corporation by levying a service fee ..During the period 1975-2007, (ITEC) ..IDB is owned by member countries, who must be the IDB financed 5,272 projects for US$45 9. billion, of members of the Organization of the Islamic Conference which IDB’s net approvals represented 99% and ICD (OIC) ..They pay contributions to the Bank’s capital .. the remainder ..IDB cooperates with many organiza- Current membership is 56 countries ..IDB’s authorized tions including the OIC, the World Islamic Economic capital stock and subscribed capital have increased over Forum, UNDP, and other international and bilateral the years but at mid-2007 stood at 30 billion Islamic organizations .

11 Crescent Societies (the International Federation), as quickly disseminated to other Muslim countries around well as National Societies in 178 countries. the world. There are currently 33 national Red Crescent Societies worldwide. The Red Cross was established at the 1864 Geneva Convention and given the protection of neutrality. The movement is based on seven principles: human- However, in 1876-1878 during the Russo-Turkish ity, impartiality, neutrality, independence, voluntary war, Russia accepted the neutrality of the Red Crescent service, unity, and universality. It has many duties Flag that the Ottoman Empire was using so that they but it mainly focuses on monitoring if warring par- did not alienate their Muslim soldiers. In 1878, the ties are complying with the principles of the Geneva International Committee of the Red Cross officially Conventions, medical care for those wounded in recognized the Red Crescent as one of their symbols. In conflict, supervise how prisoners of war are treated and 1929, the Red Crescent was officially recognized by the protecting the civilian population during a conflict. Geneva Convention. Egypt and Turkey were the first to For more information see the organization’s website at officially adopt the Red Crescent as their symbol, and it http://www.redcross.int.

Box 2

The Aga Khan Development Network (http://www.akdn.org) The Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN), founded The Aga Khan Agency for Microfinance (AKAM) has in 1967 by His Highness the Aga Khan, promotes devel- provided $52 million in microfinance loans since 2006 opment around the world ..The AKDN is seen as an in 12 different countries ..Aga Khan Education Services GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| extension of the Aga Khan’s duties as Imam of the Shi’a (AKES) runs around 300 schools around the world Ismaili Muslims, and his responsibility for improving the ranging from preschools to high schools ..The Aga Khan quality of life for his followers ..Focal areas coincide with Fund for Economic Development (AKFED) works with personal interests of the Aga Khan including advancing the private sector in developing countries to build infra- the status of women, decreasing poverty around the structure, media, and financial services ..Aga Khan Health world, and promoting Islamic culture and art ... Services (AKHS) is one of the largest private health care The AKDN includes eight separate and autonomous systems in the developing world with over 325 hospitals, organizations with differing purposes ..All are com- health centers and community health initiatives ..Aga mitted to contributing to development, with a special Khan Planning and Building Services (AKPBS) aims to BERKLEY CENTER focus on education ..The organization does not engage help with village planning, construction, sanitation, and in humanitarian relief but in development, including water supply ..The Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC) working through private sector and business devel- works to rebuild city centers and increase traditional opment approaches ..The AKDN is nondenominational architectural education and traditional music ..The Aga with a well-articulated ethic of responsibility and is Khan University (AKU) and the University of Central widely respected for its rigorous professionalism and Asia (UCA) focus mainly on health sciences and teacher the creativity and reach of its programs .. training ..During 2002, the AKDN expended $230 mil- The Aga Khan Foundation (AKF) works with rural com- lion on non-profit activities while the AKFED controlled munities on basic development, health, and education .. assets of around $1 .5 billion 18.

12 The Framework: Understanding Organizations

Charity, Development, 1. Zakat (Islamic alms) and Endowments 2. Kharaj (land tax) he challenges involved in mapping social organiza- 3. Sadaqat id al-fitr (what every Muslim must pay, exclud- tions with a religious character, both generally and ing the absolutely poor, at the end of Ramadan) Tfor the Muslim world, are highlighted above. This 4. Waqf (charitable endowments) review takes the social motivation of organizations as the 5. Gifts and donations paramount feature. This echoes in some respects a defini- 6. Voluntary services tion advanced by Mohamed Salih, writing about Islamic 7. Obligatory family support NGOs in Africa: “they are voluntary (national, regional, or transformational, as well as community-based) organi- Zakat, the third pillar of Islam, is central to the Islamic zations for which Islam is an important inspiration to do religion: it is obligatory and means “purification.” good and an identity marker that distinguishes them from Jonathan Benthall notes “the meaning is usually taken

19 2008 NGOs with similar orientations and objectives.” to be that, by giving up a portion of one’s wealth, one | purifies that portion which remains, and also oneself, Muslims are required by their religion to “do good:” through a restraint on one’s greed and imperviousness religious values are closely integrated into Islamic vol- to others’ sufferings. The recipient, likewise, is purified untarism and NGO work. Islamic faith traditions can from jealousy and hatred of the well-off.”22 Zakat is dis- be seen as overarching in their definitions of what this tinguishable from charity, which is voluntary, because entails—no separation is recognized between ethics and zakat is a duty and a form of worship. the state or between economics and humanitarianism, because these principles derive their legitimacy from The amount of zakat required to be given by Muslims sharia, or Islamic law.20 From the early history of Islam, is 2.5 percent of the value of all of one’s possessions and therefore, humanitarianism has been—and remains wealth for the year, normally taken from income earned to this day—an important part of the Muslim alms from properties, silver and gold, treasures, and income system, which is extensive and considered by most as earned from land as well as incomes from professionals,

“the cardinal Islamic principle of humanitarianism and distributed to those in need as designated by Qur’an BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS solidarity.”21 This distinguishes Muslim NGOs from (2:177). Zakat allows the giver to be purified of their many of their Western counterparts, which operate in sins: 9:103 of the Qur’an “Take alms of their wealth and environments where boundaries between public and pri- make them pure and clean.”23 vate tend to be more widely accepted and formalized. The state, it is understood in the Islamic tradition, is the Salih’s description of the resource base for voluntary only rightful recipient of zakat, which is put into the activities in Islam is summarized below. It includes Islamic treasury and used to address social problems. resources given in some circumstances to the state, since While in some countries zakat is entirely incorporated there is no separation between religion and the law. This by the state, in others it is left to private individuals or resource base includes the following: organizations.

13 Of the 57 member states in the OIC, 14 countries made from this asset is used to benefit the poor; thus have a governmental mechanism for zakat collection. a waqf continues to give benefits after a donor’s death. In six countries—Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Libya, Sudan, It can be used for educational expenses, community Pakistan, and Malaysia—the collection is regulated projects, or Islamic missionary activities.29 Waqfs by law. In eight countries special government institu- are not necessarily public—they can be passed on to tions collect zakat on a voluntary basis (Egypt, Jordan, descendants of the donor, as well. Waqfs are not specifi- Kuwait, Iran, Bangladesh, Bahrain, Indonesia, and cally mentioned in the Qur’an, but the complex system pre-war Iraq).24 employed to administer and dispense them is Islamic and is described in hadith literature.30 When an Islamic state is absent, Islamic NGOs and other associations often claim the zakat and distribute it as they see appropriate. Salih says of zakat and Islamic Legal Aspects charity, “The totality of Islamic ethics, law, politics and Freedom of association is a universal human right economics come together in a completely modern form guaranteed by international and regional treaties and of caring for disfranchised Muslim communities.”25 conventions on human rights, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.31 This freedom Zakat is considered a form of “financial worship,” includes both the individual right of every person to without which the effect of prayer is negated.26 The interact and associate with others, as well as the col- Qur’an does not specify how the zakat collected should lective right to associate in a more permanent and be distributed among groups. Some believe that zakat institutional way. This institutional interpretation of should only be given to fellow Muslims, while others the freedom of association guarantees individuals the believe that non-Muslims can also receive its benefits. right to establish and participate in organizations that The organization Islamic Relief gives zakat to both fall outside of the purview of either the government or GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | Muslims and non-Muslims, while Muslim Aid restricts the marketplace.32 Although freedom of association is its funds to Muslims.27 Those in need, to whom zakat often used to refer to the right of workers to organize are given, are divided into eight categories: the poor into trade unions, it is actually the foundation for the (fuqra), the indigent (masakin), the public agents who establishment and operation of a number of different collect zakat (amilin), new converts to Islam (mullafatul types of organizations. These organizations, collectively qulub), slaves (riqab), debtors (gharimin), those acting referred to as civil society, include private, non-profit, in the way of God (fi-sabilillah), and wayfarers (ibn- self-governing voluntary organizations such as chari- as-sabil), collectively called the asnaf.28 There is debate table foundations, civic associations, volunteer groups, as to whether the poor should be guaranteed support and non-governmental groups, many of which are BERKLEY CENTER through zakat annually or for a lifetime. involved in development work.

Zakat alone cannot meet all social welfare needs in the Globally, many countries have incorporated the freedom community; beyond this, Muslims are expected to give to associate freely into their national constitutions. spontaneously to the poor and needy. These donations Others have chosen to use legislation and other govern- are called sadaqah and are not necessarily fiscal dona- ment statutes to develop a framework to regulate the tions but can take any form of voluntary service. While operation of civil society. While the right to associate zakat is the obligation of the wealthy, any member of is broadly (although not universally) recognized, the society can and should perform sadaqah. This donation parameters of this freedom are not clearly defined in can be made to the government, an individual in need, international human rights law, leaving significant room or to a non-governmental organization. for variations between different countries’ legislation governing, and in many cases restricting, the formation It is also not uncommon for Muslims to donate in the and operation of non-profit organizations. In the Muslim form of a waqf (charitable endowment), an Islamic act world, which includes the Arab states of the Middle East of giving that is voluntary, unlike zakat. A waqf is land as well as countries with majority Muslim populations or a fiscal asset that will remain intact while the revenue and/or Muslim regimes in Asia and North and sub-

14 Saharan Africa, there is substantial variation in the legal NGO laws generally specify the requirements for estab- frameworks and extent of government control over civil lishing an organization with legal status, the respon- society organizations involved in development work. sibilities of the organization’s leadership, penalties for failure to adhere to relevant regulations, and the benefits The variety of legislative constructs affecting civil society of non-profit status, such as tax credits. In general, most is mirrored by the varied size and vibrancy of the NGO countries in the Middle East and North Africa require sectors in individual countries throughout the region.33 that all groups obtain licenses to operate.37 This is true Some Muslim countries, such as Egypt, Jordan, Tunisia, of even those informal associations that do not seek and Algeria, have thousands of NGOs operating on a any of the benefits of legal status and do not engage in broad spectrum of development issues. The situation international fundraising or other activities that would in Egypt and Jordan is particularly interesting because, inherently require government monitoring and regula- as will be discussed below, although both have fairly tion. Such strict licensing requirements have often been complex and time-consuming licensing processes, the justified as a prevention mechanism against the misuse two countries have among the most vibrant NGO of NGOs by Islamic fundamentalists and terrorist sectors in the Muslim World. Egypt has an estimated groups.38 Lebanon is the only exception to this trend in 16,000-18,000 NGOs operating in the country; the the region.39 Although the formal Lebanese NGO law, much smaller Kingdom of Jordan has approximately the 1909 Ottoman Law on Associations that predates 1,500-2,000 NGOs.34 Elsewhere, however, for example the country’s constitution, does require government in the Gulf States, the presence of civil society orga- registration, in practice the government takes a hands- nizations is far more limited. The common cultural off approach to civil society and allows the formation context in the Arab states, which share an interest in of both formal, licensed organizations and informal, maintaining certain elements of Islamic sharia law, does unlicensed associations.40 give some continuity to laws and practices governing 2008 civil society operation in the region. However, even in Many Sub-Saharan African constitutions also protect | the Arab world, the level of restrictions imposed varies the freedom of association, but the legal frameworks depending on the specific regimes and often the age of governing NGOs in many of those countries are the laws that regulate the civil society sector. complicated by the complex history of law in formerly colonized states. National legal frameworks in Sub- Many Middle Eastern countries have incorporated the Saharan Africa are generally divided into three types: freedom of association into their national constitutions those primarily influenced by English common law and virtually all have specific NGO laws that in varying (Anglophone countries), those primarily influenced by detail lay out the regulations that apply to NGOs. The French Napoleonic code and Roman law (Francophone only exception in the Arab world is Saudi Arabia, where countries), and those colonized by other European the 1992 Basic Law, the country’s informal constitu- powers that therefore draw on European civil law. tion, makes no mention of either freedom of expression In Muslim-majority countries such as Nigeria and or association. Saudi Arabia has not developed any legal Sudan, Islamic sharia law also has a strong influence

mechanisms for NGOs to establish themselves or oper- on national legal systems. Finally, tribal traditions and BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS ate in the country; those few that do exist have been customary laws influence the legal systems of some established by individual royal decrees and are subject Sub-Saharan countries. As a result of the diversity to considerable government interference.35 of influences, NGO laws in Africa vary greatly. In general, however, non-governmental organizations in In North Africa, Libya is similarly restrictive and does Sub-Saharan African countries are required to become not recognize the right of association in the constitu- registered or incorporated in order to operate with the tion. Law 71 of 1972 grants individuals only the right benefits of legal status.41 to associate through institutions run by the government, effectively making any NGO or otherwise independent The licensing process for civil society organizations var- organization illegal and eliminating the possibility of ies from one country to the next, from fairly simple to civil society development.36 exceedingly cumbersome. The NGO regimes in Algeria,

15 Morocco, Yemen, and Palestine are the least tedious, particularly around the growing microcredit and microfi- with licensing requirements that typically require the nance sectors.45 In India, legislation proposed in 2005 to licensing agency to act on applications within a set replace the Foreign Contributions Act of 1976, the pri- timeframe (30 to 60 days), provide reasons for rejec- mary NGO law, created a stir when NGOs argued that tions, and include opportunities for judicial appeal and the law would allow the government increased power to review. On the other hand, Iraq, Egypt, and Jordan reject registration requests for a number of ill-defined have processes that are burdensome for the applicant reasons, tighten financial requirements, and increase organization and are less transparent. In Egypt, for costs for registration and renewal. As a result, the bill was example, the licensing process requires organizations to temporarily tabled, pending further review.46 provide a large number of documents to the Ministry of Insurance and Social Affairs (MOSA), as well as Older laws governing civil society in the Middle East make a monetary contribution into a government and North Africa tend to be vague and leave much fund for societies and associations.42 Organizations to the discretion of licensing agencies. Many are also are also typically required to get additional permis- restrictive because they reflect old state ideals and need sions from other relevant agencies depending on the to be updated to reflect new, modern conceptions of specific nature of the group’s activities; for example, the value and role of non-government organizations an organization establishing a school requires not only in development. In general, the most liberal laws are approval to operate as an NGO but also approval from those that have been recently enacted, often replacing the Ministry of Education.43 Furthermore, MOSA older, more draconian regulations. For example, the has significant discretionary authority and can reject two Middle Eastern countries generally considered organizations applications for vaguely defined reasons as having the most liberal NGO laws, Yemen and of “national unity” and “public morals.” While organi- Palestine, both passed their current laws after the year zations do have the option of judicial appeal in Egypt, 2000.47 The primary exception to this trend is the case GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | where the judiciary is well respected and generally of Iraq, where the NGO law passed by the Coalition regarded as independent, MOSA has broad authority Provisional Authority after 2004 is particularly restric- to act initially without court orders, and given the over- tionist by regional standards. The licensing process extension of the courts, the system is heavily weighted itself requires a “mass of information” from appli- against applicant organizations. Jordan’s licensing cants, effectively allows the licensing agency to stall process is similarly tedious, and the Ministry for Social application-processing indefinitely, and provides no Development has the authority to deny applications judicial review or appeal process for denied applicants. for any reason it sees fit and to dissolve existing organi- Furthermore, the law, Coalition Provisional Authority zations at any time.44 Order No. 45, includes broad prohibitions on “politi- BERKLEY CENTER cal activity,” and allows the government to suspend India and Bangladesh have particularly closely regulated or revoke registration, and sometimes seize assets and and controlled NGO regimes. Since 2004, Bangladesh property, for any violation of the provision.48 especially has increased efforts to tighten government control over the sector. A proposed amendment to the The fear that foreign governments or agents may use the 1978 Foreign Donations Regulation Act would have NGO sector to gain internal influence is evident in the extended the government’s ability to remove NGO offi- prevalence of strict regulations on foreign affiliation and cials found to have failed to comply with any aspect of funding. Few states in the Muslim world ban foreign the laws governing NGO operations and their finances. funding outright, but the administrative procedures for The law would also have enabled the government to such funding tend to be far more demanding than for cancel the registration of any such organization, dissolve funds received from internal sources. Many states, includ- it, and seize its assets. Although the law has not passed, ing Jordan, Egypt, Yemen, and Bangladesh, require prior its proposal and continued similar efforts signal the direc- ministerial approval for receipt of any foreign funds.49 tion in which Bangladesh may be moving. Pakistan and India have also proposed or enacted legislation increasing Penalties for violations of NGO laws are among the government control over the NGO sector in recent years, most problematic aspects of many regulation regimes

16 in the Muslim world. Many states, including Jordan, nizations are instrumental in responding to complex Yemen, Morocco, Libya, and Egypt, attach criminal humanitarian emergencies in the aftermath of natural penalties to violations rather than purely administrative disasters or conflict. Most of these groups distribute aid ones. Board members and sometimes individual mem- to all in need, regardless of religious orientation. bers can thus face fines and jail time for organizational failures to fulfill the requirements of relevant NGO Islamic Relief Worldwide, which operates from head- regulations.50 Given that many countries in the Muslim quarters in Birmingham, UK, is the largest Muslim world have sweeping regulations against loosely defined organization of this kind and is garnering a strong repu- “political activities,” individual criminal punishments tation for both high quality operation and openness. for NGO law violations are problematic. National As a sign of the increasing recognition among many National development organizations work within only Muslim-majority country governments of the important one country, but work in many communities within and beneficial role NGOs are playing in national human that country. The size, purpose, and influence of these and social development, many modern NGO laws in organizations vary greatly. the Muslim world have built in incentives for NGO operation. Incentives usually come in the form of tax The Philippine Council for Islam and Democracy benefits, such as exemptions. In Egypt and Nigeria, for (PCID), founded in 2002 by young Muslim leaders, example, the NGO laws allow for tax exemption for a helps the Muslim minority in the Philippines find wide range of public interest activities.51 Bangladesh and their voice and to play an active role in the decisions Pakistan have also begun to liberalize tax exemptions for that affect their lives. PCID is a non-partisan, non- non-profit and philanthropic entities.52 governmental organization dedicated to the study of Islamic and democratic political thought and the 2008

search for a peaceful solution to the conflicts affecting | Typologies of Organizations the Muslim communities of Mindanao. It is the belief A tentative typology accommodates the diversity of of the Council that genuine peace and development organizations that identify themselves as in some fash- in Muslim Mindanao can only take place within the ion at least as Muslim or Islamic. These organizations context of meaningful democracy. fall into seven categories: Consistent with this vision, the organization, together 1. Transnational (including those based in Muslim- with its partner institutions, (like the Asian Institute majority and non-Muslim countries) of Management Policy Center, the Konrad Adenauer 2. National Foundation, the United States Institute of Peace, the Asia 3. Local (sub-national) Foundation, the Royal Embassy of the Netherlands, and 4. Women’s groups the Public Diplomacy Office of the U.S. Embassy in the 5. Broader civil society organizations Philippines), has successfully organized a series of forums

6. Donor organizations including philanthropies and dialogues on issues relevant to the search for peace, BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS 7. Umbrella organizations development, and democracy in Muslim Mindanao.

In some cases organizations fall into more than one cate- Local gory. Each category below is illustrated with an example. Local Muslim groups play a large role in development around the world. Often these groups are informal and Transnational are formed to respond to the needs of the local com- Transnational development organizations work beyond munity. Many times these groups are created on the the borders of the country in which the organization is outskirts of mosques and are funded by local communi- headquartered. These organizations often have larger ties. It is difficult to document how many people are operating budgets and many employees that form a members of these groups or the number of people that worldwide network of offices. Many of these orga- benefit from having access to these groups.

17 The Egyptian Food Bank is an illustration of an orga- the standard of teaching for underprivileged members nization created with inspiration from Islamic faith of the population, protection of the environment, traditions that operates in communities within a single caring for orphans and abandoned children, and pro- country. EFB is a nongovernmental nonprofit organiza- moting peace, tolerance, and respect for differences. tion, working throughout Egypt, established under The organization has also focused specifically on the Egyptian law that aims to supply food to orphans, older crucial problem of unemployment of young girls and people, widows, poor families, and those who cannot housewives. work. It is supervised by the Ministry of Social Solidarity, and sponsored by private companies. It relies heavily on Sarkan Zoumountsi has undertaken numerous devel- volunteer support for its operations (http://www.egyp- opment projects, including constructing bridges in tianfoodbank.com/Bank_en.asp?strdoc=About) Yaoundé to increase access to isolated neighborhoods, purchasing buses to transport schoolchildren, and Women’s Groups developing public sanitation programs. A large number of Islamic women’s groups focus on many aspects of life of women under Islam. While In addition to development projects, the organization some strive to change national laws that increase female seeks to create “bridging social capital” through its empowerment within their societies, other groups focus practice and espousal of Islam .54 Sarkan Zoumountsi has on female health issues, especially prenatal health. helped to resolve disputes within its community between traditional and more fundamentalist Muslims.55 Sisters in Islam was formed in 1988 and registered as an NGO in 1993 under the name SIS Forum (Malaysia) Civil Society Berhad. Focused solely on Malaysia, their mission is to These groups are often national organizations that promote equality between men and women and to strive focus on building civil society and increasing political GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | toward creating a society that upholds the Islamic prin- freedoms. ciples of equality, justice, freedom, and dignity within a democratic state. Based in Selangor, Malaysia, Sisters in The Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), founded in 1926 by Islam works in three different main areas: legal service, Hasyim Asy’ari, is the largest Muslim organization education, and advocacy. Their legal services programs in Indonesia, with a membership of an estimated 30 include providing a legal clinic to women wishing to get million people. A charitable organization, it provides divorced and learn more about their finance rights and services to poorer members of society and also supports the rights of their children. They also write regular col- a political party. In 1999, the NU created a political umns answering questions on Islamic family law in the party called the Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa (PKB) BERKLEY CENTER newspaper Utusan Malaysia and the women’s magazine which ranked fourth in receiving popular votes during Wanita Hari Ini. Sisters in Islam conducts awareness the election. Because of its reputation within Indonesia, courses on women’s issues throughout Malaysia with the PKB gave the election legitimacy while working topics such as the Islamic dress code, Women’s rights, through their networks in rural areas to ensure voter and HIV/AIDS.53 education and fair voting. Although it is a conservative Sunni Islamic group, the NU is a strong advocate Formed in 1995, Sarkan Zoumountsi (meaning against radical Islam and believes that Indonesia needs “Chain of Solidarity”) is a local non-profit organization to build a national identity that includes all religious rooted in Islamic principles headquartered in Yaoundé, groups. The NU works around the country, funding Cameroon. The organization was founded in response schools, both religious and secular, and hospitals.56 to poverty and economic crises in Cameroon as well as social problems such as a surge in fatal illnesses, orga- Donor Organizations nized crime, and educational problems. The number of Islamic donor organizations has increased dramatically over the past decades and they are taking When the association was founded, its main objectives very different forms. These organizations aim to promote included fighting poverty, lack of schooling, improving development in predominately Muslim areas by provid-

18 ing grants to other development organizations. Islamic billion (as of November 2001). The majority of this donor organizations, such as the Islamic Development funding is provided in the form of non-repayable grants. Bank, work with international organizations to help increase social and economic development within affili- Umbrella Organizations ated states. These donors often make particular efforts These organizations often encompass many interna- to provide funds in accordance with Islamic law (for tional governments or religious leaders. Often entirely instance, by providing interest-free loans). Muslim, organizations such as the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent have The Abu Dhabi Development Fund (ADFD), a both Christian and Muslim sections. state-managed development bank financed by the Government of Abu Dhabi, was founded in July 1971. The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) It supports social and economic development of coun- is an inter-governmental organization established in tries throughout Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, and 1969 in Rabat, Morocco. Today, the OIC in has 57 works with regional and international efforts to the member states from throughout the Muslim world. same end. The ADFD provides development assistance Member states work together to “safeguard the interest in the form of project loans, grants, equity investments, and ensure the progress and well-being of their peoples guarantees, and technical assistance. Loans are typically and those of other Muslims in the world over.” The offered with low interest rates and lengthy repayment OIC’s charter emphasizes work to strengthen Islamic and grace periods. A typical loan is repayable in eight solidarity and cooperation in the political, economic, to twenty years, carries an interest rate of between three social, cultural, and scientific fields, as well as efforts to and six percent, and has a grace period of three to eight safeguard holy Islamic sites and support the struggle of years. ADFD has provided more than $5.4 billion in aid the Palestinian people. The OIC’s General Secretariat to over 240 projects in 55 countries.* Open to all devel- is in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; it has a permanent observer 2008 oping countries, the majority of its loan commitments mission to the United Nations in New York and a | to date have been to Arab countries.57 Decisions about permanent delegation to the United Nations offices at projects and funding type are made by the ADFD’s Geneva and Vienna. governing board, which is led by several members of Abu Dhabi’s ruling family. In addition to its General Secretariat and a number of programmatic committees and departments that come The majority of the ADFD’s funding supports the under the leadership of the Secretary General, the OIC development of infrastructure, including transporta- has established numerous subsidiary organs and special- tion, water, and electricity. The ADFD also makes ized institutions in order to fulfill its mandate. These direct investments in private sector projects, including include several training centers for social research, art, cul- providing support to countries’ agriculture, health and ture, and technology, as well as the Islamic Educational, educational services, mining, communications, manu- Scientific, and Cultural Organization (ISESCO), the facturing, and tourism sectors. This direct investment, Islamic States Broadcasting Organization, and the

aimed at improving private sector participation in eco- International Islamic Broadcasting Agency. In order to BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS nomic development, amounted to approximately $126 foster the development and social progress of member million in 2001. Significant resources provided by the states and the broader Muslim community, the OIC ADFD’s direct grant program finance projects under- also established two organs specifically to provide eco- taken by the United Nations Arabian Gulf program, nomic support to Muslim states: the Islamic Solidarity which was set up in 1981 by Gulf Cooperation Council Fund and the Islamic Development Bank. countries to coordinate Arab assistance to 15 UN agencies, such as UNESCO and UNICEF.58 The Islamic Solidarity Fund was established in February 1974 at the Second Islamic Summit Conference in In addition to its own grants and loans programs, the Lahore, Pakistan. Its objective is to provide emergency ADFD manages an assistance program on behalf of the material relief to Islamic states and grant assistance to Abu Dhabi government valued at approximately $1.9 Muslim minorities and communities to improve their *UAE government data. 19 religious, social, and cultural standards. The Fund is based in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

Summary Comments Typologies begin to break down these organizations into more specific categories, but the groupings poorly express their remarkable diversity. Organizations vary widely due to location, funding, and ideology. While many groups serve similar purposes, they often reach their goals through very different methods.

For example, transnational organizations take several different forms. Many large transnational organizations work in multiple countries throughout the developing world. Others are based in one country in Europe or North America and focus solely on one country abroad, often drawing their leadership from that country’s diaspora.

Information on many smaller Muslim-inspired development groups, especially women’s groups, is scanty, often because they are informal groups started to address a GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | specific local need. The degree to which these groups use religion to meet their goals varies greatly. How many of these groups exist and what impact they have within their community is largely unknown, though increasing research is focusing on their work.

While a range of diverse evidence suggests that Muslim development organizations have a large impact on the communities in which they work, across all types of BERKLEY CENTER organizations examined the basis of rigorous assessment is particularly weak.

20 Sector Focus

Children and Youth Gender disparity limits opportunities for many girls in ver one quarter of the world’s two billion children the Muslim world, a phenomenon particularly visible in live in OIC member countries; they represent in educational assessment data gaps. Well-documented Omore than 40 percent of the estimated world problems not confined to, but particularly intense in Muslim population.59 These children face formidable chal- Muslim communities, include female genital mutila- lenges, including poverty, disease, and limited employment tion and early, forced marriage. opportunities as adults. Muslim faith-inspired organizations and charities, as well as Muslim-majority country govern- HIV/AIDS affects millions of children worldwide, par- ments, are engaged in a plethora of programs that address ticularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. The estimated number these challenges. However, if the Millennium Development of children (ages 0-17) in the world orphaned by AIDS Goals and other development targets are to be met, the in 2005 was 15.2 million, with currently 2.3 million special needs of children need to be continuously taken children (ages 0-14) in the world living with HIV.62 2008

into account in decision-making and planning. As for Muslim countries, at the end of 2003, approxi- | mately 5.4 percent of the adult population of African Challenges for Children OIC countries was living with HIV.63 in the Muslim World The statistics are troubling. Poverty and its consequences Muslim-Majority Countries are serious problems for children and youth. In OIC and Children countries, an estimated 4.3 million children under the age Muslim-majority countries are making concerted of five die every year from preventable diseases and mal- efforts to improve the lives of children and youth. OIC nutrition, with over 60 percent of them dying before their countries have adopted the Millennium Declaration, first birthday. OIC countries include 11 of the 16 highest the Millennium Development Goals, and the goals rates of under-five mortality in the world, with sub- of “A World Fit for Children,” an agreement that Saharan Africa facing the greatest crisis. Approximately 6 resulted from the United Nations General Assembly’s million children under the age of five suffer from malnu- Special Session on Children in 2002. “A World Fit

trition in the form of stunted growth, and 23 percent of for Children” attempts to address challenges facing BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS the total population has no access to safe drinking water, children in concrete, effective, and sustainable ways with 45 percent lacking adequate sanitation.60 by using creative and practical means of coordinating government and civil society partnerships using public Trafficking and abuse of children are significant prob- and private resources. lems in a number of countries, as are the effects of violent conflicts. Every year, hundreds of millions of National plans of action addressing “A World Fit for children are sold and trafficked, abused or neglected, Children” have been formulated in 12 OIC countries, exploited, or subjected to violence and war. Millions of while 21 countries are in the process of developing children, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, face life- plans. Many governments have prepared national threatening crises as a consequence of armed conflict, poverty-reduction strategies designed to help achieve HIV/AIDS, and poverty.61 the Millennium Development Goals.

21 Many OIC countries have significant ongoing programs Muslim charitable programs that offer sponsorship of that address the special needs of children. For example, orphan programs are very popular. Islamic Relief donors Senegal’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper targets currently sponsor 20,000 orphans in 21 countries. The the elimination of child labor, care and supervision organization’s orphan programs are primarily based of children at risk, establishing child-feeding centers, in countries where the population has suffered from and rehabilitating juvenile offenders. Kyrgyzstan has natural disaster or conflict, which has disrupted many an action plan to reduce child poverty as part of the children’s lives.65 Muslim Aid, a UK-based Islamic char- next phase of its National Poverty Reduction Strategy. ity, recently launched an orphan care program as well. As for regional initiatives, at the 2004 OIC Meeting of Foreign Ministers, a resolution on Child Care and Youth Development Initiatives Protection in the Islamic World was adopted. In 2001, Youth development is also an important focus of many Egypt hosted the Second High-Level Arab Conference OIC governments and of Muslim charities and NGOs on Child’s Rights, which led to a Second Arab Plan of worldwide. Numerous efforts aim to enhance opportu- Action on the Child for 2004-2015.64 nities for Muslim youth worldwide both at regional and grassroots levels The United Nation’s Children’s Fund (UNICEF) highlights numerous recent reform programs initi- TheIslamic Conference Youth Forum for Dialogue and ated by OIC countries that address children’s welfare, Cooperation (the “Forum”) was established in August including family law, birth registration, educational 2003 in Baku, Azerbaijan. Initially comprised of represen- law, and the reduction of honor killings and other tatives from eight OIC countries, its primary goal is to cre- harmful traditional practices. UNICEF, in its report ate a common youth platform for the OIC, with the aim entitled Investing in the Children of the Islamic World, of discussing issues of common interest and advocating for emphasizes the importance of good governance and of Muslim youth while ensuring future cooperation. GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | creating institutional structures that support children as important measures to address the problems facing The Forum is an umbrella youth organization uniting children today. It also stresses that the welfare of chil- leading youth NGOs in OIC member countries as dren is directly related to the status of women; gender well as international youth organizations. Its objectives inequality is a vital issue that needs to be remedied if include facilitation of the resolution of problems facing children are to flourish. youth in the OIC, promoting the exchange of ideas, increasing participation of youth in OIC countries in Orphans societal life, and promoting solidarity among youth Islam and the Qur’an give special emphasis on the NGOs of the region.66 BERKLEY CENTER plight of orphans, and many Islamic charities provide material support and educational opportunities for Local initiatives have also been important in the imple- these children so that they can look to a better future. mentation of youth development activities. In Kenya, the Kenya Muslim Youth Alliance (KMYA) was founded The Qur’an encourages good treatment and a sense of in 2003. Because the Muslim community is one of the responsibility toward orphans. In Islam, a child is an most marginalized groups in Kenya, the organization orphan when he/she has lost his/her father, but not was formed “so as to provide [a] springboard from which necessarily both parents. The Prophet Mohammed was the Muslim youth can take [the] lead in articulating and himself orphaned at the age of six; therefore, orphans advancing development aspirations, priorities and social share an affinity with him and have a unique place in needs and constantly engaging their community, policy Islam. The Qur’an states, “Treat not the orphan with makers and development partners.”67 harshness” (93:9), and “They ask you, [O Muhammad], what they shall spend. Say: that which you spend for good KMYA targets areas such as capacity building, civic [must go] to parents and near kindred and orphans and the education and democracy, peace-building, HIV/AIDS, needy and the wayfarer. And whatsoever good you do, lo! and other health issues. It works for Muslim youth Allah is aware of it.” (2:215). empowerment and the building of strategic alliances

22 and networks. Organization activities have included some Western ideas, such as government accountability, clean-up exercises; sports, educational, and cultural social justice, and national self-determination, within activities; lobbying members of parliament on impor- Islamic discourse.72 tant youth issues; implementing capacity building and environmental conservation programs; and strengthen- Education ing electoral participation by Muslim youth.68 Poverty and lack of education are linked in many gener- Special Problems Facing Youth ally well-understood ways. Parents who are uneducated Many parts of the Muslim world—especially the or illiterate often cannot afford to send their children to Middle East—face what some term a “youth bulge,” or school; therefore, their children cannot find jobs that an especially large percentage of youth in the popula- pay well. Children whose parents are illiterate but who tion. Countries with high proportions of youth under can attend school have higher dropout rates than those age 24 include Yemen at 65.3 percent, Saudi Arabia at with literate parents. Education increases employment 62.3 percent, Iraq at 61.7 percent, Pakistan at 61 per- opportunities and decreases the risk of exploitation cent, Iran at 59.3 percent, and Algeria at 56.5 percent.69 by employers. An estimated 76 percent of school aged Youth is an asset and strength in many settings, but the males and 72 percent of school-aged females worldwide high dependency burdens of young populations are well attend primary school but in least-developed countries, known and put a strain on budgetary and institutional this number decreases to 61 percent of males and 56 capacities. Providing quality education and helping to percent of females.73 In 2005, an estimated 115 million ease school-to-job transitions pose particular challenges. were not enrolled or did not attend school. The major- The political and social consequences of a “youth bulge” ity of children that do not attend school are girls.74 in terms of propensity to instability are less well understood but are generally considered significant. Noteworthy progress has been made in education within 2008

the Arab OIC sub-region during the last two decades but | Youth unemployment is high in several OIC countries, that are still large disparities-among countries. Algeria, including unemployment among university graduates. Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Occupied Palestinian Territory, The challenge is partly the result of prevailing beliefs that Qatar, Syrian Arab Republic, and Tunisia are nearing a university diploma entitles them to a secure govern- the goal of universal primary education. However, in ment job, which prevents many graduates from pursu- Sudan less than 50 percent of primary school-aged ing other opportunities or entrepreneurial activities.70 children are enrolled in school and in Yemen only 54.6 percent are enrolled. The disparity in the rate of primary One program explicitly addressed to these issues is the school enrollment in the African OIC sub-region is even Small and Medium Enterprise Development Section of greater, with on average 60 percent of children in school; the Dubai Department of Economic Development. It however, individual countries range from 79.6 percent seeks to publicize the success of young entrepreneurs that in Gabon to 34.6 percent in Niger.75 can serve as role models to the rest of the population. It

specifically targets young women, provides skill workshops Gender disparity in primary schools is due to poverty, BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS focusing on small business development, and attempts to cultural norms, gender bias, child labor, a shortage of change attitudes about work in the country.71 teachers, and a lack of female role models. Worldwide, the majority of out-of-school children are girls, and many Muslim youth face conflicting messages in the face of that do attend school drop out before completing grade globalization; increasing interest in Western pop culture five. Asian OIC countries are close to gender parity of and consumption contrasts with increased emphasis primary school children, but this ratio is significantly on Muslim identity. This, coupled with poverty and lower in the African and Arab OIC sub-regions. The girls’ unemployment, can contribute to social and political rate of primary school participation remains among the upheaval. Georgetown University’s Samer Shehata lowest in the world in many Arab countries despite their notes that many Muslim youth are producing more overall high levels of school enrollment. In many OIC modern schools of Islamic political thought, combining Arab countries the gaps are narrowing. In Bahrain, Jordan,

23 Lebanon, Oman, and the Occupied Palestinian Territory, ment’s Girls’ Education Initiative, created in 2003, has girls outnumber boys in primary school. Bangladesh and established 456 schools that encourage female enroll- Turkey are close to achieving gender parity. Many sub- ment. Kazakhstan introduced the National Program on Saharan African countries have the lowest ratios of girls’ the Education System in 2005, which increases funding to boys’ primary net enrollment/attendance in the world. for education and updating of teaching methods and These countries include Chad (67 girls per 100 boys), allocates additional funds for preschools.79 Niger (68/100), Burkina Faso and Guinea-Bissau (both 71/100), Mali (72/100), Côte d’Ivoire (73/100), Benin Numerous Muslim NGOs work to increase access (77/100), and Guinea (78/100).76 to education in countries where they operate. Organizations train teachers, provide supplies, build UNICEF announced a program in December 2002 school buildings, and provide many other necessities called “25 by 2005”, to address girls’ education in 25 to encourage school attendance. Many work with more countries by the year 2005. UNICEF hoped to create than just children: literacy and vocational classes for a partnership with national governments and other adults, primarily for women are common, to qualify donors in order to gather resources to make schools people for higher-paying jobs. Educating women more suitable for girls. To qualify for the program, improves family health and reduces malnutrition and countries must have a girls’ school enrollment rate of less mortality in children. Literate mothers are much more than 70 percent, a disparity of girls’ and boys’ primary likely to send their daughters to school. school enrollment rates of 10 percent or more, over 1 million girls not enrolled in school, and the presence Islamic Relief illustrates programs focused on schools and of conflict or a large percentage of the population with vocational training that offer “a way out of the poverty HIV/AIDS. Of 25 countries involved in this program, trap.”80 IR supports education projects in Afghanistan, 13 are OIC members. Significant improvements in the Albania, Bangladesh, Egypt, Kosovo, Mali, Palestine, and GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | primary education of girls have already been noted in Sudan. It has also taken the lead on community-based Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria, and Pakistan.77 education projects where schools are inaccessible, and has implemented and sustained programs successfully with The Convention on the Rights of the Child calls for strong community support. Islamic Relief has education free, universal, and compulsory primary education. It projects to distribute school equipment, organize extra- recommends that developing countries spend an aver- curricular activities, ensure education for orphans, build age of 10 percent of central government budgets on new schools, rehabilitate war-damaged schools, educate education. Many OIC countries exceed this number. women in health and hygiene, provide literacy classes and In the Arab OIC sub-region, countries spend about 17 vocational training for adults, and supply schools and BERKLEY CENTER percent, on average, of their annual budget on educa- universities with computers, books, and resources.81 tion. Algeria expends 24 percent of its annual budget on education, while Yemen has steadily increased the The Aga Khan Development Network supports signifi- amount spent on education in the last decade to reach cant educational programs. Programs are typically run 22 percent, and Tunisia spends 20 percent. Several through Aga Khan Education Services, the Aga Khan countries in the Asian OIC sub-region, such as Malaysia Foundation, the Aga Khan University, the Aga Khan and Kyrgyzstan, spend well over the recommended 10 Academies, the University of Central Asia, and the Aga percent budget allocation for education.78 Khan Trust for Culture. They address curriculum reform, literacy programs, school improvement programs, and Decreasing or abolishing fees increases school attendance teacher development and training programs.82 and many OIC countries have moved toward reducing school fees. Bangladesh has free education for all primary school children and has a program to help girls pay Health for secondary schooling. Many OIC governments are The Muslim world faces the common new public implementing legal and other reforms making it easier health challenges of the twenty-first century. Infectious for children to attend school. In Egypt, the govern- diseases like HIV/AIDS ravage many countries, par-

24 ticularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, while malaria, TB, and more widespread unprotected sexual intercourse before other preventable illnesses affect millions in developing marriage. Unwanted fertility and sexually transmitted countries. Meanwhile, diseases such as heart conditions disease impede the social, economic, educational status and cancer threaten the lives of millions around the of young people; reproductive health education is often globe; reproductive health remains a large problem considered taboo. Islam emphasizes the importance of for women, particularly in underdeveloped areas. sex only within marriage, and many adults consider any Governments in Muslim-majority countries partner sexual information provided to youth as an encourage- in quite widely different arrangements with medical ment of premarital sex, so sexual education for youth is professionals, local and international NGOs, and inter- sometimes limited. national organizations in improving health care. Improved education of women, among other factors, Reproductive Health reduces fertility and maternal mortality rates. Iran is a Maternal mortality threatens the lives of many women, success story of an Islamic country that has made rapid particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, where one in 16 progress in reproductive health and family planning, a women faces the risk of maternal death. High maternal phenomenon that surprised many due to the government’s mortality rates in the Muslim world include Somalia strict Islamic rules. Iran’s levels of childbearing declined (1,100 deaths per 100,000 live births), Afghanistan faster than those of any other country; fertility rates (1,900), and Mauritania (1,000). Many women in dropped from 5.6 births per woman in 1985 to 2.0 births Muslim-majority countries do not have access to skilled per woman in 2000, with even more dramatic declines doctors, midwives, or health clinics during childbirth. in rural areas (from 8.1 births per woman in 1976 to 2.4 Dr. Nahla Mohana of Al Mouassah University Hospital births per woman in 2000). As a result, between 1986 in Damascus reports that only 53 percent of women and 1996 the country’s growth rate dropped from 3.9 in Arab and Islamic countries are assisted by a skilled percent to 2.0 percent per year, and is currently estimated 2008 health professional during childbirth and only 40 per- at 1.2 percent. Widespread contraceptive use explains this | cent give birth in a hospital or health center.83 This leads phenomenon; 74 percent of married women used con- not just to maternal mortality but to other debilitating traceptives in 2000, up from 37 percent in 1976.86 Iran health complications for women. launched its family planning program in 1989 with three goals: to encourage families to delay the first pregnancy With soaring youth populations in many Muslim coun- and space out subsequent births, to discourage pregnancy tries, contraception and family planning are live issues. for women younger than 18 and older than 35, and to There is no single stance toward contraception within limit family size to three children.87 Free family plan- Islam; eight of the nine classic schools of Islamic law per- ning services are provided to all married couples, and all mit it but some more conservative Islamic leaders oppose modern contraceptive methods are provided to married the use of condoms or other forms of birth control.84 couples free of charge at public clinics. Improvements The Qur’an does not specifically address contraception, in women’s education contribute to lower birth rates; but Muslims who oppose birth control refer to a line in rural women’s literacy rose from 17 percent to 62 per-

the Qur’an—“You should not kill your children for fear of cent between 1976 and 1996, and overall more than 75 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS want” (17:31, 6:151)—which is interpreted as including percent of Iranian women are now literate. Maternal and a ban on contraception. Those who support birth control child health have greatly improved as maternal and child argue that this interpretation is wrong. Most Muslim mortality have fallen dramatically in recent years. authorities allow contraception to preserve the health of the mother or the well-being of the family.85 Other Health Issues In June 2007, the OIC was urged to renew its efforts to Muslim youth face increasing challenges related to sexu- eradicate polio after false rumors that the vaccine would ality and reproduction that their parents’ generation did cause infertility caused a suspension of vaccinations not necessarily face. Changing traditions and economic for 11 months in Nigeria.88 This led to the re-infection realities delay marriage, creating reproductive health of 27 countries that were previously polio-free, 19 of risks not experienced by earlier generations, such as which were OIC member states.89

25 So that vaccines are more available and affordable 5. That I will always make efforts to seek knowledge for to OIC members, a “self-reliance in vaccine pro- the benefit of humanity and not for its harm. duction program” was launched seven years ago, 6. That I will respect those who taught me, teach the ones spearheaded by the Islamic Development Bank. The who are younger than I, and be brother to colleagues vaccines produced are to be certified as halal (permis- in the medical profession within the boundaries of sible under Islam). al-birr and taqwa (faithfulness in God’s service and piety). As in the rest of the world, tobacco addiction and 7. That my life will be the reflection of my faith—openly related illnesses are serious problems facing Islamic and secretly, pure and clean in actions, honorable countries. Smoking is widespread among men, women, in the eyes of Allah, His prophet, and believers youth, and even children. A 2006 study in the British (mumineen).93 Medical Journal reported that, out of 27 Muslim countries studied, only seven had an identifiable ban on HIV/AIDS tobacco sales to minors.90 Tobacco publicity is often particularly aggressive, presenting smoking as a “socially Faith-inspired organizations have long been involved desirable habit.”91 Many are unaware of the dangers of in the fight against HIV/AIDS, providing care and smoking until they are already addicted to cigarettes. support for those living with HIV/AIDS as well as Some Islamic authorities have addressed this problem. addressing prevention. Faith-inspired organizations In 2000, the Mufti of Egypt declared a fatwa (religious may indeed be the only NGOs working in some rural decree) that stated smoking to be haram (forbidden) in areas, and their participation in the fight against HIV/ Islam, because it damages human health. When asked AIDS is therefore vital. There are significant examples of about the role of tobacco manufacturers, the Mufti faith-inspired organizations working to reduce stigma stated “it is unlawful Islamically to produce tobacco surrounding the disease and influencing important GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | and sell tobacco in a Muslim country, hazardous to the behavioral changes. individual and society.”92 Muslim communities and organizations have responded Healthcare practice by Muslim doctors and nurses in diverse ways to the HIV/AIDS crisis—from non- rarely differ substantially from that of non-Muslims, judgmental support to violent threats against those who but Muslim doctors are expected to uphold their disclose their HIV status.94 Governmental response in faith while practicing medicine. In the First Medical Muslim-majority countries has also varied. Some gov- Symposium held in Kuwait in 1981, an Islamic medi- ernments have launched full-scale prevention efforts, cal oath, later adopted by numerous Islamic medical while others have simply deported foreigners they BERKLEY CENTER associations, was established: believed were the source of the disease.95 The first cases of AIDS in the Arab Muslim world were discovered in In the name of God I swear … Bahrain, Qatar, Iran, and several other states in the mid- 1980s; however, accurate information about the disease 1. That during the performance of my duties, I will keep in many Muslim communities is scarce.96 As of 2005, in mind that my God is watching me. UNAIDS estimated that there were approximately 2. That I have to (maintain) protect human life in all one million people infected with HIV/AIDS in North its forms, in all stages, in all conditions, doing my best Africa, the Middle East, and majority-Muslim Asia. to save the patients from death, diseases, pain, and Although the levels of HIV/AIDS with rare exceptions anxiety. are not at the levels of the most afflicted countries, even 3. That I will protect their human dignity and their official statistics, generally viewed to understate the privacy, and will keep their secrets. reality, show that the numbers of people and families 4. That I will always provide them with means and affected are significant. sources of relief by giving my medical care to all the people: relatives and others, the good and the bad, the Table 6 summarizes HIV/AIDS prevalence in the 15 friends and the enemy. countries with the largest Muslim populations.

26 The data highlights that African countries have been AIDS rates have been increasing in a number of Muslim particularly hard-hit relative to other regions, although majority countries. Table 7 illustrates Muslim majority estimates are unavailable in many Muslim countries countries where UNAIDS data suggests HIV/AIDS is and statistics have been underreported in others. HIV/ on the rise.

Table 6 AIDS Prevalence in Countries with the Largest Muslim Populations

Adults and Children AIDS deaths Adults (15-29) Country Muslim Population % Muslim living with HIV estimate (2005) rate, % (2005 estimate) Indonesia 202,071,531 86.1 17,000 5,500 0.1 Pakistan 159,799,666 97 85,000 3,000 0.1 India 151,402,065 13.4 5,700,000 270,000-680,000 0.9 Bangladesh 124,872,121 83 11,000 <500 <0.1 Egypt 72,301,532 90 5,300 <500 <0.1 Turkey 71,016,329 99.8 <2000 No estimate <0.1 Nigeria 67,515,582 50 2,900,000 220,000 3.9 Iran 64,089,570 98 66,000 1,600 0.2 Morocco 33,318,331 98.7 19,000 1,300 0.1 Algeria 32,999,883 99 19,000 <500 0.1 Afghanistan 31,571,023 99 <1000 <100 <0.1 Saudi Arabia 27,601,038 100 No estimate No estimate <0.2 2008 Sudan 27,565,550 70 350,000 34,000 1.6 | Iraq 26,674,648 97 No estimate No estimate <0.2 Uzbekistan 24,446,451 88 31,000 <500 0.2 Sources: CIA World Factbook, UNAIDS.

Table 7

Muslim-Majority Countries with Rising HIV/AIDS Prevalence

6.0 Kazakhstan 12.0 2001 8.4 2005 Gambia 20.0 27.0 Senegal 61.0 20.0 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Iran 66.0 42.0 Malaysia 69.0 78.0 Pakistan 85.0 110.0 Mali 130.0 120.0 Indonesia 170.0 150.0 Chad 180.0 0 50 100 150 200

Estimated number of people living with HIV (thousand)

Source: UNAIDS.

27 Many Muslim-majority countries have yet to launch relatively low, and while social stigma is still attached full-scale efforts for education and prevention, assum- to the disease, progress is being made. In December of ing low infection risks because activities such as “pre- 2005, ALCS broadcast the first HIV/AIDS telethon in marital sex, adultery, prostitution, homosexuality, and the Arab world, which raised US$295,000 for the cause intravenous drug use do not occur in the Muslim world, and raised awareness about the disease, though Islamist or happen so infrequently that the risk of the disease parties criticized its promotion of condom use. gaining a foothold in these countries is low.”97 High prevalence rates in predominantly Muslim countries in Faith communities are working in Sudan to fight the Sub-Saharan Africa contradict this belief, but denial is a spread of HIV/AIDS and to provide much-needed continuing challenge. Stigma surrounding what is per- social services for the local population, without regard ceived as immorality and shame attached to HIV/AIDS to their religious affiliations. In the past, the Sudanese present continuing challenges. One study of religious government denied that Sudanese Muslims suffered leaders and faith-based organizations in South Asia from the disease, but the government is now working to found that the majority of people surveyed believed promote HIV/AIDS educational campaigns.102 These that the AIDS epidemic stems from “moral decline and efforts are not only helping to educate the public about sexual corruption.”98 HIV/AIDS is seen as associated the dangers of HIV/AIDS, but they are also breaking with “immoral acts,” and women are often blamed for down the walls that have kept Christians and Muslims the epidemic and its spread.99 The disease has often led apart and provide healing and hope to a population to social stigma and ostracism, although statements by torn apart by war. religious groups have stated that this is regrettable. Local NGOs have formed in Muslim countries Despite these challenges, several conservative Muslim throughout the world to fight HIV/AIDS, and both countries have been very successful in public educa- Islamic and inter-faith networks and conferences have GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | tion about HIV/AIDS, keeping infection rates low, addressed the issue. Organizations noted for their work and there appears to be great potential to work with in HIV/AIDS literature include Positive Muslims faith-based organizations to fight the disease. Iran offers in South Africa; the Islam and HIV/AIDS Project extensive HIV/AIDS education to married couples and in Mauritania, which works with religious leaders to in schools, including a needle exchange program in disseminate information about care and prevention of Tehran.100 Government clinics have free HIV counsel- the disease; the Pan-African Organization for HIV- ing, testing, and treatment, and condoms are given AIDS (OPALS) in Morocco; and the Islamic Medical to prostitutes. Prisons make free clean needles and Association of Uganda (IMAU), which partners with condoms available to inmates; Iran is one of only six imams to educate the populace and eliminate the taboo BERKLEY CENTER or seven countries in the world to do so.101 Influential associated with HIV/AIDS. Shiite Muslim clerics have supported government efforts in the fight against HIV/AIDS, and although there were Islamic Relief organized a major conference about fears that these campaigns would be halted after the Islam and HIV/AIDS in Johannesburg, South Africa in election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad as president, they November 2007. Islamic Relief saw the event as aimed appear to be continuing. “to contribute to halting the spread of the disease and to ensuring appropriate care for people affected by it. The Morocco offers another success story in the fight against Muslim world has been silent about the issue of HIV HIV/AIDS. Morocco’s first HIV infection was identi- and AIDS for much too long, and it is hoped that these fied in 1986, and in 1988 the first national AIDS NGO consultations will help to change that.”103 Participants (the Moroccan Association for the Fight Against AIDS included Islamic scholars, who can create change from [ALCS]) was founded. ALCS has secured funding and within their own communities; people who are living developed numerous educational campaigns as well as with HIV/AIDS, to ensure that the conference focused free, confidential HIV/AIDS testing. Morocco hosted on practical realities of the disease; and HIV/AIDS an HIV/AIDS conference in 1993, which launched the practitioners, who could provide insights into the mul- formation of other NGOs. Infection rates have stayed tiple dimensions of the disease. Together, participants

28 applied Islamic humanitarian thinking to these issues 1970s, these loans support self-employment projects over the course of the conference. The conference was enabling individuals to begin to build wealth and to “provide governments, Muslim leaders and organi- escape poverty. Microfinance generally works with small zations with guidance that will help them effectively groups, using social trust as collateral. Loans are given respond to the HIV/AIDS epidemic.”104 to individuals, but the entire group is responsible for repayment, meaning that if the borrower does not fulfill Islamic Relief argues that being judgmental toward his/her commitment, he/she will lose social capital. those affected by HIV/AIDS will not reduce infection Repayment rates to microcredit institutions are gener- rates and therefore adheres to the Core Values of the ally higher than commercial repayment rates, often as African Network of Religious Leaders Living with or high as 97 percent.106 The United Nations designated Personally Affected by HIV/AIDS (ANERELA+): 2005 as the International Year of Microcredit, and the UN Millennium Project sees microcredit as “one of the 1. Sharing resources and skills with compassion and love. development strategies … that should be implemented 2. Support without judgment. and supported to attain the bold ambition of reduc- 3. Fight stigma: personal experience is of immense value ing world poverty by half.” Some 7,000 microfinance in understanding and responding to HIV and AIDS. institutions operate worldwide, serving 16 million poor 4. Do not demand disclosure. people. The total turnover for these projects is estimated 5. Seek to serve. between $2.5-7 billion. One analysis of need puts the 6. Empower members with skills related to the fight world total at $21.6 billion to provide microfinance ser- against HIV and AIDS. vices to 100 million of the world’s poorest families.107 7. Inclusive not exclusive: faith is an important element to human life—respecting each others’ faith and There are long-standing debates about the compatibility doctrine is essential to a united fight. of modern financial instruments with the tenets of 2008

8. Respect for life: speak for the rights of people living Islam and the teachings of the Qur’an. Islamic finance | with or affected by HIV and AIDS, and the is an ethically-based system which restricts putting busi- eradication of poverty in the world. nesspeople at excessive risk of financial ruin.108 Its ulti- 9. Compassionate and seeking total transformation mate goal is social maximization, as opposed to profit of a person. maximization, and some have proposed that Islamic 10. Gender-inclusive network. microfinance programs could create effective grassroots 11. Transparency and accountability to all stake-holders.105 financial systems which could help to solve widespread socio-economic problems.109

Microfinance Islam prohibits engaging in financial transactions with Microfinance entrepreneurs are pioneering new ways elements of riba and gharar, although these principles are to reach poor people who cannot gain access to loans not necessarily strictly followed. Muslim scholars have or funding from traditional banking sectors. A specific generally accepted riba to mean “any fixed or guaranteed 110 dimension in Muslim communities is reluctance to vio- interest payment on cash advances or on deposits” and BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS late Islamic principles that prohibit certain financial and gharar as “excessive speculation or trading in risk.”111 investment activities. Combined with Islamic finance Money made in industries that are not halal is also pro- principles, microfinance has the potential to stimulate hibited, for example tobacco, alcohol, pork, or defense- income generation for those who need it most—the related industries.112 Several programs and centers are poorest of the poor, particularly women—while adher- working to develop more knowledge about and support ing to principles of the Islamic faith. efforts related to Islamic finance. In 2006, the Malaysian government supported the creation of the International Microcredit involves the extension of very small loans Centre for Education in Islamic Finance, and the Islamic to poor entrepreneurs and others who cannot access Development Bank, the Islamic Bank of Asia, and the traditional loans and credit due to a lack of collateral Dow Jones Islamic Fund are promoting new financial and credit history. First developed in the 1960s and instruments that include Islamic equity funds.

29 Islamic microfinance is not currently widespread but social safety net programs to give those without access offers significant potential for promoting both economic to credit the opportunity to escape poverty and achieve growth and poverty reduction in Muslim-majority devel- economic independence.119 oping countries. One study suggests “a 1 percent increase in financial development may raise the growth of the incomes of the poor by .4 percent, while a 10 percent Women’s Programs change in the ratio of private credit to GDP may reduce A wide range of organizations, many with faith links, poverty ratios by 2.5 to 3 percentage points.”113 support programs addressed specifically at women, but their overall work is poorly known. They deserve In studies of possible Islamic microfinance projects, special attention both because they appear to take Islamic financial instruments that have been pro- distinctive forms and because of sensitivities in the posed include mudaraba, musharaka, and murabaha. Muslim world around gender issues. Women’s positions Mudaraba is investment on someone’s behalf by a more in Muslim communities can be a contentious topic skilled person, taking the form of a contract between and unbiased information is rare. Wide variations in two parties—one who provides the funds and the experience among countries and communities also other who provides expertise.114 Profits are shared and explain information gaps. Some organizations promote if no profit is made, the skilled investor takes no fee. women’s equal rights within countries and work to Murabaha is a “contract for purchase and resale and erase discriminatory laws against women. Others work allows the customer to make purchases without having in microfinance and income-generating projects tar- to take out a loan and pay interest.”115 The customer geted toward women. Many NGO programs focus on pays the sale price for the goods over installments and women’s education and health, especially prenatal care. obtains credit without paying interest. In musharaka, Few NGOs concentrate primarily and directly on the meaning “partnership,” one places capital with another woman’s place in society.120 GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | person and both share the risk and reward.116 Health issues are a common entry point. Maternal An example of a murabaha microfinance program mortality rates in Arab countries are high, around 270 is the Hodeidah Microfinance Program in Yemen, deaths for every 100,000 live births. In some countries established in 1997. As of June 2007, the program had (Mauritania and Somalia), it is as high as 1,000 deaths 3,996 clients, 80 percent of whom are women, and an for every 100,000 births, while in Qatar, it is far lower average loan balance of $25.117 The program is group- (seven for every 100,000 births). Similarly, although based, and when a loan application is received, a credit the HIV/AIDS rate is relatively low in Arab countries, officer does a feasibility study to determine the loan women are increasingly becoming victims of this dis- BERKLEY CENTER amount. The client then identifies items needed from a ease. Women are now at greater risk than men to con- wholesaler, such as equipment, and negotiates a price, tract the disease. Women ages 15 to 24 are now twice as after which the credit offices purchases them from the likely to be infected as men in the same age group.121 source and resells them at that price to the client. There is no interest involved in the loan balances, and Islamic Education in Arab countries for girls has increased remark- principles are followed.118 ably in the last few years, but girls are typically educated less often than boys in these countries. Arab countries Microfinance programs are planned or underway in a have one of the highest rates of illiteracy for women in range of Muslim countries, supported by development the world; however, increased girls’ education in countries agencies, NGOs, and non-profit organizations. For bordering the Gulf is closing this gap quickly.122 example, in August 2007, the Islamic Development Bank, in collaboration with the United Nations In many Arab countries it is common to see that the Development Programme (UNDP) and the Palestinian value of women’s additions to the economy generally Authority, launched the “Deprived Families Economic goes unrecognized, as they often work in the home. Empowerment Programme,” a $30 million microfi- Arab countries typically have a relatively low demand nance program. The program links microfinance and for women workers, with women facing great obstacles

30 to entering the workforce outside the home. In addition years of Islam and the Prophet Mohammed’s intention to a lack of equal opportunities or access when applying of creating an egalitarian society without slaves or sexual for jobs, women receive lower wages and are less likely discrimination. Mernissi concludes that political and to be promoted than their male counterparts. Women’s economic interests of the male elite, not religion, are economic participation in Arab countries is the lowest responsible for denying rights to women.125 Mernissi has in the world at 33.3 percent (worldwide average of also extensively studied Moroccan civil society, estab- 55.6 percent). This may gradually be changing; the lishing the “Civic Synergy” project in 1997, exploring well respected 2006 Arab Human Development Report links between democratization of access to information which focused on gender reported that the growth technologies and the passion of Moroccan youth of both of women’s share of the economy in this region had sexes for civic initiatives. In January 2007, Mernissi recently been growing at the fastest annual rate in the was involved in the “Casablanca Dream,” a meeting of world, 19 percent .123 women activists and academics from the developing world. This group seeks solutions to empower women Women in several countries (notably Jordan, Morocco, who continue to carry the burden of worldwide poverty. Egypt, Pakistan, Turkey, and Bangladesh) have made The forum explored women’s work and their impact on important strides in women’s empowerment, includ- macroeconomics, feminist perspectives, and the theme ing in politics. Advocating human rights concepts and of “Weaving Peace into Globalization.”126 women’s access in the political realm, women press to “1) interpret the Koran and the hadith (the traditions of Sisters in Islam (introduced above) has worked in the Prophet Mohammed); 2) educate the political elite Malaysia since 1988 to promote equality between men and providing them with new interpretations of sacred and women and help create a society that upholds the texts that can be used as a basis for legislation and the Islamic principles of equality, justice, freedom, and implementation of change; and 3) mobilizing grassroots dignity within a democratic state. Their legal services 2008 support and establishing dialogue between people at the programs include a legal clinic to women seeking a | grassroots level and national and international decision divorce and teaching about financial rights and the makers.” These women hope to modify their local tradi- rights of their children. Sisters in Islam seeks equal tions and to create laws that will increase women’s access rights for women working within the legal system. It to education, human rights, and equality.124 argues that religious authorities willingly accept technology and forensic science within the legal system Recent changes in Moroccan law have increased gender when it benefits men but are unwilling to accept this equality. Passage of the new Mudawana (family code) in same technology when it benefits women. An example 2003 gave women many new rights regarding marriage, of this is the court’s unwillingness to accept a genetic divorce, and the family. Gender inequality is still a seri- test that would establish a child’s paternity. Sisters in ous concern in Morocco, given gaps between men and Islam is an important advocate for women’s rights, women in literacy rates, health concerns (such as poor protesting any bill that they believe discriminates prenatal care and lack of contraceptive use) in rural against women, often using the Qur’an as a basis for

areas, and high female unemployment rates, particu- their arguments. They have met significant resistance BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS larly in rural areas. from the religious community because some leaders do not accept that women should be able to question Fatima Mernissi, a Moroccan scholar and activist, is the basis of the Islamic religion. Sisters in Islam has a pioneer on women and Islam. Mernissi, a sociolo- recently seen greater acceptance as concerns around gist, produced the classic work Beyond the Veil (1975) extremism mount. It has used the space created by which explored Islamic views of women and the effects September 11th to encourage religious dialogue of modern life on male-female relations, as well as the within Malaysia.127 sexual dynamics of the Muslim world. Another influential work by Mernissi, The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation of Islam (1987), explored whether Islam is opposed to women’s rights focusing on the early

31 Country Stories

Morocco: Islamic Inspiration and to evoke some unease because of perceptions of ties to Civic Associations Interact Islamist, “integrist” tendencies to which the govern- orocco’s rich history and culture reflect a unique ment is opposed. intertwining of Arab, Berber, African, and MEuropean influences. Both society and institu- Thus in exploring the roles and work of non-state actors tions are deeply imprinted by Islam; religion is part of the involved in social issues, five strands should be exam- everyday fabric of Moroccan life and is integrally part of ined: (a) traditional Islamic charitable work within the both politics and the state apparatus. context of mosques, madrasas, and waqf foundations; (b) “Islamist” organizations that take their activities A range of bold political and social initiatives led by beyond state-sanctioned activities, with overt or covert both the Moroccan government and civil groups have links to international Islamist trends; (c) lay civil soci- put Morocco in the global spotlight as an exemplar of ety organizations working on social issues, many run GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| successful modernization that respects Muslim values by women; (d) non-Muslim organizations, notably and heritage. Notable are its open society where the Christian non-governmental organizations; and (e) the media plays an active role, a willingness to address past state policies and institutions that frame social organiza- injustices including human rights abuses and the loss tion activities and may direct and regulate their work. of the Jewish community, and evolving democratic institutions. But Morocco faces major challenges. Socio-Economic Background Deep-rooted poverty and social problems—notably Morocco’s population of approximately 34 million is high youth unemployment and illiteracy—contribute almost 99 percent Muslim, with small Christian and to social tensions that engage political parties as well Jewish minorities, and with an ethnic mix of mainly BERKLEY CENTER as religious institutions. Morocco is one of the world’s Arabs and Berbers. As a lower-middle-income country epicenter countries in its effort to respond to Islamist with an estimated 2006 per capita income of $4,600, pressures and to meet the population’s demands for Morocco’s economy offers elements of both hope and progress while maintaining its commitment to its cul- concern. Economic performance has fluctuated quite ture and heritage. widely from year to year, due in significant measure to its dependence on agriculture; GDP rose by almost A wide array of institutions are engaged in social seven percent in 2006, a year of good rainfall, but gen- activities in Morocco, addressing many fields including erally the trend has been modest growth. Yet, Morocco’s education, health, HIV/AIDS, violence against women, potential is far from realized, and unemployment is a children in need, and the preservation of Morocco’s major problem—as high as 20 percent in urban areas cultural heritage. Deep traditions of Islamic charity (although the official estimate is 7.7 percent). Morocco continue today in many forms. However, the more produces both agricultural and industrial products, significant contemporary trend is an expansion of civil including wheat, olives, citrus, textiles, phosphates, and society institutions that do not carry religious labels or leather goods. Its trade links are strongest with Europe; profess an explicitly Islamic philosophy. Indeed, the Saudi Arabia and China are becoming increasingly label “Islamic” applied to a social organization appears important trading partners.

32 Morocco’s constitutional monarchy, led since 1999 by intellectual ferment, Sufi mystical strands, and rich cul- King Mohammed VI, has a bicameral Parliament, the tural traditions in music, architecture, stories, and art. lower house (325 members) elected by a popular vote Morocco also stands out for its relatively elaborate orga- for five-year terms and the upper house (270 members) nization of religious institutions, an aspect explained by appointed for nine-year terms. Partisan politics is active, the linking of religion and state under the King’s tem- with some 29 officially recognized political parties in poral and spiritual leadership. The deep-rooted intellec- Morocco. Among the most significant parties are the tual traditions that impel Moroccan Islam today, led by Istiqlal (Independence) Party, the largest traditional a religious council that reports to the king, are manifest party; the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires; the in media, conferences, and an opening to international Moroccan Community Party, which has split into the Islam, for example through Morocco’s hosting of a Party of Renewal and Progress and the Organization of major Tijaniyya Conference in July 2007. Morocco Action for Democracy; and parties under the National has been a major sponsor of religious involvement in Entente block and the Center block.128 global peacekeeping, and in interfaith dialogue, notably through its sponsorship of three successive international Poverty is significant and is clearly understood as a seri- conferences of rabbis and imams (Brussels, Seville, and ous challenge for the government and society; about 20 Paris). Moroccan Islam is highly complex, and is in a percent of the population lives below the official poverty ferment of change. line and by some measures poverty has increased recently due to the volatility of GDP.129 Among the critical Islam and Social Policy problems that this engenders are high unemployment, Four links between Islam and social policy are worthy of strong emigration pressures (especially to Spain and special note: Islam and party politics, Islam and educa- France), accelerated urban migration, and disruptions to tion, Islam and family law, and Islam and governance families, with street children a particular manifestation of issues. A host of other issues arise, notable among them 2008 this. Morocco ranks relatively low on the global Human Islam and finance and new approaches to the environ- | Development index, ranked 123 in 2006 with a Human ment, but the focus here is on social dimensions. Development index value of 0.640, a life expectancy of 70, and a GDP per capita of $4,309.130 The role of political parties linked to the Islamic religion is a topic of continuing debate. The major Islamist party, Education figures prominently among the underlying the Justice and Development Party (PJD), considers causes of poverty and is one of Morocco’s major chal- itself a political party, not a religious party. The PJD lenges for the future. Both lack of access to education has modeled itself on Turkey’s popular Islamist party of and low quality, at all levels, present significant issues for the same name.134 Despite the prediction of major PJD Morocco. Despite efforts to expand education, the 2002 gains, elections in October 2007 marked a victory for census indicated continuing high illiteracy of 49 percent, the secular Istiqlal party, which won 52 seats, while the with female illiteracy especially high, at 62 percent.131 PJD only secured 47 seats. The PJD believes that the state and society do not need to be Islamicized, because

Religion in Morocco Morocco is already a Muslim country. However, it BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Religion generally, and Islam more specifically, is a “upholds the principle of defending Moroccan society’s fundamental facet of Moroccan society and state. Islamic identity through legislative and institutional Islam is the official state religion (with a constitutional means when that identity is threatened.”135 guarantee of freedom of religion).132 The King holds the title of “Commander of the faithful and the Supreme Another major Islamist movement in Morocco, Al-Adl Representative of the Muslim community,” with the wal Ihsan (the Justice and Charity Movement), is unre- responsibility of ensuring “respect for Islam.”133 The lated to the PJD except for some collaborative efforts. king traces his lineage to the Prophet Mohammed and In sharp contrast to the PJD, it rejects the Moroccan acts as the nation’s spiritual and moral guide. political system and is highly critical of the monarchy. It considers itself a social movement, emphasizing Moroccan Islam is deeply marked by a long history of preaching, study, and personal spiritual development

33 rather than political activism. In fact, several members mentioning Islamist ones. Another explanation for this of the organization have been charged with “defaming increased civic activity is more widespread access to the monarchy” due to their activities and have faced information technology by youth.139 imprisonment.136 A study of local Moroccan associations conducted for The Moroccan government’s annual education budget Tanmia, an organization dedicated to capacity-building funds the teaching of Islam in public schools, as well as among Moroccan associations, identifies a wide range religious instruction in separate Jewish public schools.137 of development organizations throughout the country, especially in rural areas.140 Prominent among them are In 2003, Morocco passed a new version of the Family associations for women, but many also support infra- Code, or the Mudawana, widely lauded as progressive structure and other projects. The associational trend is and remarkable in its successful linking of religious law clearly increasing, and most of the associations are less with internationally accepted human rights. The par- than 10 years old, with their membership dominated ticipatory process of formulating the new law is of par- by young adults aged 25 to 45. The study notes that ticular note. This law gave more rights to women, such older Moroccans more often saw the organizations as as the restructuring of marriage and divorce procedures a threat to traditional institutions. These organizations’ to promote greater gender equality, placement of the goals are to address the primary needs of the popula- family under the joint responsibility of both spouses, tion, improve Moroccan quality of life, and protect the and an increase in the legal marriage age for women to environment.141 The study found that associations were 18. Morocco was divided over the issue, and the new most effective when linked to an international NGO, code was opposed by some Islamic groups. from which knowledge can be inherited and permanent structures passed down. These international connec- NGOs and Development tions also help to provide financing opportunities, GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | In Morocco, development organizations include inter- without which needs and projects of the associations national agencies as well as local, more grassroots initia- are unable to be met. The study also found that rural tives known as “associations.” Moroccan associations women were particularly successful at organizing asso- or NGOs often give direct aid to the poor and work to ciations, despite obstacles such as illiteracy. address directly the causes of poverty. When they work well, these small organizations can have a greater impact Numerous international NGOs also work in Morocco, than much larger and better-resourced agencies. An including Catholic Relief Services, Search for Common important feature of the Moroccan system is partner- Ground, and Oxfam. Other NGOs have provided ships that are taking new forms, involving different emergency aid to the country. BERKLEY CENTER social actors and the state. An example is the Mohamed V Foundation for Solidarity, a government foundation Catholic Relief Services has worked in Morocco since formed in 1999 to fight poverty, which provides financial independence in 1956, focusing on food assistance and support to many associations throughout Morocco.138 relief until the late 1980s, when it launched development programs addressing clean water and health, as According to one source, the number of Moroccan well as a microcredit program. The agency works with NGOs jumped from 7,000 before 1995 to 30,000 in local development organizations to achieve develop- 1999. The proliferation of NGOs and associations and ment goals.142 Islamic Relief provided emergency a shift toward local development initiatives may be aid to Morocco when an earthquake hit the area of explained by a 1995 report, “Moroccan Young People’s Al-Hociema in February 2004. The organization dis- Religious Values and Strategies,” which indicated that tributed tents, blankets, hygiene kits, and food items only 2.2 percent of the 500 students surveyed said they to survivors and set up schools in the affected region.143 trusted the state. When asked to identify associations worth joining, 50.8 percent chose those with a civic International development agencies working in the agenda (social and humanitarian goals) and only 6.6 country include the Islamic Educational, Scientific, and percent identified political parties, with 10.6 percent Cultural Organization (ISESCO), as well as government

34 development agencies from the U.S., Germany, Japan, politics, law, education, and development. Islam was and Canada. Various UN agencies, the European Union, established as Egypt’s official state religion by a con- and the World Bank also work in Morocco. The Islamic stitutional amendment passed by former President Development Bank has a regional office in Rabat. Anwar Sadat in 1980. The Egyptian government has nonetheless sought to limit the influence of Islam in the political realm. Though Egypt has a multiparty, Egypt: Ancient Traditions meet democratic system, the National Democratic Party, Modern Civil Society under the leadership of President Hosni Mubarak, has Egypt, with over 81 million people, is one of the largest ruled for 26 years. While some opposition parties do Muslim-majority countries. The nation is engaged in exist, Mubarak and the NDP require that all political profound economic and social changes. Its ongoing parties be approved by the government and maintain a economic reform process began some 30 years ago prohibition on the formation of religious-based parties. with Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif’s reforms and today As a result, the Muslim Brotherhood, the best known focuses on decentralizing the economy and facilitating Islamist movement that seeks to implement a stricter sustainable growth, In 2005, Nazif reduced personal interpretation of sharia law in Egypt, is considered and corporate tax rates, shrank energy subsidies, and illegal. Despite the formal ban on the organization, advanced private sector development.144 Privatization however, the NDP has allowed it to operate to some is part of this reform program, including the national degree since the 1970s.150 In 2005, the Brotherhood’s banks in 2007. Egypt’s economy has shown steady strength and popular backing was demonstrated when growth in recent years. The economy’s largest threat is 150 individuals openly affiliated with the group ran in budget deficits, largely the result of a “bloated” public parliamentary elections. These candidates won 88 seats, sector, but a strong tourist sector and Suez Canal making it the most significant opposition force to the receipts have tended to offset this.145 Economic growth NDP. Since this victory, Mubarak has begun to more 2008 is beginning to deliver increased employment. aggressively seek to limit their influence through arrests | and detainments.151 Apart from development’s social and economic benefits, an explicit part of the Egyptian government’s motiva- Egypt is a mixed religious-secular state and its legal and tion is to improve living standards as a means to blunt judicial systems reflect that duality. The Egyptian Civil the appeal of radical Islam, which has been growing Code of 1948, the main source of legal rules regulating in recent years.146 The government’s failure thus far to transactions between persons and legal entities, is based improve the daily lives of regular Egyptians is a reason on both the Napoleonic Civil Code and Islamic sharia given frequently to explain recent parliamentary suc- law.152 The Egyptian judicial system is also based on cesses of candidates affiliated with the Islamist Muslim a combination of French legal concepts and methods Brotherhood movement. A 1997 survey of poverty and sharia, although the influence of sharia principles found that about 27 percent of Egypt’s population, is restrained. Sharia-based personal law courts are or 15.7 million people, were poor, with about 5.1 integrated into an otherwise largely Western-based legal 147 million of them in extreme poverty. The situation system and the national Supreme Court is secular. BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS has improved only marginally over the past decade. The 2007 UNDP Human Development Report ranks The constitution guarantees freedom of belief and Egypt 111th out of 177 countries.148 the practice of religious rites. However, the U.S. State Department has observed that the government generally Religion and Politics “[does not] respect the right to freedom of religion in Some 90 percent of Egyptians are Muslim, mostly practice,” and that serious restrictions have been placed Sunnis (Shias account for less than one percent of the on the exercise of religious rights.153 This is most notably population). Christians, almost all Coptic, represent true of religions not recognized by the state, particularly between 8 and 15 percent of the population.149 the Baha’i faith. Egypt’s Baha’i community is estimated at 2,000 persons. The state denies members of the Islam has significant and visible influence on Egyptian Baha’i basic civil documents, such as identification cards

35 and birth certificates, making it difficult for Baha’is to of the Supreme Council of the Al-Azhar Institution, in conduct civil transactions and sometimes forcing them practice it is regulated by the Ministry of Education. This to misrepresent themselves as members of one of the school system is exclusively for Muslim students and its country’s recognized religions (Islam, Christianity, and curriculum is almost entirely Islamic. Male and female Judaism).154 Freedom House (2005) also highlights con- students are taught separately at Al-Azhar institutions. In cerns about political rights and civil liberties.155 2002, the Al-Azhar system was said to enroll less than 4 percent of the country’s student population.163 Article II (1980) elevates Islamic sharia law as the prin- cipal source of legislative rules.156 No new laws may be NGOs and Development enacted that contravene the principles of sharia. However, Egypt has one of the more vibrant civil sectors in the because this amendment has not been interpreted to Middle East, with an estimated 16,000-18,000 NGOs apply retroactively, the penal code rules established prior operating in the country. In 1999, this sector employed to 1980 have generally not been adjusted and are almost the equivalent of 629,223 full-time workers, accounting wholly based on Western, non-religious principles. The for $1.5 billion in expenditures (two percent of Egypt’s requirement that laws be in accordance with sharia GDP).164 Despite its size, a 2005 study of Egyptian civil has mostly affected statutes relating to “personal status society found that the sector was seriously constrained issues,” such as inheritance, marriage, and divorce.157 by the political environment and the sector’s poor structure.165 Specifically, its ability to have a significant Religion and Education impact on the government is constrained by the severely Egypt’s education system includes compulsory primary limiting legal framework governing the operation of schooling for students 6 to12 years old; compulsory NGOs. The licensing process for NGOs in Egypt is preparatory education for students 12 to 15 years burdensome and lacks transparency. It also requires old; and optional secondary schooling, along either that organizations make a monetary contribution into GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | a college preparatory or technical track, for students a government fund for societies and associations, which 15 to 18 years old. This education system follows two can be a hindrance for small organizations with limited parallel structures: the secular system, which includes financial resources.166 Furthermore, the ministry respon- both state-administered public schools and private sible for licensing and regulating NGO operations schools, and a system of Islamic schooling. Within the has significant discretionary authority and can reject secular school system, religious education is still man- organization applications for vaguely defined reasons datory, but Christian students are offered courses on of “national unity” and “public morals.” Finally, Egypt Christianity separate from the courses on Islam taught uses criminal penalties such as fines and jail time to to Muslim students.158 Religious education in the secu- punish organizational failures to fulfill the requirements BERKLEY CENTER lar system ranges from 2 to 3 hours per week. However, of its NGO laws, a major disincentive for organizations the government has recently mandated that ethics to operate in the country.167 Despite these restrictive courses be incorporated into the national curriculum NGO regulations, Egypt’s civil sector thrives because and some religious leaders believe that these courses in practice the government has chosen to use its discre- will soon replace courses in religious instruction.159 tionary authority against organizations and individuals These courses emphasize national unity, inter-religious that “cross ‘red lines’ in pushing for social reform and understanding and cooperation, and values such as political liberalization,” while generally allowing others patriotism, kindness, and cleanliness.160 Even outside to operate without substantial interference.168 the specific religious courses, Islam and Islamic values are heavily prevalent in other subjects, such as Arabic Social welfare and development organizations are gener- language instruction and social studies, which in many ally accepted even if they are affiliated with controversial grades is largely a study of Islamic history.161 or foreign religious groups. For example, although most Egyptian Christians belong to the Coptic Orthodox The Islamic Al-Azhar school system is a separate school Church, which is itself active in the development sector, system, whose goal is to convey “the Mission of Islam the Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches have a to people at large.”162 Nominally under the supervision presence in the country, engaging in education, social,

36 and development work. However, the government does one of the more religiously moderate Arab states. Most not tolerate proselytizing by religiously affiliated non- Jordanian Muslims are members of the Sunni, rather profit and non-governmental organizations, and has than Shi’a, Islamic faith communities. Christians refused re-entry to individuals suspected of evangelizing (primarily Greek Orthodox), Druze, and Baha’i popula- activities.169 This is true even though no constitutional tions account for the remaining 6 percent of the popu- provision or section of the civil or penal codes bans lation.173 Societal relations between faith groups have proselytizing; opposition to the practice stems from the generally been amicable and have contributed to a posi- sharia principle forbidding the conversion of Muslims tive and cooperative national political environment. to Christianity. Proselytizers who are arrested are typically held on charges of having violated provisions of Jordan has undergone a period of substantial change the penal code that prohibits citizens from insulting since the 1999 death of long-time leader King Hussein. “heavenly religions” or inciting sectarian strife.170 His son and successor, King Abdullah II, has implemented aggressive and successful economic reforms Development organizations affiliated with the Muslim aimed at expanding trade and reducing poverty. These Brotherhood are also generally tolerated by the govern- include liberalizing the country’s trade regime and ment in Egypt because of the scope and importance of reducing its debt-to-GDP ratio. Jordan’s GDP growth the services they provide. Particularly in Egypt’s more has consistently exceeded population growth since impoverished areas, the Brotherhood provides needed 1999, with 2006 per-capita GDP at $5,100.174 A World health and education services to many. It runs 22 Bank report assessing poverty in 2002-2003 found that hospitals throughout the country, has schools in every specifically as a result of economic policy changes, pov- governorate, operates numerous care centers for chil- erty overall had declined in Jordan during that period dren and the elderly, and organizes training programs in conjunction with a 3.5 percent annual increase in per for the unemployed. These operations and the services capita private consumption.175 2008 they provide are made available to all, regardless of | religious affiliation.171 It is worth noting that despite Despite overall declines in poverty, the improvement the Brotherhood’s religious nature, the schools that it has not been consistent throughout the country operates are private schools separate from the Al-Azhar and presents continuing challenges. In mid-2006, religious school system described above; the curriculum Jordanians in 40 out of the country’s 101 municipalities in Brotherhood schools is less focused around Islamic lived below the poverty line; 20 of those municipalities education than the Al-Azhar system. are considered extremely poor.176 Poverty is not heavily concentrated in any particular area, but rural poverty is A wide variety of international development organiza- more prevalent than urban poverty, with approximately tions operate today in Egypt. These include interna- 19 percent of the country’s rural population classified as tional agencies like UNDP; bilateral agencies such poor.177 Poverty is not particularly concentrated among as the U.S. Agency for International Development any particular religious or ethnic groups. (USAID) and the Canadian International Development

Agency (CIDA); private development organizations Religion and Politics BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS like Catholic Relief Services and Oxfam International; As in many Muslim countries, religion plays significant international development financiers such as the African roles in many aspects of Jordan’s private and public Development Bank; local microfinance organizations; life. The constitutional establishment of Islam as the and a vast and diverse group of local organizations that state religion has meant that various aspects of social cuts across religious lines.172 and economic development in Jordan are influenced by faith, though King Abdullah, like his father before him, has generally tried to ensure that Jordan remains a Jordan: The Delicate Balance largely secular state. Jordan’s constitution explicitly establishes Islam as the national religion and 94 percent of Jordan’s 6 million In order to elevate a national identity over disparate population is Muslim. Jordan is generally considered religious or ethnic ones, Abdullah launched the Jordan

37 First campaign in 2002, aimed at stressing Jordanian faiths are prohibited in Jordan, the Druze and Baha’i national interests above other considerations and creat- faiths, as well as Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Church ing a “united, national and social fabric that thrives in of Latter Day Saints are not officially recognized by an atmosphere of justice, democracy, due process, and the government, which can lead to discrimination equal opportunity” for women and minorities. The and civil barriers. The Bureau of Democracy, Human campaign emphasizes an open and accountable political Rights, and Labor in the U.S. State Department reports environment and reforms of the monarchy, parliament, that “apostates” from Islam are stripped of their civil media, education, and non-governmental and private rights and members of unrecognized religious groups, sectors in order to strengthen democracy.178 as well as converts from Islam, often suffer from legal discrimination and bureaucratic difficulties, particularly In line with his embrace of democracy, King Abdullah pertaining to the personal status issues governed by has generally allowed political participation by the religious courts.182 Islamist opposition movement in Jordan, although within strict limits. Unlike Egypt, since 2002 Jordan The government has acted to ensure adequate consid- has allowed Islamist parties, such as the Muslim eration of the country’s Christian minority. The Office Brotherhood-affiliated Islamic Action Front, to partici- of the Prime Minister unofficially confers with an pate in national elections. King Abdullah has sought to interfaith council of clergy representing local churches counter the influence of the Islamists both by relying on on matters relevant to them and their members. Nine improved living standards to shore up domestic support seats in the Lower House of Parliament are reserved for for secular candidates and by limiting the resources and Christian representatives.183 public access available to the Islamists.179 In November 2007, Islamists took only six out of 110 parliamentary Reflecting the importance of Islam in Jordanian culture seats, signaling that this strategy works in the govern- and society, religious instruction is mandatory for GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | ment’s favor.180 Muslim students in public schools. Separate Christian religious instruction is available for Christian students, Jordan’s legal system is based on a combination of but Christians and Baha’i are not required to enroll Ottoman, French, and Islamic sharia influences. The in religious studies.184 Although religious instruction Jordanian Constitution, adopted in 1952 and subse- is provided by the state, the Jordanian government quently amended in 1974, 1976, and 1984, establishes has taken measures to ensure that a moderate form of the country as a constitutional monarchy with a par- Islam is expressed. In 2005, the government began an liamentary form of government with executive, legisla- education reform program aimed at modernizing the tive, and judicial branches. The judicial branch of the education system, re-assessing curriculums, and, in BERKLEY CENTER government in particular is heavily influenced bysharia the context of religious instruction, ensuring that free concepts. As in other secular Muslim-majority coun- thought and debate is encouraged.185 tries, separate sharia courts exist particularly to handle personal status issues such as marriage and divorce. The NGOs and Development sharia courts in Jordan are explicitly for personal status Civil society in Jordan reflects the national openness matters relating to Muslims, as well as certain additional and respect for multiculturalism and diverse faiths. The types of cases where only one party is Muslim but the Kingdom of Jordan has approximately 1,500-2,000 other agrees to the jurisdiction of the sharia court.181 A NGOs. A wide variety of national and international single judge sits in each sharia court and decides each development organizations work in Jordan, including case on the basis of Islamic law. Non-Muslim personal major secular international development organiza- status issues fall under the jurisdiction of Tribunals tions like CARE International and Save the Children, established for other religious communities. international governmental organizations like UNDP, international faith-based organizations such as Islamic Freedom of religion is protected by the Jordanian Relief, national development funds such as the constitution, although the regime has sometimes faced Jordanian Hashemite Fund for Human Development, criticism for restrictions on this freedom. While no and a broad community of local NGOs.186

38 A strong push has been made from within both the to the rest of the population.189 The Sachar Committee government and the sector itself to expand cooperation report stands out as a remarkably detailed review of one of and dialogue between organizations of different faith the world’s largest Muslim communities.190 communities. Because Christians are the largest religious minority, this has been largely an effort to increase The Sachar Committee, headed by a judge and com- interfaith collaboration between Christian and Muslim prised of independent experts, was commissioned to groups. In 2004, a group of Muslims and Christians study the socioeconomic and educational status of founded the Jordan Interfaith Coexistence Research Muslims in India. It was charged with filling the many Center to promote dialogue among the three monotheis- informational gaps involving India’s Muslim minority tic faiths in Jordan and internationally. Two government and making action recommendations. Experts in the institutions, the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies fields of economics, sociology, education, demography, and the Royal Academy for Islamic Civilization Research, public administration, development planning, and promote interfaith understanding and cooperation.187 program implementation were called upon in order to create this extensive report.

India: Large and Special Case Reactions to the report’s findings have varied. The India’s Muslim population is estimated at 144 million, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), which projects itself as the making it one of the world’s largest Muslim com- protector of the Hindu majority, criticized the report munities. The 2001 census shows the Indian states as highly flawed, alleging that it was an effort by the with the largest Muslim populations as Uttar Pradesh, ruling United Progressive Alliance (UPA) to win the West Bengal, Bihar, and Maharashtra, all with Muslim votes of the Muslim population. The BJP asserted that populations of at least 10 million. In percentage the report ignores the truly neglected Christian popula- terms, Muslims make up a majority in only two states, tions, which have the lowest literacy rates and the high-

191 2008 Jammu and Kashmir (67%) and Lakshadweep (95%). est unemployment in the country. Muslim women | Other states with the highest percentages of Muslims criticize the report for not focusing enough on the trials are Assam (31%), West Bengal (25%), Uttar Pradesh faced by Muslim women in the country.192 (18.5%), Kerala (24.7%), and Bihar (16.5%). Muslim populations tend to be concentrated in cities—35.7 Human Development in percent of the Muslim population lived in urban areas, Muslim Communities compared to just 27.8 percent of the overall population Muslim communities in India lag behind the rest of of India in 2001.188 the population in terms of most human development indicators. The birth rate among the Muslim popula- Making up around 14 percent of India’s total population is higher than average; Muslims have a lower infant tion, Muslims lag substantially behind India’s overall mortality rate (the proportion of children who die indicators in many areas, with higher poverty rates and before their first birthday) and a lower under-five child lower welfare. Muslims are less likely to be literate and mortality rate (the number of children who die before

finish schooling compared to their Hindu counterparts, the age of five). These better indicators are largely BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS are underrepresented in government positions, and explained by the fact that higher proportions of Indian have a harder time securing loans. These issues are the Muslims live in urban areas. However, Muslim children subject of active policy debate. are more likely to be malnourished than their non- Muslim counterparts. Muslim children have the highest The Sachar Committee Report rate of stunted growth and the second highest rate of Noting a lack of authoritative information about the social, underweight children of the social groups in India. In economic, and educational status of the Muslim com- the Eastern region, almost 48 percent of Muslim chil- munity, India’s Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) formed a dren are underweight. High Level Committee in 2006 to obtain statistics that would be of use to different government agencies and to Access to medical facilities is problematic. Areas with investigate “the true status of Muslims in India” relative high concentrations of Muslims make up more than

39 16 percent of the villages without medical facilities. In but allegations are common and the sentiment that most states, the proportion of Muslim-concentrated Muslims are denied access to government development areas with medical facilities is lower than the proportion schemes, despite evident needs, is quite widespread. of all villages and many villages there lack any medical However, this developmental lag may also reflect low facilities at all. Muslim participation in local government, resulting in insufficient understanding of their true needs. Islam and Education Many Indian Muslims believe they lack fair access to Muslims receive less bank credit than other minori- good public schools and may see their best educational ties. In 1983, the Prime Minister enacted a 15-point option as attending a Muslim-denominational school. program to extend banking and credit organizations In small villages where the Muslim population is less to the minorities of India. This program seems to than 10 percent of the total population, 82 percent had have benefited several minorities, but Muslims remain governmental educational institutions; in small villages marginalized. The Sachar report blames inadequate with a large proportion of Muslims, the same figure targeting of the Muslim population as well as poor geo- was only 69 percent. Many Muslim villages, especially graphical planning so that credit facilities are difficult in West Bengal, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh, have no for Muslims to access. schools and private Muslim-denominational schools and madrasas are the major option. However, many Muslim women often work within the home, with Muslims see these schools as questionable alternatives activities including sewing, embroidery, and beedi (ciga- and believe that the Indian government is violating the rette) rolling. The work conditions for these women are spirit of the Constitution by relying on these institu- normally very poor, without bathroom facilities, health tions to educate Muslim children. insurance, or security. In some states, the home-based goods industry has disintegrated, meaning these women GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | Though Muslim students’ school enrollments have have no employment options in line with their low increased significantly in recent years, literacy rates education levels and technical skills. Muslim women among the Muslim population remain lower than are unable to argue for better work conditions because national averages (59.1 versus 65.1 percent in 2001). of fear of losing their only employment opportunity. Mean years of schooling for Muslims are lowest nation- These women do not have independent access to credit wide, at around three years and four months, compared facilities or access to markets. Muslim women’s ability to to the average Indian child who goes to school for four use the government-run microfinance programs, such as years. About 25 percent of Muslim children aged 6 to the Self Help Groups (SHGs), Watershed Programs, and 14 have never been to school. Based on Sachar report Panchayati Raj (local village government), are minimal. BERKLEY CENTER recommendations the UPA government implemented a scholarship program for students from minority Waqf in India communities, with two others planned, aimed to reach The Sachar report recommends using the Muslim tradi- 20,000 students working on technical and professional tion of waqf as a way to combat the many problems facing courses. The government has approved a tuition reduc- the Muslim people in India. Within India there are over tion and is looking to expand the number of upper 490,000 waqf properties registered in the different states. primary schools reaching Muslim communities. They West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh are the two states with plan to open girls-only schools where necessary. the majority of these properties. The waqf properties are estimated to be around 600,000 acres of land and worth Economic Development in around RS 60 billion (US $1.5 billion). It is estimated Muslim Communities that if this land is used effectively, it could yield as much A major complaint of India’s Muslim population is the as 20 percent of its land value each year, a dividend that lack of infrastructure—such as roads, public transporta- could be used toward combating poverty and education tion, sanitation, water, electricity, and public health gaps found in the Indian Muslim population. facilities—in predominantly Muslim areas. The Indian government denies that such discrimination exists However, for this land to be used efficiently good

40 administration supported by both the central and state Muslims in state public sector units (PSUs) is very small, governments is essential. Legislative support is needed and smaller still when looking at high-ranking officials. to fix the 1995Waqf Act which left many holes and gaps waqf Waqf to optimizing the property. The Act of 1995 Malaysia: Economic Success, fails to empower the State Waqf Boards and the Central Waqf Council, so oversight on these properties is mini- Careful Social Balance mal. Since these properties are often overseen solely by Malaysia offers an example both of successful social local Mutawallis (trustees), properties and their income and economic development and a rich history of are sometimes used only to benefit the personal needs addressing challenges arising from religious and ethnic of the Mutawallis. diversity. Malaysia’s population of about 25 million (2007) includes Malay, Chinese, Indian, and indig- Although waqf property is protected under Indian law, enous populations; nearly 60 percent are Muslim, with it is being encroached upon by both private individuals large Buddhist, Christian, and Hindu communities.194 and the government through its various agencies. There Historic tensions among ethnic and religious groups, are two forms of encroachment: using the land or prop- especially between Malay and Chinese, are a major erty rent-free, and using the land or property by paying theme in Malaysia’s national ethos and policies.195 nominal rents that remain unchanged for decades. The government’s encroachment onto waqf land invites ques- Malaysia’s economic success is unquestioned but social tions as to its ability to create a system that fairly protects challenges remain. Malaysia is the tenth-largest trading these lands and increases their earning potential.193 nation in the world, the tenth-largest trading partner with the United States, and, with GDP per capita of Discrimination against Muslims nearly $12,800, a middle income country. s. In 2003, Being identified as Muslim in India can be problematic. Malaysia exported almost $100 billion worth of goods, 2008

Those who are recognized as Muslim in the public compared to only $1 billion in 1963. For the past | sphere—by wearing a burqa or a purdah (forms of three decades, the Malaysian economy has grown at Islamic female dress), growing a beard, or wearing a topi an average of seven percent per year and the economy (Muslim prayer cap)—are often ridiculed, picked up has diversified into agriculture and hi-tech manufactur- randomly by the police for questioning, or experience ing.196 Unemployment and inflation are both relatively more difficulty in the job market. The government in low. However, challenges remain, notably increasing India has rarely brought those who commit violent gaps between rich and poor has increased and depen- acts against Muslims to justice, a sore point among dence on high commodity prices With rising wages, the Muslim community. Sporadic large-scale sectarian there are worries that foreign industrial companies will violence continues to plague many parts of the country. move their factories to areas where labor is cheaper. Acts of sexual violence against Muslim women resonate throughout India, causing feelings of insecurity and fear Malaysia’s political system is crafted to ensure careful of allowing women and girls out by themselves. A lack balance among ethnic and religious groups. Its par-

of Muslims on the Indian police force adds to these feel- liamentary system includes an elected prime minister BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS ings of insecurity for Muslim men and women. from the lower House of Representatives who must have majority support while the Senate is carefully bal- Under-representation of Muslims in government anced between elected and appointed members. This employment throughout the country is a live issue. In weighting of constituencies guarantees Malay/Muslim West Bengal, only 4.2 percent of government workers political power. are Muslim although the state has a 25 percent Muslim population. In Assam only 11.2 percent of government Religion is a main element of all Malaysian political employees are Muslim while Muslims make up 31 per- parties, and some have been identified for their level cent of the population, and in Kerala only 10.4 percent of Islamic fundamentalism. Moderate political par- of government employees are Muslim while Muslims ties have recently dominated the political system but make up 24.7 percent of the population. The number of Islamic fundamentalist groups have gained popularity

41 within the opposition party. These fundamentalist percent growth rate. About 36 percent of the labor groups use their religion for political objectives. Other force is employed in the agricultural sector, 23 percent forms of identity politics often come into play; for in the industrial sector, and 41 percent in services. example, Chinese citizens often join political parties Unemployment is quite high (10.2 percent in 2006), along ethnic lines. Although these parties are typically with an additional 4 percent underemployment. very moderate, there has been a move toward extremism Poverty remains a stubborn problem, with 20 percent in response to the Islamic fundamentalist parties. of the population living below the poverty line.201 Turkey depends heavily on agriculture. Major products Women generally have not played large roles in Malay include tobacco, cotton, citrus fruits, textiles, auto- politics, in part a reflection of Muslim influences. mobiles, mining, and steel. Its main export partners Women in high public offices are rare. With the rise of are Germany, the UK, and Italy, and its main import Islamic fundamentalism, women’s roles in the govern- partners are Russia, Germany, and Italy.202 ment have been decreasing, though there are opportunities for women in business due to westernization and Politics in Turkey a growing private sector. Some political parties have Turkey’s government is a republican parliamentary created auxiliary groups as a way for women to enjoy democracy. It has a unicameral legislature with 550 involvement in the political system while following deputies and general elections every four years. The Islamic laws which call for the activities of men and Turkish executive branch consists of a President (cur- women to be separate from each other. However, these rently Abdullah Gül), elected for a 7-year term, and auxiliary groups also guarantee that women can never a Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister gain access to the higher levels of the party. Women’s (Recep Tayyip Erdogan), who has a 5-year term. The groups like Sisters in Islam work to increase women’s President has an important symbolic role, with the right involvement in the political system and to protect to delay legislation and significant powers of appoint- GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | women’s legal rights of women. ment. The Prime Minister exercises executive power in the government.

Turkey: Interplay of Secular Turkey’s political history is marked by significant State and Religious Traditions military intervention in government. The military has Islam is central to the identity and culture of the Turkish toppled four governments since 1960, and consid- people, yet secularism and the separation of Islam and ers itself “the guardian of the secular republic.” Since state have been strictly enforced since modern Turkey’s the early 1980s, the army has wielded power mainly creation in 1923. Popular engagement of Islam in poli- through the National Security Council (MGK), which BERKLEY CENTER tics is, however, challenging this balance. With its bid has influenced numerous issues, particularly opposing to join the European Union as the EU’s first Muslim Kurdish nationalism and political Islamism.203 The cur- country, Turkey and its battle between religion and the rent Turkish constitution (written in 1982) is heavily secular are in the world spotlight. As an article in U.S. influenced by the military. News and World Report observed, “Fairly or not, Turkey is now seen as the great test of the compatibility of Islamic-inspired parties in Turkey include the ruling Islam, democracy, and Western liberal values.”197 Justice and Development Party (AKP) and the much smaller Felicity Party. Although many refer to the Turkey’s population of 71.5 million is 97 percent AKP as an Islamist party, with its roots in the Turkish Muslim (Sunni and Alevi), with Christian and Jewish Islamist movement, the party’s members prefer to call minorities.198 Some 80 percent of the population is themselves “conservative democrats.” The party’s plat- Turkish, and 20 percent Kurdish.199 Turkey has high form is pro-Western, focusing on free-market economic literacy rates (87.4 percent–95.3 percent of males, 79.6 growth and the effort to gain Turkish membership in percent of females).200 the European Union. The AKP’s recent rise has gener- ated debate, especially efforts to introduce pro-Islamic Turkey’s 2006 per capita GDP was $9,100, with a 6.1 legislation (such as lifting the headscarf ban).

42 Religion and Secularism in ducted widespread relief projects throughout Turkey, but Turkish Politics the party was banned in 2001 because it was found to be The modern Republic of Turkey was founded by unconstitutional. The Foundation for Human Rights Mustafa Kamal Ataturk in 1923. He moved rapidly and Freedoms and Humanitarian Relief (IHH), an and forcefully to an intensive secularization and mod- Islamic non-profit human rights and relief organization ernization of the country, which included removing based in Istanbul, fights for human rights and promotes the religious element from all schools and secularizing freedom. The Foundation has given aid to the predomi- instruction, abolishing all religious courts, forbidding nantly Muslim victims of wars in Kosovo, Bosnia, and polygamy, and moving toward women’s equality.204 Chechnya, and works on four continents to implement projects in many areas, including human rights, emer- Conflict between Islam and the secular establishment gency relief, health, education, and social activities.207 has been a source of struggle in Turkey for years, with In 1999, the group’s bank accounts were frozen by the continuing debate as to where to draw the line between government because of a supposed neglect to register religion and the state. The Islamic headscarf, banned in their fundraising campaigns with the government. The government offices and schools in Turkey, has become Organization of Human Rights and Solidarity for a controversial symbol of this conflict. Prime Minister Oppressed People (known as Mazlumder in Turkey) is Gül, a former Islamist, was elected over the military’s another humanitarian organization whose fundraising objections, and reversing the ban on headscarves in uni- efforts have been blocked by the Turkish government versities has been proposed by the AKP government. in the past. Mazlumder is an Islamic organization that works to defend human rights and freedom, including The rise of Islamic parties in Turkey has ignited a debate the freedom to wear headscarves. The organization is for many within Turkey as well as internationally: Is based in Ankara and monitors prison conditions, works Turkey letting go of its secular history and moving to eradicate torture, and promotes freedom. 208 2008 toward a theocracy, or is the opening of the political | sphere simply a healthy expression of religious freedom? A notable secular NGO is the International Blue The AKP’s popularity reflects demands for the Turkish Crescent Relief and Development Foundation, a large state to be more tolerant of public religious expression, Turkish humanitarian organization established through and this support is coming from Turkey’s growing cooperation with the United Nations Food Program. middle class, not from rural areas.205 The Foundation, which works throughout Turkey as well as in some neighboring countries, operates projects Turkish NGOs that provide relief aid and address housing, education, Numerous non-governmental organizations, both secu- and health concerns.209 lar and religious, are working to improve living conditions in Turkey. However, Islamic organizations have met with some challenges from the Turkish government Uzbekistan: Control set against officials, which sometimes consider pro-Islamic orga- Central Asia’s Changing Realities

nizations to be a threat to secularism. Yet when a large The ability of Islamic organizations to work freely BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS earthquake struck northwest Turkey in 1999, Islamic throughout Uzbekistan is greatly curtailed by the gov- humanitarian organizations set up efficient and effec- ernment, especially since September 11, 2001, due to tive relief efforts that were perceived by some as more national security and public stability concerns. However, successful than government efforts. The groups quickly this recent trend is set against a history of Islamic activ- mobilized soup kitchens, mobile hospitals, rescue ism and Islamic organizations in Uzbekistan.210 teams, and other necessary services for the populations affected by the earthquake.206 Uzbekistan has a large (approximately 76 percent) Muslim population, with small non-religious, Orthodox Three Islamic organizations and parties have presented Christian, and Jewish minorities. About 94 percent of particular issues. The Virtue Party, a precursor of the Muslims are Sunni, and 6 percent Shi’a.211 The Fergana AKP, had a humanitarian outreach program that con- Valley has always been the most religious area of the

43 country; radical Islamic elements are believed to come als. Religious organizations’ activities generally fall under from this area.212 the law on freedom of conscience and religious organizations. Laws governing NGOs make no explicit provision Uzbekistan’s political system for all intents and purposes for faith-based organizations, although there are some is authoritarian, though minor steps have been made NGOs that act as faith-based organizations in practice. toward political openness. President Islam Karimov has been able to maintain firm control over all politi- Islam plays a limited role in the formal education and cal activities within the borders of Uzbekistan. He has health sector with only 11 official Islamic educational won some Muslim allies by reinforcing his image as a institutions (madrasas) in the country. Religious educa- benevolent and pious leader, but maintains tight con- tion is not part of the public school curriculum. There is trol over the Islamic religion and its leaders through the very little formal involvement by Islamic organizations State Committee of Religious Affairs. This organization within the health sector, though occasionally individual strictly controls the highest Muslim authorities (known imams work with hospitals. Many traditional healers as the Muslim Spiritual Board, or the muftiyat) and use Islamic prayer in their healing practices.216 reduces their social activism.213

There is more than one political party within Uzbekistan, but they do not truly function separately from President Karimov and lack separate political agendas or platforms. President Karimov promised a genuine multiparty system in 2004, but the government does not allow parties that are not registered to hold meetings. Political parties affiliated with Islam are GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | treated most harshly. The country’s Islamic political parties, the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan and Hizb ut- Tahrir, have been branded as terrorist organizations even though Hizb ut-Tahrir expressly rejects violence.214

Uzbekistan’s foreign policy decisions are based largely upon its anxiety about Islamism. Uzbekistan’s relationship with Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Russia, and the United States reflects fears of being overwhelmed by BERKLEY CENTER Islamic fundamentalism. Uzbekistan’s relationship with the United States and Russia has never been an easy one, but Uzbekistan’s fight against radical Islamist fighters has led it to seek support from both the United States and Russia. Uzbekistan allied itself with Russia against the Islamic forces fighting in the Tajik civil war in the early 1990s and has also reached out to the United States due to fear of instability on its border with Afghanistan.215

Islam and Social and Economic Development Few Muslim NGOs and other faith-based organizations operate in Uzbekistan. The government does not look favorably on civil society organizations and is particularly hostile toward religious organizations and individu-

44 Partnerships and Relationships: The Broader Development Community

Islamic Organizations and the terrorism, human trafficking, refugees, drug trafficking, United Nations System organized crime, and early warning. Recently, the OIC he major global institution focusing specifically and UNHCR have held workshops on both human on the Muslim world is the Organization of the rights and refugees. The OIC and the UN have also TIslamic Conference (OIC), which groups 57 agreed to work together in crisis situations, especially in states and works to ensure the well-being of Muslims Darfur and the Horn of Africa.220 around the world. OIC has permanent observer status at the United Nations and works increasingly actively as The UN and the OIC have started a program that a development partner of the United Nations.217 Since would support centers in Iran focusing on women’s 1988, the OIC and UNESCO have built Islamic universi- entrepreneurship development, training, and advisory ties and cultural institutes to help teach Islamic culture services. These centers would work on increasing and the Arabic language to people around the world. women’s employment and decrease poverty within the

221 2008 Cooperation between the United Nations, the OIC, greater community. | and other regional organizations has involved a working group created in August 1994. This was a result of a There are few cases where the UN system has focused January 1993 UN Security Council statement calling for specifically on development issues in the Muslim world. the creation, “within the framework of Chapter VIII of One example of such work is the UNICEF 2005 report the UN Charter, [of] regional arrangements and organi- on Investing in the Children of the Islamic World. zations to study, on a priority basis, ways and means to strengthen their functions to maintain international peace The United Nations International Children and and security within their areas of competence, paying due Education Fund (UNICEF) has a relatively long his- regard to the characteristics of their respective regions” tory of working with faith-based groups to accomplish and “ways and means to further improve coordination of its mission. In Asia and the Middle East, it has estab- their efforts with those of the UN.”218 lished partnerships with Buddhist and Muslim religious leaders to help disseminate crucial health information

Coordination between the OIC and the UN builds on and build support for female education. More specifi- BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS similar goals for developing nations. The OIC’s 10-year cally, UNICEF has attempted to engage the support of Program of Action (POA) and the United Nations’ faith-based groups in dealing with the HIV/AIDS pan- Millennium Development Goals complement each demic and its prevention and treatment.222 other. Priority areas and challenges for both organizations include political issues, women’s empowerment The United Nations Development Programme and mainstreaming, science and technology, trade and (UNDP) recognizes faith-based organizations as a development, and technical cooperation.219 subset of the broader category of civil society organizations (CSOs). It encourages CSOs to get involved in The UN has worked with the OIC to build the orga- every level of development work, from policy-making nization’s capacity to address human rights, electoral to implementation. UNDP generally limits its CSO assistance, peace-building, peacekeeping, disarmament, networking by partnering only with organizations that

45 uphold its principles on issues like human rights and female empowerment.223

The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) also approaches its work with faith-based groups from the perspective of cultural sensitivity. This entails developing programs with the aid of community input and using local “agents of change” (who may or may not be religious) to demonstrate program worthiness. UNFPA especially attempts to engage faith-based groups because they often have networks that can reach the most vul- nerable members of the population.224

Active partnerships between UN agencies and faith- based institutions generally have focused on humanitarian emergencies and the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Both the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) have acknowledged the crucial role faith- based individuals and groups play in caring for those affected by HIV/AIDS and have worked to build coordination between FBOs and their own efforts.225 Latent tension still exists on controversial issues such GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | as contraception and same sex relationships, but the magnitude of need is compelling both UN agencies and faith-inspired organizations of many kinds to find ways to better work together. 226 BERKLEY CENTER

46 Emerging Issues

The Boundaries of Social dramatically during the 1980s, becoming “one of the and Political most formidable grassroots organizations in the Islamic n overarching issue is how to define boundaries world.”227 Individual Brotherhood charitable organiza- between public and private and between social tions focus on education, health, and job training, and Aand political, especially in a Muslim-world con- provide services in areas where the state has failed to do text. Lines tend to be blurred and can cause considerable so. Of the approximately 5,000 registered NGOs and controversy and confusion. This review focuses on two associations in Egypt, it is estimated that 20 percent are practical dimensions: first, controversies around private run by the Muslim Brotherhood, although not all have organizations that engage in both political and social direct links to the founding organization.228 Generally, work, particularly those that are seen to have terrorist the Brotherhood’s associations are registered under dif- ties or extremist objectives; and second, the question of ferent names; some projects have been shut down by how to consider in any taxonomy and analysis the many the government in the past, but because they provide 2008 organizations that operate essentially as independent enti- necessary social services this rarely occurs today. | ties but also have public status. Funding for Brotherhood projects is collected from A significant number of Muslim organizations that pro- members in a similar fashion in which zakat is collected. vide charitable services are viewed as political organiza- Members trust the group to put the money where it is tions, are linked, or seen as linked, to terrorist activities most needed, and Egyptian Brotherhood institutions or ideologies. Allegations of such links may be made by have rarely been accused of fraud or dishonesty. the governments of the countries concerned or by the broader international community. The issue has practical An example of the organization’s charitable capabilities implications for the very right of organizations to exist, is their response to the 1992 Cairo earthquake. The in the way they define their links to religious identity and medical and engineering branches of the organiza- institutions, and in mobilizing and managing finance. tion built shelters and provided medical and financial resources to victims, even donating $1,000 to every

Two organizations commonly cited in relation to these newly homeless family in Cairo. This response was con- BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS issues are the Muslim Brotherhood and Hezbollah (see trasted by the Egyptian government’s response, which Appendix 1 for further background). In both instances, was slow. Such activities have greatly increased favorable there is a fine line between legitimate political-social public opinion toward the Brotherhood and have led to values and extremist ideologies. The organizations are a large base of support among the lower and working highly controversial, notwithstanding extensive and classes in Egypt. generally admired charitable activities. Hezbollah also has intertwined political and social The Muslim Brotherhood’s provision of social welfare activities. It runs schools, hospitals, and other services services underpins its wide popularity and power within for the Lebanese Shi’a community.229 They are said to Egypt. Its private humanitarian services are compat- manage at least 12 health clinics, 4 hospitals, 12 schools, ible with its Islamic message, and these services grew and 2 agricultural centers focusing on providing farm-

47 ers with technical assistance to increase their output.230 Islamic charities as funding fronts for political and ter- Even schools that are not controlled by Hezbollah can rorist activities. Hamas’ funding often came from those look to the organization for repairs to the school build- sympathetic to their cause living abroad, especially from ings, and many Shi’a Muslim students have part of their Saudi Arabia and other oil-rich Middle East states. school fees paid for by Hezbollah. People who do not Using the cover of Muslim charities in the United agree with Hezbollah’s politics or militia have a hard States, Canada, and Europe, Hamas has channeled time arguing that their social programs do not help the funds for their social service activities. typically poor Shi’a Lebanese.231 Hezbollah runs their development programs through a non-governmental A range of charities in the United States with Muslim organization called Jihad al-Binaa and through sev- ties are under investigation for funding terrorism. In eral quasi-governmental organizations, the Lebanese December 2001, the U.S. government shut down the Civil Defense, the Development and Reconstruction Holy Land Foundation, the largest Islamic charity in Council, and the Higher Relief Council.232 the U.S. at the time, and took control of the organization’s assets because it was believed to be channeling The charitable arm of Hezbollah was particularly active funds to Hamas.236 Litigation is still pending. during the 2006 Israeli-Lebanon conflict. Hezbollah was the first to arrange delivery of water and other Despite addressing legitimate security concerns, such supplies to those whose homes were destroyed by the actions have a number of negative consequences, includ- conflict.233 A month after the August 14, 2006 ceasefire, ing making it more difficult for Muslims to donate to Jihad al-Binaa had assessed more than 15,000 houses in Islamic charities as they wish, and possible violations of southern Lebanon for damage and had offered differ- the civil rights of those who operate Islamic charities. ent types of compensation for these families. They had After September 11, 2001, the United States govern- determined that in the Shi’a-dominated Beirut suburb ment published extensive guidelines that were meant GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | al-Dahiyeh, over 19,000 apartments had been totally to assist charities in maintaining their transparency and or partially destroyed during the conflict, and offered avoid having their funds diverted to terrorist organiza- money to the inhabitants to fix their apartments. Only tions. The Department of the Treasury has created a list after many weeks was the government able to offer of approximately 43 charitable organizations that have services that Jihad al-Binaa provided immediately after been accused of funding terrorism. This list is meant to the conflict ended.234 protect donors from funding terrorism through their charitable donations. However, Muslims charities such Financial Flows as Islamic Relief have stated that focusing on these organizations has had negative consequences for the Muslim BERKLEY CENTER The full extent of the financial flows to Islamic devel- charities who work hard to help people around the opment organizations is imperfectly known. It is, world. They have asked the Department of the Treasury however, substantial. Traditions of charitable giving to create a second list, where Muslim charity organiza- through zakat are deeply embedded in the faith as tions that have been vetted would be listed. It has so far one of the five pillars of Islam. Muslims are encour- refused, due to the fact that they fear terrorists would aged to donate to those less fortunate than themselves try to infiltrate these organizations after they have been year-round, but Muslim development organizations placed on a safe list.237 Also, in the United States, the see increases in donations especially at the end of Department of the Treasury has the ability to freeze the Ramadan. Muslims often donate to organizations with assets of any organization that they suspect of terrorism cash gifts in varying amounts.235 before they charge individuals with any crime. It does not have to defend the freezing of assets in a court of Since September 11, 2001, a worldwide focus on law unless challenged by the organization.238 financial flows to Islamic organizations has centered on organizations seen to be funding terrorist organizations. The U.S. and certain European governments’ actions The concern to regulate funding is based on a history against Muslim development organizations have had of organizations such as Hamas using international drastic effects on how the Muslims of these countries

48 practice charitable giving. Many have stopped donating tory of this giving and on its Qur’anic foundations. to Muslim organizations in favor of other aid organizations. There has been a large decrease in donations to Country-specific case studies about prominent Islamic Muslim organizations working to eliminate human countries, particularly those that are widely covered suffering around the world, including many worthy by the media because of elections or recent reforms, and well-run organizations. One way that these orga- are relatively easy to uncover. Turkey, for example, is nizations have overcome the fear of being branded as for many a role model for Islamic democracy and has funding terrorism is to limit their activities to within received widespread media coverage and analysis. In domestic borders. The Council on American-Islamic contrast, Uzbekistan, which is a closed society and has Relations (CAIR), an organization that works to limited media freedoms, proved difficult to research. advance Muslim civil rights and religious education in the United States, has increased the number of dona- Many faith-inspired organizations are small-scale, grass- tions and experienced a growth in staff after moving to roots efforts, often initiated in developing countries exclusively domestic projects. But leaders of the organi- with limited access to technology. Many such activities zation deeply regret the loss of their support to widows, are undocumented or largely invisible in terms of pres- orphans, and refugees overseas.239 ence on the Internet. Much research thus focuses on larger, often transnational organizations, such as Islamic Fears about donating to an Islamic charitable organiza- Relief, or more political organizations, such as the tion also affect the ways organizations are collecting Muslim Brotherhood. While this provides an incom- donations. Some charities take only donations of goods plete picture of what kinds of civil society activities take such as diapers, milk powder, and blankets to prevent place in the Muslim world, the scope of activities and any allegations of funding terrorism. However, this significant work in small communities and organiza- approach is impractical and cumbersome—charities tions is poorly documented. 2008 would prefer that people donate money rather than | food, medicine, or other goods, because in-kind Another research challenge hinges on problematic defi- donations oblige charities to pay for shipping, delay nitions of “the Muslim world.” Statistics on population the arrival of the aid due to long shipping times, and and religious adherence in many countries is unreli- burden relief workers with the chore of sorting through able or even unavailable. Sources vary widely in their items that may not be needed.240 estimates, and it is difficult to establish credible and up-to-date information. Gathering Knowledge Because practitioners and scholars in the Muslim world The topic of Muslim faith-based organizations and their are reluctant to segment religion from other aspects of impact on global development is a relatively difficult one life such as politics and charitable giving, separating to research. However, with the ability to search numer- faith-based organizations’ charitable works from their ous scholarly articles and information about small-scale politics can be challenging. Organizations such as

projects via the vast resources of the Internet, and with Hamas and the Muslim Brotherhood are controversial BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS the relatively large amount of scholarly work published and are often linked with terrorism or unfriendly politi- recently about Islam, more solid information can be cal regimes; however, they also have strong social-service assembled than was previously possible. networks and charitable arms. Delicately addressing these issues and separating Muslim charity from reli- This preliminary review of Muslim faith-based activities gious radicalism can be a difficult endeavor. and organizations found a rather large body of knowledge on the subject of Islamic charity and charitable activities, particularly numerous works examining charity as an important part of the Islamic religion. Islam is a religion for which charity is integral, and numerous sources have conducted thorough research on the his-

Appendix 1 The Muslim Brotherhood and Hezbollah: Some Background

he Muslim Brotherhood may be the world’s Brotherhood has been rejected, both by militants for their most influential Islamic fundamentalist group. rejection of jihad and embrace of democracy as well as by TFounded in 1928 by Hassan al-Banna, an the United States government. However, many see the Egyptian schoolteacher, its goal was to provide more organization as relatively moderate and a potential force status and dignity to Arabs and Muslims. Egyptian for democratization in the Arab world. poverty, powerlessness, and lack of dignity were its initial focus, and these problems were linked to a failure of The Brotherhood “has sought to fuse religious revival adherence to Islam. Al-Banna was concerned with “blind with anti-imperialism—resistance to foreign domination emulation” of the West by Muslims and called for the through the exaltation of Islam.”241 It has always combined introduction of sharia law by democratic means. The grassroots political activism with Islamic ideology. Although Muslim Brotherhood’s objectives include building the it began with lower-middle-class origins, the Brotherhood’s Muslim individual, family, and society, and from there it ideology now infiltrates all levels of society. Today, the was to expand to building the Muslim state, restoring the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood dominates the unions of caliphate, and mastering the world of Islam. lawyers, doctors, journalists, engineers, and pharmacists and has infiltrated the Egyptian army and police. The Brotherhood’s early years were dedicated to establishing chapters throughout Egypt; branches were founded in According to the Muslim Brotherhood, its “profound Lebanon and Syria in 1936-1937. The Brotherhood had thinker,” Sayyid Qutb, ultimately became a “prophet”

242 2008 political, educational, and social arms from the outset, and “martyr of jihad.” The Egyptian Brotherhood | with a military arm established during World War II. eventually abandoned some of his ideals; some members As early as 1940, guerrilla training camps were set up have embraced tolerance and democracy as the path to a around Egypt. good Muslim life

Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew the Egyptian government Hezbollah, founded in 1982, is an umbrella group that in 1952, with help from the Muslim Brotherhood, but combines many different Shi’a organizations working in a rift grew between Nasser and the organization and various fields, from political to charitable. Hezbollah, eventually many Brotherhood members were driven meaning “the party of God,” is considered a terrorist underground and jailed. Nasser abolished the organiza- organization by both the United States and the European tion in 1954 after a failed assassination attempt. Under Union and is thought to be responsible for almost 200 Anwar Sadat, the Brotherhood was tolerated but techni- attacks which have killed over 800 people since its found- cally illegal and subject to crackdowns and suppression. ing. Created during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon as a

In 1981, Sadat was assassinated by members of the coalition of groups collectively known as Islamic Jihad, it BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Brotherhood. In 2005, Brotherhood candidates, running rejects Western ideology and its influence over the Middle as independents, gained 88 seats in the People’s Assembly. East. Although the exact number of people working The movement is now Egypt’s largest opposition group, within this organization is unknown, it is estimated that enjoying strong popular support. there are several thousand actively involved in its operations within Lebanon and worldwide.243 The Muslim Brotherhood today operates in some 70 countries. However, attempts at coordination between Hezbollah is a clearly political organization, both in its the organizations have failed, and connections to the ties to Syria and as an active player in Lebanese politics. founding organization vary. Different branches of the Hezbollah has a substantial bloc of seats in the Lebanese Brotherhood have diverging views on many issues, Parliament and holds several ministerial positions in the including U.S. foreign policy and Israel. The Muslim government. Hezbollah is powerful at the municipal

51 level, winning many more elections where there is no Notable attacks linked to Hezbollah include the kid- quota system to impede them.244 Although some have napping of Westerners living in Lebanon during the hoped that political involvement would lead the group 1980s; the 1983 suicide bomb that killed around 200 to become more moderate, there is little evidence that US Marines in Beirut; the hijacking of TWA flight 847 Hezbollah is disarming or moving toward solving their in 1985; the 1992 bombing of the Israeli Embassy in grievances through democratic processes.245 Argentina, which killed 29 people; the 1994 bombing of a Jewish Community Center in Argentina, which killed Hezbollah’s annual budget exceeds $190 million dollars.246 95 people; and the kidnapping of two Israeli soldiers from Much of its funding and arms come from Iran, with a border post in northern Israel in the summer of 2006, whom they have historically had a close relationship. In its which started an Israeli military campaign on Lebanese early years, Hezbollah members worked closely with the soil (the 2006 Lebanon War). Iranian Revolutionary Guard, based in the Bekaa Valley, to aid in the resistance against Israel. Aid has increased from Iran as their actions against the West have increased. Syria has also aided the group.247 Hezbollah receives additional funding from Shi’a Muslims and Lebanese living overseas, especially in Europe and Africa.248

Leadership of the group is divided into three sections: religious, military/terrorist, and political. The current religious leader of the group is Sheik Mohammed Hussein Fadlallah. The man in charge of the worldwide terrorist network is Imad Fayez Mugniyah. Mugniyah gained military experi- GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | ence by training with the Palestinian militia al-Fatah during the Lebanese civil war in the 1970s. After this group was forced to leave Lebanon by the Israelis during 1982, Mugniyah took the opportunity to join Hezbollah. As Hezbollah’s secretary general since 1992, Hassan Nasrallah holds the most senior political position in this group. Although he started his career in the military, his friendship and favored status with Iran’s Ayatollah Khomeini gained him the position he has today. BERKLEY CENTER

Although Hezbollah is mainly based in the Shi’a areas of Lebanon, such as southern Lebanon, the Bekaa Valley, and the Shi’a-dominated neighborhoods of Beirut, there are reports that the Hezbollah network extends as far as Europe, Africa, and the Americas. For example, one report stated that Hezbollah was recruiting Singaporeans to carry out an attack against U.S. and Israeli ships.

52 Appendix 2 Acronyms used in the report

ADFD Abu Dhabi Development Fund KMYA Kenya Muslim Youth Alliance AKAM Aga Khan Agency for Microfinance MDGs Millennium Development Goals AKDN Aga Khan Development Network NGO Non-Governmental Organization AKES Aga Khan Education Services OFID OPEC Fund for International Development AKF Aga Khan Foundation OIC Organization of the Islamic Conference AKFED Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries AKHS Aga Khan Health Services PCID Philippine Council for Islam and Democracy AKP Turkish Justice and Development Party PJD Moroccan Party of Justice and Development AKPBS Aga Khan Planning and Building Services SIS Sisters in Islam AKTC Aga Khan Trust for Culture UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on CSO Civil Society Organization HIV/AIDS FBO Faith Based Organization UNDP United Nations Development Programme HDR Human Development Report UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ICNA Islamic Circle of North America UNFPA United Nations Population Fund ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund 2008 IDB Islamic Development Bank | UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund IIRO International Islamic Relief Organization for Women IR Islamic Relief WHO World Health Organization ISESCO Islamic Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

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58 Endnotes

1 Issues around definitions of the Muslim World are also 17 Islamic Relief Website, http://www.islamic-relief.com/projects/ discussed in the Brookings Discussion Paper prepared in early Sectors/Income.htm. 2008 by Hady Amr and Katherine Marshall: Human 18 “Aga Khan Development Network.” Geneva Briefing Book. Development in the Muslim World: Transformation for a http://www.genevabriefingbook.com/chapters/akdn.pdf. Common Future, available on the Brookings website at http:// www.brookings.edu/papers/2008/02_islamic_world_amr.aspx. 19 Salih, Mohamed. “Islamic NGOs in Africa: the promise and peril of Islamic voluntarism.” De Wall, A. ed. The Islamic 2 Adherents.com. Accessed 8 November 2007. http://www. Project and its Enemies: Jihad, Civil Society and Humanitarianism adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Islam. in North-East Africa. London: C. Hurst, 2003, 3. 3 CIA World Factbook. Accessed 8 November 2007. https:// 20 Ibid. www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/. 21 Ibid. 4 CIA World Factbook; Encyclopedia Britannica: 2007 Book of the Year. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2007. 22 Benthall, Jonathan. “Financial Worship: The Quranic Injunction to Almsgiving.” The Journal of the Royal 5 Lodge, George. “Using Big Business to Fight Poverty.” Anthropological Institute. 5.1, (March 1999): 27–42. Harvard Business School. Accessed 12 August 2002. http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/3050.html. 23 “What is Zakat?” Zakat Center, accessed 15 October 2007 http://www.thezakat.org/What-is-Zakat.aspx. 6 Full tables can be found at http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/ HDR_20072008_Table_1.pdf 24 Ibid. 7 Badawi, Abdul Bin Haji Ahmad. “The Real Challenge for 25 Salih, 4. Muslim Nations is Economic.” Financial Times, Asia Edition. 26 Benthall, Jonathan and Bellion-Jourdan, Jérôme. The 28 May 2007, 9. Charitable Crescent: Politics of Aid in the Muslim World. 2008 8 Ibid. New York: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd, 2003, 9. | 9 Tausch, Arno. “Is Islam really a development blockade? 27 Benthall, The Charitable Crescent, 10. 12 predictors of development, including membership in the 28 Ariff, Mohamed.The Islamic Voluntary Section of Southeast Asia. Organization of Islamic Conference, and their influence on Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1991, 2–3. 14 indicators of development in 109 countries of the world with completely available data.” The University of Innsbruck, 29 Ibid. Austria. Accessed 25 September 2007. http://129.3.20.41/eps/ 30 Dallal, A. “The Islamic Institution of Waqf: A Historical ge/papers/0509/0509003.pdf, 3. Overview.” Islam and Social Policy, ed. Stephen Heyneman. 10 Ibid., 53. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2004. 11 Ibid., 3. 31 The Neglected Right: Freedom of Association in International Human Rights Law. Human Rights First. December 1997. 12 Ibid., 59. http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/pubs/descriptions/neglrt.htm. 13 Ibid., 3. 32 Ibid; also, International Center for Not-for-Profit Law, 14 Al Hakeem, Mariam. “IDB launches $10b fund to Tackle Foundations for Civil Society Law Reform in the Gulf Region Poverty in Islamic World.” Gulfnews.com. 23 October 2007. Final Report, “Executive Summary,” 2. Accessed 1 November 2007 http://archive.gulfnews.com/ BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS 33 Elbayar, Karim. “NGO Laws in Selected Arab States, articles/07/10/24/ International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law 7, no. 4 September 10162319.html. 2005, 3. 15 Cincotta, Howard. “Islamic Development Bank Joins Broad 34 For data on the numbers of NGOs in Egypt, see Elbayar 8 and Global Anti-poverty Effort.” US State Department. 22 Nikolov, Boris. “Religious and Social Services in Lebanon and October 2007. Accessed 1 November 2007. http://usinfo.state. Egypt,” 4, August 2002, Draft paper prepared for MNSHD, gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&x=200710221 World Bank, available at https://repository.berkleycenter. 70428attocnich0.6191065&m=October. georgetown.edu/RD-20020804-WorldBank-RelSocServ.pdf; 5. 16 “Challenges of Social Development to the Islamic World.” For data on Jordan, see Elbayar, 16 and United Nations, Arab Speech of Dr. Ahmad Mohamed Ali President, the Islamic Human Development Report 2004, Geneva: UN, 2004, 132. Development Bank Group. 5–7 November 2006. Islamabad, 35 Elbayar, 24. Pakistan. Accessed 1 November 2007. http://www.presidentofpakistan.gov.pk/images/wief/idb-speech.pdf. 36 Ibid., 11.

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60 85 “Islamic views on contraception.” 103 Islamic Relief. http://www.islamic-relief.com/submenu/pdf/ Leaflet0709212.pdf. 86 Roudi-Fahimi, Farzaneh. “Iran’s Family Planning Program: Responding to a Nation’s Needs.” Population Reference 104 http://www.islamic-relief.com/submenu/pdf/Leaflet0709212. Bureau. Accessed 29 November 2007. http://www.prb.org/ pdf. pdf/IransFamPlanProg_Eng.pdf. 105 Ibid. 87 Ibid. 106 Goud, Blake. “Overview of Islamic Finance.” Institute of Halal 88 “Rich Muslim countries urged to help fight polio in OIC Investing. Accessed 4 December 2007. http://www.institute states.” The International Herald Tribune. 15 Jun 2007. ofhalalinvesting.com/articles/articles/FinancingThePoor.pdf Accessed 29 November 2007 http://www.iht.com/articles/ 107 Chowdhry, Sajjad. “Creating an Islamic Microfinance Model ap/2007/06/15/asia/AS-GEN-OIC-Polio.php. - The Missing Dimension.”Dinar Standard. 16 November 89 “Muslim countries to produce halal vaccines.” Asian Political 2006. Accessed 6 December 2007. http://www.dinarstandard. News. 18 June 2007. Accessed 29 November 2007. http:// com/finance/MicroFinance111806.htm. findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0WDQ/is_2007_June_18/ 108 “Overview of Islamic Finance.” ai_n19313892. 109 Segrado, Chiara. “Islamic Microfinance and Socially Responsible 90 Ghouri, Nazim, Atcha, Mohammed and Sheikh, Aziz. Investments.” The University of Turin. Accessed 4 December “Influence of Islam on smoking among Muslims.”British 2007. http://www.gdrc.org/icm/islamic-microfinance.pdf Medical Journal. Vol. 332, (2006): 291–294. 110 “Islamic Microfinance and Socially Responsible Investments.” 91 Al-Khateeb, M. and Islam, N. “Challenges and opportunities for tobacco control in the Islamic countries—a case-study from 111 “Overview of Islamic Finance.” Bangladesh.” Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal. 1.2, 112 Ibid. (1995): 230–234. 113 El-Hawary, Dahlia and Grais, Wafik. “Islamic Financial Services 92 “Mufti of Egypt Declares Smoking as ‘Haram.’” Islamic and Microfinance.” Microfinance Gateway. June 2005. Accessed Republic News Agency (IRNA). 20 May 2000. Accessed 4 6 December 2007. http://www.microfinancegateway.org/files/ December 2007. http://www.prn2.usm.my/mainsite/tobacco/ 33625_file_Islamic_Financial_Services_and_Microfinance.pdf newsislam.html. 114 “Glossary of Islamic Terms.” Islamic Bank of Britain. Accessed 93 Al-Hathery, Shabib Ibn Ali. “The Muslim Doctor: Duties and 6 December 2007. http://www.islamic-bank.com/islamic 2008 Responsibilities.” Islamic Medical Association. Accessed 4 | banklive/IslamicTerms/1/Home/1/Home.jsp. December 2007. http://www.mediconcern.org.uk/papers/ Muslim_Doctor.pdf. 115 “Glossary of Islamic Terms.” 94 Ahmed, Abdul Kayum. “Muslim Responses to HIV/AIDS.” 116 Ibid. ISIM Newsletter. No. 12: 40–41, 2003. 117 “Hodeidah.” The Grameen Foundation. Accessed 6 December 95 Eberstadt, Nicholas and Kelley, Laura M. “Behind the Veil of a 2007. http://www.grameenfoundation.org/where_we_work/ Public Health Crisis. HIV/AIDS in the Muslim World.” The middle_east_north_africa/yemen/hodeidah/ National Bureau of Asian Research. 2005. 118 “Islamic Microfinance and Socially Responsible Investments.” 96 Eberstadt, Nicholas and Kelley, Laura M. “The Muslim Face of 119 “Funded by the Islamic Development Bank, The Palestinian AIDS.” Foreign Policy. July/August 2006, 149: 42. Authority and UNDP/PAPP launch a US$30 million 97 Ibid. micro-finance programme for deprived Palestinians.” United Nations Development Programme. 9 August 2007. Accessed 98 “Faith-Motivated Actions on HIV/AIDS: Prevention and Care 6 December 2007. http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/ for Children and Young People in South Asia, a Regional c25aba03f1e079db85256cf40073bfe6/d5d5f81d834bfec3852 Overview.” United Nations Children’s Fund, Regional Office 57336005f3345!OpenDocument.

for South Asia. Accessed 9 October 2007. http://www.unicef. BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS org/ROSA_faith_study.pdf. 120 “The Arab Human Development Reports.” United Nations Development Programme. December, 2006. 7–8. 99 UNICEF. 121 Ibid. 100 “The Muslim Face of AIDS.” 122 Ibid. 101 Allam, Hannah. “Iran’s AIDS-Prevention Program Among World’s Most Progressive.” 16 April 2006. Knight Ridder. 123 Ibid., 9. Accessed 9 October 2007. http://www.commondreams.org/ 124 Mahnaz Afkhami, “Promoting Women’s Rights in the Muslim headlines06/0414-03.htm. World” Journal of Democracy 8.1, 1997, 157–166. 102 Davis, Ellen F. “Interfaith Cooperation in Sudan.” Accessed 125 Fatima Mernissi website. Accessed 26 November 2007. 9 October 2007. http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith

61 126 Casablanca Dream. Accessed 26 November 2007. http://www. 144 See World Bank, “World Bank President Praises Economic casablanca-dream.net/index.html. Reforms and Reaffirms Commitment to Support Inclusive Growth in Egypt,” (Press Release). 15 November 2007. 127 Sisters in Islam. http://www.sistersinislam.org.my/. Accessed 11 December 2007. ; Also, State Information Service, Egypt. “Nazif Before Euromoney 129 USAID, “Morroco,” 14 July 2005. Accessed 11 December Conference: Economic Reform Pace in Egypt Quicker than 2007. http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/cbj2006/ane/ma. Expected by International Organizations.” 14 September 2005. html. Accessed 11 December 2007. http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Egypt 130 2006 Human Development Report. Online/Economy/000003/0202000000000000002298.htm. 131 USAID, “Morocco.” 145 “Country Briefings: Egypt: Economic Data.”The Economist. com. Accessed 20 November 2007. http://www.economist. 132 While religious freedom is guaranteed by the Moroccan com/countries/Egypt/profile.cfm?folder=Profile%2D constitution, there are restrictions on the distribution of Economic%20Data;. Christian religious materials and on proselytizing. 146 Ibid. 133 “Morocco: International Religious Freedom Report 2006.” US State Department. Accessed 5 November 2007. http://www. 147 Gaurav Datt et al, “A Profile of Poverty in Egypt.” InAfrican state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71428.htm. Development Review 13, 2, 232. 134 Knickmeyer, Ellen. “Islamic Party Confident in Morocco.” 148 United Nations Development Program, Human Development The Washington Post. 7 September 2007. Accessed 6 November Report 2006/2007. “Country Fact Sheets: Egypt,” Accessed 2006. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/ 20 November 2007 http://hdrstats.undp.org/ countries/ article/2007/09/06/AR2007090602547.html. country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_EGY.html. 135 Amghar , Samir. “Political Islam in Morocco.” Centre for 149 “National Profiles: Egypt.” The Association of Religion Data European Policy Studies. June 2007. Archives. Accessed 5 November 2007. http://www.thearda. com/internationalData/countries/Country_73_2.asp. 136 “Morocco.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Accessed 6 November 2007. http://209.85.165.104/search?q= 150 Otterman, Sharon. “Muslim Brotherhood and Egypt’s GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | cache:lnpJgSN4h3QJ:www.carnegieendowment.org/files/ Parliamentary Elections.” The Council on Foreign Relations. Morocco_APS.doc+morocco+islamic+associations&hl=en&ct Accessed 27 November 2007. http://www.cfr.org/publication/ =clnk&cd=25&gl=us 9319/muslim_brotherhood_and_egypts_parliamentary_ elections.html 137 “Morocco: International Religious Freedom Report 2006.” 151 Crane, Mary. “Does the Muslim Brotherhood Have Ties to 138 “Les ONG et la Lutte contre la Pauvreté au Maroc.” CERED Terrorism?” The Council on Foreign Relations. Accessed Maroc. Accessed 14 November 2007. http://209.85.165.104/ 20 November 2007. http://www.cfr.org/publication/9248. search?q=cache:VPylGyme51EJ:www.cered.hcp.ma/index. php%3Fpreaction%3Djoint%26id_joint%3D2014+les+ongs 152 Abdel Wahab, Mohamed. An Overview of the Egyptian Legal +maroc&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=12&gl=us. System and Legal Research. New York: Globalex, October 2006. http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Egypt.htm. 139 El-Harras, Mokhtar, Bourqia, Rahma, and Bensaid, Driss. BERKLEY CENTER “Jeunesse Etudiante Marocaine: Valeurs et Stratégies.” 153 The Association of Religion Data Archives, National; Also, Publications de la Faculté de Lettres et des Sciences Humaines U.S. Department of State, Country Reports of Human Rights de Rabat, 1995: pages 129 and 134. Fatima Mernissi website. Practices 2006, “Egypt.” Accessed 5 November 2007. http:// Accessed 26 November 2007 http://www.mernissi.net/civil_ www.state.gov/g. society/synergie_civique/syn_civ.html. 154 Ibid. 140 Annuaire des Associations (site in French and Arabic): http:// 155 The Association of Religion Data Arcives, “National Profiles: www.tanmia.ma/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=27. For a visual Egypt.” representation of associational density by region, see Carte interactive des associations marocaines (site in French) http:// 156 Otterman, Sharon, “Islam: Governing Under Sharia.” Council gis.tanmia.ma/. on Foreign Relations. 14 March 2005. Accessed 6 November 2007. http://www.cfr.org/publication/html?id=8034. 141 Encyclopedia of the Nations. Accessed 6 November 2007 http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Morocco- 157 Ibid. POLITICAL-PARTIES.html. 158 Charlotte M. Neil, “Islam in Egyptian Education: Grades 142 “CRS Responds to Victims of Morocco Earthquake.” K-12.” Religious Education. 101, no. 4, Fall 2006, 485. InterAction.org. 2 March 2004. Accessed 26 November 2007 159 Ibid., 488. http://www.interaction.org/newswire/detail.php?id=2703. 160 Ibid., 493–494. 143 Islamic Relief. Accessed 26 November 2007. http://www. islamic-relief.com/submenu/Appeal/morroco.htm. 161 Ibid., 494–498.

62 162 U.S. Department of Education, International Affairs, Planning December 2007. http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/ and Evaluation Service, “Education Around the World: Egypt,” ifpdial/info/national/jo.htm. 1 May 2002. Accessed 27 November 2007. http://www.ed. 182 US State Department, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, gov/offices/OUS/PES/int_egypt.html. and Labor, International Religious Freedom Report 2005. 163 Ibid. “Jordan.” Accessed 3 December 2007. http://www.state.gov/g/ drl/rls/irf/2005/51602.htm. 164 Elbayar, 8. 183 Ibid. 165 See, CIVICUS, An Overview of Civil Society in Egypt: Civil Society Index Report for the Arab Republic of Egypt, Cairo 184 Ibid. 2005. 26 November 2007. http://www.civicus.org/new/media/ 185 Hassan M. Fattah, “Jordan is Preparing to Tone Down the Egypt_Country_Report.pdf. Islamic Bombast in Textbooks.” The New York Times, 12 June 166 Elbayar, 8. 2005. Accessed 3 December 2007. http://www.nytimes. com/2005/06/12/international/middleeast/12jordan.html. 167 Ibid; see also Human Rights Watch, “Egypt: Civil Society Groups Severely Restricted.” Accessed 20 November 2007. 186 Development Directory, Jordan. Accessed on 29 November http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/07/04/egypt11217.htm. 2007. http://devdir.org/files/Jordan.pdf. 168 Ibid. 187 US State Department, “Jordan.” 169 ARDA, Egypt, “Religious Demography.” 188 All statistics are from the most recent Indian census (conducted in 2001). See Census Reference Tables, Population by 170 Article 98 (F); State Department, Country Human Rights Religious Communities: http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ Report 2006. Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/ 171 IRIN, “Egypt: Social Programmes Bolster Appeal of Muslim Population_by_religious_communities.htm. Brotherhood,” 22 February 2006. Accessed 26 November 189 Syed Zafar Mahmood. “Summarised Sachar Report on Status 2007. http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=26150. of Indian Muslims.” The Milli Gazette. Accessed 13 December 172 See, Directory of Development Organizations, Volume IA, 2006. http://www.milligazette.com/dailyupdate/2006/ Africa, Edition 2007. Accessed 26 November 2007. http:// 200612141_Sachar_Report_Status_Indian_Muslims.htm www.devdir.org/files/Egypt.PDF. 190 The Prime Minister’s High Level Committee. “Social,

173 The Association of Religion Data Archives, “Jordan National Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community 2008 | Profile,” 2006. Accessed 11 December 2007. http://thearda. of India.” Government of India. Accessed November 2006. com/internationalData/countries/Country_119_1.asp. http://www.sabrang.com/sachar/sacharreport.pdf. 174 World Bank, Jordan Poverty Assessment, “Executive 191 “Report Shows Sachar Findings Manipulated: BJP.” The Times Summary.” Volume 1, December 2004, vii. Accessed 27 of India. 31 March 2007. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ November 2007. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/ NEWS/India/Report_shows_Sachar_findings_manipulated_ WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/10/12/000160016_200 BJP/articleshow/1837930.cms. 51012164651/Rendered/PDF/338020VOL.01.pdf. 192 Sharma, Kalpana. “Muslim Women Criticize Sachar Report 175 Ibid., vii-viii. for Overlooking their Problems.” In The Hindu. Accessed 28 January 2007. http://www.hindu.com/2007/01/28/stories/ 176 IRIN, “Jordan: Citizens in 40 Municipalities Live Below 2007012803720800.htm. Poverty Line,” 15 March 2006. Accessed 27 November 2007 http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=26197. 193 Prime Minister’s High Level Committee, “Social, Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India.” 177 Rural Poverty Portal, “Rural Poverty in Jordan,” 11 October Government of India; November, 2006. 2007. Accessed 27 November 2007. http://www.ruralpoverty- portal.org/english/regions/asia/jor/index.htm. 194 Department of Statistics Malaysia, “Population and Housing

Census 2000,” 2005. Accessed 11 December 2007. BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS 178 Embassy of Jordan, “Jordan First.” Accessed 27 November http://www.statistics.gov.my/english/frameset_census.php? 2007. http://www.jordanembassy.ro/events/jordan1st.pdf file=pressdemo. 179 Nathan Brown, Jordan and its Islamic Movement: The Limits 195 V Singh. “Malaysia”. J. Robertson and M. East, eds., of Inclusion?” Carnegie Paper No. 74, November 2006, Diplomacy and Developing Nations: post-Cold War foreign policy Washington D.C: Carnegie Endowment, 2006. making structures and processes. Pg. 137–152. https://www. 180 “Defeat of Islamic Parties Characterises Amman Vote.” 22 library.georgetown.edu/reserves/xp343a16.pdf November 2007. 3 December 2007. http://new.asianews.it/ 196 Utley, John Basil. “Malaysia: Muslim and Prosperous.” Ludwig index.php?l+en&art=10864. Also, Thorold, Crispin. “Jordan’s von Mises Institute. Accessed 22 August 2003. http://www. Struggle with Islamism.” BBC News, Jordan, 19 November mises.org/story/1313. 2007. Accessed 3 December 2007 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ middle_east/7102329.stm. 197 Tolson, Jay. “Continental Divide.” In U.S. News and World Report. 27 May 2007. Accessed 14 November 2007. http:// 181 Bitar, Fouad. National Labour Law Profile: Jordan. www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/070527/4turkey.htm. International Labor Organization. 13 May 2004. Accessed 3

63 198 The Association of Religion Data Archives, “National Profiles: 218 “UN Cooperation with Regional and Inter Governmental Turkey.” 2006. Accessed 11 December 2007. http://thearda. Organizations: OIC.” OIC. Accessed 6 December 2007. com/internationalData/countries/Country_226_1.asp. For http://www.oicun.org/articles/56/1/UN-Cooperation-with- more on the Alevis, see John Shindeldecker, “Turkish Alevis Regional--Inter-Governmental-OrganizationsOIC/1.html. Today,” http://www.alevibektasi.org/xalevis1.htm. 219 Ibid. 199 The Face of Tomorrow, “Istanbul, Turkey.” 2006. 220 Ibid. Accessed 11 December 2007. http://www.faceoftomorrow. com/istanbul.asp. 221 Ibid. 200 Index Mundi, “Turkey Literacy: Demographics,” 2007. 222 UNICEF Press Centre, “Sharing common goals: UNICEF, Accessed 11 December 2007. http://www.indexmundi.com/ faith-based organizations and children,” http://www.unicef. turkey/literacy.html. org/media/media_4537.html. 201 Ibid. 223 United Nations Development Programme, “UNDP and civil society organizations.” http://www.undp.org/partners/cso/ 202 European Commission, “Turkey Trade Fact Sheet,” September index.shtml. 2006. Accessed 11 December 2007. http://trade.ec.europa.eu/ doclib/docs/2006/september/tradoc_113456.pdf. 224 United Nations Population Fund. “Using Culturally Sensitive Approaches to Achieve Universal Goals.” http://www.unfpa. 203 “Turkey: Political forces.” The Economist. 8 May 2007. Accessed org/culture/overview.htm. 12 November 2007. http://www.economist.com/countries/ Turkey/profile.cfm?folder=Profile%2DPolitical%20Forces. 225 United Nations Development Fund for Women. “News: Women of faith add their voices to the ongoing fight to 204 Landau, Jacob. “Turkey: Between Secularism and Islamism.” mitigate HIV/AIDS.” Accessed 22 September 2003. http:// In The Jerusalem Letter. 352.9., 16 February 1997. www.genderandaids.org/modules.php?name=News&file=articl 205 “An Islamic Test for Turkey.” e&sid=194; World Health Organization, “Faith-based organizations play a major role in HIV/AIDS care and 206 Hockstader, Lee. “Turkish Quake sets off Political Tremors.” treatment in sub-Saharan Africa.” Accessed 8 February 2007. In The Washington Post Foreign Service. 27 August 1999. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2007/np05/en/ Accessed 15 November 2007. http://www.washingtonpost. index.html. com/wp-srv/inatl/daily/aug99/turkey27.htm. 226 Jennifer Butler, “The christian right coalition and the UN GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN 207 The Foundation for Human Rights and Freedoms and | special session on children: prospects and strategies,” Humanitarian Relief. Accessed 15 November 2007. http:// International Journal of Children’s Rights 8, no. 4, (2000): 358. www.ihh.org.tr/Home.7.0.html?&L=1. 227 Walsh, John. “Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood: Understanding 208 World Movement for Democracy. Accessed 15 November Centrist Islam.” Harvard International Review. (Winter 2003): 2007. http://www.wmd.org/wbdo/turkey/ngos.html. 24.4: 32–37. 209 International Blue Crescent. Accessed 15 November 2007. 228 “Egypt: Social programmes bolster appeal of Muslim http://www.bluecrescent.net. Brotherhood.” IRIN. Accessed 25 October 2007. http://www. 210 Shahram Akbarzadeh. Uzbekistan and the United States: irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=26150. Authoritarianism, Islamism and Washington’s Security Agenda, 229 “Backgrounder: Hezbollah.” Council on Foreign Relations. New York: Zed Books, 2005, 24 Accessed 16 July 2006. http://www.cfr.org/publication/ BERKLEY CENTER 211 The Association of Religion Data Archives, “National Profiles: 9155/#1. Uzbekistan,” 2006. Accessed 11 December 2007. http:// 230 “LEBANON: The many hands and faces of Hezbollah.” IRIN thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_236_1.asp. News. Accessed 29 March 2006. http://www.irinnews.org/ 212 Giampaolo R. Capisani. The Handbook of Central Asia: report.aspx?reportid=26242. A Comprehensive Survey of the New Republics. New York: 231 Schuster, Henry . “Hezbollah’s Secret Weapon.” CNN. I.B. Tauris Publishers, 2000. 124. Accessed 25 July 2006. http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/ 213 Shahram Akbarzadeh. 19. meast/07/24/schuster.hezbollah/index.html. 214 Ibid. 90. 232 Allers, Jackson. 215 Ibid. 233 Schuster, Henry. 216 Personal correspondence with David Hunsicker, former 234 Allers, Jackson. Religion, State, and Society Advisor for USAID in Central 235 Al-Marayati, Laila. “American Muslim Charities: Easy Targets Asia, 11/12/07. in the War on Terror”. Pace University School of Law 217 “OIC in Brief.” Accessed 6 December 2007. http://www. Symposium, 2004. http://library.law.pace.edu/PLR/25-2/ oicun.org/categories/The-OIC/About-OIC/OIC-in-brief/. Al-Maryati.pdf.

64 236 Levitt, Matthew. Hamas: Politics, Charity and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006. 237 “Charity Strives to Keep ‘Clean’.” Islamic Relief USA. htp://www.irw.org/news/inthenews/20060829. 238 Al-Marayati, Laila. 239 Ruff, Kathryn A.. “Scared to Donate: An Examination of the Effects of Designating Muslim Charities as Terrorist Organizations on the First Amendment Rights of Muslim Donors.” Accessed 23 March 2006. http://www.law.nyu.edu/ journals/legislation/articles/current_issue/NYL109.pdf. 240 Cooperman, Alan. “Muslim Charities Say Fear is Damming Flow of Money.” The Washington Post. Accessed 9 Aug 2006. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/ article/2006/08/08/AR2006080801246_pf.html. 241 Brooke, Steven and Leiken, Robert S. “The Moderate Muslim Brotherhood.” In Foreign Affairs. March/April 2007, 86.2, New York: 107–121. 242 Ibid. 243 Council on Foreign Relations, “Backgrounder: Hezbollah” Council on Foreign Relations. Accessed July 16, 2006. http:// www.cfr.org/publication/9155/#1. 244 Helena Cobban, “Hezbollah’s New Face,” In Boston Review, April/May 2005. http://bostonreview.net/BR30.2/cobban. html. 245 “Backgrounder: Hezbollah.” 2008

246 Allers, Jackson. “Mideast: Hezbollah Ahead of Government | Again.” Inter Press Services News Agency. Accessed 12 September 2006. http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=34687. 247 Westcott, Kathryn. “Who are Hezbollah?” BBC News. Accessed 4 April 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_ east/1908671.stm. 248 Allers, Jackson. BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

65 About The Berkley Center Religious Literacy Series

This paper is part of a series of reports that maps the activity of faith-based organizations around key development topics. These reports explore the role of religious groups in addressing global challenges as a way to bridge the coordination gap between secular and religious organizations in the common effort of international development work.

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