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Paganism and Neo- practiced by the Reformed of North America is Neo-Pagan. Paganism and Neo-Paganism are that prac- Contemporary Neo-Pagan traditions are diverse tice, reclaim, or experiment with non- and pre- and include groups who reclaim ancient Sumerian, Christian forms of . The term pagan, from Egyptian, Greek, and Roman practices as well as the Latin word paganus (country dweller), was used those dedicated to reviving Druidism (the - by early to describe what they saw as hood of the ancient Gauls) and the worship of Norse the backward, unsophisticated practices of rural peo- and . Traditions also include her- ple who continued to worship Roman gods after metic (relating to the works attributed to had been declared the official of Trismegistus) groups such as the Ordo Templo the in 415 CE. The term maintained a Orientis (OTO), an society founded in negative connotation until it was reclaimed by Germany in the late 1800s to the revive and Romantic (relating to a literary, artistic, and philo- ; cabalistic groups who study ancient sophical movement originating in the eighteenth Hebrew mysticism; and alchemists, who practice the century) revivalists in nineteenth-century Europe. spiritual refinement of the will. By far the largest sub- Inspired by the works of early anthropologists and group within Neo-Paganism is made up of revival folklorists, who attributed spiritual authenticity to traditions, including (revival witch- pre-Christian Europeans and the indigenous people craft). Some Neo-Pagans may mix elements from of the Third World, revivalists coined the term neo- these traditions with others borrowed from Native pagan to characterize the religions they were creating. American and Afro-Caribbean , yielding Today the terms pagan and neo-pagan are often used highly syncretic (combining different forms) tradi- interchangeably by Neo-Pagans to emphasize the his- tions. It is therefore almost impossible to generalize torical and cultural continuity they claim with their accurately about Neo-Pagan practice. spiritual forebears. Some Neo-Pagans distinguish between their own Ritual in Neo-Pagan Religions revival movement and what they call “paleo-pagan- ism” and “meso-paganism.” According to this dis- Ritual is the most important form of religious expres- tinction, paleo-paganism includes pre-Christian sion common to Neo-Pagan religions. Neo-Pagans religions, whereas meso-paganism includes the reli- emphasize ritual because of the tremendous attention gions of indigenous groups who were never fully it received from early anthropologists, folklorists, Christianized and thus never lost contact with their and religious scholars, who saw it as a set of pat- polytheistic traditions. Thus, for example, the Roman terned behaviors intended to regulate humans’ rela- is paleo-pagan; indigenous Native tionships with agents such as or American religions are meso-pagan; and the religion ancestor spirits. Neo-Pagans have adopted this early 307 RT1806_P.qxd 1/30/2004 3:35 PM Page 308

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Stonehenge in southern is probably the best-known symbol of pagan religion. Its location on a slight rise in the Salisbury Plain and mysteries about its origin and meaning add to its allure. COURTESY OF KAREN CHRISTENSEN.

anthropological concept; but because they generally pants into the everyday world. This structure is see divinity as present in every living thing, ritual grounded in the work of twentieth-century ritual becomes a vehicle to achieve communion not only scholars such as the French sociologist Arnold Van with deities, but also with nature, community, and the Gennep, who identified three principal stages of ritu- inner self. Neo-Pagan are a form of commu- al, and Victor Turner, who described ritual as “limi- nally created artistic expression that strives to give nal” (existing outside ordinary time and space). Most participants direct, transcendent experiences of the Neo-Pagan groups do not have regular meeting sacred. places such as churches or . Their rituals take Neo-Pagans use a variety of techniques to bring place in private homes or in public parks and meet- about these experiences. These techniques include ing places. Rituals usually begin by consecrating the , music, dance, poetry, drumming, cos- space: a series of actions designed to put participants tumes, and handmade objects, as well as symbolic in a frame of mind that Neo-Pagans call “between the action and speech. The stimuli are designed to com- worlds,” that is, between the sacred world and the municate with participants’ unconscious minds, mov- everyday, mundane world. Neo-Pagan traditions dif- ing them toward both religious ecstasy and new fer in how they accomplish this, but they may use cognitive understandings. The planning and coordi- incense and saltwater to symbolically cleanse the nation of a successful ritual become an art form in and space or mark the area in which the ritual will occur of themselves, and participants may contribute by with a knife or sword blade drawn through the air or making objects for use in a ritual, playing instru- with a line of chalk on the ground. These actions ments, singing, dancing, reciting poetry, or engaging symbolically separate the ritual world from the in other art forms within the ritual context. Most Neo- everyday world. Ritualists may then summon the Pagan rituals are participatory experiences; there is spirits of the four cardinal directions (north, south, little separation between and laity in these reli- east, and west) and the elements associated with each gions, and all who are present play a part in the ritu- one (earth, fire, air, and water). When the space and al performance. the participants are ready, other spiritual entities, such as deities, nature spirits, or ancestors, may be Structure of Neo-Pagan Rituals summoned into the sacred space to honor them, give thanks, or request their help for the ritual’s principal Most Neo-Pagan rituals have a three-part structure: goal. setting the stage for the primary action, performing The middle part of the ritual constitutes its core. It is the actual work of ritual, and reintegrating partici- here that the participants commune with the gods 308 RT1806_P.qxd 1/30/2004 3:35 PM Page 309

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Wiccan yearly cycle of eight sabbats (holy days, usu- ally corresponding to the solstices, equinoxes, and cross-quarter days between each solstice), there no single calendrical cycle is common to all forms of Neo-Paganism; rather, each tradition follows a yearly cycle linked to the religion or that it emu- lates. For example, members of the in Los Angeles commemorate the Navigium Isidis, a historical ritual in which boats were launched in the A collection of ritual objects used in worship by a follower of Nile River delta to honor the Isis during the Neo-Paganism in western in 2002. COURTESY OF month of March. At that time in old Egypt the Nile KAREN CHRISTENSEN. flooded its banks, bringing water and fertility to the land. In the absence of the Nile, U.S. practitioners through dance, music, movement, and a technique gather at a beach along the Pacific Ocean, where they called “guided meditation,” in which a narrator tells a release into the waves small boats made of ice (which story that participants follow in their imagination. is nonpolluting) imbued with their wishes and The story may feature a journey to an imaginary tem- dreams. Practitioners of Asatru, a form of Norse ple where participants encounter gods and goddesses paganism, celebrate Walpurgisnacht, a feast sacred and receive personal messages from them. During to the Teutonic goddess Walpurga, on the night this part of the ritual participants may raise energy between 30 April and 1 May. This feast, which marks with their bodies by dancing and singing and direct it the return of , is characterized by drinking, toward a prearranged goal, such as world peace. dancing, feasting, and jumping over a bonfire (bale- The final part of the ritual is designed to thank and fire) for good luck. dismiss the entities with whom participants have Rites of passage mark changes in the life cycle and communed and to prepare the participants to return status of the individual. These rites include child- to ordinary reality. Sometimes food and drink are blessing rites, puberty rites, marriages and funerals. shared by all present as a symbol of fellowship. In Neo-Pagan traditions have developed rites for all some traditions this act is said to help participants these occasions. For many Neo-Pagans the most sig- return to an ordinary state of consciousness after hav- nificant rites of passage are initiations. Some tradi- ing experienced religious ecstasy. After the spirits tions require members to undergo an initiation in have been honored and saluted, the sacred circle (the order to become full participants; in other traditions, spiritually purified space wherein Neo-Pagan and initiates gain status as they progress through a hier- Wiccan rituals are usually held) is opened, and partic- archy of initiatory “degrees.” During these rites, eso- ipants return to ordinary time and space. teric knowledge is communicated to the initiates by elders in the tradition, and often by the gods them- Types of Rituals selves through visions. Initiation rites are secret in that their structure and esoteric teachings are never Neo-Pagans tend to value variety in their ritual expe- communicated to outsiders; however, they have rience, and no two rituals are ever quite the same, even some common elements. Sometimes initiates are within the same tradition or group. Nevertheless, ritu- required to undergo physical, psychological, or spiri- als can be divided into several categories. These cate- tual testing, taking on tasks that are challenging to gories include calendrical rituals, initiations and other prove their commitment to a spiritual path. They rites of passage, and rites of crisis. may learn new religious material, spend a night Calendrical rites are those that mark changes in camping under the stars, swim naked in the cold the seasonal cycle of the year, for example, the transi- ocean, or be challenged to overcome a bad habit or tion from winter to spring. These rites tend to recur face an irrational fear. Upon initiation initiates often around the same time each year. They are important assume a new ritual name that symbolizes their in Neo-Pagan because pagans venerate the evolving religious identity. They emerge from these sacredness of nature, and the natural world is challenges strengthened in their , often with pro- considered a metaphor for the human condition. found mystical experiences that affirm the rightness Although many Neo-Pagan traditions follow the of their religious practice. 309 RT1806_P.qxd 1/30/2004 3:35 PM Page 310

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Rites of crisis are created in response to a per- Neo-Pagans do borrow from many other in ceived threat in the life of the community or the indi- creating their rituals, the majority do so without vidual. During such threats Neo-Pagans believe that intent to profit from their actions or to defraud the through ritual they can tap into divine energies and public into believing that they are authentic practi- channel them toward a goal. They may rally to work tioners of the ethnic traditions they borrow. Some for peace if it appears that a war is imminent or apparent similarities between Neo-Pagan ritual and assemble to stop environmental degradation in a spe- Native American spiritual practice stem from paral- cific area; but they also gather around friends and lels between the European tradition of high magic, family who face a serious illness, the loss of a job, or a with its sacred circles and four cardinal directions, personal transition. Their response on these occasions and certain Native American practices and beliefs. is to create rites to restore the balance between the Other similarities are more clearly cases of appropria- human world, the natural world, and the divine. They tion, for example, the non-Native American “sweat perceive the crisis as evidence that this balance has lodges” that are popular at some Neo-Pagan festivals. been disrupted, and they see themselves as vehicles to In such cases, although Neo-Pagans may actually bring about healing on many levels. intend to honor Native American cultural traditions by imitating them, the decontextualization of Native Sources of Neo-Pagan Rituals American sacred practice can be irritating to its origi- nal practitioners, who perceive such decontextualiza- Despite Neo-Pagans’ attempts to recapture the tion as disrespectful. authenticity of ancient religions in their rituals, most In general Neo-Pagan rituals are artistic, life- of their ritual materials are of fairly recent origin. affirming performances that create a sense of commu- Anthropological, folkloric, and literary texts provide nity and connectedness for their largely , many of the raw materials they weave into their new sophisticated, middle-class practitioners. art forms. Individuals seeking to reconstruct a partic- Sabina Magliocco ular tradition may research libraries, journals, and ethnographies (cultural studies) for information See also Crisis Rituals; Passage, Rites of; Wicca about a past ’s rituals. In other cases living tra- ditions provide elements to which Neo-Pagans give new meanings and interpretations consonant with Further Reading their values and beliefs. Some groups, for example, color eggs for the spring equinox, arguing that the egg Adler, M. (1986). Drawing down the moon: Witches, druids, was a natural symbol of fertility and regeneration goddess-worshippers and other pagans in America today. associated with the Teutonic goddess Eostar long Boston: Beacon Press. before Christians adopted it for Easter. Neo-Pagans Hanegraaf, W. J. (1998). religion and Western cul- may also borrow elements from the mass media and ture. Albany: State University of New York Press. popular culture for their rituals, although sometimes Harvey, G., & Hardman, C. (1995). Paganism today. New these elements are used tongue in cheek. One group York: HarperCollins. enacted a series of rituals based on the television Hutton, R. (2000). Triumph of the moon: A history of modern series Star Trek and its Klingon characters, complete pagan witchcraft. Oxford, UK: Oxford University with costumes and language. In this light-hearted Press. spoof, the juxtaposition of tough warrior space aliens Magliocco, S. (1996). Ritual is my chosen art form: The with the usually romantic language and structure of creation of ritual among contemporary pagans. In J. ritual made for a humorous performance. This kind of R. Lewis (Ed.), Magical religion and modern witchcraft reflexivity (taking material out of its original cultural (pp. 93–119). Albany: State University of New York context) is typical of many Neo-Pagan rituals; practi- Press. tioners maintain an awareness that they are reviving Orion, L. (1995). Never again the burning times: Paganism and recombining traditions and are always ready to revived. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. comment on its inherent absurdity. Pike, S. (2001). Earthly bodies, magical selves. Berkeley and Neo-Pagans have been criticized by some Native Los Angeles: University of California Press. Americans, who feel that Neo-Pagans are stealing and Vale, V., & Sulak, J. (2002). Modern pagans. Champaign, profiting from their cultural traditions. Although IL: Research Press. 310