Index airborne electromagnetics, 273 amphibians, 136, 138, 140, 141, 145, 151, 158–159 Alaric 1 gas field, 219 ‘ancient landscapes’, 256 An ‘f’ following a page number indicates a figure; ‘i’ refers to an image and ‘m’ to a map. Albany–Fraser Orogen, 73, 77, 101, 202, 207 Andean–Saharan ice age, 131 If a topic is discussed in the text and expressed visually Albany Harbour: petroleum exploration, 207 Andoom, 467 on the same page, only the page is referenced. Albany: seaport, 282 Anemone Formation, 214 Albian Angela–Pamela uranium deposit, 269 A flora, 142–143 angiosperms, 142–147 Abitibi Subprovince, Canada, 96, 408 inland seas, 196 see also flora Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, see algae, 125–126 Angus–Bremer irrigation area, 369 Indigenous Australians algal blooms, 317 animals for work, 36 Acacia pycnantha (golden wattle), 19 Alice Springs, 350 Anna Creek Station, 18 Acacia species, 33, 150 Alice Springs Orogeny, 221 anorogenic magmatism, 511 Acanthaster planci (Crown-of-thorns starfish), 318–319 gravity anomalies, 78 ANSIR Major National Research Facility for Earth acid sulfate soils, 316–317, 364–366 groundwater resources, 335 Sounding, 80 acid water, 364–366 tectonic processes, 105, 106–107, 184 Antarctic Circumpolar Current, 148, 183 acritarchs, 126, 128 Uluru formation, 68, 257 Antarctic ice sheet, 112–113 Adams, Douglas, 202 Alligator River, 295i Antarctic Oscillation, 27 Adavale Basin, 207 allotropes, 84 Antarctic Plate, 49, 53 Adelaide Basin, 103 alluvial sediments, 52i Antarctica: Australia’s separation from, 110, 200, 201, 205 Adelaide: managed aquifer recharge, 369 alluvium, 253, 255 Anthropocene, 116 aeolian processes, 113, 115, 116, 293 Alpine Fault, 49i anticlines, 106, 214 aerial surveys, 73i alternative energies, 488 Aptian age of Australian landscape, 256–260 alumina, 477–478 flora, 142–143 age of Earth, 85, 86 top-five product, 435 inland seas, 196 age of ocean floor, 174 alumina refineries, 389, 444i, 479i, 536–537i Koonwarra locality, 145–147 aggregate, 43 aluminium, 37, 466 aquifers, 334m agricultural chemicals, 318 industry expansion, 440 definition, 335 agriculture production, 469, 477–478 palaeovalley systems, 110 environmental problems, 36–37, 315–318, 354, 530 top-five product, 435 see also groundwater land clearing, 34–35m Amadeus Basin aquitards, 335 origins, 168 formation of, 70, 102, 103, 234 Arafura Basin, 71, 82, 205 production pressures, 531 groundwater resources, 335–336 Arafura Sill, 297 and salinity, 361–364 Larapintine Seaway, 106 arc processes, 509 soil quality, 33, 63 oil discoveries, 207 archaea, 123 sustainable technologies, 254 Amasia, 222 Archean wool industry, 437 Ambrosia, 268 crust, 81–82 Ainslie Sand, 305 American Smelting and Refining Company, 410 crustal elements, 73, 76 air breathing adaptations, 132 amniotic egg, 136
544 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia Archean (cont.) atmospheric oxygen, 124–125, 135–136 bandicoots, 150 fossil record, 123 atomic testing, 217 banggerreng (tropical season), 27 geological processes, 58 AuScope, 80 Baragwanath Transform, 395 gravity, 79 Austral Petroleum Supersystem, 178, 179f, 180m, 214 Baragwanathia longifolia (clubmoss), 131, 132i high heat-producing granites, 501–503, 504, 511–513 Australian–Antarctic Discordance, 50m, 58 barite, 22, 93i rocks, 70, 89 Australian Antarctic Territory, 4m, 39, 40t Barracouta 1, 209 stromatolites, 22 Australian Coat of Arms, 19 Barracouta anticline, 214 supercratons, 96–97 Australian Common Earth Model, 78m Barremian, 142, 197 terranes, 94 Australian culture, 19–20 Barrington Tops National Park, 185i terrestrial organisms, 131 Australian Energy Resource Assessment, 27 Barrow delta, 194, 219, 220 Archean Craton, 72 Australian Geological Survey Organisation, 68 Barrow Island, 208f, 217 Archer River, 468 Australian Petroleum Exploration Association, 207 oil reserves, 207, 220 Arckaringa Basin, 457 Australian Plate, 49, 50, 174m Barrow Sub-basin, 194, 218, 219, 220 Argo Abyssal Plain, 191, 194 boundary geohazards, 38, 53, 83 basins, 70–71, 84, 91m, 175 Argo Land, 108, 191, 194 mapping, 60 Bass Basin, 108, 109, 203 Argyle, 84 seamounts, 55, 58 Bass Strait, 58 Argyle diamond pipe, 101 Timor accretion, 113 bathymetry, 60–61 aridity, 24, 28, 30, 57, 149, 229 Australian Surveying and Land Information Group, 68 bats, 150, 165i adaptations to, 140 Australian territory, 4m, 38–43 bauxite, 267, 309, 440, 466–470 development of, 33, 111, 113, 115, 123, 205 australites, 59 discoveries, 388, 389 Eocene, 230 Australo–Antarctic domain, 103 production, 443 and iron oxides, 231 autunite, 515i top-five product, 435 Last Glacial Maximum, 232 Avoca Fault, 202, 203m value adding, 477–478 Arrernte people, 338 Avon River, 247–248 Weipa, 454 artesian baths, 355 Ayers Rock, see Uluru Bay of Fires, 304i artesian bores, 341–345, 352i, 364i bays, 294, 295i, 308–309 arthropods, 130i, 131, 135, 146i B Bayswater power station, 488i extinctions, 168 backarc basins, 99, 203 beach ridges, 241–242, 244m, 289 flying insects, 136 backarc processes, 509 beaches, 26, 294–295, 301–308, 311 invasive species, 166, 167i bacteria, 123 Bondi Beach, 9i, 258t, 306i and mineral exploration, 271 Baicalia burra, 124i erosion, 325, 326 Permian, 138 Bald Rock, 499i sand grains, 296 Ashmore Platform, 194 Ballarat, 393, 399i see also dunes, coastal Ashmore Reef, 25, 292, 300 Balonne River, 256 Beacon Supergroup, 184i asthenosphere, 51, 79 banana crops, 319i bearded dragon, 159i Astronomia, 56 Banda Arc, 50, 205 bedrock, 52i, 57–58 Atherton Tablelands, 255i banded iron-formations, 33, 95, 100, 125, 461–462, beef, 168 Atlantic Ocean formation, 108 464–465 Benambran cycle, 104
Index 545 Benambran Orogeny, 393, 395–397, 400 birds, 162–163i Boutakoff, Nicholas, 217 Bendigo, 393 fossil record, 145, 150, 152, 155, 161 Bowen Basin Bendigo Zone, 395–397, 400 as water diviners, 359 coal deposits, 108, 457, 458–459 Benguela Current System, 291 Birdsville coal-seam gas, 373–374 Beverley North–Pepegoona uranium deposit, 269 geothermal energy, 374i, 518, 520 formation of, 70, 186 Beverley uranium mine, 268i, 269, 492, 494, 505 rainfall, 28 gas reserves, 186, 472 BHP Billiton Ltd, 209, 409 Bismarck Range, Papua New Guinea, 56i Bowen: seaport, 281, 288 bibliographies and further reading Bitter Springs Formation, 102 The Breakaways, 245i, 258t Australia and its people, 44–45 black coal, see coal breakaways, 243 Australia’s landscape, 274–275 black-necked storks, 163i Bremer Sub-basin, 201 bulk commodities, 480–481 Black Saturday, 27 bricks, 263 coasts, 329–331 black water, 364–366 Brisbane evolution of life, 171 Blackback, 209 groundwater resources, 352, 354 geological history, 117–119 Blair Athol, 108, 458 water quality, 314 Gondwana and hydrocarbons, 223–225 Bland Basin, 247 Brockman Iron Formation, 461f, 462 groundwater, 378–379 Blina Shale, 187 Broken Hill, 438 mineral resources, 428–430 blue-green algae, see cyanobacteria calcretes, 270i summary, 543 Blue Lake, 339 flotation method, 19, 409–410 thermal energy, 524–525 Blue Mountains, 26 gamma-ray spectrometry, 65 Big Bank Shoals, 300 blue topaz, 507, 508i SydHarbs, 419 Big Ben, 41, 53 Boandik people, 339 weathering, 253t Bight Basin, 71, 193f, 200, 202, 221–222 Boddington Cu–Au deposit, 390 zinc–lead deposits, 267, 408–416, 423–425 Bigrlyi uranium deposit, 269 Bolbometopon muricatum (bumphead parrotfish), 292 Broken Hill Managed Aquifer Recharge project, 374–376 bilaterian animals, 128 Bonaparte Basin, 205 Broken Hill Proprietary Company Limited, 409 bilbies, 150, 164i delta formations, 188 Broken Ridge, 108, 199 billabongs, 248, 357i gas reserves, 472 Broome, 286–287, 542i Bindian Orogeny, 396–397 glacial deposits, 107 population growth, 284 Bindibu (Pintupi) people, 338 oil reserves, 82, 178, 207, 220 brown coal, 460 biodiversity Bondi Beach, 9i, 258t, 306i geological setting, 112, 150, 208, 214 hotspots, 34–35m, 36 Boolgeeda Iron Formation, 462 powering Victoria, 486i marine environment, 43, 300, 305, 309 Boonwurrung people, 116 top-five product, 435 biogenic structures, 22 bore water, 352, 354 see also coal biogeochemistry, 273 Botany Sands aquifer, 340 Brown, Henry Yorke Lyell, 67 biomarkers, 123 Bottle Bend Lagoon, 365 Browns Shaft, 267, 412i bioprospecting, 273 bottled water, 354 Browse Basin biosphere: affecting river morphology, 248 Bouguer gravity map, 75 delta formations, 188 biostratigraphy, 85 HMS Bounty, 221i gas reserves, 82, 472 Birdrong Sandstone, 217 Bourke, 246, 249i oil reserves, 178
546 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia Bryant, William and Mary, 456 Callide, 140 carbon dioxide Bubbler Mound Spring, 360i Callide Creek, 369 atmospheric levels, 230 Bufo marinus (cane toad), 158, 166, 167i Cambrian, 113 commercial quantities, 55–56 Bugis people, 11 palaeovalleys, 110 emissions, 451, 532–534 bulk commodities vertebrate fossils, 131 carbon footprint, 486 industry development, 439–442 Cambrian explosion, 128–130 carbon-in-pulp processes, 389, 406 supporting contemporary life, 442–456, 478–479 Cameron Corner, 272i carbon sequestration, see carbon capture and storage time line, 438–439 Campanian: flora, 144–145 carbon tax, 186 value adding, 477–478 Campbell, Sir Donald, 32 carbonate banks, 300 see also bauxite; coal; exports; gas; iron ore Canberra, 255 carbonates, 292–293, 302 bumphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum), 292 cane toad (Bufo marinus), 158, 166, 167i Carboniferous Bundaberg, 316i Canning, Alfred, 340–341 Alice Springs Orogeny, 68, 105 Bundanoon, 354 Canning Basin coal deposits, 184, 457 Bungle Bungle Range, 258t coral reefs, 22, 183 forests evolution, 135–136 Bungle Bungles (Purnululu National Park), 26, 48i Devonian outcrop, 181i glaciations, 107, 184, 186 Bungunnia palaeolake, 241 fossil fish, 132, 133 high heat-producing granites, 501, 506–507, 509f Burdekin Delta, 369 fossil plants, 131 Caribuddy Formation, 131 Burdekin River, 311, 318i, 336 gamma-ray map, 64 Carnarvon Basin Bureau of Mineral Resources of Geology and Geophysics, geological processes, 112 carbon capture and storage, 533 68, 389 groundwater resources, 184, 335, 371 delta formations, 188 Burgess Shale, Canada, 130 hydrocarbon reserves, 82, 184 gas reserves, 472 Burong Formation, 214 Larapintine Seaway, 106 glaciations, 107, 184 Burra Group bedrock, 52i lead–zinc deposits, 107 groundwater resources, 335 Burra Mine, 385, 386i, 416 Canning Stock Route, 340–341 oil discoveries, 207 burrowing animals, 271 Cannington, 412 oil reserves, 82, 178, 217–220 Burtville Terrane, 96 Canunda National Park, 305 seismic images, 187f Busbys Bore, 340 canyons, 60, 293 Carpentaria Basin, 82, 467 bushfires, see fires Cape Bauer, 295i Carrapateena, 421 Cape Range Fracture Zone, 193f, 194 carrying capacity, 24 C Cape Range Peninsula, 158 Carstensz, Jan, 57 Cable Beach, 307i Cape York Peninsula, 466–470 cassowaries, 151, 163i Cadell Fault, 242 Capricorn Basin, 203, 205 Castlemaine basin, 395–397, 400 caecilians, 145 Capricorn Orogeny, 97, 464 Casuarinaceae, 148 calcareous nodules, 266 Capricorn Petroleum Supersystem, 178, 180m, 196 catchments calcium carbonates, 292–293 Capricorn Plate, 49, 50 health of, 315–316 calcrete sampling, 270, 273 carbon capture and storage, 136, 186, 533, 534 understanding geology of, 356–358, 532 calcretes, 243, 245i, 251, 266, 270i Barrow Island, 217 Cato Trough, 42 uranium enriched, 494 by phytoplankton, 54 cattle, 37, 282
Index 547 cauliflower cherts, 100i Chapman, Thomas, 393 climate change (cont.) caves, 107, 110i, 113, 359–360, 375i Charlotte Pass, 27 sea-level rise, 325–327 CDE Group, 456 chemical weathering, 251 Western Australia, 350–351 Ceduna delta, 108, 110, 191, 200, 202, 203m, 221, Chengjiang, China, 130 climate influences, 25m 222f, 234 cherts, 100i climate seasonality, 142 Ceduna Sub-basin, 222 Chichester Range, 346 Cloncurry, 27, 81, 100, 387, 410 Ceduna Terrace, 39f China Cloudbreak Mine, 461 cell differentiation, 127 economic growth, 441–442 clubmoss (Baragwanathia longifolia), 131, 132i Cenomanian: flora, 143–144 imports from Australia, 443, 475–476 Clunes, 393 Cenozoic Chinese immigrants, 383, 386 coal basins, 70, 71 choanocytes, 128 basins hosting, 175 birds, 150 chondrites, 123 Carboniferous deposits, 136 climate, 109f Christmas Creek Mine, 461 Clermont Mine, 455i climate change, 230, 232–234 Christmas Island, 42 coke, 459 coal deposits, 457 chromium, 478 discoveries, 456 crocodiles, 148, 150 circum-Antarctic current, 203 energy source, 37–38 fish, 147–148 cities, housing population, 16, 18 exports, 168, 186, 443, 534 flora, 144 Clarence–Moreton Basin, 204 geological processes, 110, 457–460 geological processes, 110–113 clay pits, 263 Jurassic deposits, 183 groundwater resources, 335 clay soils, 62, 254 life giving rise to, 33, 123 isolation of continent, 33, 123 claypans, 234i Meandu Mine, 186i marine sediments, 241 claystones, 197 Permian deposits, 108, 136, 138, 184, 186, 187 surface geology, 69m, 110 Clermont Mine, 455i rank, 458–459 volcanoes, 55m Cliff Head, 199 sulfur content, 451, 458 Centipede uranium deposit, 269 cliffs, 294, 295i, 300–301 top-five product, 435 Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, 140 climate, 27–29, 155f value adding, 477–478 Central Australian Element, 73 affecting river morphology, 247 see also brown coal Central Australian Heat Flow Province, 491 Antarctic ice sheet, 113 coal-fired power stations, 532i Central Australian Mobile Belts, 72 Cenozoic, 109f coal gap, 140, 187 Central Deborah deposit, 399 climate change, 92, 113, 114 Coal River penal settlement, 385 Central Deep, 209, 210, 212, 214, 216 Cenozoic, 230, 232–234 coal-seam gas, 175, 177, 534 Central Rift Province, 204 challenges, 531 development and production, 474–475 Centralian Petroleum Supersystem, 178 cyclones, 324 domestic supply, 470 Centralian Superbasin, 70, 84, 102, 106 and geohazards, 540, 542 geological processes, 110 Challenger Plateau, 204 greenhouse gas emissions, 451–452 groundwater impacts, 373–374 Chambers Gorge, 274i groundwater resources, 367–368 opposition to, 450–451 Channel Country, 31, 32 modelling, 38 Permian deposits, 186 channel-iron deposits, 248, 250i, 267 Pliocene, 156 coastal features, 26
548 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia coastal taipans, 159i cone of depression, 358f copper (Cu) (cont.) coastal waters, area, 40t conifers, 135, 138, 139i, 140–142, 143i, 146i Pilbara Craton, 94 coastline lengths, 17 conjugate margins, 191, 194 tectonic evolution, 103, 113 coastline shape, 25 ‘consent of geology’, 10, 38 top-five product, 435 coasts construction materials, 263, 266 coral reefs, 198, 205, 291–292, 294, 295i beaches and dunes, 301–308, 311 continental drift, 10, 182–183, 184 extinctions, 135 environmental pressures, 313–319 continental evolution, 93–116 sea-levels, 298–300 estuaries, 309–313 continental features see also Great Barrier Reef; Ningaloo Reef formation of, 289–292 geographical features, 14m, 20 Coral Sea, 58, 110, 205 groundwater resources, 308, 313, 336 physiographic features, 15m Coral Triangle, 300 gulfs and bays, 308–309 continental margins, 42 Cow Bombie, 284i key features, 294–295 continental shelves, 39, 40t, 58, 60 Cowcill, George, 389 natural disasters, 319–327 continental slope, 39 cratonic blocks, 23, 57 northern coasts, 286–287 convict labour, 343, 367, 385, 437 cratonic nuclei, 93–97 Quaternary influences, 292–293, 296–300 Coober Pedy, 113, 263i, 265 Cretaceous rocky coasts, 300–301 Cook, Captain James, 11, 57, 288 creation of Australia, 110 seaports, 281–282 cool temperate rainforest, 117i Eromanga Basin, 71 settlements, 13, 279–280, 305 Cooloola, 305 extinctions, 147 temperate coasts, 284 Cooper Basin, 184 flora, 142, 145, 146i, 147, 148 Cobar coal deposits, 457 Gondwana breakup, 108, 181, 183 iron ore, 461 gas reserves, 186, 472 inland seas, 196 weathering, 253t geothermal energy, 520, 523i mammals, 145, 148, 155 Cobia Subgroup, 214 high heat-producing granites, 506 vertebrates, 145, 148–149, 150 Coburn, 308 impact craters, 59 critical minerals, 538 cockatoos, 162i oil discoveries, 207 crocodiles, 145, 148, 150, 159 Cocos (Keeling) Islands, 42 Cooper Creek, 244, 248, 249i crocodiles, saltwater, 313 Coen Inlier, 470 Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci), 318–319 Coffs Harbour: seaport, 282 Environments and Mineral Exploration, 270 Croydon, 81 coke, 459 Coorong Coast, 305 crude oil, see oil collagens, 125 Coorong Estuary, 241, 292i, 311 crust, 79–83, 492–493 Collie, 199 water quality, 315 crustal elements, 72–73, 76 Collie Basin, 260, 457 Coorongite, 206 crustal thickness, 79m collision zones, 51 Cooyerdoo Granite, 85i Cryogenian Comalco, 469 copper (Cu), 37 metazoans, 127 community infrastructure, 446–447 Burra Mine, 385, 386i terrestrial flora, 131 compression stress, 51, 53 discoveries, 387, 410–411 cryptospores, 131 computer software, 19, 452 Mt Isa, 388, 410 crystal fractionation, 498f, 501, 506–507, 509 Condamine River, 336 Olympic Dam, 269, 416–422 Cudgegong River, 356
Index 549 cuisine, 16 Delamerian cycle, 104 dinosaurs, 141, 145 Cunoniaceae, 148 Delamerian Orogen, 76, 202, 203m diprotodontoids, 152, 154i, 162 Cupressaceae, 148 Delprat, Guillaume, 19, 409 direct-use heating, 522 Curnamona Province, 76, 77, 81, 99, 411, 413f deltas, 58, 188, 311, 312, 313 Dog Fence, 272i Cuvier Abyssal Plain, 193f, 194, 197 D’Entrecasteaux National Park, 305 dolerites, 107i, 190, 191i, 512i cyanobacteria, 123, 124i, 126, 131, 366 denudation, 260, 261m domes, 410f cycads, 135, 138 depression, economic, 438 domestic plants and animals, 36 cyclone deposits, 296–297m deregulation of banks, 440–441 domestic water use, 350 cyclones, 24, 38, 319, 322–324, 539 Derwent Estuary: water quality, 314 Dongara, 199 desalination, 371–372, 373m, 532 drainage, river systems, 244 D Perth water supply, 351 Dreamtime, 9, 59, 106, 265, 337–338, 339 Dalrymple Bay coal terminal, 459i deserts, 29, 30, 36, 205, 230, 231, 258 Dresser Formation, 93i, 94, 95 Daly Basin: groundwater resources, 335–336 groundwater resources, 337 driest continent, see aridity Daly River, 312–313, 336 see also aridity drilling rigs, 198i Dampier: seaport, 37i, 282, 446 Devils Marbles, 253i, 540–541i driverless trucks, 453 Dampier Sub-basin, 194, 217, 218, 219, 220 Devonian Dromaius novaehollandiae (emu), 19, 151, 152i dams, 350 Alice Springs Orogeny, 68 dropstones, 103, 142 Dana, JD, 66 forests, evolution of, 134–135 droughts, 24, 29, 38, 370, 377i, 530i Darling Range, 241m fossil fish, 33 dry blowing, 401, 403i bauxite, 267, 388, 440, 469 Gondwana breakup, 181, 183, 184 dryland salinity, 255–256 river morphology, 248 high heat-producing granites, 507, 514 Dugald River, 410 Darling River, 30, 247, 249i, 366 Rodinia breakup, 102 dugongs, 359 Darling River floodplain, 230i vertebrate fossils, 131–132 Dundas Tablelands, 255 Darlinghurst Gaol, 343 Devonian Transformation, 134 dunes, coastal, 294, 295i, 305, 308 Darwin, 286–287, 312 dewatering, 346, 367 dunes, inland, 115, 230, 231, 371i population growth, 284 coal seams, 450–451 Dunlop, John, 393 Darwin, Charles, 293 Diamantina River, 244 dunnarts, 164i dasyurids, 155–156 diamictites, 184 Dupuy Formation, 533 data acquisition, 374–376 diamonds, 55, 84, 101 duricrusts, 243, 251 dating methods, 259, 398–399 top-five product, 435 dust, 115, 116, 232–233 David, Sir Tannatt William Edgeworth, 66, 67, 72 diapsids, 136 dust storms, 233, 235i, 362 Daylesford–Hepburn Springs, 355 diatomites, 112 Dutch Disease, 447 de Bavay, Auguste, 19, 409 diatremes, 55 Dutch East India Company, 56 Dee Why beach, 305 Dicroidium, 139i, 140 Dutch explorers, 279 deep ocean floor, 42 digital elevation models, 60 dynamic topography, 196 ‘deep’ time, 85–88 Dilwynites, 157 deep weathering, 251, 253t Dingo Claystone, 220 definition of spatial and temporal terms, 57t dingoes, 165–166
550 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia E electricity generation (cont.) Eric the pliosaur, 265i nuclear energy, 514–516, 520 Eromanga Basin, 70 Eagle Bluff, 116 electromagnetics, 273 gas reserves, 472 earthquakes, 24, 38, 51–53, 242, 540 elevation, 57–58, 234, 242–243 oil reserves, 178 causing tsunamis, 320–321 Elizabeth Springs, 361 tectonic processes, 71, 108, 109 Meckering earthquake, 538i Ellendale lamproite field, 112 erosion seismic tomography, 83 Embley River, 309i, 469 bedrock, 57–58 East Australia Current, 290–291 Emperor Subgroup, 214 coastlines, 305 storms, 325 employment, 445–446, 448 denudation, 260 tsunami impacts, 321 Emu Bay Shale, 130i and weathering, 253 East Australian Plume System, 55 emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), 19, 151, 152i Esso Australia Pty Ltd, 209 Eastern Goldfields, 345–346, 400–408, 410f, 411f, 423–425, 438 endemic species, 36 Esso Standard Oil Co., 217, 221 Eastern Goldfields Superterrane, 96, 402 energy consumption, 520–521 estuaries, 301–302, 309–313 eastern grey kangaroos, 164i see also electricity generation health of, 315–316, 317 eastern margin, 191, 203–205, 238 energy densities of fuels, 516f see also Coorong Estuary Eastern Uplands, 15m, 26 energy resources, 37–38, 91m, 484m Eucalyptus camaldulensis (river red gums), 248 echidnas, 155, 161–162, 164i future supplies, 488, 521, 531 Eucalyptus regnans (mountain ash), 33 eclogites, 103 heat-producing elements, 489–514 Eucla Basin economic development of resources sector, 446–447 replacing fossil fuels, 485–486 cave systems, 113, 375i economic history, 437–442 supporting contemporary life, 485, 489, 532 geological processes, 70, 110, 111 economy, 37, 435, 535 see also coal; gas; geothermal energy; oil groundwater resources, 335 gold (Au), 394, 406 energy security, 521, 523 heavy-mineral sand deposits, 268 oil and gas industry, 209–210 Enfield, 218 palaeorivers, 249 Olympic Dam, 420 ENSO (El Niño–Southern Oscillation), 27–28, 157, 322 southern margin uplift, 289–290 ecosystem services, 309 The Entrance, 312i eukaryotes, 123, 125–126 ecosystems: groundwater dependency, 358–360, 361 environment Eurasian Plate, 50 ecotourism, 285, 287, 288 coastal pressures, 313–319 Eureka (poem), 387 Eden: whales, 281i mining effects, 384, 426, 447 European exploration, 11, 56–57, 166, 279, 309 Ediacara Range, 103 obligation to protect, 43 European settlement Ediacaran rehabilitation, 451 coasts, 279–280, 288 fossil record, 33 Eocene, 111 groundwater resources, 338, 340–341 multicellular organisms, 126–128 amphibians, 145 land-use impacts, 34–35m, 255 El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 27–28, 157, 322 birds, 150 population growth, 12 Elachbutting Rock, 510i crocodiles, 148 European wasp, 167i electricity generation flora, 148, 149, 150 eustasy, 196 coal dominated, 37, 460, 487, 532–534 Gondwana breakup, 183, 205 eutrophication, 366 geothermal energy, 373, 516–518, 520 increasing aridity, 230 Evans, Harry J, 468–469 mammals, 150, 152 evaporation, 368
Index 551 evolution, 33, 123 Eyre Sub-basin, 193f, 221 Flinders Island, 25 evolutionary innovation, 128–130 Flinders, Matthew, 57, 468 exclusive economic zone, 17, 40t, 291 F Flinders Ranges, 15m, 33, 58, 68, 234 Exmouth Plateau, 193f, 194, 197, 199 fat-tailed dunnarts, 164i Cambrian explosion, 128–130 gas exploration, 217, 218 faults, 52–53, 242 Cenozoic uplift, 113, 453i gas reserves, 219 fauna, 33 formation of, 241 seismic images, 187f bioprospecting, 271, 273 radioactive elements, 64 Exmouth Sub-basin, 194, 218, 219, 220 Devonian, 135 Flinders Seismic Zone, 51m, 52 expanding rock bolt, 19 extinctions, 168 flint, 263 exploration groundwater dependency, 359–360, 361 floodplains, 230i, 236 expenditure, 390f, 406, 463 invasive species, 166, 167i floods, 24, 29, 38, 319, 539 petroleum, 42, 82, 206–208, 222, 471i Jurassic, 141–142 flora, 33–36 technologies, 270–271, 273, 388–390, 417–418, 426– marine environment, 309 affecting river morphology, 248 427 megafauna, 33, 165 Albian, 142–143 exports, 37, 168, 170 Pleistocene, 165 Aptian, 142–143 agricultural products, 282 see also amphibians; birds; fish; mammals; reptiles Campanian, 144–145 bauxite, 469 felsic magmatism, 496–514 Cenomanian, 143–144 bulk commodities, 282, 435 feral animals, see invasive species Cenozoic, 144 to China, 441–442, 443, 475–476 ferns, 134, 138, 140, 146i Cretaceous, 142, 145, 146i, 147, 148 coal, 186, 443, 534 ferricretes, 243, 245i, 251, 266 Eocene, 148, 149, 150 computer software, 19, 452 fertiliser use, 317 extinctions, 168 gold (Au), 384, 394 finches, 163i geobotanical indicators, 273 iron ore, 443, 461 Finke River, 106 groundwater dependency, 359, 361 to Japan, 440, 441 fires, 29, 116, 153, 154–155, 539 invasive species, 166, 167i liquefied natural gas, 472, 475–476, 534 Black Saturday fires, 27 Jurassic, 140, 142, 143i mineral resources, 261, 384, 435, 446, 535 Carboniferous, 136 Maastrichtian, 145 uranium (U), 515 geohazards, 24, 38 Miocene, 150, 154 wheat, 33i and Indigenous Australians, 158, 234 Oligocene, 150 wine, 262 landscape changes, 165 origins, 131 external territories, 17 first Australians, see Indigenous Australians Paleocene, 148 extinctions, 134f fish, 147–148, 151, 158, 166 Paleogene, 145, 148 Cretaceous, 147 fish fossils, 33, 131–132, 133, 143i Pleistocene, 157 Devonian, 135 fisheries, 37, 60, 288, 291, 309 Pliocene, 156 Ordovician, 131 fission, 514–515 Quaternary, 157–158 Permian, 138 Fitzroy Movement, 108, 187 Santonian, 144 since European settlement, 168 Fitzroy River, 246 Triassic, 138, 140 Triassic, 140 Flanagan, Tom, 400 Turonian, 144 Eyre Peninsula, 295i flattest continent, 24, 25–26, 57, 84, 229, 234, 236–249 Flora River, 339
552 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia flotation method, 19, 409–410 Garrick seam, 458 geological surveys, 66–67, 68 flowering plants, 142–147 gas, 37 geological time, 85–88, 93, 125f flying insects, 136 Amadeus Basin, 106 geology, shaping Australia, 9–10, 20, 47 food plants, 33i, 36 basins hosting, 175 geomorphology food webs, 131 Carnarvon Basin, 217–219 land surface, 242–243 foreign investment, 454 delta formations, 188 ocean basins, 4m, 39 forest dragons, 161i exports, 168, 472, 475–476 geophysical exploration, 273 forests Gippsland Basin, 216–217 Georges River, 249 Cretaceous–Paleogene, 148 life giving rise to, 123 Georgetown: high heat-producing granites, 493, evolution of, 132, 134–147 natural gas, 470–476 506–507, 509f Fortescue Basin, 77m, 95 North West Shelf, 60, 82 Georgina Basin, 102, 106 Fortescue Group, 462 Otway Basin, 533 groundwater resources, 335 Fortescue Metals Group, 461 Permian deposits, 186 Geoscience Australia Fortescue River, 248 Perth Basin, 199 bathymetry custodian, 60–61 fossil fuels, see coal; gas; oil shows and discoveries, 206–208 role, 68 fossil record, 33, 85, 103, 123–166 value adding, 477–478 Geoscience Australia building, 522 fossil water, 350 see also liquefied natural gas; coal-seam gas geothermal energy, 23, 53, 372–374, 489, 514, 516–518, 520–523, 534–535 Four Mile uranium deposit, 269, 492, 505 gas hydrates, 470 groundwater, 372–373 foxes, 167i Gascoyne Abyssal Plain, 193f, 194, 197 Geraldton: seaport, 281, 282 fractional crystallisation, 498f, 501, 506–507, 509 Gascoyne Terrane, 191, 194, 199 gibber deserts, 258, 274i Fraser Island, 295i, 305 Gawler Craton, 58, 76, 202 Gifford Guyot, 42m Freeth Junction, 234i crust, 81 Gifford seamount, 55 Fremantle Gaol, 367 magnetic intensity, 77 gigalitres, 24 Fremantle Harbour, 311 Nuna amalgamation, 98–100 Giles Igneous Complex, 102 Fremantle: water supply, 367 Olympic Dam, 418–419 ginkgoaleans, 142 freshwater fish, 147–148, 151, 158, 166 Gawler Range Volcanics, 418 ginkgophytes, 139i, 146i Freycinet, Louis de, 57 geckos, 160, 161i Gippsland Basin, 108, 109 frogs, 151, 158–159 gemstones, 55, 264–265 formation of, 71 Frome Embayment, 269 geobotany, 273 gas reserves, 472 froth flotation, 19, 409–410 geochronology, 85, 398–399 groundwater resources, 336 Geodynamics Ltd, 520 oil reserves, 175, 176, 178, 191, 203, 208–217, 221 G geographical features of Australia, 14m, 20 prospectivity, 207 Galah Creek, 260i geographical position of Australia, 24 weathering, 257 Galilee Basin, 457 geohazards, 10, 24, 38, 531, 538–542 Gippsland Lakes, 316, 366i Gambier Basin, 55 see also natural disasters Gippsland Limestone, 214 gamma-ray spectrometry, 63–65, 77m geoids, 51 give up coral reefs, 296–297m, 299 heat-producing elements, 507 ‘geological consent’, 10, 38 glacial maximum, see Last Glacial Maximum garnets, 55 geological regions, 68, 70
Index 553 glaciations, 92, 112–113, 257 Gold Coast, 326 Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment, 370 Antarctica, 205 Golden Beach Subgroup, 214 Great Artesian Basin, 115, 341–345 Carboniferous, 107, 184, 186 Golden Mile, 387, 400–408 formation of, 196, 336 creating soils, 229 golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha), 19 hot bore water, 373 Neoproterozoic, 103, 128 Gondwana, 89, 93 hydrothermal resources, 522 Permian, 107, 181, 183 amalgamation with Pangaea, 103–108 irrigation, 347 Pleistocene, 258 Australia’s separation from, 21, 24, 180–206, 236–237 mound springs, 360–361 Quaternary, 24, 113, 230, 292, 296–297 breakup of, 108–110 water for agriculture, 23, 32 glaciers, 41 continental comparisons, 238f weathering, 251 Gladstone and modern coastline, 289 see also groundwater alumina refinery, 444i, 479i, 536–537i term coined, 92, 138, 185 Great Australian Bight, 39, 221, 243i, 289i oil shales, 112 Gondwanan Petroleum Supersystem, 178, 179f, 180m Great Barrier Reef, 22, 23i, 58, 205, 288–289, 291–292 seaport, 282, 288 Goodwyn gas field, 217 age of, 258t Glasshouse Mountains, 26, 57 Gordon–Lake Pedder hydroelectric dam, 32 bathymetry map, 298 Glen Osmond Mine, 385 Gorgon gas field, 217, 476, 533 lagoon health, 317–319 Glenberg Terrane, 100 gossans, 267 sea-levels, 298–299 glendonites, 142 Gosses Bluff (Tnorala), 59, 258t submarine groundwater discharges, 358 Glenelg River, 255, 256i Gotley Glacier, 41 Great Depression (economic), 388 Glossopteris, 92, 108, 136–138, 185, 186 Goulburn: water supply, 530i Great Divide, 26, 54 Gnangara Mound, 351, 353f, 357–358, 360 Gould, Charles, 67 formation of, 238 Gnarlyknots 1, 221 Gouldian finches, 163i groundwater resources, 336 Gogo Formation, 132, 133 Goulds Dam uranium deposit, 269 storms, 325 gold (Au) Gove: bauxite, 267, 389, 466, 469 Great Escarpment, 238, 241, 247, 258t contraction of production, 387–388 governance, 453–454 Great Ocean Road, 301 discoveries, 266, 345–346, 383 granite–greenstone terranes, 94 Great Oxygenation Event, 125, 126, 424, 465 Eastern Goldfields, 96, 400–408, 410f, 411f, 438 granite tors, 253 Great Sandy Desert, 64–65, 338, 371i exports, 384, 394 granites Great Victoria Desert, 30 gold rushes, 12, 13, 385–387 and geothermal energy, 517–518 greenhouse gases, 487 mineral deposits, 37, 94, 100, 101 and heat-producing elements, 23, 491–492, 496–514, and fossil fuels, 486, 532, 534 mineral systems, 422–425 521, 523 methane, 451 New Guinea, 113 tectonic evolution, 68, 97, 112 per capita amounts, 37 Olympic Dam, 269, 416–422 grapes, 262 Gregory, JW, 344–345 prices and production, 406 Grasberg Mine, Papua, 113 Greta seam, 458 resurgence, 389–390 grasses, 33i gross domestic product seabed resources, 43 grasslands, 113, 116 growth of, 442f Tanami Desert, 107 gravel, 115 resource sector contribution, 446, 447 top-five product, 435 gravity, 76, 78–79, 106 ground-source heat pumps, 373, 522 Victorian goldfields, 392–400, 402f, 437–438 gravity maps, 75, 77 groundwater, 32–33, 335–336
554 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia groundwater (cont.) Gunnedah Basin Heard Island, 22, 41, 42, 53 and acid sulfate soils, 364–366 coal deposits, 108, 458–459 Heart of Auss (poem), 8 climate change, 367–368 formation of, 186 heat flow, 489, 491, 492, 495m, 496f, 504 and coal-seam gas, 373–374, 450–451 Gunpowder: weathering, 253t heat-producing elements, 52, 63–65, 100, 489–514, 521, coasts, 308, 313 gunumeleng (tropical season), 27 523, 534–535 deep weathering, 251 Gurnard Formation, 214 heat pumps, 373, 522 and dependent ecosystems, 358–360, 361 gurrung (tropical season), 27 heatwaves, 24, 27, 38 desalination, 371–372 guyots, 42 Heavitree Quartzite, 102 domestic supplies, 350–354 gypsum, 115 heavy metals, 316–317 and drought, 370 heavy-mineral sands, 43, 268, 308, 448, 450 European settlement, 338, 340–341 H Helidon Sandstone, 354 geothermal energy, 372–373 habitat fragmentation, 34–35m, 36 helium, 471 Indigenous Australians’ use, 337–338, 339 Hadean, 93 hematites, 231, 426, 461 irrigation, 347, 350 hailstorms, 319 Henry, Ernest, 410 land subsidence, 366–367, 368f Halibut anticline, 214 Henty Mine, 384i managed aquifer recharge, 368–369, 374–376 Halibut Subgroup, 214 Hepburn Mineral Spring Reserve, 355 management, 530, 532 Hall–Héroult Process, 477 Herberton: high heat-producing granites, 506–507, 509f and mining, 345–346 Hallett Cove, 257, 258t herbicides, 318 mound springs, 360–361 Hamelin Pool, 123, 124i Hercynian Orogeny, 184 palaeovalleys, 110, 111 Hamersley Basin, 77m Hides gas field, 113 and pollution, 366 formation of, 95 Hills hoist, 19 quality, 354 iron ore, 100, 111, 125, 267, 460–466 Hiltaba Suite, 100, 418 Quaternary, 115 mineralisation, 424 Hilton–George Fisher deposit, 416 salinity, 361–364 Hamersley Group, 462 Hjort Trench, 42 sedimentary basins, 369, 371 Hancock, Lang, 461, 463 HMS Bounty, 221i submarine discharges, 358 Hannan, Paddy, 400 Hobart: water quality, 314 and surface-water interactions, 356–358 Hardman, ET, 342 Holocene sustainable management, 531 Hargraves, Edward, 386 coastal dunes, 305, 308 see also Great Artesian Basin Hart Large Igneous Province, 510 coral reefs, 299 groundwater management units, 348–349 Hartog, Dirk, 309 cyclonic deposits, 324 Group Settlement Scheme, 317 Harvey Estuary, 317 ice age impacts, 113 Grypania (algae), 125–126 Hauterivian, 142, 197 Indigenous occupation, 116 gudjewg (tropical season), 27 Hawkesbury Sandstone, 108, 188, 189i, 352 Homo erectus, 164 Guggu Yimithirr people, 358 Hay Point: seaport, 282 Homo sapiens, 164–165 Gulf of Carpentaria, 296–297, 299, 309, 312 hazard appraisal, 53 Honeymoon uranium mine, 269 submarine groundwater discharges, 358 Head of the Bight, 289i Honter, Johann, 56 Gulf Stream, 291 Headings Cliffs, 246i horizontal compression, 51, 53 gulfs, 294, 308–309, 310m headlands, 294, 295i horsetails, 134, 136i, 138, 139i
Index 555 hot-briquette iron, 478 Indian myna, 167i Irian (West Papua) ophiolite, 113 hot rocks, 23, 53, 518, 520 Indian Ocean Dipole, 27 iron, 37, 43 hot sedimentary aquifers, 517, 518f Indian Plate, 49 in Southern Ocean, 54 hot springs, 355, 504i, 507 Indigenous Australians, 9, 10, 11, 165 iron ore, 37i, 100, 111 hotspots, biodiversity, 34–35m, 36 and Canning Stock Route, 340–341 discoveries, 388, 389, 440, 461, 463 hotspots, geological, 100 displacement, 279 exports, 443, 461 Houtman Sub-basin, 199 groundwater use, 337–338, 339 exports banned, 389, 463 human dispersal, 164–166 habitations, 116, 279, 285 formation of, 424 human habitation, 232, 234 mapping country, 56 geological processes, 461–462, 464–466 Humboldt Current System, 291 mining activities, 261, 263, 385 life giving rise to, 123, 124–125, 170 Hunter–Bowen cycle, 104 mining rights, 426 mining, 346 Hunter–Bowen Orogeny, 187, 460 mound springs, 361 in situ enrichment, 267 Hunter Valley, 458i, 488i native title, 455–456 steel production, 478 hydraulic connections, 356–358 population, 13 top-five product, 435 hydrocarbons, 33, 175–180 rock carvings, 188 iron-oxide-copper-gold deposits, 416–422 geological processes, 110 shell middens, 279–280, 285 iron oxides, 231 New Guinea, 113 Tasmanian isolation, 297 iron sulfides, 316–317, 365–366 oldest known, 94–95 Torres Strait occupation, 297–298 irrigation, 315, 354, 528i reservoir rocks, 234 Weipa community, 454 groundwater use for, 347, 350 shows and discoveries, 206–208 Indo–Antarctic domain, 103 Isan Orogeny, 99 see also gas; North West Shelf; oil Indo-Australian Plate, 49 isolation of continent, 123 hydrological cycle, 335, 336f Indonesia, plate tectonics, 50 isotope systems, 259, 399 hydrothermal barite, 93i industrial materials, 43, 115 isotopes, 85–86 hydrothermal resources, 373, 517, 521f, 522 industrialisation, 444 hypersaline groundwater, 346 Inglis Creek, 303i J inland seas, 31, 108, 196, 197, 230 jabirus, 163i I Innisfail, 319i Jacinth, 268 ice ages, 103, 113, 131, 136, 296 innovation, see technology and innovation Jack Hills, 86, 93 ice caps, 113 insects, 136, 138, 146i, 166 Jack, Robert Logan, 67, 341, 358 ice sheets, 112 invasive species, 167i Jackson, CFV, 468 icehouse period, 100 and mineral exploration, 271 Jandakot Mound, 351 ilmenites, 111, 268, 308, 450 Interior Lowlands, 15m, 26 Jansz gas field, 476 top-five product, 435 internet, 19 Janszoon, Willem, 56, 166, 309, 468 immigrants, 10–13, 16 invasive species, 166, 167i Japan: exports to, 440, 441 to goldfields, 383, 386, 393 inventions, 19 Java Trench, 39, 50 impact craters, 59 invertebrates, see arthropods jawed fishes, 131 in-situ recovery mining, 494 Io–Jansz, 219 Jawoyn people, 337 in-situ regolith, 250 Ipswich, 140 Jenolan Caves, 107, 257, 258t
556 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia Jerboa 1, 221 Karumba Basin, 70, 110, 467 Lachlan River, 336 Jim Jim Billabong, 357i Kata Tjuta (the Olgas), 103 Lake Argyle, 32 Joint Australian Tsunami Warning Centre, 38i, 53, 322 Kenn Plateau, 292 Lake Bunga No. 1, 208 Joint Ore Reserves Committee Code, 440 Kenorland, 89, 93, 96–97, 408 Lake Carpentaria, 296–297 Junction Mine, 266i Kerguelen Large Igneous Province, 108, 191, 199 Lake Dieri, 244 Jurassic Kerguelen Plateau, 41, 53, 199 Lake Eildon, 370i delta formations, 188 Kermits Pool, 2i Lake Eyre, 15m, 26, 31, 32, 115–116, 241, 378i dolerite tors, 107i Kerribree bore, 342 age of, 258t fauna, 141–142 kilolitres, 24 Lake Eyre Basin, 28, 58i, 110, 149, 242 flora, 140, 142, 143i Kimban–Nimrod–Strangways Orogeny, 99 Lake Eyre drainage basin, 244, 246, 247m Gondwana breakup, 108, 181, 183, 190 Kimberley Lake Frome, 241 oil reserves, 178 estuaries, 312 Lake George, 156, 232, 242, 258t, 260 Jutson, JT, 243 gamma-ray map, 64 Lake Maitland uranium deposit, 269 Proterozoic rocks, 68 Lake Mungo, 258t K tsunami risk, 53 Lake St Clair, 258 Kaapvaal Craton, Africa, 95 Kimberley Craton, 112 Lake Taupo, New Zealand, 54 Kakadu National Park, 286–287i, 357i Kimberley Plateau, 257 Lake Way uranium deposit, 269 Kalahari Craton, 103 King Island, 25 lakes, 232 Kalbarri cliffs, 182 Kingfish 1, 209 Lakes Entrance Formation, 214, 217 Kalgoorlie, 82, 400–408 Kingfish anticline, 214 Lakes Entrance Oil Shaft Project, 208, 217 Kalgoorlie Terrane, 96 Kings Canyon, 102 land area, 17, 40t Kalkarindji Large Igneous Province, 105 Kipper field, 200, 209 land-based seismic reflection, 80 Kallara bore, 341 Kipper Shale, 212 land bridges, 116, 297–298 Kambalda: nickel deposits, 389 koalas, 36, 152, 162, 170i land clearing, 34–35m, 315–316, 317 Kanawinka Escarpment, 242 Kockatea Shale, 187, 199 and salinity, 361–364 Kangaroo Island, 130, 295i komatiites, 96, 389, 403 land cover, 61–62 kangaroos, 19, 44i, 154, 162, 164i kookaburras, 163i land-speed record, 32 Kaniaal beach, 305 Koonalda flint mine, 261, 263 land subsidence, 366–367, 368f Kanimblan cycle, 104, 396–397 Koonwarra locality, 145–147 land-use planning: coasts, 304 Kanimblan Orogeny, 184 Krakatau, 321 Landsat 7 Picture Mosaic of Australia, 61, 62m, 77m Kanmantoo, 416 Kurnalpi Terrane, 96 landscape Kanowna Belle, 411f Kuroshio current, 291 complexity of, 113 Kanpa Formation, 124i Kwinana steelworks, 478 shaping of, 10 Karijini people, 337 landslides, submarine, 321–322 Karoo–Ferrar Large Igneous Province, 108 L Larapintine Petroleum Supersystem, 106, 178, 179f, Karoo Ice Age, 136 La Niña, 27–28, 29, 322, 539 180m, 221 Karratha, 446 labour supply, 20, 426, 445–446, 448 Larapintine Seaway, 105–106, 181, 183 karst systems, 107 Lachlan Orogen, 70, 76, 204, 393, 395–397 groundwater resources, 335
Index 557 large-footed myotis, 165i Leonora, 345–346 lunettes, 232 large igneous provinces, 510 leucoxenes, 111 lungfishes, 132 Lark Quarry trackway, 145 Lhotsky, J, 66 Lunnon shoot, 389 Lasseter’s reef, 387 licensing system for prospecting, 386 lycophytes, 134, 136, 138 last glacial maximum LiDAR (light detection and ranging), 60, 236 lycopods, 138 aeolian processes, 115, 116, 232 Liebig Orogeny, 99, 415 Lydekker Line, 11m impacts on flora, 116 Lied Glacier, 41 Lynchs Crater, 165 Lake Carpentaria, 297 life Lake St Clair, 258 effect on planet, 123 M in Northern Hemisphere, 292 evolution of, 125f Maastrichtian: flora, 145 sea-levels, 10, 249, 283m in oceans, 128, 130 macadamia nuts, 36, 168 last interglacial, 244, 292, 302 light detection and ranging (LiDAR), 60, 236 Macarthur, 68 Latrobe Aquifer, 367 Lightning Ridge, 264, 265 Macarthur Basin, 100 Latrobe Group, 209, 212, 214 lime, 263, 279 Maccullochella peelii (Murray cod), 151 Latrobe Unconformity, 214 limestone coast, 301 MacDonnell Ranges, 15m, 102, 106 Latrobe Valley Line of Lode Mine, 412i Mackay: seaport, 288 brown coal, 112, 150, 208 liquefied natural gas, 175, 217, 218, 471, 473 Mackellar, Dorothea, 8, 9 land subsidence, 367 exports, 168, 472, 475–476, 534 Macquarie Arc, 393, 395–397 Latrobe Valley Coal Measures, 214 production, 443 Macquarie Harbour, 316 Launceston: seaport, 281, 282 top-five product, 435 Macquarie Island, 42 Laurasia, 108 lithium: top-five product, 435 Macquarie Microplate, 49 Laurentia, 97, 99 lithosphere, 51, 79 Macquarie Ridge, 42 lava caves, 110i crust to mantle, 79, 81–83 macroalgae, 318 lava fields, 55 thickness of, 237–238 Macropodidae, see kangaroos Lawson, Henry, 387 upper mantle, 83–84 Macropus rufus (red kangaroo), 19, 44i lead (Pb), 37 liverworts, 131 Madden–Julian Oscillation, 27 Broken Hill, 19 lizards, see reptiles Maduwangka people, 400 formation of, 100 Locker Shale, 187 magmatic processes Glen Osmond Mine, 385 Lockyer Creek, 336, 369 heat-producing elements, 496–514, 523 top-five product, 435 loggerhead turtles, 359 see also volcanoes lead–zinc deposits, see zinc–lead deposits Lord Howe Island, 42, 204, 258t, 299 magnetics, 74m, 76–77 Leederville Aquifer, 351, 367, 368f Lord Howe Platform, 204 magnetotelluric data, 82 Leeuwin Current, 285, 290m, 291 Lord Howe Rise, 55, 58, 108, 183, 194, 203, 204 Maitland, 220 Legendre 1, 217 lorikeets, 162i mammals, 36, 109, 162, 164i, 165i legless lizards, 160, 161i low-latitude position, 21, 24 Cretaceous, 145, 148, 155 Leichhardt, L, 66 low-pressure systems, 319, 325 Eocene, 150, 152 Leigh Creek, 140 Loxton–Parilla Sands, 268 Oligocene, 148, 152, 154 Lennis Sandstone, 371 ‘lucky country’, 7 Paleocene, 148
558 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia managed aquifer recharge, 368–369, 374–376 maps (cont.) maps (cont.) manganese (Mn), 43 bauxite, 466 hydrocarbon discoveries, 206–207 discoveries, 389 beach ridges, 244 Lake Eyre drainage basin, 247 steel production, 478 Canning Stock Route, 341 Landsat 7 Picture Mosaic of Australia, 62, 77 top-five product, 435 Carnarvon Basin, 218 lithosphere depth, 83 mangroves, 157, 294, 295i, 309i Cenozoic environments, 112 Lord Howe Island, 299 Manly Beach, 307i, 327 climatic influences, 25 magnetic intensity, 74, 77 Mantinea Flat, Ord River, 60i coal deposits, 175, 457 mineral resources, 43, 90–91, 382, 484 mantle, 83–84, 92 coastal localities, 302 North West Shelf, 195 mantle xenoliths, 56 coastline and shelf, 283 offshore minerals, 43 manufacturing, 439 crustal elements, 72 oil reserves, 175, 216 Manus Basin, 417i crustal plates, 50 opal fields, 265 Manus Microplate, 49 crustal thickness, 79 petroleum supersystems, 180 Manyingee uranium deposit, 269 cyclones, 323 physiographic features of Australia, 15, 228, 236–237 mapping, 56–57, 542 denudation, 261 plateau edges, 240 basins, 70–71 desalination, 373 polar-wander paths, 418 bathymetry, 60–61 desert and dune systems, 232 rainfall, 13, 29 crustal elements, 72–73, 76 earthquake epicentres, 51 sea-surface temperatures, 290 data acquisition, 234, 236 energy resources, 91, 436, 484 seismic techniques, 78 gamma-ray spectrometry, 63–65 faults, 242 seismic zones, 51 geological regions, 68, 70 fossils localities, 122 shear wavespeed, 82 Indigenous Australians’ systems, 338 gamma-ray spectrometry, 64, 77 southern Australia, 203 pioneers, 66–67 gas reserves, 175, 216, 476 southern margin, 200, 201 potential fields, 76–79 geographical features of Australia, 14 southwest margin, 197 regolith, 270 geological regions, 70 Sunda and Sahul, 11 satellite remote sensing, 61–62 Gippsland Basin, 210 surface geochemistry, 65 seabeds, 305 Gondwana, 190 surface geology, 69 soils, 62–63 Gondwana breakup, 183 temperatures, 28 surface geochemistry, 65, 68 granites, 500, 502 Terre Australe, 278 surface geology, 68 gravity, 75, 77 topographic–bathymetric image, 192 surface relief, 57–58, 60 Great Artesian Basin, 342 tsunami hazard assessment, 321 topography, 60 Great Barrier Reef, 298 uranium and thorium deposits, 493 maps groundwater salinity, 372 uranium deposits, 497 aquifers, 334 Gulf of Carpentaria, 296–297 vegetation patterns, 34–35 Australian Antarctic Territory, 4 gulfs and estuaries, 310 volcanoes and lava fields, 55 Australian Plate, 50, 174 Hamersley Basin, 460 weathering intensity, 252 Australian territory, 4 heat flow, 495 Yilgarn Craton geology, 404–405 basins, 71, 175 high heat-producing granites, 502 Margaret River: population growth, 284
Index 559 margins, continental, 190–195, 197–205 Melbourne (cont.) mineral resources (cont.) distance from, 237 water quality, 314 early exploration, 384–387 Marianas/Tonga–Kermadec subduction, 50 Melbourne Zone, 397 exploration expenditure, 390f, 463 marine environment, 43, 300, 305, 309 Menindee Lakes, 368, 374 exports, 261, 384, 435, 446, 535 marine jurisdiction, 4m, 17, 38–43 Mentelle Basin, 197m, 199 future supplies, 531, 537–538 marine sediments, 241, 243i Mereenie aquifer, 336, 350 maps and figures, 90–91, 94, 99, 104, 382 marine seismic data, 83 Mereenie oil field, 106 mineral deposits, 94, 100–105 marine transgressions, 140, 196, 197 mesas, 243, 250i regolith processes, 267–270 Marinoan glaciation, 103, 128 Mesoarchean seabed resources, 42–43 Marion Plateau, 205, 292 acritarchs, 126 see also by name of resource, e.g. gold (Au) maritme nation, 13, 281–282 photosynthesis, 124 mineral sands, 43, 268, 308, 448, 450 Marlin 1, 209 Mesoproterozoic Mineral Securities Australia Ltd, 440 Marnpi calcrete, 270i gravity gradient, 79 mineral springs, 355 Marra Mamba Iron Formation, 346, 453, 461, 462 orogenies, 101 mineral systems, 390–392, 422–425, 537–538 marsupial lions, 152, 154, 162 salt deposition, 102 Eastern Goldfields, 400–408 marsupial moles, 156 tectonic evolution, 97, 100 Hamersley Basin, 460–466 marsupials, 36, 109, 148, 150, 152, 154, 156, 162, 164i Mesozoic, 70, 71 Olympic Dam, 416–425 Martian landscape, 257 basins, 23 Victorian goldfields, 392–400 Mary River, 313 coal deposits, 457 zinc–lead deposits, 408–416 Maryborough Basin, 204 fossil record, 142 mineral water, 354 mass extinctions, see extinctions landscapes, 110 mining Mawson Continent, 99 oil and gas reserves, 175 challenges for industry, 425–427 Mawson Craton, 101 surface geology, 68 development of sector, 440 Mawson, Sir Douglas, 67 Metazoa, 127–128 environmental effects, 384 Mawson’s Peak, 41 meteorite craters, 59 hazards, 383–384 McArthur Petroleum Supersystem, 178, 180 meteorites, 123 history, 384–390 McArthur River deposit, 415, 416 methane, 451, 470, 474–475 Indigenous activities, 261, 263, 385 McBride, 55 middens, 279–280, 285 technology and innovation, 19, 389, 406, 409–410, McCamey, Ken, 463 Middleback Ranges, 461 452–453 McDonald Islands, 22, 41, 42, 53 Milendella Fault, 242, 243i Miocene, 111, 113, 114 McLaren Vale, 262 Miles, John, 410 beach ridges, 242 Meandu Mine, 186i millipedes, 131 coral reefs, 198 measuring time, 85–88 Mimosaceae, 150 crustal stresses, 241 Meckering earthquake, 538i, 540 mine dewatering, 346 flora, 150, 154 megafauna, 33, 165 mineral resources, 37, 93, 123 vertebrates, 151–152, 155–156 megalitres, 24 commercial exploration, 270–271, 273, 388–390, Mirackina Conglomerate, 248 Melbourne 417–418, 426–427 Mississippi River, United States, 246 city skyline, 486i dating methods, 398–399 Mitchell, T, 66
560 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia modelling, 374–376 Mt Canobolas, 55 Murray cod (Maccullochella peelii), 151 Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, 62 Mt Gambier, 111, 116, 258t Murray–Darling Basin, 30, 32 Moho, 81, 106 groundwater resources, 339 groundwater resources, 350, 368, 370 molluscs, 131 Mt Garnet: high heat-producing granites, 506–507, 509f irrigation, 315 monazites, 111, 251 Mt Goldsworthy: weathering, 253t reservoirs capacity, 368 Money Shoal Basin, 82 Mt Gunson, 416 river systems, 243, 246, 247, 293 Monkey Mia, 116 Mt Horner, 199 and salinity, 363 monotremes, 36, 145, 155, 161–162, 164i Mt Howitt, 132 water management, 356–357 monsoons, 27, 28 Mt Isa Murray River, 30, 242, 256, 292i Monte Bello Islands, 217 crust, 82 Murrin Murrin Mine, 369 Montgomery Reef, 300 gamma-ray spectrometry, 65 Murta Petroleum Supersystem, 178, 179f, 180m Moolawatana Suite, 505 gravity gradient, 79 Musgrave–Paterson Orogen, 73 Moonta mines, 416, 419 Proterozoic rocks, 68 Musgrave Province, 99, 101 Moree Hot Artesian Pool Complex, 355 weathering, 253t MV Pasha Bulker, 325 Moreton Bay, 308, 311 zinc–lead deposits, 388, 408–416, 423–425 MV Sygna, 325 water quality, 314 Mt Isa Inlier, 68, 70 My Country (poem), 8 Moreton Island, 305 Mt Isa Mines Ltd, 390, 410 Myrtaceae, 148 mortar, 263, 279 Mt Isa Province, 81f, 99, 411, 413f myrtle tree (Nothofagus cunninghamii), 144i Moruya Beach, 325 Mt Kosciuszko, 26, 258 mosses, 134, 138 Mt Lofty Ranges, 52, 242, 243i N mound springs, 360–361, 362f Mt McClintock, 39 Namoi River, 336 Mount Alexander, 393, 437i Mt Menzies, 39 Nancar–Flamingo–Sahul area, 194 Mount Babbage Inlier, 504–505 Mt Schank, 339 Narryer Terrane, 93, 96 Mount Bishop, 387 Mt Wellington, 107i, 109 National Carbon Accounting System, 61 Mount Dukes Intrusive Complex, 112 Muderong Shale, 197, 220 National Heritage listings, 361 Mount Goodwin Shale, 187 Mulga Rock uranium deposit, 269 native species, 36 Mount Lyell, 384i, 387, 438 Mulgrave River, 318 native title, 455–456 Mount Morgan, 387, 438 multicellular organisms, 125–128 natural disasters, 319–327, 531, 538–542 Mount Neill Subgroup, 505 multiculturalism, 10–11 see also geohazards Mount Painter Inlier, 504–505 Mungaroo Formation, 219, 234 natural gas, see gas; liquefied natural gas Mount Sylvia Formation, 462 Muridae, 162, 165i Naturaliste Plateau, 197m, 199 Mount Tom Price Mine, 461f Murray Basin, 70, 242 Natures Window, 223i Mount Tom Price Railway, 448–449i beach ridges, 241, 244m, 289 Nebo–Babel, 102 Mount Woods Inlier, 419 denudation, 260 Neoarchean mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans), 33 formation of, 71, 110 fossil record, 123 mountain pygmy possum, 154 groundwater resources, 336 iron ore deposits, 125 Moura, 475 heavy-mineral sand deposits, 268 photosynthesis, 124 Moyston Fault, 397 Murray Canyons, 116 terrestrial organisms, 131
Index 561 Neoceratodus forsteri (Queensland lungfish), 147 niobium (Nb), 505 Nullarbor Plain (cont.) Neogene, 113 nitrates, 354 age of, 258t fires, 153, 154–155 Nolans Bore, 101 marine sediments, 241 marine sediments, 241, 243i non-vascular plants, 131 numbats, 162, 164i palaeorivers, 248–249 Noosa Heads: population growth, 284 Nuna Supercontinent, 89, 93, 97–100, 411–412, 414 neon, 56 Norfolk Island, 42, 55 heat-producing elements, 510–513 Neoproterozoic North Australia Craton, 72 acritarchs, 126 North Australian Element, 73, 82, 89, 94, 97, 205, 415 O banded iron-formations, 100 formation, 97–100 Oakover River, 346 crustal elements, 73 Rodinia formation, 101 Oban uranium deposit, 269 glaciations, 103, 128 North Flinders Mines, 390 ocean basin features, 4m, 39 mountain ranges, 234 North Island, New Zealand, 53–54 ocean currents, 285, 290–291 orogenies, 101 North Pole barite deposit, 94 cyclonic impacts, 324 rocks, 68 North Queensland Orogen, 76 Ocean Drilling Programme, 61 neotectonic deformations, 241–242 North Rankin A platform, 474i oceanic circulation, 112, 197 nepheline hawaiites, 55 North Rankin gas field, 217, 476 oceanic crust, 39 New England, 64 North Stradbroke Island, 308 oceanic sulfates, 100 New England Orogen, 70, 76, 77, 204, 238 North West Shelf oceanic surface relief, 58 New Guinea, 50, 113 carbon capture and storage, 533 oceanic vents, 417i New Guinea fold belt, 205 carbonate banks, 300 oceans New Hebrides Trench, 50 depositional processes, 197–198 development of animal life, 128, 130 New Zealand, 50, 58, 113 gas discoveries, 473 extinctions in, 135 volcanoes, 53–54 gas reserves, 60, 71, 82, 175, 188, 218, 472 ochres, 231, 261, 263 Newcastle oil discoveries, 207 Officer Basin, 102, 184 coal exports, 385, 456 oil reserves, 82, 176, 194, 217, 218 groundwater resources, 335, 369, 371 earthquakes, 53, 540 structural elements, 195m Offshore Basin, 82 groundwater resources, 336 North West Shelf Venture, 217 offshore drilling rigs, 198i, 214i seaport, 281 Northeast orogens, 72 offshore minerals, 43m Newer Volcanic Group, 54, 55, 56, 112, 255, 336 Northern Carnarvon Basin, 71 oil, 178, 470 Newman, 446, 452i northern coasts, 286–287, 303, 304–305, 308, 312–313 basins hosting, 175 Ngalia Basin, 106, 335 northern margin, 191, 205, 290 Carnarvon Basin, 82, 178, 217–220 nickel (Ni) coral reefs, 300 formation of, 220–221 Eastern Goldfields, 96, 389, 400 northwest margin, 191, 194–195, 197–198, 292 Gippsland Basin, 175, 176, 191, 203, 208–217 Poseidon crash, 440 Nothofagus cunninghamii (myrtle tree), 144i Larapintine Petroleum Supersystem, 106 steel production, 478 Nothofagus (southern beech), 109, 144–145, 148, 154, North West Shelf, 82, 176, 194, 218 top-five product, 435 156, 230 Permian deposits, 186 Ninety Mile Beach, 305 nuclear energy, 514–516, 520, 534 Perth Basin, 197m Ningaloo Reef, 285, 291 Nullarbor Plain, 15m, 26, 64, 111, 113 shows and discoveries, 206–208
562 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia oil play, 100 Outback Billabong, 248i Pannawonnica, 267 oil shales, 112, 177, 196, 221 Overland Telegraph, 361 Pannikin uranium deposit, 269 Ok Tedi Mine, Papua New Guinea, 113 oxidation, 100, 107, 113, 124–125, 424 Panorama district, 95 oldest rocks, 86, 93–94 oxygen, 124–125, 135–136, 170 Panorama Formation, 256 the Olgas (Kata Tjuta), 103 oyster shells, 263, 279 Papua New Guinea, 23 Oligocene Papuan Basin, 178, 205, 220 flora, 150 P Paraburdoo iron ore deposit, 465 marsupials, 148, 152, 154 Pacific-Izanagi Ridge, 49–50 Parachilna, 263 vertebrates, 151–152, 154, 155–156 Pacific Plate, 49, 50, 53 Paralana Hot Springs, 505 olivines, 96 Pacific rim of fire, 53 partial melting, 498f, 501, 502, 507, 509 Olympic Dam, 82, 100, 269, 416–425, 537 paddle steamers, 246 MV Pasha Bulker, 325 Oobagooma uranium deposit, 269 palaeoclimatic conditions, 155f passerines, 150 Oolloo Limestone aquifer, 336 palaeogeographic maps, 183 Paterson, AB, 343 opals, 113, 263i, 264–265 Palaeopacific Ocean subduction zone, 108 Paterson Formation, 371 Oparara, New Zealand, 185i palaeorivers, 248–249 Paterson Orogen, 101, 194 open-cut mining, 458i palaeoshorelines, 111 Paterson Province, 103 Open Pool Australian Lightwater research reactor, 514i palaeovalleys, 110, 111, 248 peak oil, 535 ophiolites, 113 palaeowater, 350 pearling industry, 286–287 Ophir, 266, 385 Paleoarchean: fossil record, 123 peat, 108, 136, 150, 458 Opthalmia Orogeny, 464 Paleocene: fauna and flora, 148 pedolith, 250 Ord River, 32 Paleogene Peel Inlet, 317 Ordinance Point, 280i extinctions, 147 Pegmont, 412 Ordovician flora, 145, 148 Pejar Dam, 530i Gondwana breakup, 181, 183 Paleoproterozoic Peninsula Hot Springs, 355 marine sediments, 106 fossil record, 123 Pennington Bay, 295i terrestrial flora, 131 tectonic evolution, 97 Pepegoona uranium deposit, 268i ore deposits, 22–23, 86, 94, 100 Paleozoic Pera Bore, 347 dating methods, 398–399 acritarchs, 126 perenties, 160, 161i organic molecules, 123 age of landscape, 23 Permian orogenic belts, 23, 70 basins, 70, 71 coal deposits, 108, 136, 138, 184, 186, 187, 457–460 Orogeny Alleghenian, 184 extinctions ending, 138 extinctions, 138 Otway Basin, 109, 145 gravity gradient, 79 glaciations, 107, 181, 183 carbon capture and storage, 533 mantle, 84 Gondwana breakup, 183 formation of, 71 rocks, 68 vertebrates, 138 groundwater resources, 336 supercontinent formation, 92 Perth oil reserves, 178, 203 Palm Valley gas field, 106 city skyline, 441i southern margin, 201, 202 Paluma Shoals, 317 climate change, 350–351 Otway Ranges, 117i, 171i Pangaea, 89, 93, 103–108, 136, 184, 187–188 groundwater resources, 308, 340, 350, 351–352, 353f
Index 563 Perth (cont.) Pilbara (cont.) Pliensbachian, 140 managed aquifer recharge, 369 Eocene flora, 230 Pliocene, 84, 111, 113 water quality, 314 granite domes, 61 flora, 156 Perth Abyssal Plain, 198 iron ore, 267, 346, 440, 446, 461 Point Quobba, 382i Perth Basin, 105, 107 iron ore trains, 448–449i point-source pollution, 366 geothermal groundwater, 373 Martian landscape, 257 polar-wander paths, 414–415, 418m groundwater resources, 335, 342 radioactive elements, 64 Polda Basin, 108 oil discoveries, 207 Pilbara Craton, 73, 77m, 79, 81 policy settings, 454 oil reserves, 178, 197m copper (Cu), 94 pollen, 134 seismic images, 187f fossils, 123, 126 pollution southwest margin, 199 geological processes, 93–96, 100 and dust, 233 Perth Canyon, 60, 116, 293, 297 gold (Au), 94, 408 and groundwater, 366 pesticides, 318 groundwater resources, 335 population, 11, 16 pests, 166 high heat-producing granites, 501 Gold Coast, 326 Petermann Orogeny, 103, 234 iron ore deposits, 125 Great Barrier Reef coast, 317 Petrel gas field, 187 Pine Creek, 68 Indigenous Australians, 13 Petrel Sub-basin, 194 Pine Creek Province, 100 population densities, 487 petroleum Pinjarra: bauxite, 466 population distribution, 13m, 16, 18 exploration for, 42, 82, 206–208, 222, 471i Pinjarra Element, 73, 76, 103 coasts, 280, 320, 328 exports, 168 Pinjarra Orogen, 77, 101, 188, 199 factors influencing, 63 petroleum resource pyramid, 177, 178f Pintupi (Bindibu) people, 338 population growth, 12, 284, 441, 529 petroleum supersystems, 106, 177–180, 221 Pioneer River, 336 Porcupine Gorge, 260 petroleum systems, 176–177 Pittman, Edward, 344–345 Port Douglas: seaport, 288 phalangeriforms, 154, 162 placental mammals, 148, 150, 165i Port Fairy: seaport, 281 Phanerozoic, 68, 70, 103 placer deposits, 386 Port Hedland: seaport, 282, 446 extinctions, 134f placoderms, 131, 132 Port Jackson: water quality, 314 rocks, 89 Placozoa, 128 Port Kembla steelworks, 478 Phillip Island, 329i plate boundaries, 49–50 Port Phillip Bay Phillips Australian Oil Co., 217 plateau edges, 240m water quality, 314 phosphate, 43 plateaus, 42, 243 wave-dominated estuaries, 311 photosynthesis, 124, 170 platypus, 36, 155, 156i, 161, 359 ports, coastal, 281–282 physiographic features of Australia, 15m, 26, 228m, Pleistocene ports, inland, 246 236–237m alluvial sediments, 52i Portuguese millipede, 166 phytoplankton, 54 coastal dunes, 305, 308 Poseidon crash, 440 pigs, 167i fauna, 165 possums, 154, 162 Pilbara, 22, 53, 238–239i, 482i flora, 157 post-settlement alluvium, 255, 256i channel-iron deposits, 250i ice age impacts, 33, 113 potassium (K) deltas, 313 Indigenous occupation, 116 gamma-ray spectrometry, 63–64
564 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia potassium (K) (cont.) Puysegur Trench, 50, 321, 540 rainfall (cont.) heat-producing elements, 23, 489–494, 496–514, 521 pyrites, 316, 365–366, 458 precipitation budget, 30f potato production, 347i pyroxenes, 96 vegetation patterns, 36 potential fields, 76–79 rainfall recharge, 368 potentiometric contours, 343 Q rainforests, 111, 113, 117i, 185i Potter, Charles, 409 quality of life, 441, 442 Ranger uranium mine, 269, 524i Precambrian quarter-acre block, 18 Rankin Platform, 217, 218, 219 elements, 89, 97 quartz, 253 Rankine cycle heat exchanger, 374i surface relief, 24, 57, 257 quartz sands, 296, 302 rare earth elements, 37, 101, 505, 538 Tasman Line, 73 quartzites, 102 Rasp, Charles, 409 precipitation budget, 30f Quaternary ratites, 19, 151, 152i predation, 125 beach ridges, 241–242 Red Centre, 231 Princess Charlotte Bay, 318 fires, 153 red kangaroo (Macropus rufus), 19, 44i prison labour, 343, 367 flora, 157–158 Redbank Shear Zone, 106 production technologies, 406 glaciations, 24, 113, 230 Reef Water Quality Protection Plan, 319 Prominent Hill, 421 influencing coastlines, 292–293, 296–300 reflection profiles, 78m, 80, 81f, 82–83 prospectivity, 206–208 landscape, 113–115 refugees, 16 Proteaceae, 144–145, 148 sea-levels, 292, 296–298 Regan, James, 393 Proterozoic Queen River, 384i regolith, 23, 76, 229, 250–256 acritarchs, 126 Queensland lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri), 147 quality for road building, 18, 115, 263, 266 crust–mantle boundary, 81 Queensland Plateau, 110, 205, 292, 300 resources from, 261–270 crustal elements, 72, 76 Queensland Trough, 205 regolith-landform mapping, 270 fossil record, 123 Queenstown, 384i rehabilitation of environment, 447i Gondwana assembly, 103 Quilpie: hydrothermal resources, 520, 522 relief, 234 gravity gradient, 79 quolls, 164i relief inversion, 248–249, 250i heat flow, 491, 496f, 504 Remarkable Rocks, 490–491i high heat-producing granites, 507–514 R remote-controlled operations, 425–453 lacking vegetation, 103 rabbits, 166 remote sensing, 61–62 mobile belts, 84 radioactive decay, 489–492, 514–520 remoteness, 18–19 oceanic oxidation, 100 radioactive elements, see heat-producing elements renewable energy, 535 rocks, 68, 70, 73, 89 radiometric dating, 85–86 see also geothermal energy stromatolites, 22 radium, 515 reptiles, 136, 145, 155, 159–161, 359 supercontinent formation, 92 Raggatt, Sir Harold George, 67, 68 resistate minerals, 251 terrestrial organisms, 131 rail, 448–449i, 461 resource supply and demand, 442–445 zinc–lead deposits, 408–416 ‘rain follows the plough’, 354 Rhine Graben, Germany, 53 proto-Australia, 97–98 rainbow lorikeets, 162i rhododendrons, 109 proto-Pacific Ocean, 104 Rainbow Serpent, 337i, 338 Rhoetosaurus brownei, 141f Purnululu National Park (the Bungle Bungles), 26, 48i rainfall, 13m, 27–29 rias, 249
Index 565 Richmond River, 365 Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand, 53 Savage River, 461 Rincodon typus (whale shark), 291 rubies, 55 Scarborough, 217, 219 Rio Tinto–Comalco Aluminium bauxite mine, 454 runoff, 244 Scleropages (saratogas), 147 river red gums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), 248 Russell River, 318 Scott Reef, 300 river systems, 58i, 116, 243–244, 246–249 rutiles, 111, 251, 268, 308, 450 sea-levels, 24–25, 38, 92 aquifer connectivity, 356–358 top-five product, 435 affecting coastlines, 325–327, 540, 542 becoming disorganised, 230 Ryan, Patrick, 416 Cenozoic, 230 discharges, 30, 84, 286–287i, 293 coral reefs, 298–300 flat landscape, 24, 25 S highest levels, 196 flows, 25, 30, 32, 229 sacred sites, 59 Last Glacial Maximum, 10, 249 and salt burden, 111 Sahul, 10, 11m, 24 Quaternary, 114, 292, 296–298 Riversleigh, 151, 152, 155 salinity, 63, 252, 255–256 sea-surface temperatures, 290m Riversleigh inversion, 99 Coorong Estuary, 315 sea transport, 303 road trains, 18i and groundwater, 361–364, 371–372 seafloor roads, 14m, 18, 263, 266 soils prone to, 229 cyclonic impacts, 324 Robe palaeochannel, 111 Salt Creek, 206 oldest, 194 Robe River, 248, 267 salt deposits, 102, 111, 115 seafloor spreading, 51, 190, 200–201 iron ore deposits, 465 salt interception schemes, 363 sealing, 281 Robe: seaport, 281 salt lakes, 31 seamounts, 42, 55, 58 rock bolt, 19 saltwater crocodiles, 313 Seaport gateways of Australia, 281 rock carvings, 188 Salvinia species, 167i seaports, 281–282, 311 Rockhampton: seaport, 282, 288 sand dunes, see dunes, coastal; dunes, inland seasonality, 27, 28, 230 rocks, 22, 24, 68, 70 sand: industrial materials, 43, 115 Seaspray Group, 209, 214 ages of, 33, 86, 88, 89f, 93 sand mining, 519i seaways, 31, 108, 196, 197, 201 rocky coasts, 300–301 sandstone coast, 301 see also Larapintine Seaway rodents, 162, 165i sandstones, 188 sediment cores, 315–316 Rodinia, 73, 89, 93, 100–103 building material, 108, 385 sedimentary basins, 70–71, 84 breakup of, 70, 77, 79, 84 geological processes, 199 groundwater resources, 369, 371 Roe Creek borefield, 350 hydrocarbon reservoirs, 184, 220 sedimentary systems, coastal, 292–293, 302–303, 313 Roebuck Basin, 82, 188 Sandy Bay, 327i sedimentation, 24, 230i Rolling Downs Group, 467 sandy beaches, see beaches cyclonic impacts, 324 Roma, 207 Santonian: flora, 144 seed ferns, 136–140, 143i, 146i root depths, 359 sapphires, 55 seeds, 134 Ross Sandstone, 188 saprock, 250 seismic activity, 51–53, 242 Rottnest Island, 308 saprolite, 250, 251, 257 seismic profiles, 193f Rough Range 1, 207, 217 saprolith, 250 seismic reflection, 80, 81f, 82–83 Roxby Downs, 417, 420 saratogas (Scleropages), 147 seismic techniques, 78m, 81, 209 Royal Flying Doctor Service, 16i, 18–19 satellite remote sensing, 61–62 seismic tomography, 83
566 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia Selwyn, Alfred Richard Cecil, 67 Simpson Desert (cont.) southern beech (Nothofagus), 109, 144–145, 148, 154, Selwyn Block, 202, 203m groundwater resources, 337, 352i 156, 230 Sensitive High-Resolution MicroProbe, 86, 88 Sirius Passet, Greenland, 130 southern margin, 191, 200–203, 290, 294 settlements skeletons, development of, 128 Southern Ocean, 58 on agricultural land, 18 skin cancer, 27 carbon capture and storage, 54 in capital cities, 16, 439 skinks, 160, 161i southwest margin, 191, 197m, 198–200 coasts, 13, 279–280, 305, 313 slope failures, 320f, 321–322 Southwest Terrane, 96 environmental pressures, 314 slopes, 234 Spa Country, 355 soldier settlement schemes, 317 Smyth, R Brough, 66 Sparganiaceae, 148 sexual reproduction, 125, 127, 133 snakes, 151, 158, 159–160 spatial terms (defined), 57t shale deposits, 112, 196 Snapper anticline, 214 spinifex hopping mouse, 165i shale gas, 177, 470, 534 Snowball Earth hypothesis, 128 spinifex (Triodia spp.), 33i, 96 shale oils, 112, 177, 196, 221, 535 Snowy Mountains, 23i, 27, 79m, 111i splendid fairy wrens, 163i Shark Bay, 22, 95, 116, 123, 124i, 308i, 309 Snowy Mountains hydroelectric scheme, 19 spoil heaps, 263i sharks, 131, 132 social licence to operate, 448, 450–452 sponges, 128 Shea, Dan, 400 society spores, 131 shear wavespeed, 82m, 83–84 effects of resource sector, 445–448 sporting culture, 20 shell middens, 279–280, 285 expectations of mining industry, 425–427 Sprigg Canyon, 297 shell sand, 43 sodic soils, 254 Stawell Zone, 395–397, 400 shells, 128 soils, 62–63, 253–256 steel, 478 shelly fossils, 129 acid sulphate soils, 316–317 Stirling Ranges, 127 shield volcanoes, 55 deep loams, 233 stock routes, 340–341 shipping, 37i, 288, 303, 464i, 475i formation of, 254 Stockton Bight, 305 Shipwreck Trough, 202 quality, 24, 30, 33, 229 Stockton dunes, 308 Shoalhaven River, 247 solar radiation, 27 stony deserts, 258 Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, 60 soldier settlement schemes, 317 storm surges, 323–324 Siberian Traps, 138 Soldiers Gap Group, 411 storms, 319, 325 silcretes, 243, 245i, 251, 266 Solomon Trench, 50 stormwater runoff, 369 silicon dioxide, 68 Song of the Artesian Water (poem), 343 Stradbroke Island, 305, 325, 447i Silurian: terrestrial flora, 131 Sorell Basin, 110, 201, 202 strategic minerals, 538 silver (Ag) Sorell Fault, 202, 203m Strelley Pool Formation, 93i, 94, 123, 124i, 256–257 Broken Hill, 19, 267, 387, 409 South Alligator River, 311, 312–313 stresses, tectonic, 50–53 formation of, 100 South Australian Element, 76, 89, 94, 97, 98–99 stromatolites, 22, 33, 93i, 95, 123, 124i, 309 Glen Osmond Mine, 385 South Australian Heatflow Anomaly, 52 Strzelecki Group, 212, 214 Olympic Dam, 269 South Tasman Rise, 202, 203m Strzelecki, PE, 66 top-five product, 435 Southeast Indian Ridge, 49, 58 Strzelecki Ranges, 214 Silverton, 408 Southern Annular Mode, 27 Stuart Creek silcrete flora, 149 Simpson Desert, 20–21i, 77, 115i, 158, 258t Stuart, John McDouall, 361
Index 567 Stuart Shelf, 417 surveys, 66–67, 68, 73i Tasman Line, 73, 205 stump-jump plough, 19 sustainable development of resources sector, 454 Tasman Orogen, 73 Sturt Desert, 231i sustainable environmental management, 531 Tasman Sea, 55, 109, 183, 203 Sturtian glaciation, 103, 128, 257 Swan–Canning Estuary: water quality, 314 Tasmania stygofauna, 360 Swan River, 340 climate change, 368 subduction, 49–51, 53, 320–321 SydHarbs, 24, 419 crust thickness, 82 submarine canyons, 293, 297 Sydney minerals extraction, 43m submarine groundwater discharges, 358 groundwater resources, 340, 343, 352 separation from Antarctica, 205 submarine landslides, 321–322 water quality, 314 Tasmanian devils, 36 Suess, Eduard, 138 Sydney Basin, 255 Tasmanian tigers, 152, 162, 166, 168–169i sugar cane fields, 316i coal deposits, 108, 457, 458–459 Tasmanides, 76 sulfate minerals, 100 formation of, 70, 186 Tasmantid Seamount Chain, 42 sulfides, 94, 95, 267, 409–410 Sydney Harbour, 189i, 249, 311 Tate, Ralph, 341 sulfur content of coal, 451, 458 MV Sygna, 325 Taylor, Griffith, 256 sulfuric acid, 316–317 synapsids, 136 technology and innovation, 19, 389, 406, 409–410, Sullivans Bay, 340 Synthetic Aperture Radar, 61 452–453 Sumatra Trench, 50 floating LNG technology, 473 Sunda, 10, 11m T tectonic evolution, 89, 93, 428–430 Sunrise Dam, 401 Tabberabberan cycle, 104 3800–2200 Ma, 93–97 Super Pit, 401i taipans, 159i 2200–1300 Ma, 97–100 supercontinents, 89, 92, 93 Talbot, Henry William Beamish, 67 1300–700 Ma, 100–103 heat-producing elements, 510–511 Talbragar Fossil Fish Bed, 141–142, 143i 700–250 Ma, 103–108 see also Gondwana; Pangaea tall ships, 221i 250–160 Ma, 108 supercratons, 89, 93, 95 Tanami Desert, 107, 230i, 271 160–65 Ma, 108–110 Supermountain range, 103 Tanami Province, 100 65–2.6 Ma, 110–113 superphosphate use, 317 Tangguh gas field, 113 2.6–0 Ma, 113, 115–116 Surat Basin, 108, 207 Tank Stream, 340 Eastern Goldfields, 402–405, 407–408, 423–425 coal-seam gas, 373–374 tantalum: top-five product, 435 Hamersley Basin, 461–462, 464–466 surf beaches, 304, 306–307 tar sands, 177 Olympic Dam, 416–425 Surf Life Saving Australia, 304 Taranaki Basin, New Zealand, 203 Victorian goldfields, 393, 395–397, 400, 424–425 surface geochemistry, 65, 68 Tarawera volcano, New Zealand, 53 zinc–lead deposits, 411–416, 423–425 surface geology, 68, 69m Tarkine Wilderness, 280i tectonics, 181 surface relief, 57–58, 60 Tarong, 140 controlling flatness, 236–238 surface-water Tasman Basin, 42 neotectonic deformation, 241–242 domestic supply, 350 Tasman Element, 73, 76, 93, 237, 238 plate stresses, 50–53 and groundwater interactions, 356–358, 532 Tasman Fold Belt, 72 tectonic maps, 72 Surfers Paradise, 326 Tasman Fracture Zone, 49, 183, 201, 202, 203 tectonic plates, 49–50 surfing, 284 Tasman Island, 512i tectonic stability, 84
568 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia tectonics (cont.) tilting of continent, 241 Triodia spp. (spinifex), 33i, 96 volcanic activity, 53–56 Timor, 113 tropical cyclones, see cyclones Teichert, Curt, 217 Timor Rock, 54i tropical forests, 115–116 tektites, 59 tin (Sn), 43, 387 tropical seasons, 27, 28 temnospondyl amphibians, 138, 140, 141, 145 Tindall Limestone aquifer, 336, 339 Tropicana gold deposit, 101, 406 temperate coasts, 284 Tnorala (Gosses Bluff), 59, 258t trucks, driverless, 453 temperate rainforests, 185i Toarcian, 140 tsunamis, 24, 38, 53, 319, 320–322, 540 temperature zones, 43 Tomago Sandbeds, 336 tufa dams, 339i temperatures, 27, 28m tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite, 502–503, 504, Tully, 29 temporal terms (defined), 57t 512–513 Tumbiana Formation, 123 Tennant Creek, 79m Tonga–Kermadec Trench, 50 Tumblagooda Sandstone, 182i gold discoveries, 388 Toolebuc Formation, 177, 196, 220, 221 Tuna anticline, 214 weathering, 253t tools, 261, 263 tungsten, 43, 478 termites, 271 Top End seasons, 27 Turonian terms of trade, 435f topographic relief, 57–58 flora, 144 terraces, 42 topography, 24, 25–26, 60–61 highest sea-level, 196 Terre Adélie Craton, 99 Torquay: population growth, 284 turtles, 145, 159, 359 Terre Australe, 278 Torres Strait Islander people, see Indigenous Australians Tweed Heads: population growth, 284 terrestrial organisms, 131 tourism, 285, 287, 288 Twelve Apostles, 26i, 258t, 294i, 301 terrigenous sediments, 293, 296, 302 Townsville Twofold Bay, 281i Tethys Sea formation, 108 population growth, 284 tyranny of distance, 220, 371 tetrapods, 135, 136 seaport, 288 Thomson, Donald, 338 Townsville Trough, 205 U Thomson Orogen, 76 trace elements, 253 Ulladulla: population growth, 284 thorium (Th), 65m, 534 trade, Indigenous, 385 ultraviolet light, 27 gamma-ray spectrometry, 63–64 trains, freight, 448–449i Uluru, 26, 68, 226–227i heat-producing elements, 23, 489–494, 496–514, 521, transient salinity, 364 age of, 257, 258t 523 transport, 472i cultural connection, 8, 9 nuclear fuel, 515–516, 519 transport links, 14m, 18 erosion, 253 Thorpedale, 347i transported regolith, 250 formation of, 103, 234 The Three Sisters, 258t Triassic unconformities, 93i, 94, 256 Thurralgoona bore, 342 delta formations, 188 unconventional hydrocarbon resources, 177, 180, 470, thylacines, 152, 162, 166, 168–169i extinctions, 140 534, 535 thylacoleonids, 152, 154, 162 flora, 138, 140 see also coal-seam gas tide-dominated systems, 294, 303, 304–305, 311, oil reserves, 178 Undara lava tubes, 258t 312–313 Pangaea breakup, 108 Undara Volcanic National Park, 110i tiger quolls, 164i shale deposits, 187 tight gas, 177, 470 trilobites, 130i
Index 569 United States volcanoes (cont.) waterfowl, 152 coal production, 443 causing extinctions, 138, 140 Wattle Gulley gold mine, 398i shale gas, 534 causing tsunamis, 321 wave-dominated systems, 304, 311 upper mantle, 83–84 geohazards, 24, 38 wave energy, 306 Upper Roper Group, 100 Heard Island and McDonald Islands, 41 weathering, 113, 115, 134–135, 229, 230i, 251–253, uranium (U), 37, 111, 534 Mt Gambier, 111, 116 466 demonstrated reserves, 517f soil creation, 33 Weber Line, 11m gamma-ray spectrometry, 63–65 southwest margin, 199–200 Wedge Island, 301i heat-producing elements, 23, 489–494, 496–514, 521, Vulcan Sub-basin, 194 Weeks, Lewis, 209 523 Weipa, 454 mines, 269 W bauxite, 267, 388, 466–470 new demand for, 388 Waarre Formation, 533 Wenitong, John Michael, 8, 9 nuclear energy, 514–516 Walbiri uranium deposit, 269 West Angelas Mine, 453 Olympic Dam, 416–422 Wallaby Dam, 401 West Australian Element, 73, 89, 93 tectonic evolution, 103 Wallaby Plateau, 82, 197m, 199 formation, 97–100 top-five product, 435 Wallaby–Zenith Fracture Zone, 191, 194, 199 Rodinia formation, 101 uranium (U)–lead (Pb) isotopic system, 88 Wallace Line, 11m West Australian Petroleum, 217 Urapungan Petroleum Supersystem, 178 Wallacea, 10, 11m Western Arrernte people, 59 urbanisation, see settlements Walloon Coal Measures, 373–374 Western Australia: climate change, 350–351, 367–368 Useless Loop, 116 Wangkangurru people, 337, 361 Western Cape Communities Co-Existence Agreement, 454 Wangkumara people, 265 Western Mining Corporation Ltd, 389, 390, 417–418 V Warrakuna Large Igneous Province, 102 Western Plateau, 15m, 26 Vaalbara, 89, 95, 97 Warrawoona Group rocks, 94 Western Ridge System, 204 Valanginian, 142, 196, 197, 198 Warren beach, 305 Western Rift Province, 204 value adding, 477–478 Warrnambool: seaport, 282 Westralian Petroleum Supersystem, 178, 179f, 180m, 218 Varanus species (lizards), 160–161 Warrumbungle National Park, 54i, 112 Westralian Superbasin, 82–83 Variscan Orogeny, 184 Warumpi Province, 99, 415 Westralian trend, 194 vascular plants, 131 waste disposal practices, 366 ‘wet’ season, 27, 28 Veevers crater, 59 water dragons, 161i wetlands, 357–358 vegetation patterns, 34–35m, 36 water quality: coastal waterways, 313–319 whale sharks ( ), 291 land cover, 61–62 water security, 335, 530, 532 Rincodon typus whaling, 281 venomous species, 36, 158, 159–160 water supply, 29, 30–33 wheat, 33i, 37 vibroseis trucks, 80i domestic use, 350–354 exports, 168 Victor Harbor: seaport, 282 to goldfields, 345–346 soil quality, 254 Victorian goldfields, 383i, 386, 392–400, 402f, 424–425, Indigenous Australians’ knowledge, 337–338, 339 437–438 yields, 253, 255 water-table rise, 255 volcanic hydrothermal resources, 517 wheat belt, 61 water use per capita, 350, 530 volcanoes, 22–23, 53–56 Whicher Range, 199 water volumes, measuring, 24
570 SHAPING A NATION | A Geology of Australia White Australia Policy, 383 World Heritage listings, 26, 41, 185i, 204, 285, 309 Z White Cliffs, 265 wrens, 163i Zambian Copper Belt, 103 Whitehouse, FW, 468 wurrgeng (tropical season), 27 zinc–lead deposits Whundo greenstone belt, 94 Broken Hill, 387, 409–410 Whyalla steelworks, 478 X geological evolution, 411–416, 418m, 423–425 wildfires, see fires xenoliths, 56 Mt Isa, 388, 410–411 Wilgie Mai ochre mine, 261, 263 xenon, 56 zinc (Zn), 37 Wilkatana Fault, 52 Broken Hill, 19 Wilkinson, Charles, 341 Y formation of, 100 Williams Suite, 100 Yadglin uranium deposit, 269 top-five product, 435 Williamstown–Meadows (Kitchener) Fault, 52i Yamarna Terranes, 96 zirconium, 68 Willyama Supergroup, 411 Yandi palaeochannel, 111 zircons Wiluna, 269 Yapungku–Capricorn Orogeny, 98–99 in coastal sands, 296 Windalia Radiolarite, 220 Yarra River, 116 dating of, 88 Windalia Sandstone, 220 Yarragadee Aquifer, 351, 366–367, 368f economic deposits, 111, 268, 308, 450 Windarra, 440 Yarragadee Formation, 199 Newer Volcanic Group, 55 Windjana Gorge, iv, 22i, 133, 135 Yarrakina Mine, 263 oldest minerals, 93 winds, 232–233 Yea, 131, 132i top-five product, 435 wine, 262 Yeelirrie uranium deposit, 269, 494 and weathering, 251 Wingellina: weathering, 253t yegge (tropical season), 27 Zuytdorp Cliffs, 116, 293, 300i Winton Formation, 157 Yeneena Basin, 102, 103 Wiso Basin, 106 Yilgarn Craton, 70, 73 groundwater resources, 335 crust thickness, 82 Witjira–Dalhousie Mound Springs, 361 denudation, 260 Witjira National Park, 158, 234i, 504i Eastern Goldfields, 402–408, 409f Wolf Creek crater, 59 geological processes, 93, 95–97 Wollemia nobilis (Wollemi pine), 156–157, 230 gold deposits, 267 Wollombi Coal Measures, 458 groundwater resources, 335 Wollomombi Falls, 241i high heat-producing granites, 501, 503, 506f wombats, 36, 152, 162 landscape processes, 236, 237m Wongkamala people, 337 lithosphere, 84 wonky holes, 358, 359f mapping, 64, 77, 79, 81 Wood, Walter E, 361 nickel deposits, 389 Woodie Woodie Mine, 346 southwest margin, 197m, 199 Woodside Petroleum Ltd, 217, 221, 476 uranium deposits, 269 Woodward, Harvey Page, 461, 463 Youanmi Terrane, 96 wool industry, 437 Young, 233i Woolnough, WG, 243 Younghusband Peninsula, 292i
Index 571