4 Volume 30, Number 1, Fall 2007 Adolescent Pregnancy in America: Causes and Responses By Desirae M. Domenico, Ph.D. and Karen H. Jones, Ed.D.

Abstract Introduction mothers did not graduate from Adolescent pregnancy has oc­ While slightly decreasing in high school. Less than one-third curred throughout America’s his­ rates in recent years, adolescent of adolescent females giving tory. Only in recent years has it pregnancy continues to be birth before age 18 ever complete been deemed an urgent crisis, as prevalent in the United States, high school, and the younger the more young adolescent mothers with nearly one million teenage pregnant adolescents are, the give birth outside of marriage. At- females becoming pregnant each less likely they are to complete risk circumstances associated year (Meade & Ickovics, 2005; high school (Brindis & Philliber, with adolescent pregnancy in­ National Campaign to Prevent 2003; Koshar, 2001). Nationally, clude medical and health compli­ Teen Pregnancy, 2003; Sarri & about 25% of adolescent moth­ cations, less schooling and higher Phillips, 2004). The country’s ers have a second baby within dropout rates, lower career aspi­ adolescent pregnancy rate re­ one year of their first baby, leav­ rations, and a life encircled by mains the highest among west­ ing the prospect of high school poverty. While legislation for ca­ ern industrialized nations, with graduation improbable. How­ reer and technical education has 4 of every 10 pregnancies occur­ ever, if a parenting female can focused attention on special ring in women younger than age delay a second pregnancy, she needs populations, the definition 20 (Dangal, 2006; Farber, 2003; becomes less at risk for dropping has been broadened to include SmithBattle, 2003; Spear, 2004). out of school and her chance of single parents. This article en­ Despite a 21% decline in the rate finishing high school increases compasses a brief history of ado­ of pregnancy among older ado­ (Kreinin, 1998). lescent pregnancy in America, lescents between ages 15 and Research reveals many ado­ factors influencing adolescent 19, nearly 12,000 adolescent fe­ lescent females become preg­ pregnancy, and the conse­ males under age 15 become nant intentionally because they quences associated with adoles­ pregnant each year (National see no other life goals within cent pregnancy. The conclusion Campaign to Prevent Teen Preg­ their reach (Winter, 1997). includes implications for educa­ nancy, 2003; Rothenberg & Plagued by poor school perfor­ tors, researchers, and practitioners. Weissman, 2002; Sexuality In­ mance and low self-esteem, they formation & Education Council of have no realistic expectations the United States [SIECUS], 2002). about education or occupations; Adolescent pregnancy and thus, pregnancy is viewed as an childbearing are national prob­ alternative path to economic in­ lems that affect the community dependence and adult status and society at large (Spear, (Brown & Barbosa, 2001; 2004). Adolescent mothers be­ Farber, 2003; Rothenberg & come economically dependent Weissman, 2002; Turner, 2004). due to their decreased educa­ Usually adolescents who become tional attainment, the decision teen mothers are already expe­ to keep and raise their children, riencing academic difficulties in subsequent high fertility rates, school, have low educational and greater occurrences of expectations, and are not confi­ single-parent families (Brindis & dent they will graduate from Philliber, 2003; Farber, 2003). high school, or are attempting Not only is adolescent pregnancy to escape abusive home situa­ economically costly, it poses tions (Coles, 2005; Koshar, various social consequences for 2001). Pursuing higher educa­ teen mothers. Pregnancy is one tion or a career is not reason­ of the reasons commonly cited ably within their reach, and they by female secondary students may experience feelings of hope­ for dropping out of high school lessness or helplessness regard­ (Brindis & Philliber, 2003). ing their future (Rothenberg & Rothenberg and Weissman Weissman, 2002). Coupled with (2002) found that 7 out of 10 fe­ a lack of positive role models and males who became adolescent impoverished living situations, The Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education 5 adolescent females decide to be­ witnessed a decline in premari­ secondary students have re­ come pregnant or they “drift” tal pregnancies, which was par­ ported being sexually active be­ into pregnancy, as this decision tially attributed to greater fore marriage (Center for Disease appears to be their best option church participation and more Control and Prevention [CDC], (Brindis & Philliber, 2003; emphasis on self-control and 2004; Santelli et al., 2004; Zero Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002; self-discipline (Farber, 2003). Population Growth, 1997). De­ Winter, 1997). It is equally im­ Even into the mid-twentieth spite high rates of adolescent portant to recognize that adoles­ century, one-fourth of all Ameri­ pregnancy, the majority of cent pregnancy can be a posi­ can women were mothers before American adults still believe tive life choice for females from age 20. However, almost all ado­ teens should not be sexually certain ethnic or social groups lescent mothers were married active, non-marital childbearing (Tripp & Viner, 2005). before the arrival of their babies, is unacceptable, and unwed or they succumbed to the pres­ adolescent mothers are viewed Adolescent Pregnancy sure to drop out of school to con­ in a negative manner (Hofferth in Early America ceal the pregnancy (Hofferth, et al., 2001; National Campaign While many Americans have Reid, & Mott, 2001; Hymowitz, to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, become increasingly concerned 1997; Luker, 1996). 2003; Zero Population Growth, with the problem of teenage If adolescent pregnancy and 1997). This position is substan­ pregnancy over the past three childbearing have been so com­ tiated by a recent study of ado­ decades, the truth is that teen­ mon throughout American his­ lescent females who reported age pregnancy has been a soci­ tory, why have these issues re­ having negative views toward etal concern for more than three ceived such mounting attention teen motherhood (Turner, 2004). and concern in recent years? centuries (Luker, 1996). In pre­ Factors Influencing vious centuries, adolescent Adolescent pregnancy and early pregnancy and the problems marriage among teenagers were Adolescent Pregnancy surrounding it were not specific more accepted in the 1950s be­ For years researchers have ex­ to any age group, but instead cause the young girl usually amined risk factors related to were treated as part of broader married the baby’s father to le­ adolescent pregnancy. Charac­ social issues. Only since the gitimize the birth (SmithBattle, teristics such as family struc­ 1970s has the issue of unwed 2003; Zero Population Growth, ture, age at first intercourse, motherhood become associated 1997). As long as the end result goals, and child sexual abuse with teenagers (Luker, 1996). of a premarital adolescent preg­ have been associated with ado­ Subsequently, teenage preg­ nancy was marriage, the issue lescent pregnancy (Farber, nancy has gripped the attention remained virtually invisible to soci­ 2003; McCullough & Scherman, of educators, policymakers, and ety (Farber, 2003; Furstenberg Jr., 1991; Stewart, 2003; Xie, the public, hence, being deemed 1991; Hymowitz, 1997). In fact, it Cairns, & Cairns, 2001). was not until the radical social an urgent crisis not only for the Family Structure young mother and her child, but changes of the 1960s that ado­ Family structure is considered for society as well (Farber, 2003; lescent pregnancy became a a major factor contributing to Furstenberg Jr., 1991; Manlove, more prominent and socially dis­ adolescent pregnancy and moth­ 1998; Spear, 2004). turbing trend (Cherry, Dillon, & erhood. Rosen (1997) found a In the Puritan communities Rugh, 2001). In the 1960s, ado­ growing number of American of early North America, it was lescents began having sexual adolescent females lived in rela­ not unusual for an adolescent intercourse at an earlier age and tively unstable family situations female to be a wife and mother rejected hasty marriages to le­ and many became sexually inti­ because she was considered to gitimize a birth, opting instead mate for a short-term sense of be mature. Throughout the co­ to remain in school (Furstenberg comfort. Parental rejection, or a lonial period, the incidence of Jr., 1991). The country saw a lack of warmth, affection, or young motherhood and of out- 50% increase in the birth rate love, also led adolescents to seek of-wedlock births posed an eco­ among unwed teenagers from relationships outside the family nomic burden on communities. 1960 to 1975, and the number to boost their self-esteem In both the Puritan and colonial of births to unmarried teenagers (McCullough & Scherman, 1991). times, young mothers were pun­ between ages 15 to 19 quadrupled However, strong family relation­ ished, hastily married off, and from 1960 to 1992 (Furstenberg Jr.; ships and two parent families considered immoral by the Hogan, Sun, & Cornwell, 2000). have been found to lower the church (Farber, 2003; Luker, Today, while premarital sex incidence of adolescent preg­ 1996). The nineteenth century is not condoned, nearly 47% of 6 Volume 30, Number 1, Fall 2007 nancy (Weisfeld & Woodward, culties in school, or they at­ over 65% of adolescent mothers 2004). Hymowitz (1997) claimed tempted to escape abusive home had babies by men who were age parental influence was the most situations (Koshar, 2001). Many 20 or older, implying that a significant variable in adolescent adolescent mothers viewed higher number of adolescent preg­ pregnancy prevention. She con­ postsecondary education as un­ nancies may result from sexual cluded the absence of a father attainable, and they possessed abuse than previously thought was the primary factor in teen little awareness of their life op­ (Klein, 1997; Villarosa, 1997). girls becoming pregnant. It was tions and career opportunities. also reported that adolescents Seeing no future for themselves Consequences of whose parents communicated and coupled with a lack of posi­ Adolescent Pregnancy strong disapproval of sexual tive role models to follow, ado­ Adolescent pregnancy and child­ activity exhibited fewer risk-tak­ lescent females chose to become birth impose difficult long-term ing behaviors and were likely to pregnant, as this decision ap­ outcomes and have adverse ef­ delay sex until a later age peared to be their best alterna­ fects not only on the young (Manlove et al., 2002). tive (Brown & Barbosa, 2001; mother, but also on her child Age at First Intercourse Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002). (Hao & Cherlin, 2004; Meade & Teen mothers viewed childbearing Today puberty occurs much ear­ Ickovics, 2005). These negative as the one thing they could do that lier in adolescents, and first- consequences and outcomes was socially responsible, gave time sexual encounters are tak­ have been documented over the meaning to their lives, and offered ing place at younger ages, re­ years, and society tends to ste­ hope for their futures (Rosen, 1997). sulting in more sexually experi­ reotype all adolescent mothers enced adolescents (Xie et al., Sexual Abuse in an unfavorable manner 2001). Between 1988 and 1995, Sexual abuse may alter percep­ (Camarena, Minor, Melmer, & the proportion of adolescent fe­ tions about sexual behavior, Ferrie, 1998). Possessing an males who first had sex at 14 leading an abused adolescent, understanding of the factors asso­ years old or younger practically especially females, to initiate sex ciated with adolescent pregnancy doubled (National Campaign to at an earlier age and have more and its consequences is necessary Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2003). partners (Saewyc, Magee, & to effectively prevent and ease the There is not a direct relationship Pettingell, 2004). McCullough & costs of adolescent pregnancy. between the time a girl reaches Scherman (1991) speculated Career Opportunities puberty and the likeliness of her some teen pregnancies possibly Often pregnant adolescents are becoming pregnant; however, resulted from unresolved feel­ unaware of the various types of earlier onset of puberty com­ ings and behaviors associated jobs available in the workforce. bined with more peer pressure with earlier sexual abuse. Al­ Pregnant secondary students and less parental supervision though the majority of adoles­ have been found to possess results in today’s adolescents cent females claimed their first lower career aspirations, attain being faced with making prema­ sexual experience was volun­ less prestigious occupations, ture sexual decisions (Farber, tary, Farber (2003) found about and experience less satisfaction 2003; Rodriguez Jr., & Moore, 40% of girls who first had inter­ with career progress, feel their 1995). Adolescents whose moth­ course at age 13 or 14 indicated future job choices are limited ers gave birth as teenagers or involuntary or unwanted inter­ when compared to their non­ who have pregnant siblings are course with an older partner. pregnant peers. They were less also more likely to engage in Herman-Giddens et al. (1998) likely to get a job or attend col­ early sexual intercourse and be­ reported that females who were lege (Hockaday, Crase, Shelley, come teen parents as well (Manlove sexually abused as children & Stockdale, 2000; Nord, Moore, et al., 2002; Xie et al., 2001). were three times more likely to Morrison, Brown, Myers, 1992; Future Expectations become pregnant during their School Board News, 1999). As a teen years and usually became Often the phenomenon of inten­ result, adolescent mothers often pregnant at a younger age. Like­ tional pregnancy is limited to at- experienced a lack of meaning­ wise, about two-thirds of adoles­ risk, low-income adolescents ful and equal career opportuni­ cent mothers were previously because they are more likely to ties, leading to a high rate of teen sexually abused or raped by a perceive their futures as bleak unemployment (Merrick, 1995). father, stepfather, or other rela­ and motherhood as a better op­ Childbearing at an early age has tive, and often suffered from low tion (Davies et al., 2004). Usually also been found to reduce a self-esteem and depression adolescents who became moth­ female’s career opportunities to (Sarri & Phillips, 2004; Villarosa, ers experienced academic diffi­ mostly non-professional occupa­ 1997). Additional studies found The Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education 7 tions (Bissell, 2000). Additional mothers face poor life scenarios cial outcomes of adolescent studies reinforced the notion and bleak impending prospects pregnancy, various economic that adolescent motherhood was for educational and economic outcomes are also evident. Ado­ associated with unrealistic ca­ well-being (Maynard, 1996; lescent pregnancy and early reer aspirations, unequal career Tonelli, 2004). Sarri and Phillips childbearing is detrimental, for opportunities, and high unem­ (2004) implied young mothers very often the young female is ployment rates among adolescent were at risk for confronting unable to attain sufficient edu­ females (Drummond & Hansford, many years of social and eco­ cation needed to compete in the 1992; Merrick, 1995; Nord et al., nomic disadvantages. Adoles­ economy (Sawhill, 2000). It is 1992). Pregnant adolescents rep­ cent mothers have often experi­ estimated that adolescent child­ resent the portion of at-risk enced medical complications bearing costs the nation roughly youth that commonly fall into and health problems during seven billion dollars annually occupations for which there is pregnancy, as many do not seek (National Campaign to Prevent an oversupply of workers prenatal care (Sarri & Phillips, Teen Pregnancy, 2003; (Drummond & Hansford, 1992). 2004). Children of teen mothers Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002). Chartrand and Rose (1996) are more likely to achieve lower Adolescent mothers have relied stressed the need for more ca­ levels of education, suffer from heavily on public assistance and reer development theories that lifelong leaning disabilities, and constituted nearly one-half of all focused on at-risk persons, as are at risk for becoming young, welfare recipients (Maynard, these at-risk individuals are at unmarried parents themselves 1995; Zero Population Growth, the junction of race, gender, and (Farber, 2003; Merrick, 1995; 1997). Such high levels of de­ class, often resulting in limited Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002). pendence on public assistance access to education and career Generally, adolescent females indicated widespread poverty in opportunities. had more children than women families of young adolescent As mentioned earlier, the who delayed childbearing until mothers in America (National best protection an adolescent their twenties, and this trend Center for Research in Voca­ female can have against becom­ continues today (Maynard, tional Education, 1992). Many ing pregnant is to have life goals 1996; National Campaign to Pre­ Americans falsely assumed wel­ (Winter, 1997). Having positive vent Teen Pregnancy, 2002; Zero fare encouraged people, espe­ attitudes about education and Population Growth, 1997). cially adolescent females, to clear educational goals was as­ Because adolescent mothers have babies. Given the United sociated with fewer incidences of often lack work experience, edu­ States provided less support for adolescent births (Hockaday et cational skills, and job training, single mothers, and the welfare al., 2000; Manlove, 1998; their future employment levels benefits have steadily decreased Manlove et al., 2002). Stewart and earnings are minimal. since 1973, Luker (1996) stated (2003) theorized that adolescent Sawhill (2000) observed that there was likely no correlation females with high career aspi­ adolescent mothers who did between the level of welfare ben­ rations may postpone early work were less competitive in the efits and the incidence of out- motherhood to focus on their workforce, and many struggled of-wedlock births. educational and career goals. to survive with low-wage or Educational Outcomes O’Connor (1999) found that aca­ dead-end jobs. Many men re­ Timing of family formation is demically-oriented females, sponsible for children born to critical in the amount of educa­ meaning those with good grades, adolescent mothers provide little tion a young girl obtains high test scores, and high edu­ or no child support; thus a large (Hofferth et al., 2001). Becom­ cational aspirations, were less number of adolescent mothers ing an adolescent mother has likely to give birth while still in have remained disproportion­ been associated with less formal high school. Other studies ately poor, depending on public education, often leading to pov­ (Rodriguez Jr. & Moore, 1995; assistance to support them eco­ erty (Meade & Ickovics, 2005; Young, Turner, Denny, & Young, nomically (National Campaign to Merrick, 1995). Adolescent preg­ 2004) reported adolescents with Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2002; nancy can pose major chal­ a high self-esteem and a belief they Nord et al., 1992; Rothenberg & lenges to school attendance and had future goals were less likely to Weissman, 2002; Sawhill, 2000). completion, and it is one of the experience an early pregnancy. These grim statistics are the re­ reasons commonly cited by fe­ alities adolescent mothers must Adolescent Mothers’ Futures male secondary students for face concerning their futures. Many researchers have painted dropping out of high school a dismal picture of the future for Economic Consequences (Drummond & Hansford, 1992; adolescent mothers. Young In addition to the numerous so­ Hao & Cherlin, 2004). Balanc­ 8 Volume 30, Number 1, Fall 2007 ing school, a job, and childcare Poverty tion use (Tonelli, 2004; Zero is often overwhelming for female Poverty is an additional conse­ Population Growth, 1997). The adolescent parents and consumes quence of adolescent pregnancy, Institute for Educational Lead­ time and energy that they could often leading to poorer outcomes ership (1997) suggested that otherwise spend on school (Hofferth for adolescent mothers (Tripp & schools extend educational op­ et al., 2001; Koshar, 2001). Viner, 2005). As many as 80% portunities in alternative Less than one-third of fe­ of unwed adolescent mothers schools, offer supportive learn­ male adolescents who gave birth grew up in extreme poverty and ing environments for pregnant before age 18 completed high the likelihood their children will and parenting adolescents. school. Additionally, for adoles­ grow up in poverty is high. Many School districts that have alter­ cent mothers experiencing a poverty-stricken adolescents native programs meet the needs subsequent pregnancy within accepted their pregnancy and of parenting adolescents by two years of their first delivery, viewed it as a means of improv­ scheduling later class times, of­ the prospect of high school ing their lives (Rosen, 1997). fering pregnancy and childbirth graduation is improbable Adolescents subjected to disad­ classes, allowing students to (Kreinin, 1998; Meade & vantaged circumstances, such gain graduation credits, providing Ickovics, 2005). Hofferth et al. as living in poor, racially segre­ access to services such as counsel­ (2001) found that adolescent gated, high crime communities, ing and on-site nursing aides, and childbearing was greatly associ­ or living in problematic or single arranging quality childcare services ated with reduced chances of parent families, were more at (Essortment, 2007). completing high school and at­ risk of becoming pregnant dur­ While adolescent pregnancy tending college, thus leading the ing their teenage years prevention programs offer researchers to conclude that today’s (Maynard, 1995; Sarri & countless support services to adolescent mothers who are unable Phillips, 2004). Manlove et al. pregnant and parenting adoles­ to obtain some form of higher edu­ (2002) reported adolescents liv­ cents, not all support services cation are at a disadvantage. ing in poverty stricken neighbor­ are consistently available Koshar (2001) discovered hoods were more apt to engage throughout the country and pro­ that many adolescent females in sexual intercourse, often lead­ grams vary from state to state who became pregnant were al­ ing to adolescent pregnancy and (Brindis & Philliber, 2003). Pro­ ready experiencing academic dif­ childbirth. Maynard (1995) grams aimed at preventing preg­ ficulties in school and therefore speculated that adolescent preg­ nancy and parenting among were at risk for dropping out. nancy and childbearing directly adolescents must be long-term While many adolescent females resulted in the intergenerational and comprehensive, while incor­ on the verge of dropping out transfer of poverty. porating important components claimed becoming pregnant gave such as early intervention, sexu­ them the excuse to quit school, Responses to ality education, counseling, other adolescent females first Adolescent Pregnancy health services, adolescent do­ dropped out of school and then mestic violence, and youth de­ became pregnant (Kreinin, Over the last half of the twenti­ velopment (Raphael, 2005; 1998; School Board News, eth century, schools, communi­ Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002; 1999). Academic success and a ties, and government agencies School Board News, 1999). Na­ bonding to school have been have worked diligently to help tional programs such as the associated with reduced adolescent combat adolescent pregnancy. Abstinence Education Program, pregnancy rates (Yampolskaya, There are literally hundreds of funded by the welfare reform law Brown, & Vargo, 2004). Adoles­ adolescent pregnancy preven­ and administered by Health and cents who had friends with high tion programs available to teens Human Services, offers federal educational aspirations were today, yet it is difficult for edu­ grants to states for abstinence less likely to engage in sex at an cators and practitioners to know education activities including early age, thus reducing their which of these programs serve mentoring and counseling. The chances of adolescent pregnancy as “best practices” (Franklin & Adolescent Family Life Program, and increasing their likelihood of Corcoran, 2000). Successful also administered by Health and completing high school when com­ programs are characterized as Human Services, affords educa­ pared to adolescents whose being multifaceted, incorporat­ tion and social services to teen peers did not have these char­ ing not only abstinence, but also fathers to help them realize their acteristics (Manlove et al., 2002). other topics including delayed roles and responsibilities as a sexual activity, life skills train­ parent. In addition, many teen ing, self-esteem, sex education, mothers receive medical assis­ parenting skills, and contracep­ The Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education 9 tance, and family planning and fessionals to assist families of (Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott, reproductive health services these adolescents in teaching 2003). The recent passage of the through Medicaid, provided them to become independent, Carl D. Perkins Career and through Title XIX of the Social self-sufficient adults. Out­ Technical Improvement Act of Security Act (Association of Ma­ reach programs should stress 2006 continues the support of ternal & Child Health Programs, the importance of career as­ single parents, including adoles­ 2006). Adolescent pregnancy is pirations for all pregnant and cent mothers, while preparing a complex problem, and there is parenting adolescents, espe­ them for occupations that lead a need for collaboration among cially those with special needs. to self-efficacy (Association for various organizations to achieve Career and Technical Education, successful pregnancy preven­ Implications for Career 2006). The federal welfare pro­ tion programs, as only marginal and Technical Education gram, Temporary Assistance for success in the fight against ado­ Federal and state governments Needy Families (TANF), requires lescent pregnancy has been can contribute in the effort to adolescent parents who are mi­ achieved to date (Brindis & reduce adolescent pregnancy by nors to participate in school or Philliber, 2003; School Board providing stable funding for training to receive aid (Center for News, 1999; Tonelli, 2004; comprehensive educational and Law and Social Policy, 2001). Weisfeld & Woodward, 2004). support services to pregnant Once pregnant and parenting adolescents gain a Recommendations for and parenting adolescents (In­ stitute for Educational Leader­ higher self-efficacy with realis­ Practice ship, 1997). Students with spe­ tic outcome expectations, they 1. To increase adolescent fe­ cial needs are at further risk for can begin to establish and work males’ self-efficacy, schools adolescent pregnancy; however, toward the attainment of career should incorporate curricu­ information regarding the num­ goals. According to Young, Mar­ lum that nurtures a sense of ber of adolescent mothers with tin, Young, and Ting (2001), pro­ self-worth and productivity special needs and their educa­ grams that connect behaviors that can lend itself to the tional needs has not been pre­ with outcomes and programs workforce. Beginning in ninth viously recorded (Jones, that promote the importance of grade, delivery of such cur­ Domenico, & Valente, 2006; higher education afford adoles­ riculum can be provided Jones, Woolcock-Henry, & cent females the skills to develop through Career and Techni­ Domenico, 2005; Shapland, realistic strategies for meeting cal Education classroom ex­ 1999; Yampolskaya, Brown, & life goals. Guidance programs ercises, guidance career ac­ Greenbaum, 2002). Inclusive that include career education tivities, and community vocational training for all stu­ and exploration opportunities school-to-work programs. dents, including special needs have been found to provide ex­ 2. Students from impoverished students, is mandated and sup­ posure to postsecondary educa­ backgrounds should be af­ ported by a variety of national tion and training options forded opportunities to partici­ policy initiatives addressing (McWhirter, Rasheed, & pate in long-term secondary pro­ transition services for students Crothers, 2000). An implication grams that will enable them to with special needs. These in­ of this paper is the need for vo­ establish career and educational clude: The Technology-Related cational special needs educators goals and provide them the tools Act for Individuals with Disabili­ and career and technical edu­ to achieve these goals. ties, Goals 2000- Educate cators to understand the neces­ 3. Sex education curriculum America Act; School-To-Work sity for building adolescent self- prior to high school entry Opportunities Act, and the efficacy and intense education should clearly define the de­ Americans with Disabilities Act. in linking pregnant or parenting cision-making process for a Specifically, legislation for career adolescent females’ outcome ex­ sexual relationship, the out­ and technical education has fo­ pectations with their goals re­ comes of a sexual relationship, cused attention on special needs garding future career aspira­ and the choice to abstain from populations as early as the Vo­ tions. Another implication would sex without a sense of guilt. cational Education Act of 1963. be to recognize the importance 4. Because families are often a The Carl D. Perkins Vocational of assisting pregnant and support group for pregnant and Technical Education Act of parenting females from special and parenting adolescents, 1998 broadened the definition of needs populations in determin­ there is a need for community disadvantaged populations to ing barriers to the workforce in outreach programs headed by include single parents, which an effort to enable them to reas­ social workers and health pro­ includes adolescent mothers sess their career options. 10 Volume 30, Number 1, Fall 2007 Typically, Americans have vember 20, 2004 from http:// ally abused as children. Journal of been reluctant to deal with is­ apps.nccd.cdc.gov/yrbss/ Interpersonal Violence, 13, 504-513. sues regarding sexuality and CategoryQuestions.asp?Cat= Hockaday, C., Crase, S. 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Ado- Correspondence about this Greenbaum, P. E. (2002). Early lescence, 36, 289-304. manuscript may be sent to pregnancy among adolescent fe- Young, T., Turner, J., Denny, G., & Desirae M. Domenico, Ph.D., males with serious emotional dis- Young, M. (2004). Examining ex- Career Technology Department, turbance: Risk factors and out- ternal and internal poverty as Pebblebrook High School, 991 comes. Journal of Emotional & Be- antecedents of teen pregnancy. havioral Disorders, 10, 108-116. American Journal of Health Be- Old Alabama Road, Mableton, Yampolskaya, S., Brown, E. C., & havior, 28, 361-373. GA 30126. Electronic mail may be Vargo, A. C. (2004). Assessment Zero Population Growth (1997). sent to dmdomenico@ hotmail.com of teen pregnancy prevention in- Teen pregnancy: A major problem terventions among middle school in the U.S. Women’s International youth. Child & Adolescent Social Network News, 23, 69-72. Work Journal, 21(1), 69-83. Young, T. M., Martin, S. S., Young, M. 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