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A Sociological Comparison Between Sri Lankan Muslim Women in Colombo and London in the Late 1990S

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A Sociological Comparison Between Sri Lankan Muslim Women in Colombo and London in the Late 1990S University of London London School of Economics and Political Science Tradition and modernity: a sociological comparison between Sri Lankan Muslim women in Colombo and London in the late 1990s A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sociology in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Fathima Fatheena Mubarak London, 2003 UMI Number: U183062 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U183062 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 pOtm CAL AND ^ F IO IS S°i3> Abstract This thesis is a sociological comparison between Sri Lankan Muslim women in two contemporary societies, and it concentrates on the dynamic relationship between religion, culture, and gender. The theoretical aims of the thesis are to investigate the ways in which religion, principally in relation to gender relations, is perceived by its followers, and the diverse manner in which religion can manifest itself, in different cultural and social contexts, at a given time. In particular, the study focuses on the diversity of followers’ world-views because of adherents’ different social experiences, despite the core religious beliefs they share. Further, it explores the impact these differences can have on followers’ perceptions of the roles they play and the identities they assume. These issues have been addressed primarily by means of qualitative research, conducted in Sri Lanka and Britain. Although the thesis refers to the theoretical standpoints of many sociologists, two approaches are of particular significance: the first is Robert K. Merton’s role-theory, to understand religious identity in relation to individuals’ multiple identities; and the second is feminist critiques, for their insight into the relationship between religion, patriarchy and gender. The results indicate that Islam is an important independent variable that has an impact upon many aspects of life, mainly because it is regarded as a source of guidance and identity for a majority of women in the study. It follows that an understanding of the traditions and beliefs based on religion is essential to recognise existing power structures and gender relations in Muslim communities. Religious traditions are often regarded as immutable, given the sources on which they are based; but, as this study indicates, traditions and beliefs based on religion can alter with transformations in the social and cultural milieu. As a source of identity, Islam gives Muslims a sense of belonging to a ‘community’ that transcends national and geographical boundaries, even if the members of that community follow different forms of Islam and have other identities - such as being Muslim and Sri Lankan and/or British and/or mother/wife and so on. What is of particular relevance to the sociology of religion is that, although the women in this study had multiple competing identities, their religious identity, unlike, say, their national or ethnic identities, was an exclusive characteristic. 2 Contents Acknowledgements 6 List of tables 7 Glossary of terms 9 Chapter 1: Introduction: the scope and method of the research 12 Introduction 12 Reconsidering tradition in modernity 13 The aims and theoretical and methodological approaches of the research 18 The methodology 29 The importance and relevance of qualitative research 40 An outline of the thesis 44 Chapter 2: Colombo Muslim women: their identity and social world 49 Introduction 49 Ethnic identity and religious identity: the case of the Sri Lankan Muslims 49 The Muslims of Sri Lanka: a brief history 54 A classification of the Muslim community of Sri Lanka 55 The legacy of patriarchy 67 Women in Sri Lanka: a brief overview 71 Women and Islam: the popular interpretation 77 The economic background of Colombo Muslims 84 Conclusion 89 Chapter 3: Gender inequality and the Muslim Law of Sri Lanka 91 Introduction 91 Sociological definitions and functions of law 93 A history of Islamic law 102 3 The Muslim Personal Law of Sri Lanka 111 The Muslim divorce laws 128 Modem Muslim communities and their response to the traditional schools of law 133 Conclusion 134 Chapter 4: Religiosity and religious commitment among Sri Lankan Muslim women 137 Introduction 137 Religiosity and religious commitment: problems with definitions and evaluations 138 Assessing religiosity among Muslims 142 Devotional practices: some criteria for assessment 151 Awareness of the Muslim Family Law in Sri Lanka as an extension of the ‘knowledge’ dimension of religiousness 159 Religiosity: some concluding remarks 175 Conclusion 179 Chapter 5: The impact of education and employment on Sri Lankan Muslim women 183 Introduction 183 Education and employment patterns of Sri Lankan women 185 Education patterns of Muslim women in Sri Lanka 193 Education and employment histories of the respondents 207 Factors that influenced women’s education and employment 211 Islamic education and its significance to Muslim women 225 Work suitable for women 226 Domestic labour and housewives 229 Conclusion 232 4 Chapter 6: Marriage, marriage customs and their implications for Sri Lankan Muslim women 235 Introduction 235 Marriage and Islam 237 Conditions of marriage in Islam 241 Marriage among Sri Lankan Muslims 245 Arranged marriages 252 Rituals in a Sri Lankan Muslim marriage 259 Other non-Islamic marriage practices of Sri Lankan Muslims 270 The practice ofmahr among the Sri Lankan Muslim community 274 Women’s views on ‘outsiders’ with reference to marriage 276 Conclusion 283 Chapter 7: Individual and social identity revisited: Muslims of Sri Lankan origin in Britain 285 Introduction 285 Islam in Britain: The Emergence of Muslim Communities 287 Sri Lankan Muslims: their arrival in Britain 290 Religion, ethnicity and identity revisited: the context of Sri Lankan Muslims in Britain 299 Preserving a community - struggles and strategies 314 Conclusion 323 Conclusion 325 Appendix A 337 Appendix B 338 References 344 5 Acknowledgements My heartfelt thanks to all the women who gave so much of their time to me. Had they not shared their views and experiences with me, this thesis would never have been. I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Eileen Barker, for her advice, constructive suggestions, unfailing support and commitment. I owe her many red pens and teabags. Despite her help and support, I am the only one responsible for any errors and imperfections in the study. I am indebted to my parents for their understanding, guidance and faith in me. Without their encouragement, I would never have experienced the wonders of university life and education. I also owe much to my sisters for paving the way, for the many discussions and conversations we had about women and Islam, and for being a part of my life. Yemeena, in particular, helped me by obtaining information from some very difficult people, reviewed the references and offered, even if reluctantly, to travel to Pimlico. Many thanks to Varuni, who was more than a friend. She spurred me on and never failed to get the information I needed from her numerous sources in Colombo. I am also grateful to my colleagues in the Department of Sociology, LSE, who constantly reminded me that we were all rocking wildly in the same boat; and to Sarah Harvey for offering her help when I needed it. Mr. Perera in Sri Lanka made the many journeys between my home and the homes of respondents seem short and tireless - and he never complained about my bad timekeeping. This, I truly appreciate. My sincere thanks to Professor Ryhana Raheem for reading some early drafts of my chapters. Her suggestions were very helpful and contributed to make this study a better piece of work. I am especially grateful to Dr. Iqbal Raheem for his constant reminders that the PhD does have a time limit, to Nelufar Raheem for typing Chapter 3 and, together with Ilham and Afzal, providing me with food and other necessities when the cupboards looked bare. Finally, I would like to thank my husband, Imran. Without his support, humour and limitless patience, this thesis would never have seen the light of day. Alhamdulillah 6 List of tables Table 1: The Muslim population in Sri Lanka according to ethnicity 55 Table 2: A comparison of the rulings by the four Sunni schools of law on matters relating to marriage and divorce 108 Table 3: Questionnaire responses to ‘How often do you recite theQur’anT 151 Table 4: Responses to ‘How often do you read the translation of the Qur'an when you recite the Qur’anT 153 Table 5: Questionnaire responses to ‘Do you think that the Muslim Law of Sri Lanka requires a man entering a second, third or fourth marriage to obtain the permission of his other wife/wives?’ 166 Table 6: Literacy rates in Sri Lanka by ethnic group and sex - 1981 196 Table 7: Ordinary Level examination participation rates at Muslim Ladies’ College, Colombo 198 Table 8: Advanced Level examination participation rates at Muslim Ladies’ College, Colombo 199 Table 9: Ordinary Level/ Advanced Level examination participation rates at Uma International Girl’s School,
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