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Race, Gender, and Imperialism in the Early American Foreign Mission Movement The Conversion of the World in the Early Republic: Race, Gender, and Imperialism in the Early American Foreign Mission Movement The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Conroy-Krutz, Emily. 2012. The Conversion of the World in the Early Republic: Race, Gender, and Imperialism in the Early American Foreign Mission Movement. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University. Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:10086047 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA ! !2012—Emily Louise Conroy-Krutz All rights reserved. ! Dissertation Advisor: Professor Nancy F. Cott Emily Louise Conroy-Krutz The Conversion of the World in the Early Republic: Race, Gender, and Imperialism in the Early American Foreign Mission Movement Abstract This is a transnational history of the early republic that focuses on religious actors. The early American foreign mission movement was an outward-looking expression of the benevolent network of the early republic. Building on transatlantic connections that predated the American Revolution, it represented American evangelicals’ attempt to transform the “heathen world” into part of God’s kingdom. Using ABCFM missions to in India, the Cherokee Nation, and Liberia as case studies, this dissertation examines the relationship between the church and imperial politics. In the 1800s, Americans, who had focused their evangelism on Native Americans, joined British evangelicals in the work of world mission. In the first decades of their work, they saw the potential of imperial expansion as a conduit for evangelization. In practice, evangelicals found great faults with imperial governments. Everywhere, missionaries struggled to determine how linked the projects of Christianizing and “civilizing” ought to be. With regard to gender norms in particular, missionaries found the introduction of “civilization” to be an essential part of their work. The question of slavery ultimately led to a shift in mission policy. By the mid-1840s, the Board insisted that it was a single-issue organization whose sole purpose was the conversion of the world. In so doing, the Board shifted away from the early 19th century model of foreign missions as bearers of “civilization” to a mid-19th century model of a separation between missions and politics. iii ! Table of Contents Abstract iii Acknowledgments v Introduction 1 Chapter One 32 “No Nation But Our Own”: Anglo-American Connections in the Early American Mission Movement Chapter Two 67 Women and “Civilization” in the Board’s Early Missions Chapter Three 106 “The Folly of Their Wickedness and Idolatry”: American Missionaries in Bombay, 1812-1834 Chapter Four 148 Martyrs and Political Preachers: The Cherokee Mission and the Politicization of the American Board Chapter Five 187 Looking Towards Africa: the ABCFM Mission to Liberia 1824-1845 Chapter Six 238 Slavery and the Shifting Relationship of Missions and “Civilization” Conclusion 268 Civilization,” Christianization, and Imperialism in Nineteenth-Century Missions Bibliography 280 iv ! Acknowledgments It is an odd and humbling experience to come to the end of a project like this and reflect upon all of the help along the way. Dissertation-writing can feel like an isolated experience, but in reality, it would not be possible without the support of many advisors, colleagues, friends, and family. It is a pleasure to thank them now. I knew Nancy Cott’s work long before I knew her as an advisor; it was while reading The Grounding of Modern Feminism that I decided I wanted to become a historian. It has accordingly been an honor to have worked with her these past six years, and I know that her careful criticism has made me a better scholar. This project developed out of work begun in Laurel Ulrich’s seminar classroom, and her continued interest in these missionaries and her enthusiasm for research has been sustaining. Walter Johnson helped me to see the potential for this story as a way to talk about transnational American history, and I have been grateful for his ability to help me think about the big picture. Ian Tyrrell joined the committee only recently, and his close readings and helpful comments did much to bring the manuscript to its finished form. I am also grateful for the continued support of my undergraduate advisors, Elizabeth Blackmar and Alice Kessler-Harris. My research took me to archives both near to Harvard and far away. I would like to thank the archivists at Houghton Library at Harvard, the School of Oriental and African Studies in London, the Angus Library at the University of Oxford, and the Clements Library at the University of Michigan. An American Fellowship from the American Association of University Women, and an American Republic Fellowship from the Center for American Political Studies at Harvard provided much-appreciated financial support. Parts of this research have been presented to the History of Religion Conference v ! at Boston College (in 2012), the Society of Historians of the Early American Republic (in 2010 and 2011), the Rothemere American Institute at the University of Oxford (in 2011), the Graduate Conference in International History at Columbia University (in 2011), and the American Studies Association (in 2010). I am grateful for the feedback of those audiences. One of the nicest aspects of graduate studies at Harvard has been, of course, working with other graduate students and participating in the various dissertation workshops. I would like to thank the members of the Early American Workshop, the Gender and Sexuality Workshop, and the Nineteenth Century Workshop for their help in formulating this project from the prospectus stage forward. I would especially like to thank Sarah Carter, Erin Dwyer, John Huffman, Noam Maggor, Betsy Moore, Josie Rodberg, Katherine Stevens, and Amy Young for their particular attentiveness over the years. Ann Marie Wilson is in a category all of her own. I am grateful for her listening ear and critical eye, and perhaps for her sense of humor most of all. None of this would have been possible without my family. I have been lucky to grow up in a family that valued education and history in particular. My mother, Anne Conroy, always believed this project was important even when I doubted it. My father, Fran Conroy, should be pleased to find bits of Jefferson sprinkled here and there. My sister, Julie Conroy, never failed to make me laugh and distract me when I needed it. My daughter Elizabeth was around in utero or in person for much of the writing of this dissertation, and so it is fitting to thank her for coming along on this journey with me, and for putting up with a mother whose head was in the nineteenth century for much of the time. vi ! I have been trying to figure out how to thank Jeff since I read his dissertation acknowledgments, and three years has not been enough time to come up with the words. I hope it is enough to say that I know that two things are true. First, that this dissertation would not be half so good without the benefit of having him as a sounding board and editor. Second, that this would not matter nearly so much if I did not have you to come home to every day. Thank you, my favorite reader, best friend, and husband. This one’s for you. vii ! ! “The Conversion of the World in the Early Republic” Emily Conroy-Krutz Introduction In August of 1826, evangelical Christians living in New England received the monthly issue of The Missionary Herald. Perhaps they were members of one of the sixty-four auxiliary societies or eighty-eight individuals listed as donors in the previous month, hailing from throughout New England and New York.1 Opening the magazine, they would read of the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions around the world, as well as that of related groups. They would read about the formation of a mission college in Ceylon, a tour in South America, the activities of missionaries among Native Americans in New York and in the South, and the Sandwich Islands. They would read about “Hindoostan,” or India, and about the American colony in Liberia. They would also learn about the work of the Bible Society in Russia and in Bengal, the global mission of the American Baptists, and the recent merger of the American Board with the United Foreign Mission Society, which brought far more missions to Native Americans under the control of the American Board. The Board understood all of this diverse and global work to be related, and all of it was described for evangelical readers in a short thirty-two pages each month. Explaining the merger with the United Foreign Mission Society, the Board asked its readers if it could “be doubted that the prompt and efficient support of all Protestant missions to the heathen” was the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 “Donations from June 21st, to July 20th, Inclusive,” Missionary Herald (August 1826): 263-5. The auxiliary societies were listed by county and then town, with donations from men and women distinguished from each other. The Board collected a total of $3,075.14 from the auxiliary societies and $5,543.63 from individuals in that month, in addition to the donations in clothing and other goods listed separately. The individual donors at times specified
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