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ENCYCLOPEDIA of SCIENTIFIC DATING METHODS Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SCIENTIFIC DATING METHODS

Volume Editors William Jack Rink is Professor of Earth Sciences at McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. He has a B.Sc. and Ph.D. in from Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA. His research encompasses both fundamental studies of radiation exposure dating methods and applications of electron spin resonance, series dating, and of archaeological sites in the Middle East, Asia, Europe, Africa, South America, and North America and of nearshore and ancient coastal geomorphologic features. He was elected to the New York City Explorer’s Club in 2005. Jeroen W. Thompson is Adjunct Assistant Professor in the Department of Medical Physics and Applied Radiation Sciences at McMaster University. He holds a B.Sc. in Physics and a B.Sc. in Anthropology (Michigan State University) as well as an M.Sc. in Physics (University of Connecticut) and a Ph.D. in Medical Physics and Applied Radiation Sciences (McMaster University). His research is highly interdisciplinary, including diverse applications of radiation dosimetry and detection that span laboratory and fieldwork. In particular, he has applied electron paramagnetic resonance and optically stimulated luminescence dosimetry both forensic dosimetry and geochronology. Dr. Thompson is currently a research management consultant, with specific focus on radiation and environmental sciences.

Associate Editors Editorial Board Larry M. Heaman Robert A. Creaser, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences University of Alberta Don Davis, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada Edmonton, AB, Canada Geoffrey A. T. Duller, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, UK A. J. Timothy Jull NSF-Arizona AMS Laboratory John Gosse, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada University of Arizona Tucson, AZ, USA Simon Y. W. Ho, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia James B. Paces James K.W. Lee, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada U.S. Geological Survey Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia Denver Federal Center Denver, CO, USA Josep M. Pares, National Research Center on Human Evolution, Burgos, Spain Peter W. Reiners, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

Ross Stevenson, University of Quebec, Montreal, QB, Canada

John F. Wehmiller, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA

Aims of the Series The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists. These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, , geophysicists, climatologists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. Go to http://link.springer.com to visit the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series online.

About the Series Editor Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25 years, he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education and Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of the University of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Company of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia, the Caribbean, South America, SW Pacific Islands, Southern Africa, Western Europe, and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.

Founding Series Editor Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career, he has worked as a petroleum in the Middle East, been a World War II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific, and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil, and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA of SCIENTIFIC DATING METHODS

edited by

W. JACK RINK JEROEN W. THOMPSON McMaster University, Canada

with Associate Editors LARRY M. HEAMAN University of Alberta, Edmonton A. J. TIMOTHY JULL University of Arizona, Tucson JAMES B. PACES U.S. Geological Survey, Denver Library of Congress Control Number: 2015935943

ISBN: 978-94-007-6303-6 This publication is available also as: Electronic publication under ISBN 978-94-007-6304-3 and Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-94-007-6306-7

Springer Dordrecht, Heidelberg, New York, London

Printed on acid-free paper

Cover photo: Red onyx. istock Photo 10492317 © Missing35mm – iStock

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions.

All rights reserved for the contributions Amino Acid Racemization, Eolianites; Biostratigraphy; Clays and Glauconites (K-Ar/Ar-Ar); Gene Sequencing; Dating with Atmospheric Halogenated Compounds; Hydrocarbons/ - (Re-Os): Organic-rich Sedimentary Rocks; Isua Supracrustal Belt, West Greenland: Geochronology; Luminescence Dating, Shell Rich Deposits; Potassium-Argon (Argon-Argon), Structural Fabrics; of Terrestrial Carbonates; Uranium Series, Opal; Uranium Series, Rates of Basaltic Melt Generation and Transport; Uranium Series, Volcanic Rocks; Uranium- Dating, Opal; Uranium-Lead, Detrital Zircon

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Contents

Contributors xi Amino Acid Racemization, Fluvial and Lacustrine Sediments (AAR) 40 Preface xxvii John F. Wehmiller Acknowledgments xxix Amino Acid Racemization, Marine Sediments 44 Acasta Gneiss Complex 1 Darrell Kaufman Samuel Bowring, Tom Chacko, Larry M. Heaman and Jesse Reimink Amino Acid Racemization, Paleoclimate 47 Matthew Collins and Beatrice Demarchi Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3 A. J. Timothy Jull and George S. Burr Ancient Inks: A Forensic Art Historical Perspective 48 Howell G. M. Edwards Age of the Earth 6 Peter Barry and Larry Taylor Apatite 53 W. Jack Rink Alpha Spectroscopy 7 Aquifer Characteristics (U-Series) 54 Jeroen W. Thompson Don Porcelli – – Alpine Terranes (K Ar/Ar Ar) 7 Ar–Ar and K–Ar Dating 58 Jan R. Wijbrans James K. W. Lee

Amino Acid 12 73 John F. Wehmiller Cathy Batt

Amino Acid Racemization Dating 13 Band Structure 81 Beatrice Demarchi and Matthew Collins Jeroen W. Thompson

Amino Acid Racemization, Biostratigraphy 26 Beta Counter 82 Matthew Kosnik Jeroen W. Thompson

Amino Acid Racemization, Coastal Sediments 28 Big Bang 82 John F. Wehmiller Gary R. Huss

Amino Acid Racemization, Eolianites 35 Biostratigraphy 83 Colin V. Murray-Wallace Marie-Pierre Aubry vi CONTENTS

Bivalve Sclerochronology 108 , Fire Regimes 204 Donna M. Surge and Bernd R. Schöne Peter M. Brown

Bomb 115 Dendrochronology, Progress 207 George S. Burr Laia Andreu-Hayles and Caroline Leland

Bones (U-Series) 120 Dendrochronology, Surficial Processes 213 Alistair W. G. Pike Markus Stoffel, Juan A. Ballesteros-Cnovas and Christophe Corona 14C in Plant Macrofossils 127 Christine Hatte´ and A. J. Timothy Jull Dendrochronology, Volcanic Eruptions 221 Franco Biondi Carbonates, Lacustrine (U-Series) 132 Mordechai Stein Early Life on Earth 229 David Wacey Carbonates, Marine Carbonates (U-Series) 136 Claudine H. Stirling Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Dating of Coral 234 Gerhard Schellmann and Ulrich Radtke

Carbonates, Pedogenic (U-Series) 141 Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Dating of Fossil Warren D. Sharp Tooth Enamel 239 Mathieu Duval Carbonates, Speleothem Archaeological (U-Series) 144 Dirk Hoffmann Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Dating, General Principles 246 Carbonates, Speleothem Climatic (U-Series) 147 Anne Skinner David A. Richards Electron Spin Resonance Spectrometer 255 Chemical Weathering (U-Series) 152 Jeroen W. Thompson Anthony Dosseto Environmental Releases 256 Chert 169 Robert Morrison L. Paul Knauth Exhumation (Thermochronology) 261 Chromatography 170 Pieter van der Beek John F. Wehmiller Extraterrestrial Materials (K–Ar/Ar–Ar) 264 Clays and Glauconites (K–Ar/Ar–Ar) 171 Timothy Swindle Horst Zwingmann Fault Zone (Thermochronology) 269 Ben van der Pluijm and Chris Hall Continental Drift () 177 Trond H. Torsvik, Pavel V. Doubrovine and Faults (U-Series) 274 Mathew Domeier Perach Nuriel

Corals (Sclerochronology) 187 Feldspar, Infrared-Stimulated Luminescence 279 Kristine L. DeLong Mayank Jain

Crustal Sulfide Minerals (Re–Os) 191 Feldspars 284 Robert A. Creaser Michel Lamothe

Dendrochronology, Dwellings 197 Fission Track Dating and Thermochronology 285 Stephen E. Nash Andrew J. W. Gleadow and Christian Seiler

Dendrochronology, Entomology 202 Gene Sequencing 297 Barry Cooke Jessica A. Thomas CONTENTS vii

Geomagnetism 298 Lu–Hf Dating: The Lu–Hf System 379 Vadim A. Kravchinsky Jeff Vervoort

Glacial Landscape () 301 Luminescence Dating 390 Joerg M. Schaefer Geoffrey A. T. Duller

Groundwater Dating with Atmospheric Luminescence Dating of Archaeological Halogenated Compounds 308 Sediments 404 Karl B. Haase and Eurybiades Busenberg James Feathers

Historical Development of Dating Methods 319 Luminescence Dating, Deep-Sea Marine and James M. Mattinson Lacustrine 409 Helen M. Roberts Hominid Evolution Timescale 329 Antoine Balzeau Luminescence Dating, Dose Rates 414 Guillaume Gue´rin Hydrocarbons/Rhenium–Osmium (Re–Os): Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks 330 Luminescence Dating, 417 David Selby, Vivien M. Cumming, Ludwig Zöller and Günther A. Wagner Alan D. Rooney and Alexander J. Finlay Luminescence Dating, Instrumentation 422 Hydrothermal (Thermochronology) 334 Kristina Jørkov Thomsen Istva´n Ma´rton Luminescence Dating, Loess 425 Ice Cores 341 Helen M. Roberts Anders Svensson Luminescence Dating, Meteorites 430 Impact Glass (Fission Tracks) 348 Derek W. G. Sears Giulio Bigazzi and Maria Laura Balestrieri Luminescence Dating, Shell-Rich Deposits 431 Index Fossil 353 Robert Hendricks and Alex Hodson Peter Harries Luminescence Dating, Single-Grain Dose Isua Supracrustal Belt, West Greenland: Distribution 435 Geochronology 354 Richard G. Roberts and Zenobia Jacobs Vickie C. Bennett and Allen P. Nutman Luminescence Dating, Uncertainties and Jack Hills Zircon 359 Age Range 440 Simon A. Wilde Jakob Wallinga and Alastair C. Cunningham – – Kimberlites (K Ar/Ar Ar) 361 Luminescence, Biogenic Carbonates 445 David Phillips Geoffrey A. T. Duller 14 Lacustrine Environments ( C) 365 Luminescence, Coastal Sediments 446 Susan Zimmerman and Amy Myrbo Barbara Mauz Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Mass Spectrometer (LA ICP-MS) 371 Luminescence, Colluvial Sediments 450 Paul Sylvester Andreas Lang

Lichenometry 372 Luminescence, Desert Dunes 452 William B. Bull Matt Telfer

Lucy 378 Luminescence, Earthquake and Tectonic Activity 456 William H. Kimbel Morteza Fattahi viii CONTENTS

Luminescence, Flints and Stones 460 Meteorites (Lu–Hf) 555 Daniel Richter Audrey Bouvier

Luminescence, Fluvial Sediments 465 Meteorites (U–Pb) 559 Amanda Keen-Zebert Yuri Amelin

Luminescence, Geomorphological Processes 470 Meteorites, Rubidium–Strontium, and Stephen Tooth – 562 Lars Borg Luminescence, Glacial Sediments 475 Geoffrey A.T. Duller Minerals (40Ar–39Ar) 569 Simon Kelley, Clare Warren and Luminescence, Martian Sediments 478 Camilla Wilkinson Regina DeWitt Model Ages (Sm–Nd) 573 Luminescence, Pottery and Bricks 481 Alan P. Dickin Ian Bailiff Calibration 576 Luminescence, Rock Surfaces 485 Rachel Warnock Reza Sohbati

Luminescence, Soils 489 Molecular Clocks 583 Arjun M. Heimsath Simon Y. W. Ho

Luminescence, Volcanic Rocks 493 Molecular Clocks, Human Evolution 588 Sumiko Tsukamoto Simon Y. W. Ho and Phillip Endicott

Magnetic Anomalies 497 Molecular Clocks, Relaxed Variant 591 Roi Granot Simon Y. W. Ho

Magnetic Chronology 500 Molecular Dating of Evolutionary Events 593 Manuel Calvo-Rathert David Duchene and Lindell Bromham

Magnetometer 507 Molecular Rate Variation (Molecular Clocks) 596 Vicente Soler Javaloyes Robert Lanfear

Magnetostratigraphic Dating 507 Molluscs, , and Other Miguel Garces Carbonate Fossils 597 Bonnie A. B. Blackwell Marine Isotope Stratigraphy 517 Galen P. Halverson Neutron Activation 607 Ron Hancock Marine Varves 528 Konrad A. Hughen Mass Spectrometer 608 Leah E. Morgan Mass Spectrometry 533 James B. Paces, Dominique Weis and Obsidian Hydration Dating 609 Trevor R. Ireland Ioannis Liritzis

Metamorphic Terranes (K–Ar/40Ar/39Ar) 542 Paleosol 625 Jan R. Wijbrans Gary E. Stinchcomb

Meteoric 10Be 547 210Pb Dating 626 Jane Willenbring Peter W. Swarzenski

Meteorites (36Cl) 548 Peat (14C) 632 Kees Welten Philippa Ascough CONTENTS ix

Planetary Surfaces (Cratering Rate) 636 Sea Level Change (U-Series) 727 Stephanie C. Werner and Wolf Uwe Reimold Christina Gallup

Polymerase Chain Reaction DNA Amplification 641 Seawater Sr Curve 733 Martyna Molak Galen P. Halverson and Lucie Hubert-The´ou

Potassium–Argon (Argon–Argon), Structural Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) 739 Fabrics 642 Trevor R. Ireland Michael A. Cosca Sediment Mixing Rate, 210Pb and 234Th 740 Quartz 649 Joseph M. Smoak Peter J. Heaney Sediment, ESR 743 Quartz Defects, Optically Stimulated Helene Tissoux Luminescence and Thermoluminescence 650 Marco Martini Sedimentary Rocks (Rb-Sr Geochronology) 748 Tod Waight Radiation Defect 657 Jeroen W. Thompson Sediments, Terrestrial (Paleomagnetism) 752 Radiation Dose Rate 658 Wout Krijgsman and Gillian Turner Grzegorz Adamiec Single-Crystal Laser Fusion 760 Radiation and Radioactivity 660 James K. W. Lee Regina DeWitt Skeletal Remains (14C) 763 Constants: A Review 666 Gregory W. L. Hodgins W. Jack Rink and Larry M. Heaman Sm–Nd Dating 768 Radiocarbon Dating 669 Richard W. Carlson A. J. Timothy Jull and George S. Burr Stellar Chronology 780 Radiocarbon Dating of Marine Carbonates 676 Trevor R. Ireland Quan Hua 783 Radiocarbon Dating of Terrestrial Carbonates 680 David J. Lowe and Brent Alloway Jeffrey S. Pigati Terrestrial Cosmogenic Nuclide Dating 799 Radioluminescence (RL) 685 John Gosse and Jeff Klein Tobias Lauer Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometer (TIMS) 813 Rb–Sr Dating 686 Roland Mundil Oliver Nebel Thermochronology, Detrital Zircon 814 Rb–Sr Geochronology (Igneous Rocks) 698 John I. Garver Tod Waight Thermochronology, Landform Evolution 818 Rhenium–Osmium Dating (Meteorites) 703 Thibaud Simon-Labric Richard J. Walker Thermochronology, Meteorites 824 Rhenium–Osmium Geochronology: Sulfides, Kyoungwon Min Shales, Oils, and 707 Holly Stein and Judith Hannah Tsunamigenic Sediments 827 Gloria I. López Rubidium–Strontium Dating, Hydrothermal Events 723 Ujaraaluk Unit (Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt) 833 Shu’nichi Nakai Jonathan O’Neil x CONTENTS

Uranium Series, Ice 834 Uranium–Lead, Metamorphic Rocks 898 Stephanie A. Ewing Daniela Rubatto

Uranium Series, Opal 837 Uranium–Lead, Deposits 903 James B. Paces Rolf L. Romer

Uranium Series, Rates of Basaltic Melt Uranium–Lead, Rubidium-Strontium, Kimberlite 907 Generation and Transport 843 Larry M. Heaman Aaron J. Pietruszka – Uranium Series, Volcanic Rocks 845 Uranium Lead, Zircon 914 Jorge A. Vazquez Fernando Corfu

Uranium–Lead Dating 848 U-Series Dating 918 Randall Parrish Bernard Bourdon

Uranium–Lead Dating, Opal 858 U–Th/He Dating 932 Leonid Neymark Peter K. Zeitler

Uranium–Lead, Chemical Isochron U–Pb Method Volcanic Glass (Fission Track) 941 (CHIME) 863 John A. Westgate Kazuhiro Suzuki and Daniel J. Dunkley Volcanic Rocks (Ar/Ar) 947 – Uranium Lead, Detrital Zircon 869 Ajoy K. Baksi Keith Sircombe – Volcanogenic Sedimentary Rocks Uranium Lead, Diagenetic Processes 882 (K/Ar, 40Ar/39Ar) 950 E. Troy Rasbury Ian McDougall Uranium–Lead, Extraterrestrial, Early Solar System 885 Walther’s Law of Facies 957 Yuri Amelin Gloria I. López

Uranium–Lead, Extraterrestrial, Planetary Zircon 959 Materials 890 John M. Hanchar Alexander Nemchin Author Index 963 Uranium–Lead, Igneous Rocks 894 Donald W. Davis Subject Index 965 Contributors

Grzegorz Adamiec Philippa Ascough Institute of Physics, Centre for Science and Education AMS Laboratory GADAM Centre, Silesian University of Technology Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre ul. Konarskiego 22B Ranking Ave 44-100 Gliwice East Kilbride G75 0QF Poland Scotland, UK [email protected] [email protected]

Marie-Pierre Aubry Brent Alloway Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences Rutgers University Victoria University of Wellington 610 Taylor Road 6140 Wellington Piscataway, NJ 08854-8066 New Zealand USA [email protected] [email protected]

Ian Bailiff Yuri Amelin Department of Research School of Earth Sciences University of Durham The Australian National University South Road 0200 Canberra DH1 3LE Durham Australia UK [email protected] [email protected]

Ajoy K. Baksi Laia Andreu-Hayles Department of Geology and Tree-Ring Laboratory Louisiana State University Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University E-315 Howe-Russell Palisades, NY Baton Rouge, LA 70803 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] xii CONTRIBUTORS

Maria Laura Balestrieri Bonnie A. B. Blackwell CNR- Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources Department of Chemistry UOS Florence Williams College Italy Williamstown, MA 01267 [email protected] USA [email protected] Juan A. Ballesteros-Cnovas Institute for Geological Sciences, University of Bern Lars Borg Baltzerstrasse 1 + 3 Chemical Sciences Division 3012 Bern Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Switzerland Livermore, CA 94550 [email protected] USA [email protected] Antoine Balzeau Department of Prehistory UMR 7194, CNRS Bernard Bourdon Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle Laboratoire de Géologie de Lyon Paris ENS Lyon, CNRS, and UCBL France 46 Allée d’Italie [email protected] 69364 Lyon cedex 7 France [email protected] Peter Barry Department of Earth and Planetary Science University of Tennessee Audrey Bouvier 1412 Circle Drive Department of Earth Sciences Knoxville, TN 37996-1410 The University of Western Ontario USA 1151 Richmond Street N [email protected] London, ON Canada, BGS 1026 Cathy Batt [email protected] Archaeological Sciences University of Bradford Bradford BD7 1DP Samuel Bowring UK Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences [email protected] Massachusetts Institute of Technology 77 Massachusetts Ave., Building 54-1126 Cambridge, MA 02139 Vickie C. Bennett USA Research School of Earth Sciences [email protected] The Australian National University Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia Lindell Bromham [email protected] Centre for Macroevolution and Macroecology Division of Evolution, Ecology, and Genetics Giulio Bigazzi Research School of Biology CNR- Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources Australian National University Pisa Building 116 Italy Canberra, ACT 0200 [email protected] Australia [email protected] Franco Biondi DendroLab Peter M. Brown University of Nevada Rocky Mountain Tree-Ring Research, Inc. Mailstop 154 2901 Moore Lane Reno, Nevada 89557-0154 Fort Collins, CO 80526 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xiii

William B. Bull Matthew Collins Department of Geosciences BioArCh, Department of Archaeology University of Arizona University of York 1040 E. 4th St BioArCh, Biology S Block, Wentworth Way Tucson, AZ 85721 YO10 5DD York USA UK [email protected] [email protected]

Barry Cooke George S. Burr Government of Canada NSF Arizona Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory Northern Forestry Centre, Canadian Forest Service, Department of Geosciences and Physics Natural Resources Canada University of Arizona Edmonton, AB 1118 East Fourth St Canada Tucson, AZ 85721 [email protected] USA and Fernando Corfu Department of Geosciences Department of Geosciences National Taiwan University University of Oslo Taipei 0316 Oslo Taiwan Norway [email protected] [email protected]

Christophe Corona Eurybiades Busenberg Institute for Geological Sciences, University of Bern CFC Laboratory Baltzerstrasse 1 + 3 U.S. Geological Survey 3012 Bern MS 432, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Switzerland Reston, VA 20192 [email protected] USA [email protected] Michael A. Cosca United States Geological Survey (USGS) Manuel Calvo-Rathert Denver Federal Center Departamento de Física Box 25046 MS 963 Escuela Politécnica Superior Denver, CO 80225-0046 Universidad de Burgos USA Avenida de Cantabria s/n [email protected] 09006 Burgos Spain Robert A. Creaser [email protected] Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences University of Alberta Edmonton, AB Richard W. Carlson Canada T6G2E3 Department of Terrestrial Magnetism [email protected] Carnegie Institution of Washington 5241 Broad Branch Road Vivien M. Cumming Washington, DC 20015 Department of Earth Sciences USA University of Durham [email protected] Science Labs Durham DH1 3LE UK Tom Chacko and Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences University of Alberta Harvard University Edmonton, AB Cambridge, MA Canada T6G 2E3 USA [email protected] [email protected] xiv CONTRIBUTORS

Alastair C. Cunningham Anthony Dosseto Centre for Archaeological Science Wollongong Isotope Geochronology Laboratory School of Earth and Environmental Sciences School of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Wollongong University of Wollongong Wollongong Wollongong, NSW 2522 Australia Australia [email protected] [email protected]

Pavel V. Doubrovine Donald W. Davis Centre for Earth Evolution and Dynamics (CEED) Department of Earth Sciences University of Oslo Earth Sciences Centre, University of Toronto Oslo 22 Russell St Norway Toronto, ON [email protected] Canada [email protected] David Duchene Centre for Macroevolution and Macroecology Kristine L. DeLong Division of Evolution, Ecology, and Genetics Department of Geography and Anthropology Research School of Biology Lousiana State University Australian National University 227 Howe-Russell Geoscience Complex Building 116 Baton Rouge, LA 70803 Canberra, ACT 0200 USA Australia [email protected] [email protected]

Geoffrey A. T. Duller Beatrice Demarchi Department of Geography and Earth Sciences BioArCh, Department of Archaeology Aberystwyth University University of York Llandinham Bldg., Penglais Campus BioArCh, Biology S Block, Wentworth Way SY23 3DB Aberystwyth, Wales YO10 5DD York UK UK [email protected] [email protected] Daniel J. Dunkley Regina DeWitt Department of Applied Geology, Western Australian Department of Physics School of Mines East Carolina University Curtin University Howell Science Complex, Tenth Street Perth, WA 6845 Greenville, NC 27858-4353 Australia USA [email protected] [email protected] Mathieu Duval ESR dating laboratory, Geochronology program Alan P. Dickin Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución School of Geography and Earth Sciences Humana (CENIEH) McMaster University Paseo de Atapuerca s/n 1280 Main St. W. 09002 Burgos Hamilton, ON España Canada L8S 4K1 [email protected] [email protected] Howell G. M. Edwards Mathew Domeier Chemical and Forensic Sciences Centre for Earth Evolution and Dynamics (CEED) School of Life Sciences University of Oslo University of Bradford Oslo BD7 1DP Bradford Norway UK [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xv

Phillip Endicott Andrew J. W. Gleadow Départment Hommes, Natures, Sociétés School of Earth Sciences Musée de l’Homme University of Melbourne 75116 Paris McCoy Bldy France Melbourne, VIC 3010 [email protected] Australia [email protected] Stephanie A. Ewing Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences John Gosse Montana State University Department of Earth Sciences 817 Leon Johnson Hall Dalhousie University Bozeman, MT 59717-3120 3006 LSC, 1459 Oxford St USA Halifax, NS [email protected] Canada B3H 4R2 [email protected] Morteza Fattahi Institute of Geophysics Roi Granot University of Tehran Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences End of North Karegar Ave. Ben Gurion University of the Negev 1435944411 Tehran 84105 Beer Sheva Iran Israel [email protected] [email protected] James Feathers Department of Anthropology Guillaume Guérin University of Washington Centre for Nuclear Technologies Seattle, WA Technical University of Denmark USA DTU Risø Campus [email protected] 4000 Roskilde Denmark Alexander J. Finlay [email protected] Origin Analytical LTD Welshpool, Powys UK Karl B. Haase [email protected] CFC Laboratory U.S. Geological Survey Christina Gallup MS 432, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Reston, VA 20192 University of Minnesota Duluth USA 229 Heller Hall, 1114 Kirby Drive [email protected] Duluth, MN 55812 USA Chris Hall [email protected] Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Michigan Miguel Garces 4534b C.C. Little Building, 1100 North University Ave University of Barcelona Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1005 08028 Barcelona USA Spain [email protected] [email protected]

John I. Garver Galen P. Halverson Department of Geology Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences/Geotop Union College McGill University 807 Union St., Olin Building 3450 University Street Schenectady, NY Montréal, QC USA Canada H3A 0E8 [email protected] [email protected] xvi CONTRIBUTORS

John M. Hanchar Arjun M. Heimsath Department of Earth Sciences School of Earth and Space Exploration Memorial University of Newfoundland Arizona State University St. John’s, NL 781 Terrace Rd. Canada A1B 3X5 Tempe, AZ 85287 [email protected] USA [email protected] Ron Hancock 23 Oswald Crescent Robert Hendricks Toronto, ON School Geography and Earth Sciences Canada McMaster University [email protected] Hamilton, ON Canada Judith Hannah [email protected] AIRIE Program Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO Simon Y. W. Ho USA School of Biological Sciences and University of Sydney Centre for Earth Evolution and Dynamics (CEED) Edgeworth David A11 University of Oslo Sydney, NSW 2006 Oslo Australia Norway [email protected] [email protected] Gregory W. L. Hodgins Peter Harries Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory School of Geosciences Department of Physics, School of Anthropology University of South Florida University of Arizona 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, CPR107 1118 E. 4th Street Tampa, FL 33620 Tucson, AZ 85721-0081 USA USA [email protected] [email protected]

Christine Hatté ’ Alex Hodson Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l Environnement School Geography and Earth Sciences UMR8212 CEA-CNRS-UVSQ, Domaine du CNRS McMaster University L.S.C.E. 12 avenue de la Terrasse Hamilton, ON 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Canada France [email protected] [email protected]

Larry M. Heaman Dirk Hoffmann Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Department of Human Evolution University of Alberta Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Edmonton, AB Deutscher Platz 6 Canada T6G 2E3 04103 Leipzig [email protected] Germany [email protected] Peter J. Heaney Department of Geosciences Quan Hua Pennsylvania State University Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation Penn State 540 Deike Building Locked Bag 2001 University Park, PA 16802 Kirrawee DC, NSW 2232 USA Australia [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Lucie Hubert-Théou Darrell Kaufman Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences/Geotop School of Earth Sciences and Environmental McGill University Sustainability 3450 University Street Northern Arizona University Montréal, QC 625 South Knoles Drive Canada H3A 0E8 Flagstaff, AZ 86011-4099 [email protected] USA [email protected] Konrad A. Hughen Department of Marine Chemistry and Amanda Keen-Zebert Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Division of Earth and Ecosystem Sciences 266 Woods Hole Rd. MS#25 Desert Research Institute Woods Hole, MA 02543-1050 2215 Raggio Parkway USA Reno, NV 89512-1095 [email protected] USA [email protected] Gary R. Huss Hawai’i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology Simon Kelley University of Hawai’iatMānoa Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences 1680 East–west Road The Open University Honolulu, HI 96822 Milton Keynes MK7 6AA USA UK [email protected] [email protected] William H. Kimbel Trevor R. Ireland Institute of Human Origins Research School of Earth Sciences School of Human Evolution and Social Change The Australian National University Arizona State University Jaeger 5, Room 6, Building 61, Mills Road Tempe, AZ 85028 Canberra, ACT 0200 USA Australia [email protected] [email protected] Jeff Klein Zenobia Jacobs Department of Physics and Centre for Archaeological Science University of Pennsylvania School of Earth and Environmental Sciences Philadelphia, PA 19104 University of Wollongong USA Wollongong, NSW 2522 [email protected] Australia [email protected] L. Paul Knauth School of Earth and Space Exploration Mayank Jain Arizona State University Center for Nuclear Technologies Tempe, AZ 85287-1404 Technical University of Denmark USA DTU Risø Campus [email protected] Frederiksborgvej 399, Building 201 4000 Roskilde Matthew Kosnik Denmark Department of Biological Sciences [email protected] Macquarie University Sydney, NSW 2109 A. J. Timothy Jull Australia NSF-Arizona AMS Laboratory [email protected] Physics Building University of Arizona Vadim A. Kravchinsky 1118 East Fourth St University of Alberta 85721 Tucson, AZ Edmonton, AB USA Canada T6G 2E1 [email protected] [email protected] xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Wout Krijgsman Caroline Leland Department of Earth Sciences Tree-Ring Laboratory University of Utrecht Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia Budapestlaan 17 University 3584 CD Utrecht Palisades, NY The Netherlands USA [email protected] [email protected]

Ioannis Liritzis Michel Lamothe Laboratory of Archaeometry Université du Québec à Montréal Department of Mediterranean Studies C.P. 8888, Succ. Centre-Ville Montréal, Québec 85100 Rhodes Canada H3C 3P8 [email protected] [email protected]

Robert Lanfear Gloria I. López Ecology, Evolution, and Genetics Luminescence Laboratory The Australian National University Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución 116 Daley Road Humana CENIEH Canberra, ACT 0200 Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca, 3 Australia Burgos 09002 [email protected] Spain and Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies University of Haifa Andreas Lang Mt. Carmel School of Environmental Sciences Haifa 31905 University of Liverpool Israel 4 Brownlow Street [email protected] Liverpool L69 3GP UK [email protected] David J. Lowe School of Science, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Earth and Ocean Sciences Tobias Lauer The University of Waikato Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics Hillcrest Rd Stilleweg 2 3240 Hamilton 30655 Hannover New Zealand Germany [email protected] [email protected] Marco Martini Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali and Sezione INFN James K. W. Lee Universita’ degli Studi di Milano Bicocca Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Via Cozzi 55 Engineering 20125 Milan Queen’s University Italy Miller Hall [email protected] Kingston, ON Canada K7L 3N6 and István Márton Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Stockwork GeoConsulting Ltd Macquarie University str. Protopop Aurel Munteanu, nr. 1 Sydney, NSW 2109 405400 Huedin, Cluj Australia Romania [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xix

James M. Mattinson Colin V. Murray-Wallace Department of School of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of California University of Wollongong Santa Barbara 1006 Webb hall Wollongong, NSW 2522 Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9630 Australia USA [email protected] [email protected] Amy Myrbo Barbara Mauz LacCore, Department of Earth Sciences School of Environmental Sciences University of Minnesota University of Liverpool 7000 East Ave, L-397 4 Brownlow Street Minneapolis, MN Liverpool USA UK [email protected] [email protected] Shu’nichi Nakai Ian McDougall Earthquake Research Institute Research School of Earth Sciences The University of Tokyo The Australian National University Yayoi 1-1-1 Canberra, ACT 2601 Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0032 Australia Japan [email protected] [email protected]

Kyoungwon Min Stephen E. Nash Department of Geological Sciences Denver Museum of & Science University of Florida 2001 Colorado Boulevard 241 Williamson Hall Denver, CO 80205 Gainesville, FL 32611 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] Oliver Nebel Research School of Earth Sciences Martyna Molak The Australian National University School of Biological Sciences Mills Road, Bldg. 61 University of Sydney Acton, ACT 0200 Sydney Australia Australia [email protected] [email protected] Alexander Nemchin Leah E. Morgan Department of Applied Geology Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre Curtin University of Technology Rankine Avenue Perth, WA 6845 East Kilbride G75 0QF Australia UK [email protected] [email protected] Leonid Neymark Robert Morrison US Geological Survey 56-2773 Lahuiki Place MS 963 Hawi, HI 96719 Denver, CO 80225 USA USA [email protected] [email protected]

Roland Mundil Perach Nuriel Berkeley Geochronology Center Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences 2455 Ridge Road Stanford University Berkeley, CA 94709 Stanford 94305-2115 CA USA USA [email protected] [email protected] xx CONTRIBUTORS

Allen P. Nutman Alistair W. G. Pike School of Earth & Environmental Sciences Department of Archaeology University of Wollongong University of Southampton Wollongong, NSW Highfield Lane Australia SO17 1BF Southampton [email protected] UK [email protected]

Jonathan O’Neil Department of Earth Sciences Don Porcelli University of Ottawa Department of Earth Sciences 140 Loui-Pasteur Ottawa, ON South Parks Road Canada K1N 6N5 OX1 3AN Oxford [email protected] UK [email protected]

James B. Paces Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center Ulrich Radtke U.S. Geological Survey University of Duisburg-Essen Denver Federal Center Universitätsstr. 2 Denver, CO 80225-004 Essen USA Germany [email protected] [email protected]

Randall Parrish E. Troy Rasbury Department of Geology Department of Geosciences University of Leicester and NERC Isotope Geosciences Stony Brook University Laboratory, British Geological Survey Keyworth Room 254 ESS Building Notts NG12 5GG Stony Brook, NY 11794 UK USA [email protected] [email protected]

David Phillips Jesse Reimink School of Earth Sciences Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences The University of Melbourne University of Alberta Parkville, VIC 3010 Edmonton, AB Australia Canada T6G 2E3 [email protected] [email protected]

Aaron J. Pietruszka Wolf Uwe Reimold Denver Federal Center Museum für Naturkunde Berlin and U.S. Geological Survey Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Denver, CO 80225 Berlin USA Germany [email protected] [email protected]

Jeffrey S. Pigati David A. Richards Denver Federal Center, U.S. Geological Survey School of Geographical Sciences MS-980 University of Bristol Denver, CO 80225 Bristol BS8 1SS USA UK [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Daniel Richter Daniela Rubatto Department of Human Evolution Research School of Earth Sciences Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology The Australian National University Deutscher Platz 6 Mills Road, Bld.61 04103 Leipzig Canberra, ACT 0200 Germany Australia and [email protected] Geomorphologie University of Bayreuth Bayreuth Joerg M. Schaefer Germany Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory [email protected] Columbia University 409 Comer 61 Route 9W Palisades, NY 10964-8000 W. Jack Rink USA School of Geography and Earth Sciences [email protected] McMaster University 1280 Main St. W. Hamilton, ON Gerhard Schellmann Canada L8S 4K1 Department of Physical Geography & Landscape Studies [email protected] University of Bamberg Am Kranen 1 Bamberg Helen M. Roberts Germany Department of Geography and Earth Sciences [email protected] Aberystwyth University Llandinam Building, Penglais Campus Aberystwyth SY23 3DB Bernd R. Schöne UK Institute of Geosciences [email protected] University of Mainz Mainz Germany [email protected] Richard G. Roberts Centre for Archaeological Science School of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Wollongong Derek W. G. Sears Wollongong, NSW 2522 NASA Ames Research Center Australia Mountain View, CA 94035 [email protected] USA [email protected]

Rolf L. Romer Christian Seiler Inorganic and Isotope Geochemistry School of Earth Sciences GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences University of Melbourne Telegrafenberg McCoy Bldy 14473 Potsdam Melbourne, VIC 3010 Germany Australia [email protected] [email protected]

David Selby Alan D. Rooney Department of Earth Sciences Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences University of Durham Harvard University Cambridge Science Labs Cambridge, MA Durham DH1 3LE USA UK [email protected] [email protected] xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Warren D. Sharp Vicente Soler Javaloyes Berkeley Geochronology Center Estación Volcanológica de Canarias, IPNA-CSIC 2455 Ridge Road Avda. Astrofísico Francisco Snchez, n 3 Berkeley, CA 94709 38206 La Laguna USA Spain [email protected] [email protected]

Holly Stein Thibaud Simon-Labric AIRIE Program Institute of Earth Surface Dynamics (IDYST) Colorado State University Université de Lausanne (UNIL) Fort Collins, CO Geopolis USA 1015 Lausanne and Switzerland Centre for Earth Evolution and Dynamics (CEED) [email protected] University of Oslo Oslo Norway Keith Sircombe [email protected] Geoscience Australia Jerrabomberra Avenue, Symonston ACT 2617 Canberra, ACT 2601 Mordechai Stein Australia Geological Survey of Israel [email protected] 30 Malkhe Israel Street 95501 Jerusalem Israel [email protected] Anne Skinner Chemistry Department Williams College Gary E. Stinchcomb 47 Lab Campus Drive Department of Geosciences Williamstown, MA 01267 Pennsylvania State University USA 0302 Hosler Building [email protected] University Park, PA 16802 USA [email protected] Joseph M. Smoak Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Claudine H. Stirling Geography Department of Chemistry University of South Florida University of Otago 140 7th Ave. South Dunedin St. Petersburg, FL 33701 New Zealand USA [email protected] [email protected] Markus Stoffel Institute for Geological Sciences, University of Bern Reza Sohbati Baltzerstrasse 1 + 3 Department of Geoscience 3012 Bern Aarhus University Switzerland Aarhus [email protected] Denmark and Center for Nuclear Technologies Donna M. Surge Technical University of Denmark Department of Geological Sciences Building 201, DTU Risø University of North Carolina Frederiksborgvej 399 104 South Road Mitchell Hall Campus Roskilde Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3315 Denmark USA [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Kazuhiro Suzuki Jessica A. Thomas The Center for Chronological Research Department of Biology Nagoya University University of York 464-8602 Nagoya, Chikusa-ku, Aichi York Japan UK [email protected] [email protected]

Anders Svensson Jeroen W. Thompson Niels Bohr Institute, Ice and Climate Research Department of Medical Physics and Applied Radiation University of Copenhagen Sciences Copenhagen McMaster University Denmark 1280 Main St West [email protected] Hamilton, ON Canada L8S 4K1 [email protected] Peter W. Swarzenski US Geological Survey, Pacific Coastal and Marine Kristina Jørkov Thomsen Science Center Centre for Nuclear Technologies 400 Natural Bridges Dr. Technical University of Denmark Santa Cruz, CA 95060 Frederiksborgvej 399, Building 201, room S28 USA 4000 Roskilde [email protected] Denmark [email protected] Timothy Swindle Lunar and Planetary Laboratory Helene Tissoux University of Arizona DGR/GAT 1629 E. University Boulevard Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières (BRGM) Tucson, AZ 85721-0092 3 avenue Claude Guillemin USA BP 36009 [email protected] 45060 Orléans France [email protected] Paul Sylvester Department of Geosciences Texas Tech University Stephen Tooth Lubbock, TX Department of Geography and Earth Sciences USA Aberystwyth University [email protected] Llandinam Building, Penglais Campus Aberystwyth SY23 3DB Ceredigion UK Larry Taylor [email protected] Department of Earth and Planetary Science University of Tennessee Trond H. Torsvik 1412 Circle Drive Centre for Earth Evolution and Dynamics (CEED) Knoxville, TN 37996-1410 University of Oslo USA Oslo [email protected] Norway [email protected] Matt Telfer School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Science Sumiko Tsukamoto University of Plymouth Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics (LIAG) Room A513 Portland Square Stilleweg 2 Plymouth PL4 8AA 30655 Hannover UK Germany [email protected] [email protected] xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Gillian Turner Tod Waight School of Chemical and Physical Sciences Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Victoria University of Wellington Management, Geology Section Wellington 6140 University of Copenhagen New Zealand Øster Voldgade 10 [email protected] 1350 Copenhagen Denmark [email protected] Pieter van der Beek Institute des Sciences de la Terre (ISTerre), CNRS Richard J. Walker Université Joseph Fourier, BP 53 Isotope Geochemistry Laboratory 38041 Grenoble Department of Geology France University of Maryland [email protected] College Park, MA 20742 USA [email protected] Ben van der Pluijm Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Jakob Wallinga University of Michigan Soil Geography and Landscape group 4534b C.C. Little Building, 1100 North University Ave Wageningen University Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1005 6700 AA Wageningen USA The Netherlands [email protected] [email protected]

Rachel Warnock Jorge A. Vazquez School of Earth Sciences SHRIMP-RG Laboratory University of Bristol United States Geological Survey Wills Memorial Building Queen’s Road 345 Middlefield Rd Bristol Menlo Park, CA 94025 UK USA [email protected] [email protected]

Clare Warren Jeff Vervoort Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences School of the Environment The Open University Washington State University MK7 6AA Milton Keynes Pullman, WA 99164 UK USA [email protected] [email protected] John F. Wehmiller Department of Geological Sciences David Wacey University of Delaware Centre for Microscopy Characterisation and Analysis Newark, DE 19716 University of Western Australia USA Crawley, Perth [email protected] Australia [email protected] Dominique Weis Department of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences Günther A. Wagner Pacific Centre for Isotopic and Geochemical Research Geographisches Institut der Universität Heidelberg The University of British Columbia Im Neuenheimer Feld 348 6339 Stores Road 69120 Heidelberg Vancouver, BC Germany Canada V6T 1Z4 [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxv

Kees Welten Peter K. Zeitler Space Sciences Laboratory Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of California Lehigh University #7450 at Berkeley 7 Gauss Way 1 West Packer Avenue Berkeley, CA 94720 Bethlehem, PA 18015-3001 USA USA [email protected] [email protected]

Stephanie C. Werner Centre for Earth Evolution and Dynamics Susan Zimmerman University of Oslo Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Oslo Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Norway 7000 East Ave, L-397 [email protected] Livermore, CA 94551-0808 USA John A. Westgate [email protected] Department of Earth Sciences University of Toronto 22 Russell St. Ludwig Zöller Toronto, ON Geographisches Institut Canada M5S 3B1 Universität Bayreuth [email protected] Universitätsstr. 30 95447 Bayreuth Jan R. Wijbrans Germany Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Earth and Life [email protected] Sciences VU University De Boelelaan 1085 Horst Zwingmann Amsterdam CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering The Netherlands Australian Resources Research Centre [email protected] Technology Park 26 Dick Perry Avenue, Kensington Perth, WA 6151 Simon A. Wilde Australia School of Applied Geology and Curtin University School of Earth and Environment GPO Box U1987 The University of Western Australia Perth Crawley, WA 6009 Australia Australia [email protected] and Department of Applied Geology Camilla Wilkinson Curtin University Norges Geologiske Undersøkelse (NGU) Bentley, WA 6845 Leiv Eirikssons vei 39 Australia Trondheim 7040 and Norway Institut de Recherche sur les Archéomatériaux, UMR [email protected] 5060 CNRS – Université de Bordeaux, Centre de Recherche en Physique Appliquée à l’Archéologie Jane Willenbring (CRP2A), Maison de l’archéologie Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences 33607 Pessac University of Pennsylvania France Philadelphia, PA 19104-6313 [email protected] USA [email protected] Preface

Scientific dating methods provide the timing, sequence, Each of the major dating methods is described in a main and rates of geological, archaeological, and biological entry that provides an in-depth review of the underlying events and processes. It is no exaggeration to say that scientific principles of that method, including methods, quantitative measurements of age (geochronology) pro- applications, uncertainties, applications, and limitations. vide the foundations for scientific understanding for many If appropriate, the most recent development in each field disciplines within the earth and archaeological sciences. is discussed. Each of these main entries was authored by The field of geochronology began with early applica- a leading expert in that field. tions of biostratigraphy and a basic understanding of The majority of the entries in this volume are focused sedimentary processes. The ages and sequences fossils on applications of scientific dating methods, and are provided the foundation for the geological scale. At usually titled according to the material to be dated (e.g., the turn of the twentieth century, our understanding of “Carbonates, marine”), with the method in parenthesis. radioactivity revolutionized geochronology. This led to We have attempted to provide comprehensive coverage the flourishing of numerous radiogenic isotopic dating of organic and inorganic materials, including minerals, methods. In addition, of particular importance, was the rocks, archaeological materials, biominerals, plants, art development of radiocarbon dating in 1949, which has objects, , and many more. Some entries focus on since yielded hundreds of thousands of age estimates for rates of geological processes, such as sedimentation, fluid earth scientists and archaeologists. Radiation exposure flow, tectonics, cooling rates, and many more. By organiz- methods, which utilize the effects of background radiation ing entries by the application, rather than the methodol- on defects in minerals and biological materials, were ogy, we hope that readers will be able to quickly locate developed through the 1960s and the 1990s. More information most relevant for their interests and specific recently, the development of molecular clock techniques needs. has resulted in a new approach to determine ages of events Finally, this volume includes shorter, mini-entries with in the history of biological evolution. key definitions, important materials, or notes on This volume is a comprehensive synthesis of the appli- instrumentation. cations and physical basis for scientific dating methods in This volume was only possible through the extensive use in the earth sciences, archaeology, and biology. All contributions of the three associate editors and the large widely-accepted scientific dating techniques – physical, editorial board who worked together to establish the range chemical, and biological – have been included, as well of authors from 18 different countries who agreed to con- as the most important materials which are amenable to tribute. The online version, which can be updated by the the application of scientific dating methods. authors as new information becomes available, provides We trust that this volume will be of use to researchers a dynamic dimension in the rapidly changing field of and students in the earth sciences and archaeology, who geo-, bio-, and archaeo-chronology. wish to understand the scientific basis that underlies our The field of dating methods continues to grow rapidly understanding of geological and archaeological chronol- through research scientists thinking of new ways to apply ogy. In addition, this volume may be useful to geologists the methods. Though it cannot be said that every single involved in exploration and exploitation of natural application of dating methods is included, this volume sig- resources, natural resource managers, and environmental nificantly expands the availability of knowledge through and archaeological consultants. its broad scope in each area in the field of dating. Acknowledgments

First of all we want to thank all of the authors for their long original topics. Each of you made a great contribution, hours composing the text and graphics of the entries, and and we are indebted to you for helping us condense our for answering our correspondence. Without their contribu- early ideas into the most relevant entries that could be tions, the encyclopedia could not have become a reality. created. There are a large number of individuals who contrib- Our most sincere thanks go to the Springer personnel uted to both the design and fulfillment of the aims of this who worked painstakingly throughout the process to volume. Our section editors made great contributions in smooth our path. Petra van Steenbergen provided inspira- this area and in finalizing the author list. The person who tion, encouragement, and opportunity, while Sylvia made the biggest impact is Larry Heaman who stepped Blago, Simone Giesler, and Hermine Vloemans gave in to handle much of the creation and editing of the radio- countless hours regarding the correspondence and organi- genic isotope side of the volume. He has given of his time zation of entries and scheduling. extensively as decisions were made in all of the stages of WJR would like to thank Jeroen Thompson, who development, and we are both very grateful for this contri- agreed to help me create the encyclopedia in its earliest bution. Jim Paces also shouldered a large amount of the stages. WJR could not have gone forward without his creation and editing of the encyclopedia, and we thank encouragement, but also his collaboration in creating the him for his contribution, especially in regard to the crea- original proposal and in creating the documents necessary tion of the uranium series dating articles. Tim Jull also cre- for its acceptance as a viable work of science. JWT would ated an entire section of the encyclopedia with a large like to gratefully acknowledge Jack Rink for shouldering range of articles on radiocarbon applications, and without additional responsibilities during the project. him, we would not have achieved the great depth of the WJR would also like to acknowledge his graduate entries we have. Many thanks to you Tim, from both of us. students Kathleen Rodrigues, Robert Rombuck The editorial board was seminal in creating the author- Hendricks, and Alex Hodson, who helped him to make it ship of the encyclopedia. Our great thanks to Robert through this long-term project, at the cost of giving them A. Creaser, Don Davis, Geoff Duller, John Gosse, Simon less time than he would have normally given them. To Ho, James K.W. Lee, Josep M. Pares, Peter W. Reiners, Sarah, Katherine, and Rebecca, JWT expresses his love and John F. Wehmiller, who were seminal in the early and gratitude for their support. Finally, WJR dedicates stages in establishing the breadth of this volume. The the volume to Carol; thank you dearest for willingly and editorial board made decisions regarding how to “boil lovingly living with less of my presence. down” which applications articles were the most relevant to current developments in the fields of geochronology, W. Jack Rink and made suggestions that led to the creation of synthe- Jeroen W. Thompson sized articles which encompassed more than one of the