The Small Worlds of Multiculturalism: Tracing Gradual Policy Change in the Australian and Canadian Federations Nikola Brassard-Dion A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctorate in Philosophy degree in Political Science School of Political Studies Faculty of Social Sciences University of Ottawa © Nikola Brassard-Dion, Ottawa, Canada, 2020 Abstract Competing narratives on the “rise and fall of multiculturalism” (Kymlicka 2010) confuse our understanding of the evolution of multiculturalism policy, particularly in the case of federations like Canada and Australia. Part of the issue is the sharp separation between stability and change and prevailing focus on national multiculturalism policies. This overlooks important and simultaneous developments in the constituent units of these two federations. We therefore ask how and why have multiculturalism policies changed in the constituent units of Australia and Canada? First, we argue that amid a noticeable decline in support for multiculturalism on the part of the central government in both countries, constituent unit governments have become a crucial source of multiculturalism policy development in Australia and Canada. Because many of the economic, labour, civil rights and social policy challenges involve state/provincial or shared responsibilities, multiculturalism policies are developed and implemented in large part by constituent units. Thus, we cannot comment on multiculturalism policies in federations without paying attention to the experiences and contributions of constituent units. Second, we argue this process of multiculturalism policy change can be conceptualized along four modes of gradual institutional change referred to as policy drift, layering, displacement, and conversion. These incremental modes of policy change are the result of a distinct combination of contextual, structural, and agency-based factors. More precisely, (1) a shift in the socio-political context marks the opening of a critical juncture as new ideas and demands for reform emerge; (2) institutional rules with separate compliance and enforcement standards structure reform pathways; and (3) the relationship between policy and political entrepreneurship activates the causal mechanisms that consolidate the separate modes of gradual institutional change. The dissertation therefore offers a more complete theoretical explanation of the processes of institutional change, their ideational influences and causal mechanisms through fresh empirical observation. Building on Mahoney and Thelen’s (2010) theory on gradual institutional change, the dissertation applies a process-tracing method over the period 1989 to 2019 to four case studies: Nova Scotia, South Australia, New South Wales, and British Columbia. In sum, generating inquiry that looks beyond national policies allows us to capture concurrent processes happening within and across State/provincial boundaries, which in turn shape their shared citizenship. ii Résumé Les récits contradictoires sur « la montée et le déclin du multiculturalisme » (Kymlicka 2010) compliquent notre compréhension de l’évolution des politiques de multiculturalisme, particulièrement dans les cas du Canada et de l’Australie. Le problème provient en partie de la séparation nette entre la stabilité et le changement, ainsi que de l’attention portée presque exclusivement aux politiques nationales de multiculturalisme. Cela occulte d’importants développements ayant lieu de façon simultanée dans les unités constituantes de ces deux fédérations. Nous nous demandons donc comment et pourquoi les politiques de multiculturalisme ont-elles changé dans les unités constituantes de l’Australie et du Canada? Premièrement, nous soutenons qu’au milieu d’un déclin évident pour le multiculturalisme de la part des gouvernements centraux dans les deux pays, les gouvernements des unités constituantes sont à l’origine de développements cruciaux pour les politiques de multiculturalisme au Canada et en Australie. Étant donné que plusieurs défis touchant à l’économie, au travail, aux droits civils et aux politiques sociales sont de responsabilité provinciale/étatique ou partagée, les politiques de multiculturalisme sont développées et appliquées principalement par les unités constituantes. Il s’ensuit que nous ne pouvons pas aborder la question des politiques de multiculturalisme dans les fédérations sans porter attention aux expériences et contributions des unités constituantes. Deuxièmement, nous affirmons que nous pouvons conceptualiser ce processus de changement de politique de multiculturalisme selon quatre modes graduels de changement institutionnel appelés dérive, superposition, conversion et déplacement. Nous démontrons que ces modes distincts sont façonnés par une combinaison singulière composée de facteurs contextuels, structurels et d’agentivité. Plus précisément (1) un changement au niveau du contexte sociopolitique marque l’ouverture d’une conjoncture critique alors que de nouvelles idées de réformes et revendication émergent; (2) des règles institutionnelles avec différentes normes de conformité et d’application structurent les trajectoires de réformes; et (3) la relation entre des entrepreneurs du politique et des politiques publiques activent les mécanismes causaux qui consolident les différents modes graduels de changement institutionnel. La thèse offre donc une explication théorique plus complète des processus de changement institutionnel, leurs influences idéationnelles et leurs mécanismes causaux à travers des observations empiriques originales. En partant de la théorie du changement institutionnel graduel de Mahoney et Thelen (2010), la thèse emploie une méthode de reconstitution de processus couvrant la période de 1989 à 2019 dans quatre cas d’étude : la Nouvelle-Écosse, l’Australie-Méridionale, la Nouvelle-Galles-du-Sud et la Colombie- Britannique. Ainsi, la production d’études qui s’interrogent sur les politiques publiques autres que nationales permet de découvrir des processus se déroulant de manière simultanée à l’intérieur et à travers les frontières provinciales et étatiques, qui, à leur tour, façonnent leur citoyenneté commune. iii Acknowledgements My experience of writing a PhD dissertation has been marked by intermittent periods of proud accomplishments and unfortunate setbacks, bursts of optimism amid chronic self-doubt. Writing is a deeply introspective experience that requires long periods of isolation. It can be very enlightening, as it brings you to question your core beliefs and test the limits of your capabilities. But without the support of some especially kind and caring people, it would have been an unbearably long and lonely process. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to these people, without whom the completion of my dissertation would not have been possible. Merci Frédérique, you challenge me intellectually and nourish my thought process. Your uplifting spirit and generosity, at times relishing your female breadwinner status, allowed me to pursue my studies clearheaded. Most of all, I am truly grateful for the love and joy you bring to our lives. Merci Dimitrios Karmis, your belief in me never wavered. There is an innate humanism to your character that makes talking to you feel therapeutic. You listen with empathy and offer honest advice, which has helped me get through some of my toughest personal and professional challenges. Merci André Lecours, your trust and mentorship gave me confidence and did wonders for my career development. In addition to offering me formative teaching and research opportunities, I awaited our meetings with pleasure (and cookies) thanks to your cheerful attitude and witty humour. Merci François Rocher, your kindness, inquisitive nature and methodical approach make you a fantastic role-model. Working on projects with you was not only fun, it helped me develop the habits and toolset needed to produce quality research on a range of topics. Merci Mireille Paquet, for inviting me into your research circles and the networking opportunities you provided me. Your drive and gregarious personality draw people in and create lasting friendships. Most importantly, you were instrumental in helping me complete my dissertation proposal. Merci Cédric jourde, your enthusiasm and passion for teaching is contagious. Your ability to break-down complex problems into clear explanations of equal parts humour and creativity make you an exemplary pedagogue. I frequently drew inspiration from you in my own lectures and relied on the skills you helped me hone. Merci Sylvie Lachapelle, and all the staff at the School of Political Studies’ secretariat. Your warm-hearted greetings and outstanding professionalism make complying with administrative requirements remarkably easy and painless. Merci Djamel Chikh, for the comic relief and brotherly advice. You are a gentle and kind old soul, always in good spirits and full of positive feedback. Merci Veika Donatien, for checking-in on me now and then and for always being open to a good conversation over a pint. You listen without judgement and are truthful, which makes chatting with you a natural and fun diversion from the rigours of academia. iv Merci Mom, Dad and Chan, your problem-solving and organizational skills, along with your integrity and tireless work ethic, have always inspired and motivated me. You have provided me with endless love, support and encouragement to pursue my athletic and academic goals. A special thanks goes out to the people and organizations that have