Do Christians and Muslims Worship the Same God? Lessons for and from Evangelicals

Wouter Biesbrouck

Abstract. - This article interacts with D’Costa’s Chapter 4, “The Council and the Muslims: Worshipping the Same God?” by looking for ways in which his research can bear fruit in Evangelical theology of interreligious dialogue and in the Muslim- Evangelical interreligious dialogue. The wider question tackled is, “Can Evangelicals learn from Catholics with respect to theology of interreligious dialogue?” and more specifically, “Does D’Costa’s book offer help in this respect?” The article also investi- gates whether a recent discussion among Evangelicals on the issue of “do Christians and Muslims worship the same God” can also contribute to D’Costa’s analysis and the wider Roman Catholic-Muslim dialogue. This article, then is not merely an exercise in theology of religions, but also in ecumenical theology.

In response to Donald Trump’s call for a “total and complete shutdown of Muslims entering the United States,”1 dr. Larycia Hawkins, associate professor of Political Science at Wheaton College, Chicago, IL, USA – a Liberal Arts College and flagship of Evangelicalism in the USA – wrote the following on her Facebook page on 10 December 2015: I don’t love my Muslim neighbor because s/he is American. I love my Muslim neighbor because s/he deserves love by virtue of her/his human dignity. I stand in human solidarity with my Muslim neighbor because we are formed of the same primordial clay, descendants of the same cradle of humankind – a cave in Sterkfontein, South Africa that I had the privilege to descend into to plumb the depths of our common humanity in 2014. I stand in religious solidarity with Muslims because they, like me, a Christian, are people of the book. And as Pope Francis stated last week, we worship the same God. But as I tell my students, theoretical solidarity is not solidarity at all. Thus, beginning tonight, my solidarity has become embodied solidarity.

1. http://www.cnn.com/2015/12/07/politics/donald-trump-muslim-ban-immigration/ (accessed 28 March 2016). Do Christians and Muslims Worship the Same God? 261

As part of my Advent Worship, I will wear the hijab to work at Wheaton College, to play in Chi-town, in the airport and on the airplane to my home state that initiated one of the first anti-Sharia laws (read: unconstitutional and Islamophobic), and at church. I invite all women into the narrative that is embodied, hijab-wearing solidarity with our Muslim sisters – for whatever reason. A large scale movement of Women in Solidarity with Hijabs is my Christmas #wish this year. As this Facebook post started to receive attention, the College Adminis- tration expressed concerns that stating that Christians and Muslims worship the same God contradicts the College’s statement of faith “to which all faculty are expected to agree.”2 Prof. Hawkins, who also happens to be the first tenured black female professor at Wheaton, was requested to meet the provost of Wheaton College on December 15. After this meet- ing, she was put on paid administrative leave and requested to provide a written explanation of her statements. At that point, the story exploded in the media.3 As the unsavoury story unfolded, it generated heated discussions amongst Evangelicals in the USA and abroad. After provid- ing the College Administration with a written response,4 the College requested further theological discussion and clarification, something which dr. Hawkins refused. Early in January, the school started the process to terminate the employment contract of dr. Hawkins.5 However, on February 6, Wheaton and Hawkins jointly announced a confidential agreement to part ways.6

2. Brian M. Howell, “Wheaton College, One God, and Muslim-Christian Dialog,” Occasional Bulletin Special Edition (2016): 4. 3. Articles appeared, amongst others, in the Chicago Tribune, The Washington Post, The New York Times, The Atlantic, Time Magazine, USA Today, The Guardian, as well as in Christianity Today, evangelicalism’s premier magazine in the USA. The topic was hot in evangelical blogosphere. For a helpful description of this phase of the controversy, see Howell, “Wheaton College,” 4. 4. http://drlaryciahawkins.org/2016/01/06/theological-statement-by-dr-hawkins/ (accessed 28 March 2016). For her defence, Dr. Hawkins made use of the argumentation in Allah: A Christian Response by leading Evangelical theologian Miroslav Volf. Volf’s argument is summarized by him as follows (p. 123): “To the extent that Christians and Muslims embrace the normative teachings of Christianity and Islam about God, they believe in a common God. To the extent that Christians and Muslims strive to love God and neighbor, they worship the same true God.” 5. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2016/01/05/wheaton- is-planning-to-fire-professor-who-said-muslims-and-christians-worship-the-same- god/?tid=a_inl (accessed 28 March 2016). 6. http://www.christianitytoday.com/gleanings/2016/february/wheaton-college- larycia-hawkins-same-god-reinstatedochawk.html (accessed 28 March 2016). This joint statement occurred a couple of days before the hearing Hawkins was to have in front of a faculty personnel committee. It was preceded by a public apology and a request for forgiveness by the provost of Wheaton who revoked his recommendation that started the 262 wouter biesbrouck

The above makes clear that stating that Christians and Muslims worship the same God is a moot issue for Evangelicals, and far from being settled. D’Costa, in the book under discussion,7 makes it clear that Catholics since Vatican II may be confident in affirming that “Muslims, who, professing to hold the faith of Abraham, along with us adore the one and merciful God, who on the last day will judge mankind.”8 Although this does not literally say that Catholics worship the same God as Mus- lims, it would be surprising if Catholic professors of political science would be sacked from their Catholic University by making such a claim.9 My brief interaction with D’Costa’s book in this article will be looking for ways in which his research can bear fruit in Evangelical theology of interreligious dialogue and in the Muslim-Evangelical interreligious dialogue. This approach means that it is not merely an exercise in theology of religions, but also in ecumenical theology. The wider question tackled is thus “Can Evangelicals learn from Catholics with respect to theology of interreligious dialogue?” and more specifically “Does D’Costa’s book offer help in this respect?” Perhaps the recent discussion among Evangelicals on the issue of “do Christians and Muslims worship the same God” can also contribute to D’Costa’s analysis and the wider Roman Catholic-Muslim dialogue.

1. What Evangelicals Can Learn from D’Costa’s Chapter 4, “The Council and the Muslims: Worshipping the Same God?”

As noted above, the Wheaton College crisis has generated a lot of discussion amongst Evangelicals. Most of the theological discussion that took termination process. Even before that, on February 6, Wheaton’s Faculty council had unanimously asked the college to keep dr. Hawkins (see http://www.christianitytoday. com/gleanings/2016/january/wheaton-faculty-council-asks-college-keep-larycia-hawkins. html (accessed 28 March 2016)). On March 3, the University of Virginia announced that dr. Hawkins will join its Institute for Advanced Studies in Culture as the “Abd el-Kader Visiting Faculty Fellow,” named for a 19th-century Algerian leader who was committed to intercultural dialogue (http://www.religionnews.com/2016/03/03/wheaton-prof-gets- new-post-named-for-muslim-leader/ accessed 28 March 2016). 7. Gavin D’Costa, Vatican II: Catholic Doctrines on Jews and Muslims (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014). 8. Vatican Documents, Lumen Gentium: Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (www.vatican.va, 1964), # 16 (my italics). 9. For a problematization of the ‘same God’ discourse from a Catholic point of view, see Gavin D’Costa, “Do Christians and Muslims Believe in the Same God? Reflec- tions on M. Volf’s Allah: A Christian Response,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 24, no. 2 (2013): 151-160; Gavin D’Costa, “Interreligious Prayer between Christians and Muslims,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 24, no. 1 (2013): 1-14. Do Christians and Muslims Worship the Same God? 263 place happened in blogposts by American Evangelical theologians.10 Many of these theologians tried to make the necessary distinction between the theological question and the validity of a disciplinary sanc- tion, as most of them were not privy on the details of this particular case. If anything good came out of this crisis, it certainly is the theological discussion that took place on whether Muslims worship the same God as Christians. One of the most interesting responses to date, is the publication of a Special Edition of the journal Occasional Bulletin in January 2016.11 This journal is published by the (North American) Evangelical Missio- logical Society.12 More than twenty missiologists reply to the question what are the missiological implications of affirming, or denying, that Muslims and Christians worship the same God?13 It is clear that such academic responses raise the level of interactions considerably. A similar effort by Evangelical systematic theologians is still lacking.14 If that were to hap- pen, these theologians would greatly benefit from reading D’Costa’s Vatican II: Catholic Doctrines on Jews and Muslims. A number of lessons could be learned from the content and method of D’Costa’s fine work to ensure a richer and more fruitful debate. We try to list here below what we consider to be the most important lessons. Many lessons are related to the fear that the ‘same God’ affirmation puts one on a slippery slope towards liberal theology.15 Perhaps the most important lesson Evangelicals ought to learn is that the ‘same God’ affirmation does not imply a black or white position on the relation of Christianity with Islam. It is possible to combine the

10. Noted among these are Terrance Tiessen (http://thoughtstheological.com/), Jerry Walls (http://christianthought.hbu.edu/), John Stackhouse (http://www.johnstack- house.com/), Roger Olson (http://www.patheos.com/blogs/rogereolson); Peter Leithart (http://www.firstthings.com/blogs/leithart/2015/12/muslims-and-christians), Daniel Treier (http://blogs.thegospelcoalition.org/justintaylor/), Albert Mohler (http://www.albert- mohler.com/), Lydia McGrew (www.thegospelcoalition.org). 11. Evangelical Missionary Society, “What Are the Missiological Implications of Affirming, or Denying, that Muslims and Christians Worship the Same God?,” Occasional Bulletin Special Edition (2016). 12. This issue of the Bulletin can be downloaded at https://www.emsweb.org/ images/occasional-bulletin/special-editions/OB_SpecialEdition_2016.pdf. 13. As it is an Evangelical society, all but two responses are from Evangelicals. Two responses from other Christian traditions were invited: Roman Catholic (Lamin Sanneh) and Eastern Orthodox (Edward Rommen). 14. It is telling that the (short) responses of the missiologists hardly contain any references to systematic theological works. 15. Evangelicalism in the USA started in the early twentieth century as a theological orthodox reaction against liberal theology. 264 wouter biesbrouck affirmation with a nuanced ‘Yes, but…’.16 Anyone reading D’Costa’s book (and other work) will see that this is perfectly possible. This nuanc- ing further makes clear that the ‘same God’ affirmation does not imply that hard and intense theological discussion is forestalled. On the contrary, D’Costa’s book proves the hard work of theological discussion that goes in these efforts. Affirming that Muslims and Christians worship the ‘same God’ should not make Evangelicals assume that Christians are therefore downplaying the Trinity and the Incarnation as central tenets of Christianity. D’Costa praises Miroslav Volf for showing exactly the possibility of mutual acceptance combined with a “full-blown Trinitarian theology.”17 In his own work, D’Costa navigates carefully between the Scylla of liberalism and the Charybdis of traditionalism. Indeed, recognition that the same God is in view does not prevent fundamental theological debate. Some helpful lessons drawn from D’Costa’s work about the place of Islam in salvation economy and the faith of Muslims can equally benefit evangelical discussion. The ‘same God’ affirmation does not negate the possibility of demonic influence in Islam. Although it is frowned upon, evangelical theology of religions continues to use these categories when evaluating other religions. As such, evangelicalism stands clearly in a long Christian tradition of condemning some of the teachings of Islam such as the negation of the divinity of Christ or the Trini- tarian God. D’Costa mentions John of Damascus and in his overall conclusions he explicitly links Satan with error in other religions as doctrine being taught by the magisterium.18 Equally, Evangelicals can also learn from D’Costa that the ‘same God’ affirmation is compatible with understanding Islam and the Qur’an as praeparatio evangelica. D’Costa shows that Vatican II clearly taught this in general regarding other religions, and specifically for Islam.19 With respect to the faith of Muslims, it is clear from the discussions amongst Evangelicals that many understand Muslims to willingly and knowingly reject the correct doctrine of the Trin- ity and Incarnation and hence be culpable for this rejection. An important lesson to be learned for Evangelicals is that room should be made for a discussion of the notion of ‘invincible ignorance’ or some similar category.

16. For a nuanced Evangelical argumentation predating the current discussion, see Timothy C. Tennent, Christianity at the Religious Roundtable: Evangelicals in Conversation with Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002), 151- 167. 17. D’Costa, “Do Christians and Muslims,” 151. 18. D’Costa, Vatican II: Catholic Doctrines on Jews and Muslims, 215. 19. Ibid., 177 and 185 respectively. Do Christians and Muslims Worship the Same God? 265

As concerns interreligious practice, Evangelicals can also learn some lessons from D’Costa’s approach. The ‘same God’ affirmation does not mean one has to endorse interreligious prayer with Muslims. Claiming that Muslims and Christians worship the same God does not entail that their different liturgies are irrelevant or exchangeable. It is possible to admire and praise Muslims in the sincerity of their worship without endorsing all they believe. Furthermore, it is possible to say Muslims worship the same God and continue to stress the urgency of mission to Muslims. D’Costa does precisely this regarding Jews and Muslims.20 As mission is a central characteristic of Evangelicalism, this issue is important for the plausibility of the ‘same God’ affirmation amongst Evangelicals. Also with respect to methodology, Evangelicals can learn from D’Costa’s approach. The work of D’Costa shows that development of doctrine does not imply discontinuity of doctrine or the abandonment of theological orthodoxy. Theological discussion amongst Evangelical theologians would benefit from the notion of the development of doctrine in order that a Biblicist approach to doctrine can be countered. A second methodological lesson to be learned from reading D’Costa’s book is that it is helpful in interreligious dialogue to consult ecumenical resources. More specifically, Evangelicals would benefit from consulting Roman Catholic magisterial texts and discussions thereof. A final methodological lesson to be learned is to make use of theological grading – as does D’Costa in Chapter 1, and as evidenced in the Conclusion. This can help take the sting out of many theological discussions amongst Evangelicals. If not all opinions are to be held with the same conviction, there is further room for agreeing to disagree.

2. What Can D’Costa (and Other Catholics) Learn from Evangelical Discussions about Muslims Worshipping the Same God

Revelation in Islam: prisca theologia An important element in D’Costa’s discussion of Islam is what he calls the “dependency thesis.”21 It states that the truths contained in the Qur’an were taken from the Old and New Testament and were not independent revelations from God to Mohammed. D’Costa shows how

20. D’Costa, Vatican II: Catholic Doctrines on Jews and Muslims, 214. 21. Ibid., 165. 266 wouter biesbrouck this dependency thesis was an important presupposition of the Council Fathers at Vatican II, one that allowed them to speak positively about Islam without granting it revelatory status. There is an ancient theological category available to speak of this: prisca theologia, or ancient theology. This notion claims that there is genuine special revelation of God available in all cultures. The dissemina- tion of this revelation happened by Adam and/or Noah and his sons and reached all nations and cultures. There is, however, a law of spiritual entropy active in prisca theologia, such that the pureness of revelation gradually diminishes. There are in the history of humankind, however, certain moments where the nations became once more exposed to special revelation. Babylonian and Persian cultures on the one hand, and the Greco-Roman philosophers from before the Christian era, on the other hand, had ‘borrowed’ from the Jews according to this theory. Philo of Alexandria was a proponent of this view, and it was taken up by Chris- tian apologists and Church Fathers such as Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria. Evangelical theologian Gerald McDermott discusses prisca theologia as one avenue to explain the presence of truth and beauty in other religions and as a way in which the Christian tradition has wrestled with the problem of universal access to salvation.22 The notion of prisca theologia has fallen into disuse, because it was not possible to maintain it under historical scrutiny. Some of the main proofs for the existence of such a prisca theologia were found in texts that more recently have been shown to be misdated. Instead of coming from before the Christian era, the most crucial parts of these texts are shown to be later (Christian) interpolations.23 However, a case could be made that Islam and the Qur’an fit the definition of prisca theologia. Christine Schirrmacher notes that “in all probability Muhammad was made acquainted with some fundamentals of the Christian and Jewish faiths through oral accounts rather than

22. McDermott discusses prisca theologia in several places: Michael James McCly- mond and Gerald R. McDermott, The Theology of Jonathan Edwards (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 580-585; Gerald R. McDermott, “Jonathan Edwards and the Salvation of Non-Christians,” Pro Ecclesia 9, no. 2 (2000): 208-214; id., Jonathan Edwards Confronts the Gods: Christian Theology, Enlightenment Religion, and Non-Christian Faiths (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), chapter 5; id., God’s Rivals: Why Has God Allowed Different Religions? Insights from the Bible and the Early Church (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2007), 90-93, 120; id., “Edwards and the World Religions,” in Understanding Jonathan Edwards: An Introduction to America’s Theologian, ed. Gerald R. McDermott (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 175-181. 23. See now also on prisca theologia Gerald R. McDermott and Harold A. Netland, A Trinitarian Theology of Religions: An Evangelical Proposal (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 114-121. Do Christians and Muslims Worship the Same God? 267 independent study of the Old and New Testaments.”24 The deterioration of the pristine revelation – a constituent element of prisca theologia – is also relevant here. Schirrmacher notes that Jewish and Christian apocryphal texts circulated in Arabic in the time of Mohammed and traces of these can be found in the Qur’an. This agrees with D’Costa’s understanding of the in-between status of Islam with respect to revelation. No independent revelation, but clear traces of special revelation borrowed from Israel and the Church. This allows to consider Islam and the Qur’an as praeparatio evangelica, an important element in D’Costa’s appraisal of the Council’s doctrine on other religions.25 Prisca theologia is, of course, not a category that is alien to Catholic theology. As such it is not something that Catholic theology needs to learn from Evangelicals. The concept has only fallen into disuse. How- ever, investigating whether the concept of prisca theologia can be applied to Islam could prove to be an interesting research avenue. In discussing Christ’s descent into hell in the context of theology of religions, Gavin D’Costa has already shown to be interested in applying ‘old’ doctrines to new questions. Perhaps Gerald McDermott’s discussion of prisca theo logia could help D’Costa to speak of Islam’s in-between status with more theological arguments.

A Missiological Approach We previously mentioned the special issue of the Occasional Bulletin, as an Evangelical missiological reaction to the ‘same God’ affirmation. These reactions, although they differ considerably from one another, make clear that missiology brings other issues and questions to the table than a systematic theological approach or an interreligious dialogue approach. Catholic theology of interreligious dialogue would certainly benefit from these and similar (perhaps Roman Catholic) reflections. One issue that relates directly to the ‘same God’ affirmation is the discussion by some missiologists of how Muslim converts to Christianity

24. McDermott and Netland, A Trinitarian Theology of Religions, 315 in a response by Schirrmacher included in the book. 25. An analogous case to prisca theologia could be made for the Abrahamic typol- ogy that D’Costa describes and linking this to what McDermott calls “revealed types,” a concept borrowed from Jonathan Edwards. These “revealed types are not part of general revelation as they are not universally available. Neither are they special revelation, since, in themselves, they do not teach the way to salvation. These types give partial access to divine realities.” For this quote and more discussion, see Wouter Biesbrouck, Wrestling with Angels: Catholic and Evangelical Tradition-Specific Approaches to Theology of Religions (Leuven: Unpublished PhD Dissertation Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 2013), 165. 268 wouter biesbrouck perceive the discussion of Muslims worshipping the same God as Christians. David Greenlee reports that one convert said “of course I didn’t switch gods when I trusted in Jesus Christ.” Greenlee goes on to say that “among Muslims I know who have turned to faith in Jesus Christ, most – but not all – would say more or less the same thing.”26 Similarly, Paul Martindale states that in his experience of more than thirty year, Most former Muslims would also say that they had been attempting to worship the same God, but they later realized that the teaching and system of worshipping God in Islam were to some extent incorrect, false and misleading. Conversion studies have shown that the greater the degree of congruency between Islam and Christianity that is per- ceived by the Muslim inquirer the more likely it is that he or she will seriously consider Christianity as a viable alternative to Islam.27 Martindale continues that “in my experience watching several dozen Muslims leaving Islam and entering Christianity, I never had to take the position with them that Allah and the God of the Bible are not the same.”28 Mark Naylor examined for his D.Th. Thesis theological trajectories of Muslims who had come to faith in Christ. One specific question asked was, “How has their perspective of God changed?” based on the story of the prodigal son.29 “Neither the control group of Muslims nor the group of converts questioned the identity of God or sought to dis- tinguish a Christian God from a Muslim God. [...] What had changed for the believers was their orientation to and perspective of God. The Mus- lim control group was consistent in their view of God as Master and themselves as servants. [...] Those who had become followers of Christ now embraced a new relationship with God as Father and themselves as loved children.” Naylor concludes that “many Muslims do come to Christ without changing their allegiance to another God. Their perspective is altered as they come to understand God in Christ, but the identity of the divine Creator remains intact.”30

26. David Greenlee, “Do Muslims and Christians Worship the Same God? Missio- logical Implications of Answering a Divisive Question,” Occasional Bulletin Special Edition (2016): 13. 27. Paul Martindale, “Do Christians and Muslims Worship the Same God? Mis- siological Implications,” Occasional Bulletin Special Edition (2016): 18-19. 28. Ibid., 19. 29. Mark Naylor, “Who Decides if Allah Is God? A Contextual Consideration of the Use of the Term ‘Allah’ for the God of the Bible,” Occasional Bulletin Special Edition (2016): 21. 30. Ibid., 21. A slightly more nuanced account is given in Roy Oksnevad, “Do Christians and Muslims Worship the Same God?,” Occasional Bulletin Special Edition (2016): 24-25: “For some, when they come to Christ they affirm that they have found Do Christians and Muslims Worship the Same God? 269

Given that this is the case, it is clear that unequivocal negative reactions to the ‘same God’ affirmation makes interreligious dialogue with and mission to Muslims much harder. It is clear from D’Costa’s nuanced theology that he does not expect Muslims (or other religionists) to agree with his positions, even if they are nuanced. This is all the more so if nuance is lacking as has been the case in some reactions to dr. Larycia Hawkins. The opportunity to be on speaking terms with Muslims is important for Evangelicals, as it creates at least the possibility of witness- ing of the Christian faith. The loss of this opportunity is something Evangelicals would wish to avoid. Moreover, unequivocal negative reactions to the ‘same God’ affirmation by Evangelical theologians does not help (Evangelical) Christians to be open to and listen to Muslims. On the contrary, such an attitude consolidates prejudices. This not only prevents Evangelicals from the ben- efits of interreligious dialogue., it also harms the witness of the Gospel as a non-listening attitude is contrary to what Jesus would do. As is the case with prisca theologia, missiological issues are not new to Roman Catholic discussions in theology of interreligious dialogue. But here as well, one could argue that these considerations have fallen into disuse. As is evident from D’Costa’s book under discussion, he is clearly sensitive to missiological issues even where mainstream Catholic theology remains much more non-committal. The specific discussion of missiological issues in evangelical approaches could create positive spill-overs into D’Costa’s approach and into Catholic theology of interreligious dialogue in general.

3. Confusion in D’Costa’s Argument

I would like to point out one confusing element in D’Costa’s treatment of the question whether Catholics and Muslims worship the same God. The title of Chapter 4 is a question: “The Council and the Muslims: Worshipping the Same God?” However, it seems that this is not the the Allah they have been looking for, or they were seeking Allah, but finally found him in Christ. Others affirm that the God of Islam is a false God.” Finally, Darrell White- mann claims that “Today there are many Muslims in the world who are becoming followers of Jesus [...]. These followers of Jesus don’t begin praying to a different God, they continue to pray to the same God they always have, but now with a different conception and understanding of who God is [...].” Darrell Whiteman, “A Missiological Response to Wheaton College Professor Larycia A. Hawkins’ Statement that Muslims and Chris- tians Worship the Same God,” Occasional Bulletin Special Edition (2016): 31. 270 wouter biesbrouck question he seeks to answer in the chapter. Rather, that Catholics and Muslims worship the same God is stated as a matter of fact. In the introduction to the book, he writes: In Chapter 4 I argue that the following teachings were established. First, Lumen Gentium contains a clear doctrinal statement on the nature of God worshipped by Muslims: that this is the same God worshipped by Christians.31 Also, at the start of Chapter 4, D’Costa writes that his focus is “exclusively on what appears to be a matter of doctrinal teaching at the Council regarding Islam. The Council teaches that Muslims worship/adore the same God as Catholics. This teaching is contained in Lumen Gentium 16C and Nostra Aetate 3.”32 D’Costa goes on to write that Lumen Gentium 16 teaches that Muslims ‘nobiscum Deum adorant unicum’, ‘worship with us the one God’. The conjunction ‘nobiscum’ (with us) indicates that the Church’s teaching is not related to a phenomenological description of Islam but to a theological assessment that the God worshipped by Muslims is the same God worshipped by Catholics.33 Not much discussion is given to argue this positive conclusion. Taken at face value, this is an important evolution in his thinking. D’Costa has been very reluctant to answer this question positively in two articles published in Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations the year before the publication of his book. Compare the previous statements with the following quote: I come to a tentative conclusion that interreligious prayer would be very difficult to justify, but cannot be ruled out of court given the state of debate on the question: do Christians and Muslims believe in and worship the same God? There are marginal grounds for answering this question with a ‘yes, but’. I believe this is a significant conclusion, although it is tentative and the discussion on this matter is in its infancy.34 The confusion arises because Chapter 4 is not really discussing whether the referent for ‘God’ in Christianity and Islam is the same (LG 16 is clear about that). The question D’Costa answers is whether what is said

31. D’Costa, Vatican II: Catholic Doctrines on Jews and Muslims, 8. 32. Ibid., 160. 33. Ibid. This is repeated on p. 175 (“The Fathers thus saw themselves as saying something about the God that Muslims worship/adore: that that God is the true God that Catholics worship/adore”) and in the conclusion on p. 216 (“The God that Muslims worship is the true God that Christians worship”). 34. D’Costa, “Interreligious Prayer,” 1. Do Christians and Muslims Worship the Same God? 271 about God in Islam (and the Qur’an in particular) is true. The answer to this question is much more ambiguous. It is this question that D’Costa answers with a ‘yes, but’. The argument revolves around the issue of revelation in Islam. D’Costa is arguing that the ‘same God’ of Islam refers not just to what is available through natural knowledge.35 According to D’Costa, when LG 16 refers to Muslims professing to hold the faith of Abraham, this “suggests that what is being discussed is beyond natural theology or original revelation.”36 Since the Council did not indicate that “this God can be considered as a formal part of true salvation history […] this gives Islam an unspecified status: there is supernatural knowledge of God present in Islam […] but it is not a formal part of salvation history other than in terms of ‘type’.”37 It looks like D’Costa is conflating the question of the referent for ‘God’ and the question of revelation in Islam. This confusion is illustrated when D’Costa in his book contrasts the “‘in-between’ status of Islam” with “just another theistic religion analogized to St Paul’s notion of seeking for the ‘unknown God’,” claiming that the former is “something far more, although not like Israel.”38 D’Costa is discussing the status of revelation in these religions, not the identity of the referent of the word ‘God’. I believe his argument would benefit from a more explicit distinction between these issues. In his extensive review of Miroslav Volf’s book (Allah: A Christian Response), D’Costa says that he agrees “with Volf that Muslims believe in the same God as Christians” but then adds a question: “‘God’ at what stage and ‘God according to whom’?”39 ‘Stage’ in this quote refers to one of three stages of progressive revelation: 1. natural revelation, 2. God’s special revelation to Israel, 3. the self-revelation of God in Christ.40 His point is that one can say that it is the same God, but the understanding of this God can be very different when said by a Christian compared to when said by a Muslim. This is where the question of revelation in Islam becomes important. I believe his argument in his book would benefit from a more explicit distinction between these issues.

35. “Some interpreters have argued that Islam’s ‘God’ in Vatican II is equivalent to the true God who is known through natural knowledge.” D’Costa, Vatican II: Catholic Doctrines on Jews and Muslims, 179. 36. Ibid., 180. 37. Ibid. 38. Ibid., 181. 39. D’Costa, “Do Christians and Muslims,” 156. 40. Ibid., 155. In Vatican II: Catholic Doctrines on Jews and Muslims (pp. 178-179), D’Costa discerns – based on Dei Verbum 3 – four stages in progressive revelation. 272 wouter biesbrouck

Wouter Biesbrouck received his PhD from the Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies, Catholic University Leuven, Belgium, where he now serves as education policy advisor. His research interests are to be situated within systematic theology, with a focus on theology of the interreligious dialogue. He also has a keen interest in ecumenical theology at the interface of Roman Catholicism and Evangelicalism. His most recent publications are “Theological Themes in Gavin D’Costa’s The- ology of Religion,” in The Normativity of History: Theological Truth and Tradition in the Tension between Church History and Systematic Theology (Peeters, 2016) and “Discerning the Divine and the Demonic through Dialogue: Recent Evangelical Theology of Religions,” in The Past, Present, and Future of Theologies of Interreligious Dialogue (Oxford University Press, 2017). Address: Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies, University of Louvain, St.-Michielsstraat 4/3101, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium. Email: [email protected].