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Guideline Technical Document Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document Haloacetic Acids Health Canada is the federal department responsible for helping Canadians maintain and improve their health. We assess the safety of drugs and many consumer products, help improve the safety of food, and provide information to Canadians to help them make healthy decisions. We provide health services to First Nations people and to Inuit communities. We work with the provinces to ensure our health care system serves the needs of Canadians. Published by authority of the Minister of Health Également disponible en français sous le titre : Recommandations pour la qualité de l’eau potable au Canada : document technique Les acides haloacétiques This publication can be made available on request on diskette, large print, audio-cassette and braille. © Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, represented by the Minister of Health Canada, 2008 This publication may be reproduced without permission provided the source is fully acknowledged. HC Pub.: 4192 Cat.: H128-1/08-548E ISBN: 978-1-100-10508-6 Errata Section 12, page 61 Although health-based targets can be established for four of the five HAAs, and considering the technological limitations associated with reducing individual HAA levels in drinking water while maintaining effective disinfection, the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water is establishing a MAC of 0.8 0.08 mg/L (80 µg/L) for Total HAA5 in drinking water based on a running annual average rather than individual guidelines. This is consistent with the approach taken by the U.S. EPA, which established a maximum contaminant level based on best available technology for these same HAAs. Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document Haloacetic Acids Prepared by the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water of the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Health and the Environment Ottawa, Ontario July 2008 This document may be cited as follows: Health Canada (2008) Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document — Haloacetic Acids. Water, Air and Climate Change Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. The document was prepared by the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water of the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Health and the Environment. Any questions or comments on this document may be directed to: Water, Air and Climate Change Bureau Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch Health Canada 269 Laurier Avenue West, Address Locator 4903D Ottawa, Ontario Canada K1A 0K9 Tel.: 613-948-2566 Fax: 613-952-2574 E-mail: [email protected] Other Guideline Technical Documents for the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality can be found on the following Web page: http://www.healthcanada.gc.ca/waterquality. Table of contents Part I. Overview and Application ...............................................1 1.0 Guideline ..............................................................1 2.0 Executive summary......................................................1 2.1 Health effects.....................................................2 2.2 Exposure ........................................................3 2.3 Treatment........................................................3 3.0 Application of the guideline ...............................................3 3.1 Monitoring.......................................................4 Part II. Science and Technical Considerations .....................................5 4.0 Identity, use and sources in the environment ...................................5 4.1 Environmental fate.................................................7 5.0 Exposure ..............................................................8 5.1 Water...........................................................8 5.1.1 Analysis of HAA5 data ......................................11 5.1.1.1 Communities with >5000 persons ........................12 5.1.1.2 Communities with <5000 persons ........................12 5.2 Air ............................................................13 5.3 Food...........................................................13 5.4 Contribution of drinking water to total exposure .........................14 6.0 Analytical methods .....................................................14 7.0 Treatment technology ...................................................15 7.1 Municipal scale ..................................................15 7.1.1 Removal of precursors prior to municipal disinfection ..............15 7.1.2 Alternative municipal disinfection strategies .....................16 7.1.3 Removal of HAAs after formation .............................17 7.2 Residential scale .................................................17 8.0 Kinetics and metabolism.................................................18 8.1 Absorption......................................................18 8.1.1 Monochloroacetic acid .......................................18 8.1.2 Dichloroacetic acid .........................................18 8.1.3 Trichloroacetic acid .........................................18 Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document ii 8.1.4 Monobromoacetic acid ......................................18 8.1.5 Dibromoacetic acid .........................................19 8.2 Metabolism .....................................................19 8.2.1 Monochloroacetic acid .......................................19 8.2.2 Dichloroacetic acid .........................................19 8.2.3 Trichloroacetic acid .........................................20 8.2.4 Monobromoacetic acid ......................................20 8.2.5 Dibromoacetic acid .........................................20 8.3 Distribution .....................................................21 8.3.1 Monochloroacetic acid .......................................21 8.3.2 Dichloroacetic acid .........................................21 8.3.3 Trichloroacetic acid .........................................21 8.3.4 Monobromoacetic acid ......................................21 8.3.5 Dibromoacetic acid .........................................21 8.4 Excretion .......................................................22 8.4.1 Monochloroacetic acid .......................................22 8.4.2 Dichloroacetic acid .........................................22 8.4.3 Trichloroacetic acid .........................................22 8.4.4 Monobromoacetic acid ......................................23 8.4.5 Dibromoacetic acid .........................................23 9.0 Health effects in humans.................................................23 9.1 Monochloroacetic acid .............................................24 9.2 Dichloroacetic acid ...............................................24 9.3 Trichloroacetic acid...............................................25 9.4 Monobromoacetic acid ............................................25 9.5 Dibromoacetic acid ...............................................25 10.0 Health effects in laboratory animals and in vitro test systems ....................25 10.1 Acute toxicity ....................................................25 10.2 Short-term exposure ...............................................26 10.2.1 Monochloroacetic acid .......................................26 10.2.2 Dichloroacetic acid .........................................27 10.2.3 Trichloroacetic acid .........................................29 10.2.4 Monobromoacetic acid ......................................29 10.2.5 Dibromoacetic acid .........................................29 10.3 Long-term exposure and carcinogenicity ..............................31 10.3.1 Monochloroacetic acid .......................................32 10.3.2 Dichloroacetic acid .........................................34 10.3.2.1 Mechanisms of carcinogenicity ....................38 10.3.2.1.1 Genotoxicity .............................38 10.3.2.1.2 Peroxisome proliferation ...................39 10.3.2.1.3 Down-regulation of insulin .................39 Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document iii 10.3.2.1.4 Tumour promotion, alterations in cell replication and death ...............................40 10.3.2.1.5 Other mechanisms: hypomethylation .........41 10.3.3 Trichloroacetic acid .........................................42 10.3.4 Monobromoacetic acid ......................................43 10.3.5 Dibromoacetic acid .........................................44 10.4 Mutagenicity and genotoxicity ......................................45 10.4.1 Monochloroacetic acid .......................................45 10.4.2 Dichloroacetic acid .........................................45 10.4.3 Trichloroacetic acid .........................................45 10.4.4 Monobromoacetic acid ......................................46 10.4.5 Dibromoacetic acid .........................................46 10.5 Reproductive and developmental toxicity ..............................46 10.5.1 Monochloroacetic acid .......................................46 10.5.2 Dichloroacetic acid .........................................47 10.5.2.1 Developmental studies ...........................47 10.5.2.2 Reproductive studies ............................49 10.5.3 Trichloroacetic acid .........................................50 10.5.4 Monobromoacetic acid ......................................51 10.5.5 Dibromoacetic
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