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Analyzing the Hardware Costs of Different Security-Layer Variants for a Low-Cost RFID

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Analyzing the Hardware Costs of Different Security-Layer Variants for a Low-Cost RFID Analyzing the Hardware Costs of Different Security-Layer Variants for a Low-Cost RFID Tag Thomas Plos and Martin Feldhofer Institute for Applied Information Processing and Communications (IAIK), Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 16a, 8010 Graz, Austria {Thomas.Plos,Martin.Feldhofer}@iaik.tugraz.at Abstract. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology is the en- abler for the future Internet of Things (IoT) where security will play an important role. In this work, we evaluate the costs of adding different security-layer variants that are based on symmetric cryptography to a low-cost RFID tag. In contrast to related work, we do not only consider the costs of the cryptographic-algorithm implementation, but also the costs that relate to protocol handling of the security layer. Further we show that using a tag architecture based on a low-resource 8-bit micro- controller is highly advantageous. Such an approach is not only flexibility but also allows combining the implementation of protocol and crypto- graphic algorithm on the microcontroller. Expensive resources like mem- ory can be easily reused, lowering the overall hardware costs. We have synthesized the security-enabled tag for a 130 nm CMOS technology, us- ing the cryptographic algorithms AES and NOEKEON to demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach. Average power consumption of the mi- crocontroller is 2 ñW at a clock frequency of 106 kHz. Hardware costs of the security-layer variants range from about 1100 GEs using NOEKEON to 4500 GEs using AES. Keywords: Low-cost RFID tag, 8-bit microcontroller, AES, NOEKEON, security layer, low power consumption. 1 Introduction Over the last years, radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology has found its way into many applications of our daily life. The integration of RFID func- tionality into the latest smart phones (e.g. Nexus S, Blackberry Bold 9900) emphasizes the relevance of this technology. An upcoming application that re- lies on RFID technology is the Internet of Things (IoT). The vision of the future IoT is that every object has communication capabilities by equipping it with This work has been supported by the Austrian Government through the research program FIT-IT Trust in IT Systems under the Project Number 820843 (Project CRYPTA) and by the European Commission through the ICT programme under contract ICT-2007-216676 (ECRYPT II). M. Rajarajan et al. (Eds.): SecureComm 2011, LNICST 96, pp. 426–435, 2012. Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering 2012 Analyzing the Hardware Costs of Different Security-Layer Variants 427 an RFID tag. An important aspect of the IoT is security [5]. Equipping every object with a tag presumes that they are cheap in price, making the integration of security a challenging task. A typical RFID system mainly consists of three components: a back-end database, a reader, and one or more tags. The reader is connected to the back- end database and communicates with the tags contactlessly by means of a radio- frequency (RF) field. A tag is a small microchip attached to an antenna that receives its data and probably the clock signal from the RF field emitted by the reader. So-called passive tags also receive their power from the RF field. The emergence of the IoT will not only pave the way for new applications but will also require to have additional functionality available on the tags. Such additional functionality comprises for example file management and security features, which increases the control complexity on the tag. Today’s RFID tags use state machines fixed in hardware for handling their control tasks. As soon as the control complexity increases, the state-machine approach is no longer practical and even inefficient. Using a microcontroller approach instead that is more flexible seems to be favorable [13,14]. Having a microcontroller on the tag for handling the control tasks, allows reusing it for computing cryptographic algorithms that are necessary for the security features. Our contribution in this paper is twofold and deals with the integration of security on low-cost RFID tags. Firstly, we analyze the benefits of having a combined implementation of protocol handling and cryptographic algorithm on a microcontroller. We demonstrate this by using a synthesizable 8-bit microcon- troller that is optimized for low-resource usage. Secondly, we define three dif- ferent security-layer variants using the block ciphers AES and NOEKEON and evaluate the hardware costs introduced by them. In contrast to related work, not only the costs of the cryptographic-algorithm implementation alone are consid- ered, but also the costs that arise from protocol handling of the security layer. Our results underline that protocol handling constitutes a significant cost factor and must not be neglected. The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. In Section 2 we present a system overview of our low-cost tag. Section 3 gives details about the deployed security-layer variants and Section 4 describes the concept for realizing them on the tag. The implementation results are provided in Section 5. Conclusions are drawninSection6. 2 System Overview RFID tags consist of a small microchip attached to an antenna. The microchip contains an analog front-end and a digital part. Complexity of the digital part ranges from simple state machines with a small EEPROM for storing its unique identifier (UID), to contactless smart cards with powerful microcontrollers and special coprocessors. Powerful microcontrollers as they are found in contactless smart cards are not suitable for our low-cost tag. They consume too much power and require too much hardware resources. Hence, we are using a self-designed 428 T. Plos and M. Feldhofer 8-bit microcontroller for our tag that is optimized for low-resource usage. A preliminary version of the microcontroller has been published in [12]. Our tag uses the ISO14443 standard for communication and operates in the high frequency range at a carrier frequency of 13.56 MHz. Low-level functional- ity is implemented according to ISO14443-3 [6]. High-level functionality is im- plemented according to ISO14443-4 [9] and uses a block-transmission protocol for exchanging application data as specified in ISO7816-4 [7]. The digital part of our tag mainly consists of five components: the framing logic, the low-resource 8-bit microcontroller, the bus arbiter, the EEPROM, and the true-random num- ber generator (TRNG). The framing logic is connected to the analog front-end and provides a byte interface to the microcontroller. Low-level commands that are time critical are directly handled by the framing logic, commands on higher level are forwarded to the microcontroller. The 8-bit microcontroller is the cen- tral part of our security-enabled tag and controls all other components of the digital part through an Advanced Microcontroller Bus Architecture (AMBA) Advanced Peripheral Bus (APB) [1]. The APB is managed by the bus arbiter. High-level protocol functionality of the tag, including commands for security and file-management operations, as well as the cryptographic algorithm itself are entirely implemented in the program memory of the microcontroller. Hence, there is no dedicated coprocessor that handles encryption or decryption of data as typically found in the design of security-enabled tags. Random data that is required for security operations is generated within the TRNG and transferred to the memory of the microcontroller over the APB. The EEPROM is divided into files and is used for storing configuration data of the tag, the UID, the cipher key, and user data. Files are handled through file-management operations that allow selecting a file, reading from a file, or writing to a file. Depending on the file, different access rights are granted. 3 Security Layer Two security services have been selected for implementation on our tag to quan- tify the costs of adding security functionality. The two security services are tag authentication and reader authentication. Tag authentication ensures originality of the tag to prevent simple cloning of. Reader authentication ensures originality of the reader to restrict access to certain resources on the tag. The security services are based on a challenge-response protocol using sym- metric cryptography as defined in ISO9798-2 [8]. We have selected two different cryptographic algorithms for the security services: AES [11] and NOEKEON [2]. Both algorithms are block ciphers with a block size of n = 128 bits. Selecting two different block ciphers allows analyzing their influence on the overall implemen- tation costs. AES has been chosen because it is standardized and provides high security. NOEKEON has been selected since it provides a good trade off between security and resource usage (encryption and decryption function of NOEKEON can be implemented with very little overhead). Using symmetric cryptography requires that reader and tag share a secret key K. The key can be stored on Analyzing the Hardware Costs of Different Security-Layer Variants 429 RQ_CMD K K K K rT AT_CMD(rR) AR_CMD(EK (rT | rR)) EK (rR | rT) Reader Tag Reader Tag OK/FAIL Fig. 1. Tag authentication Fig. 2. Reader authentication the tag, for example, during a personalization phase that is performed within a protected environment (i.e. it can be assumed that there is no adversary). Tag Authentication. The basic principle of tag authentication is illustrated in Figure 1. The reader sends a randomly-selected challenge rR with a length n of 2 bits through a tag-authenticate command (AT CMD) to the tag. After receiving rR from the reader, the tag generates itself a random number rT of the same length, and encrypts the concatenation of the two random numbers rR | rT under the secret key K. The encrypted value is then sent to the reader, which can decrypt it with its secret key. If both reader and tag use the same secret key, the decrypted value will contain the random number rR that has initially been selected by the reader, and the tag is treated as authentic.
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