SEPTEMBER 2013: READING THE MEDIA

edia agazine Menglish and media centre issue 45M | september 2013

2013 Production Competition – the Results! Reading Film through Writing with Film POLITICS, PROPAGANDA AND THE PRESS Reading Films Online BEYOND HOLLYWOOD: Reading Arthouse Cinema Analysing Still-Image Ads

Reading Rap MM

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MediaMagazine is MM45 Editorial published by the Welcome back to a new academic year, a English and Media new set of courses and challenges, and a new Centre, a non-profit edition of MediaMagazine. making organisation. The Centre publishes a This issue is all about Reading The Media – wide range of classroom new ways of looking at the media experiences we often take for granted. materials and runs What difference does it make whether you read a film in a cinema or on courses for teachers. If an iPad? How can we read between the lines of hot stories in the press? you’re studying English Why is arthouse cinema still considered so difficult to read? How can at A Level, look out producing – or writing with – film help us to read it more critically? What for emagazine, also do we look for when we ‘read the past’ in TV drama, the ‘com’ in sitcom, published by the Centre. or the meaning of rap? These questions will be important for AS students taking Film or Media for the first time – and useful reminders for A2 The English and Media Centre students consolidating their analytic skills. Read on for some answers and 18 Compton Terrace approaches. London N1 2UN Telephone: 020 7359 8080 We’re delighted to share the fabulous results of the 2013 MediaMag Fax: 020 7354 0133 Production Competition – and to prompt you to think about how you can get involved for next year’s version, either in school or in your own time. Email for subscription enquiries: [email protected] Regular subscribers might notice MediaMag has had a mini re-design – a

Editor: Jenny Grahame cleaner look, less highlighting, more space, intended to make us more legible and less cluttered. Does it work? We’d really like to know your Subscriptions manager: Emma Marron responses – do email them to [email protected], together with your ideas for future articles, neglected topics, or areas you’d like us Design: Sparkloop Print: S&G Group to cover. And do check below for new arrivals on the MediaMag website

Cover: David Tennant and Olivia this term. Coleman in Broadchurch (ITV 2013) Lots of luck for the new term – and enjoy Reading The Media!

ISSN: 1478-8616

Coming to the MediaMag website this term: MediaMagExtras on reading The Big Bang Theory, Game of Thrones, Utopia, Drive, Primeval, and We Need to Talk About Kevin. MediaMagClips interview with controversial journalist David Aaronovitch. December edition: The Gothic, featuring monsters, vampires, ghosts, and all things horrific; Goth music and style; Goth influences from art and literature, and much more… MediaMagazine Conference And remember: Booking is now open for the 2013 MediaMagazine Student Conference on Friday 13th December – and filling up fast! Get booked in at http://www.englishandmedia.co.uk/mmagconference/

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MediaMag Presents… the Beyond Hollywood: 04 results of the 2013 Production 24 Reading Arthouse Cinema 50 Competition. Nick Lacey investigates the readability and appeals of arthouse movies, and wonders why they’re not more popular. 06 Gangnam Style: Reading a Analysing Still-Image Music Video Phenomenon Adverts: Reading Lynx Mark It’s the most watched video on 28 YouTube. Pete Turner asks: Why Ramey talks you through the process of reading a print advert. Psy? Becoming a Media Detective: Alternative Reading Rap: How do Approaches to Textual People Interpret Music? Analysis It’s harder than it 54 32 What’s important in ‘reading’ the looks. Make like Sherlock with meaning of music? Does music some new problem-solving have meanings you can analyse – approaches which will help you or is it an experience you feel? to get started.

Reading Film through It’s no Laughing Matter: Writing with Film: Creating Reading the Sitcom 58 11 Jonathan Nunns explores the Video Essays Barney Oram shows teachers how to get stuck conventions and variations that into analysis through creating make the sitcom so easy – and video essays, and student Abbie enjoyable – to read. Loosemore describes what she Reading Film Production: A got from the process. Life-Changing Experience A Screenwriter’s Guide to Student Luke Robson tells the Reading (and Writing) the 38 story of his experiences at the Media Screenwriter Ian Pike BFI/NFTS film-making residential. offers a recipe for how to write 14 screenplays that TV audiences might want to read – and how to read the screenwriter’s tricks of the trade. 62

Reading Between the Lines: Politics, Propaganda Reading Broadchurch: and the Press So you thought 42 How did ITV Create Perfect propaganda was dead? Steph ‘Event TV’? It was allegedly the most tweeted TV drama ever. So USA: Experiments in Hendry presents two case studies Fiction with Media A 1930s which expose the techniques how did ITV create the TV event of the year so far? trilogy of novels by John Dos used in the Press to promote Passos explored a period of particular values and ideologies. American and world history through the lens of the newly emerging mass media. Andrew 44 Green considers what both Media 20 and Literature students can learn from this experiment in fiction and documentary. Reading the Past… And the BAFTA goes to Big Screen, Little Screen: Downton Abbey! Michael Reading Films Online Roy Massey explores what we look Stafford explores the multiple for when we read the past ways we now watch film, and the onscreen. impact of changing technologies on the viewing process.

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MediaMagazine presents…

And the MMAFTA goes on iTunes!), and a backstage view of carrying with us, and just be in the moment, his extraordinary music work with use our ears, and pay attention to what’s to… Biffy Clyro, The Horrors, Keane, and happening, and just listen to the inner voice BFI Southbank 3rd July 2013. 24 Prodigy – imaginative, ingenious and that directs us, the better... productions, ‘shortlisted’ from over 70 visually exquisite, and always with a submitted from all over the country Gothic twist. Along the way we heard The Awards – it really was that hard to whittle many anecdotes and much wisdom First things first: the quality of all them down any further. A panel of – the importance of collaboration, the work submitted this year was judges including Mark Reid, Head of persistence, risk-taking, attention to outstanding. Year on year, your BFI Education, MediaMag editor Jenny detail, and resilience. Corin closed productions just get better and better, Grahame, Pete Fraser (author of Pete’s both in terms of professionalism, Media Blog, actually in Australia but technical skill, understanding of the present in spirit), and the fabulous medium and the genres, and sheer Corin Hardy. 150 filmmakers, parents imagination. So, many congratulations and teachers. The assorted might of to all who entered – and please do it BFI projectionists, staff and ushers. The again next year! Sadly we can’t mention hallowed interior of the prestigious you all, but here are the highlights from NFT1, and the stage where so many each of the four categories. of the film industry’s finest stars have appeared… Quite an event. Film openings: Much the most popular category, these encompassed zombie The inspiration horror worthy of Edgar Wright, high- The afternoon opened with welcomes tech computer-hacking intrigue, a from Mark and Jenny, and an Skins-style houseparty-gone-wrong inspirational masterclass on music with a twist, Tarantino-style girl heist with stirring words from Rick Rubin, video from Corin, who you may know action, and a stunning Se7en-ish title co-founder of the legendary Def Jam from his superb sessions at previous sequence of wax, blood and flame; label, producer of LL Cool J, The Beastie MediaMag Student Conferences. locations included an eerie bus depot, Boys, Public Enemy, Johnny Cash, Kanye Corin took an autobiographical trip urban rooftops, and – of course – well- West, and more: through his filmmaking past, from dressed bedrooms. The outstanding early experiments, his student days, I never decide if an idea is good or bad until I pieces were those that showed the five-year birth of his wonderful try it. So much of what gets in the way of things the most attention to visual detail, 30-minute stop-motion animation being good is thinking that we know. And the the tightest editing, and the most Butterfly (available to download now more that we can remove any baggage we’re creative use of sound – Detachment, a man preparing for vengeance in his

4 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM the 2013 Production Competition Winners! bedroom, came to chilling life entirely of Jesus and Mary College. A ghost in ‘Disappear’, and the multiple through its off-screen diagetic morning story daringly shot in full daylight, formats and atmospheric lighting of soundtrack. Many congratulations which literally made us jump into the Hurtwood House’s ‘Something to Say’. to Hurtwood House School for the cupboard with its combination of whip- We particularly loved the male-rap stunning use of mise-en-scène, pan edits, subtle effects, and mounting good-time vibes and variety of ‘Damn’, multiple locations and tension-building atmosphere. the superb sets and performances of in this category, and for some Oscar- ‘Anti Love Song’, and the beautiful time- Shorts and trailers: Special mention winning staff performances in Angst. lapse Berlin-shot montage of ‘Promises’. for three contrastingly ambitious Overall winner: Pretty Popular, from approaches: Prophet, which took a Overall winner: ‘Do My Thing’, Zenia Khajotia, Emily Grant, Olivia disturbing Run Lola Run repetitive from Natasha Kashi Jalonen, Downes, and Ariana Tipper, Latymer structure to an unsettling and finely- Latymer School. Superbly confident School. A light-touch 21st-century tuned conclusion; Rebecca Hodgson’s choreography, sassy performance, split- Clueless, featuring two girls with Essex Vampire Dolls, a witty and entirely screen edits and great camerawork opposing lifestyles preparing for school plausible trailer for an ITV2 show that made this the winner by a hair’s – great use of cool interactive title could actually be made; and a haunting breadth. graphics, split-screen editing, character CGI encounter with a magic creature on Congratulations to our winners, set-ups, and a highly ‘sellable’ concept. the moors. but also to all our entrants, and to This could go far! Overall winner: Capture, from Ollie their teachers for their support, BFI Gothic Horror award: Although Bradley-Baker, Harry McSwain, Ed commitment, and enthusiasm. Many many of the openings and shorts Saunders, Jorge Challinor and Sam thanks to Mark Reid and Nicky North submitted included elements of Gallacher, Calday Grange Grammar at BFI Education, who made the the Gothic, there were three hugely School. Less is more: simple, surreal event possible; to Luke Robson for different outstanding entries here. An and atmospheric, using camerawork photography; to Isobel Fitzsimmons for ambitious and eerie adaptation of Poe’s and colour saturation to exploit rain hostess duties and, of course, to Corin The Raven, from Claremont Fan Court, and autumnal landscape for a dream- Hardy and Pete Fraser, without whom... combined CGI, slithering graphics like vision. All shortlisted videos and photographs and atmospheric live performance; Music videos: The hardest decisions will be online shortly. Which winners while Lewis Andrews’ ambiguous and of all! Any of these videos could hold would you have chosen? Watch them enigmatic The Movie used the zoetrope their own on MTV for their professional and see. and silent cinema footage to chilling styling, timing and sheer energy. genre-bending effect. Studio performances dominated, but Overall winner: The Closet, from Kaya special mentions for City and Islington’s Jenny Grahame. Sumbland and Rahel Fusil, Convent haunting rhythms and urban locations Photography: Luke Robson

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Textual Analysis is the bedrock of Media Studies; your entire study of Despite the importance of textual the media will be through the microscope of textual analysis. Whichever analysis, it is not always the easiest skill to learn. In fact, it can be very spec you are preparing for, it will probably be the first thing you are difficult, particularly if you are coming taught when you start your course; you’ll cut your teeth on it in your AS to the subject having never studied examination, and it will underpin your research and planning in production it before. Textual analysis can also be work. Get the process right and the analytic skills sorted, and you’re away. very frustrating, especially if you are surrounded by people who seem to be But it’s harder than it looks. Michael Parkes offers some new problem- able to see things in media texts that solving approaches which will help you to get started. simply passed you by. This article will outline some of the different approaches you can use when examining the media. Some of these will probably already be familiar to you, but others are very different and may help you approach textual

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analysis in a way that better suits you. as part of the English curriculum in has passed in a sequence; the colour We will address some of the traditional schools, and the majority of Media red can signify danger or romance. approaches to studying texts. This teachers have an English degree. So This linguistic approach attempts to article will also suggest that tackling it makes sense that the traditional understand the media by examining media analysis in a problem-solving or approach to media analysis has the way in which it ‘mediates’ everyday ‘puzzle’ approach may help you. But borrowed aspects from linguistics and life – i.e. how the media translates the beware: you’ll probably never be able semiotics to try to understand how the world into entertainment. Take the to watch things in the same way again. media communicate to audiences. close-up, for example. It suggests a sense of intimacy because if you were The linguistic model is very simple looking at someone in close-up in Traditional Approaches to and works like this: each camera angle the real world, you would be pretty Textual Analysis or aspect of mise-en-scène is coded close to them, probably in an intimate Typically Media Studies has adopted and given a meaning. So, for example, moment – we don’t normally go a linguistic approach to analysing the a close-up means that this is an around looking at people in close-up! media. This is not really a surprise: the emotional moment or a scene that is Or consider camera angles: a low angle subject emerged from linguistic study particularly significant in the narrative. positions the camera in such a way that of the media. Media is often taught A cross-dissolve means that time

english and media centre | September 2013 | MediaMagazine 7 MM the object or person being viewed is However, as I’m sure you have already Textual Analysis as given a sense of power or authority. realised, there is a problem. Sometimes Detective Work This again mirrors real life: when you a close-up isn’t used to create an were a small child you looked up at intimate moment; sometimes the the whole world from this low angle colour red signifies something else, and everything towered over you. This or a filmmaker is being experimental angle is similarly used in real life to with their use of editing. The linguistic give authority to people in society; for model is very rigid and doesn’t always example, a judge in a courtroom will allow for creativity or experimentation; have the highest seated position, while and as a media analyst you have to in a classroom the only person standing think creatively to work out what is up is the teacher. going on. The linguistic approach Shortly after the broadcast of the cannot always account for polysemic last episode of Series 2 of BBC drama The linguistic model for decoding the signs i.e. signs that have more than Sherlock, the internet began to buzz media is taught early on and you have one meaning (‘poly’ meaning more with speculation and analysis of how probably already analysed some texts than one and ‘semic’ meaning sign). the show’s leading character Sherlock by translating each aspect or code to As the media become increasingly Holmes had managed to fake his try to work out what the text is trying experimental, they take on board more own death. The episode ended with to do. Often this involves having to complex textual elements that the Sherlock jumping off a hospital roof remember what each different aspect linguistic model can’t always account – only to be seen minutes later alive signifies and applying the same system for. This can make analysing the media and well in the cemetery where he had to all texts whether they are film more complicated. Let’s examine some apparently just been buried. Twitter, sequences, magazine articles or video alternative approaches to textual YouTube and other online forums were games. analysis that may help. inundated with speculation about

8 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM how this was possible. Fans uploaded also make you fantastically annoying clips highlighting how Sherlock was to your friends when you watch TV able to fake his own death. What this with them! How does this work – and online community was really doing how can you use this approach in was textually analysing the sequence exams? Let’s take an example from in the same way you do in class, but the last series of Sherlock, ‘A Scandal in with a different motivation – to work Making media is an expensive Belgravia’. out how something worked rather than enterprise. Take, for example, a typical analyse meaning. It is an approach episode of Sherlock. The one-hour pilot How Textual Analysis can that uses ‘reverse engineering’ to episode reportedly cost £800,000 to Help you Open a Locked uncover how meaning is constructed make, which works out at over £13,000 Safe in a moving-image sequence. Reverse per minute. This budget was spent on engineering is a practice that is used cast and crew, but also on lighting, in the technology sector: when a rival set design, costume, location access company brings out a new technology, and music. At a cost of over £222 per competitors try to break open the second, anything on screen really needs device to find out how it works so they to be there; it’s important and has a can create their own version. It is also function or purpose in the episode. As a a technique that works very well when textual analyst, it is your job to ‘reverse analysing the media. engineer’ the media and work out what is its purpose. In this episode, Sherlock finds himself To do this you will need to consider the in the company of Irene Adler at her linguistic approach we have already residence in London. The room is examined, but take it further. Your traditionally furnished, there are no investigation will need to be more like personal ornaments, and the main that of a detective working out how colours in the room are white and gold. a sequence is put together. Approach Irene enters the room; to Sherlock’s analysing the media as Sherlock astonishment she is completely naked. would himself: observe carefully and His deduction skills are rendered deduce because everything you see redundant, as he has no clues to go has meaning. To hone your skills as on. The room later comes under siege a media detective, start by watching by US agents, and Sherlock is ordered TV dramas like Sherlock, Ripper Street to open Irene’s safe, a task he finds or the US reworking of Sherlock, impossible: he does not know the Elementary. All of these programmes combination and has no clues in the work like puzzles, slowly giving away room to Irene’s personality. Can you clues to the audience to encourage work out what the combination is you to work out who committed the before Sherlock? crime. Clues can appear as carefully Well, to start with, the clues have to framed camera angles, shots that linger be in this room for both Sherlock and on an important object in the frame, the audience to work out – otherwise costume decisions, make-up or the use it would make his abilities seem of colour. As you watch these shows farfetched and alienate the audience. you will become better at working out What have we seen so far? The camera who murdered whom through textual has not focussed for any particular analysis, but also by developing your length of time on any aspects of the problem solving and observational room’s mise-en-scène so it can’t be a skills. This is a particularly useful clue from the room. The only thing the approach if you are new to the subject, camera has shown us at any length is or come from more of a science or Irene herself – but why is she naked? maths background and are used to Wouldn’t it have been easier to film this problem-solving rather than textual sequence clothed? It is always a good analysis. Examining the media in this idea to examine what you can see in a way will make you more observant and sequence and try to work out why it is critical, and make your analysis more there. To do this, consider what it would creative as it responds to each text on have been like if it was not there, or was its own terms. Not only will it enable different in some way. The producers you to make more creative use of wanted Irene to appear naked. Is this a textual elements in your analysis, it will clue? In fact it is our only onscreen clue

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– the safe’s combination is her personal or catch episodes of psycho-detective measurements, the only information drama Lie to Me on Sky 1. Television is a that Irene has given away, something medium which is supposed to entertain Sherlock works out just in time. From you; you’re not supposed to watch it watching sequences like this and and analyse its deepest significance. pausing the DVD before the conclusion, Programme makers are always trying to you can use your textual analysis skills distract you, which makes your job just to work out onscreen puzzles before that little bit harder, but as soon as you the protagonist. If everything you see start watching media as an analytical on screen is there for a reason, you just detective it becomes a natural skill. have to reverse engineer it to work out However, be warned: you will never why it’s there. watch TV in the same way again. game/Daily+Witness; and there are other Sherlock Holmes-styled Michael Parkes teaches Media at Bilborough College, games at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/ Nottingham. masterpiece/sherlock/observation. html or http://www.gamesbook.com/ sherlock-holmes.html. You may also like to develop your skills in reading body language and facial recognition online with some of the many tests and websites dedicated to this subject, Developing Your Skills as a Media Detective As well as watching TV detective shows, there are several other things you can do to hone your observational skills. First, you can trawl the many YouTube clips that fans have uploaded with their own analysis of how Sherlock survived that fall, and see if you can offer an alternative using your new skills. There are many detective-based observational games online, for example http://www.roundgames.com/ onlinegame/Spot+the+Differences particularly the Daily Witness game at http://www.roundgames.com/

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Film Studies teacher Barney of my students struggled with this I wanted the video essays to do the Oram needed new ways of aspect of the course and I had become following: frustrated at the way I taught it. I was • Engage all my students, both those helping his students to analyse looking for an approach that would interested in the theory, and those and compare their US film texts engage my students the same way the who prefer the practical filmmaking practical work does, giving all students with as much pleasure as they got side. from their production work. Cue the ownership of their work, a piece without the voice of their teacher all • Motivate visual and kinaesthetic appearance of the video essay – and over it. This year I decided that instead learners, who are often put off by AS film analysis became an entirely of asking them to write an essay written tasks. different experience... Teachers can demonstrating their understanding • Encourage micro-analysis of short read his account of the process, of their US comparative films – The sequences and then link these to the Conversation and Enemy of the State – I while students can read Abbie wider macro elements of the film. would get my students to make a video Loosemore’s student-eye view of the essay instead. • Allow direct comparisons to be task. made between two films without This approach came about through the need continually to describe the looking at the excellent Film Studies for The online video essay format opened a new sequences being compared. Free (http://filmstudiesforfree.blogspot. playing field for critical and scholarly analysis of co.uk) blog by Catherine Grant who has As this exercise was linked to an exam movies, providing opportunities for innovative made a number of video essays on a topic, I structured the task around past explorations of films while also challenging the variety of topics including one on Far exam questions to help the students established conventions and limitations of text- From Heaven and All that Heaven Allows, frame their video essays and to provide based film criticism and scholarship films I had previously taught for the US a clear structure for the edited video. http://blogs.indiewire.com/pressplay/ comparative study. I also discovered As this was a first attempt, and to test whether the process would work, I also The question I had been pondering the Press Play blog at Indiewire (http:// produced an example myself. I hoped for the past few years was how to blogs.indiewire.com/pressplay/) which this would model for students how make the teaching of textual analysis has a range of video essays available they could approach their own video in Film Studies more interesting and to watch. Both of these sites and the essay production, showing how to engaging for both me and my students. work of other video essayists online construct a video essay, supported with Textual analysis is a fundamental part persuaded me that this approach could the screening of other online examples. of any Film Studies course and key engage my students as well as offering to students’ success is their ability to an opportunity for them to consider To allow students to produce read and analyse a variety of different the films that they were studying in a something of merit, I gave them three texts and discuss how meaning is different way. 90-minute sessions to plan, edit and created for the spectator. A number view their work. Each pair had access

english and media centre | September 2013 | MediaMagazine 11 MM to full-length digital copies of the films, experience for the students and the so that they could select the relevant outcomes. Firstly, though I’m glad I A Student’s sequences to compare and contrast. made my own video essay, it did mean They used Final Cut Express to edit the that the majority of the videos followed View – Abbie videos (whilst I had used Premiere Pro). my own approach. This could be Throughout the sessions I was available prevented in future by showing a wider Loosemore to help with technical issues and to selection of approaches to making a answer questions about their chosen video essay. Next time I will be more The video essay is becoming a exam questions. I tried very hard not to proactive in the way I pair up students suggest suitable sequences: I wanted so that there is a better balance popular way of exploring film in this to be as free of ‘the teacher’s voice’ between those who are technically ways that text-based criticism can’t. as possible. In total three classes of 20+ confident and competent and those By taking footage from two films AS Film Studies students completed the whose strengths are in analysis. This and watching them together, the activity. would alleviate the initial concerns from some students about not being video format offers a new way of The outcomes were very pleasing, both able to use the equipment, and also looking at certain scenes, editing for me as a teacher and for the students support the students who are weaker themselves. The work they produced techniques, camera angles and use at written analysis. was of a much higher standard than I of sound, allowing you to see things expected, and they had chosen a wider Technically I found it much easier you may have missed before. variety of sequences to illustrate their to make my video on Premiere Pro points than if they had been writing than the students did using Final Cut When studying for the US Comparative a traditional essay. This breadth of Express. This is not because I am an Study we created a video essay sequence selection also suggested editing expert but simply because the comparing Coppola’s 1974 that they had watched the film more programme is more up-to-date and psychological thriller The Conversation closely than I had initially hoped, could deal more easily with the video to Tony Scott’s 1998 film Enemy of the and in some cases demonstrated a clips. Further, the Premiere Pro titling State. By taking footage from these more sophisticated understanding of program is easier to use than the one films and editing them together, the films than they would normally in FCE. All of these are areas that will we created a critical analysis of the articulate when writing about them. be addressed in order to improve the ideology and techniques. It was clear It also provided the classes involved experience for students and staff. to see that Scott was influenced by with a variety of peer-produced Overall I’ve found the whole experience The Conversation. It was also a better revision tools, and promoted a week’s to be extremely positive, and I’ll be way of looking for similarities and worth of student dialogue around an adopting the approach for both my AS differences between the characters, exam question – which never usually and A2 year groups, and potentially locations and the messages and happens! for all topics. The approach is flexible values. They had watched the film more enough to be adapted for any of the I found working with a visual aid closely than I had initially hoped, topic areas covered in both Film Studies beneficial to my understanding of specifications, and has been popular the relationship between the two and in some cases demonstrated a with the students who have already films. By watching two scenes side- more sophisticated understanding of had a go at the task. And the approach by-side, I was able to point out the the films than they would normally could easily be adapted to fit with micro-elements evident in each scene, Media Studies specifications. and was therefore able to draw a articulate when writing about them. clear comparison, without the need Barney Oram is Head of Film Studies at Long Road With hindsight I would make a few College, Cambridge. to explain the scene in a paragraph. alterations to improve both the Video essays are particularly useful when looking at cinematography. We edited the footage together to show similar shot-types and how they were being used in different situations to reflect the character’s emotions. I also looked at representation, and the way men were portrayed in each film. I found that by being able to add text above the footage, I could enhance the point I was making with the scene playing below. This is a much more effective way of showing a comparison than having to describe it, and it also opens your eyes to particular details

12 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM within the scene that you may not studying the theory of film. I found have seen on a first viewing. this effective, as by using the physical element of filmmaking I found it easier Video essays are particularly useful to go into detail about how certain shot when looking at cinematography. We types are used to create effect, and how edited the footage together to show the mise-en-scène reflected the films’ ideologies. similar shot-types and how they were being used in different situations to Some students prefer to work with the practical side of filmmaking, whereas reflect the character’s emotions. others thrive when looking at the We used Final Cut Express to edit our theory and concepts of film. This form essay. We were able to arrange the of textual analysis combines both of clips next to each other so they would these elements, making analytical play at the same time. We then added study more engaging and enjoyable text to highlight our critical approach. and helping us to prepare for the This is an innovative way of exploring comparative study question in the film, and it also shows intertexuality exam. and how directors are aware of, and You can use the practical elements influenced by, previous films. of film making to develop your skills This approach to a lesson is different and creative, offering a different way of when studying the theory of film. learning. The video essay is particularly Abbie Loosemore is a Film Studies student at Long Road helpful to the visual and kinaesthetic College, Cambridge. learner. By watching the footage instead of writing about it, it becomes clear which scenes convey certain similar messages. This approach to a lesson was different and creative, and offers a different way of learning When looking at film, this engaging form of textual analysis shows how you can use the practical elements of filmmaking to develop your skills when

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The newspaper industry may currently be in decline as our news consumption increasingly migrates online, but it still wields huge power in terms of its influence on political opinion and public debate. Steph Hendry explores the news presentation and editorial techniques used historically to shape particular ideological perspectives, and analyses two recent case studies which reveal that the coverage we read is as much about promoting the values of particular newspapers as offering honest and democratic discussion.

The act of ‘reading’ in Media Studies is more than just engaging with words on a page. Analysing the use of media language and the way representations are created is a central skill for media literacy. It is important to recognise that all media products are constructed with great care in terms of the way messages are communicated to the audience. Broadcast news, for example, has a legal requirement to attempt to present news stories in a balanced and

14 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM unbiased way so that audiences are in Nazi Germany and he oversaw the us feel good’ – can be used to give able to interpret events for themselves. use of a technique now known as the a person or idea a positive spin or Newspapers (and online news), Big Lie (a term coined by Adolf Hitler to minimise negative associations. however, are free to present news mean the continued repetition of false • Similarly, euphemisms can act to stories in a much more ideologically information) to justify anti-Semitism reduce the negative impact when pointed way. and military aggression. required. With hindsight, Nazi and Soviet All media products are constructed Propaganda is defined as ‘information with great care in terms of the way propaganda can appear heavy-handed. As we now live in a different cultural of a biased or misleading nature, used messages are communicated to the and historical context, it can often be to promote or publicise a particular audience. difficult to imagine how people were persuaded to accept such abhorrent political cause or point of view’. Each of the main British national ideas – after all, we’d all like to think Having witnessed the use of newspapers has some degree of we would be immune to these kinds of propaganda in authoritarian states by political and ideological editorial persuasive techniques. dictators like Hitler and Stalin, we tend slant, and stories in newspapers are to associate propaganda with extreme often presented in ways that further The Institute for Propaganda Analysis, political regimes. In a democracy, the paper’s values. An analysis of set up in the US between 1937 and we like to consider our media and the presentation of news stories 1942 to encourage critical thought and politicians to be too honourable can identify the methods used by defend against undemocratic practices, to use such underhand persuasive newspapers to promote a particular identified a range of techniques that techniques. Sadly, this belief may blind political perspective, and to encourage can be used consciously to mislead. us to the way that the news media specific responses from the audience. Here’s a summary of some of them: attempt to perpetuate specific values Perhaps the most extreme form of • The first stage in creating propaganda and beliefs in the way they present biased communication is propaganda. is usually to create a scapegoat – an news stories. A close analytical reading It is defined as ‘information of a biased identifiable enemy of some kind, can demonstrate that variations on or misleading nature, used to promote often an individual or a sub-group propaganda techniques are still being or publicise a particular political cause within the culture. used. or point of view’. • Once the enemy has been pinpointed, There are many techniques for creating assertions can be made to create Case Study 1: The Fire and propaganda, some more obvious simplified representations of the the Philpotts than others – as the leader of the group. The assertions should In May 2012 the country learned of Soviet Union, Stalin had photographs reinforce the enemy status of the a tragic loss of young life. A house doctored to erase his political enemies person/group; and through careful fire in Derby had killed six children. from the photographs and from selection of information, including The news presented us with images history (often after their execution or facts that support the position and of the grieving parents, and public imprisonment). This is an example of selectively omitting anything that sympathy was with them, especially the use of disinformation – creating may contradict it, a negative view can as it appeared that an arson attack false records or deleting existing be communicated and reinforced by had destroyed their family. As the records to shape perception. repetition. police investigation developed, more evidence emerged that, rather than Goebbels was in charge of propaganda • Name-calling, the use of false connections and bad logic can be a stranger or a vengeful ex-girlfriend, made to create negative associations the parents themselves may have all of which can successfully demonise started the fire. An arrest in May 2012 the chosen group – especially if, led to a trial, and in April 2013 Mick within all this, the audience’s fear and and Mairead Philpott and one other existing prejudices can be heightened. conspirator were found guilty of This is often achieved by appealing to manslaughter. The fire had been started emotions and making it appear that in an attempt to frame Philpott’s everyone agrees with the idea being ex-girlfriend, who had previously taken communicated. his children away from him. Apparently the idea was that if she were convicted • Of course, propaganda can be used to of arson, Philpott would regain custody push all sorts of agendas. ‘Glittering of his children. generalities’ – a term originally used by American President Abraham Prior to the fire, Philpott had already Lincoln to mean ‘vague ideas with been of interest to some mainstream positive connotations which don’t media outlets. In 2006 he had been really mean very much but make the focus of a Daily Mail ‘exposé’ that

english and media centre | September 2013 | MediaMagazine 15 MM had been followed up in other papers what the paper sees as a wider social ill; including The Sun and The Telegraph. He thus the report dehumanises him and had appeared on The Jeremy Kyle show appeals to the emotions of the reader. to discuss his unorthodox domestic The front page makes assertions that arrangements: he had 17 children, clearly identify an enemy within our and at the time of the programme’s culture (the benefits system and its broadcast was living with two of the claimants). It naturalises the idea that mothers as an extended polyamorous we should all see benefits claimants as family unit. He had also been the focus a problem, and simplifies the complex of an ITV2 reality programme Ann financial situations that may lead to Widdecombe vs... in an episode focusing people requiring financial assistance on ‘The Benefit Culture’ – a ‘reality’ show from the state. Mail, other tabloid newspapers and featuring an ex-Conservative minister broadcasters. (See The Sun’s report on Some might argue that the who presented life stories from the a Channel 5 programme: http://www. disproportionate focus on ‘benefits underclass for the entertainment of a thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/showbiz/ scroungers’ is part of a ‘Big Lie’, given mainstream audience. tv/4805453/Benefits-scroungers-under- that 67% of benefits claimants are Once the verdict had been announced spotlight-in-new-series.html) actually in work but are paid so poorly in the Philpott trial, the Daily Mail they need financial help – as indeed On one side of the opposition there ran with the headline ‘Vile Product of Philpott’s wife and girlfriend were at are lazy ‘benefits scroungers’, in conflict Welfare UK’ (see below). the time of the tragedy. It’s also poor with the tabloid audience who are logic to take such an unusually large This front page has used media characterised as hard working, honest and unconventional family unit and language choices to connect the taxpayers. An already emotionally present them as typical of a whole events within one family to one of charged story has been presented on social group. In fact, linking poverty the wider political issues that is part The Daily Mail front page in a stark and to this situation is a false connection, of the contemporary news agenda – sensational way. Rather than focus on given the motive for starting the fire the idea that there existswithin our the domestic tragedy, the paper resorts that was identified in court. society a lazy, parasitic ‘welfare culture’ to name-calling, using terms such as responsible for many of the social and ‘layabout’, ‘shameless’ and ‘cynical’ to economic ills in our society. A social describe Philpott. It makes the focus Case Study 2: The Death of division has been constructed along of the story the amount of benefits Margaret Thatcher class lines and a binary opposition allegedly received by Philpott and his On April 8th 2013 Baroness Thatcher set up and consolidated over several family, rather than the death of six died. She was the first (and so far only) years by media outlets like The Daily children. Philpott becomes a symbol for female leader of the Conservative Party and woman Prime Minister. She was in office from 1979 to 1990, winning three general elections in 1979, 1983 and 1987 and achieving between 42-43% of the vote each time. She has become a iconic symbol of the 1980s, a decade when – amongst other things – she introduced monetarism and a neo-liberal approach to the economics

16 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM of the country; presided over the unequivocally presented as a great A Positive Approach privatisation of previously state-owned victory for her. The unions were used industries; legislated for the private sale as a scapegoat for a range of problems of council houses; instigated a military in the late 1970s/early 1980s – and operation in the Falkland Islands, and this technique was repeated during stood against the Miners’ Unions in a the reports of Thatcher’s death. Wider year-long stand-off. At the time of her issues from the 1980s, such as global death Thatcher was in her 80s and had economic problems, social unrest in been ill for some time. She had recently British inner cities, institutionalised been the subject of a biographical film racism, high unemployment and where she was played by Meryl Streep. increased poverty in the UK, were overlooked as they may have made Within hours of her death being this simplistic and positive view of the announced, Twitter reflected two 1980s less convincing. opposing positions: some people mourned her death as the passing of From the other side of the debate, the ‘greatest post-war prime minister’, The Mirror was more critical, focusing whereas other responses veered from on Thatcher as a divisive figure. The relief to open celebration and, in other slightly left-leaning papers, The some cases, gloating. The one point Independent and The Guardian, took a of agreement between journalists, neutral approach on the day the death commentators, the public and was announced, and published both More Neutral Reporting politicians of all political hues was that praise and criticism of Thatcher and her she was a divisive figure. politics. The UK press was divided in the same Wider issues from the 1980s, such way. The Telegraph, The Express and The Daily Mail all reported the death as global economic problems, of Margaret Thatcher in a reverential social unrest in British inner cities, and respectful way using ‘glittering institutionalised racism, high generalities’ such as ‘the woman who unemployment and increased poverty saved Britain’. The Times used a neutral fact in its headline, but created the in the UK, were overlooked. same idea as The Mail and The Express The Telegraph chose to restrict by association, using an out-of-focus access to the comments facility on Union Flag as a dominant image on its its website, effectively restricting front page. This connection between debate and ensuring that only one Thatcher and patriotism was anchored perspective would be presented. Many by the headline ‘The first lady’ and of the comments on The Guardian created a potential false logic: seeing were heavily critical of Thatcher’s the outcomes of Thatcherism as politics, indicating that the consensus positive is a political and ideological presented by the pro-Thatcher papers A Negative Approach opinion, not an objective fact. may have been inaccurate. Where Although there was some dissent in The Mirror politicised its reporting, The Telegraph (Margaret Thatcher: this The Sun did quite the opposite, is a state funeral, and that’s a mistake. P. personalising the ex-Prime Minister in Oborne The Telegraph 10-04-13), these several ways: they called her Maggie, newspapers (and The Sun), all shared and foregrounded the location of her a right-wing political perspective and death – in bed and at The Ritz Hotel – supported the idea of a taxpayer- facts The Sun clearly saw as being very funded ceremonial funeral. important (see page 18). In the days that followed her death, Margaret Thatcher was represented A Personal Approach as a positive and successful Prime Given the history of The Sun’s political Minister throughout the right-wing allegiance, and its unwavering support press. Arguably some selection of of Thatcher in the 1980s, this may information was required, to avoid not have been the front page that its some of the more negative aspects of readers would have expected. Perhaps her leadership. Her battles with the its approach was influenced by the fact unions were discussed at length, and that there had recently been a focus on

english and media centre | September 2013 | MediaMagazine 17 MM It is worth noting that the same media comments accusing the BBC of being conglomerate – Daily Mail and General both ‘pro Thatcher’ and ‘toadying’. Trust – owns both The Metro and The This report was then reported in The Daily Mail, and these papers took Telegraph, which repeated the idea that different approaches to reporting the the BBC was disrespectful. Historically, news. The difference in their editorial both papers are heavily critical of the focus could be down to the fact that BBC and were happy to use the death they rely on quite different audience of Thatcher as another opportunity to bases. The Metro is a free paper, further their views. distributed largely at train stations where commuters will pick it up. Unlike Coverage of Dissenting the loyal audience of The Daily Mail, The Responses Metro readership is likely to be more As the week following Thatcher’s death politically diverse, and thus the paper progressed, any response to Thatcher’s needs to remain as neutral as possible death that raised questions or criticisms in order not to alienate its potential was simplified as disrespect. readership.

The Press on the Beeb On television the BBC attempted to be impartial about the late Prime Minister’s impact and legacy. They must have been at least partially successful, since they have been accused of being The Sun’s reporting of the Hillsborough too pro-Thatcher and too anti-Thatcher, disaster, including Thatcher’s complicity as well as simply having too much in protecting the police and The Sun’s Thatcher, in almost equal measure: position. It may have been waiting until it could judge its readership’s response The BBC said on Wednesday it had received to the death. As observed by http:// 268 complaints that its coverage was biased themediablog.typepad.com: in favour of Thatcher, and 227 who said it was biased against her. A further 271 people perhaps unusually fearful of a backlash, The Sun complained that the BBC had devoted too much chose not to try to even tackle the balancing act airtime to the former Tory leader’s death. between the rights and undeniable wrongs of Thatcher’s career, instead focussing on where The Guardian: 10th April the body was found. The ‘outraged’ Daily Mail reported this The Sun did, however, create a direct (if a little more selectively. It identified somewhat false) association between that ‘the corporation has received 766 Thatcher and Princess Diana (‘Funeral complaints over its coverage of Lady like Diana’s next week’); its mention Thatcher’s death’. It did not explain, as of the Ritz could be seen as creating The Guardian did, what the nature of another association between Thatcher, the complaints were. (See http://www. royalty and the ruling class. Inside dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2306564/ the paper, however, the editorial was Margaret-Thatcher-dead-Public-anger- clear in its construction of ‘Maggie’ BBC-bias.html) as a principled strong leader, whilst ‘Public anger’ in fact referred to some criticising all three current party Twitter comments carefully selected leaders, describing ‘Dave, Nick and from the many diverse viewpoints Ed’ as ‘wishy-washy… minnows’, that can be found online – including thus expertly managing to remove ‘Maggie’ from current party political debates. The Sun was the only national newspaper to retain its regular front- page design conventions, unlike the other papers who all created ‘special editions’. The Express capitalised on the market of people wanting a souvenir newspaper to mark the occasion by reducing their cover price to 10p.

18 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM Propaganda, influence and press freedom: the legacy of Leveson Although propaganda may seem like a historical issue, or a technique we associate with authoritarian dictatorships, these case study analyses of the British press show that newspapers use many propaganda techniques in an attempt to influence opinions and set the framework for debate and discussion. These case study analyses of the British press show that newspapers use many propaganda techniques in an attempt to influence opinions and

Dissenters to the right-wing press’s Protestors were also criticised – note set the framework for debate and values were identified via name- the way the newspaper (above) discussion. calling, simplified representations connects one person’s actions to Since the Leveson Report on press using negative associations and clearly ‘teachers’ generally. This creates an behaviour, the issue of the importance pinpointed as being an enemy for over-simplified view of a profession of press freedom has been raised. The having a different political viewpoint. that is repeatedly demonised by press want to maintain the freedom to politicians and the press for political report what they want in the way they purposes, and often used as a want, and this is seen as being one of scapegoat for many social problems. the elements of a true democracy. It is The Labour party too is connected important that readers are aware that to this story via a false connection this freedom may mean the reports between the teacher and Ed Milliband. we are reading are constructed to Further associations to Communism promote the values and interests of and revolution are made through the newspaper, rather than necessarily the choice of a carefully selected but being an honest and disinterested unrelated photograph featuring the reporting of information. flag of the Soviet Union. There is a lot of bad logic in this report and many Steph Hendry is a Lecturer in Media Studies at Runshaw negative associations are created by College, Lancashire. She is a Senior Examiner, freelance writer and trainer. You can follow her on twitter the use of emotive language. @albionmill. People taking part in a Facebook- generated ‘protest’ that involved downloading the song ‘Ding Dong the Witch is Dead’ were chastised Name-calling was used by The Sun to by The Sun, which made it clear that reinforce the paper’s opinion of non- ‘Munchkins’ (or the actors that played Conservatives – although Labour them) didn’t approve of their behaviour politicians who did turn up and voice either. opinions different to The Sun’s were The press want to maintain the criticised heavily too. freedom to report what they want in the way they want, and this is seen as being one of the elements of a true democracy.

english and media centre | September 2013 | MediaMagazine 19 MM

Global film enthusiast Roy Stafford Since we are now in the middle of offer bit-torrent downloads. The latter are, considers the contexts in which another shift, away from the TV screen of course, illegal, which we can’t condone to iPhones and tablets, ‘pop-up’ cinemas – but we must consider whether the thrill we watch films, and the impact of and other forms of public exhibition, it of watching something illegally acquired changing technologies on the viewing seems a good time to question whether actually becomes part of the reading process. How different an experience we still ‘read’ films in the same way. experience. This is also linked to the sense of superiority we tend to feel if we see is reading a film on a tablet or Film Studies has tended to assume that something before everyone else, or our students see ‘films’ in cinemas, or more computer screen from what might smugness when we get to see something likely in classrooms or lecture halls. This happen in a cinema? Does watching for free that we know many people have has always been troubling: a classroom paid to watch. a downloaded movie illegally for free is not a cinema. There are several missing on an iPad rather than expensively in or ‘changed’ elements of the viewing We must consider whether the thrill of a multiplex change the way we read experience involved in shifting from a watching something illegally acquired the meanings of the film? And how cinema to the classroom. To take the most obvious, the cinema presentation is actually becomes part of the reading are our choices of films affected by organised by an exhibitor and operates in experience. the multiple opportunities on offer a different institutionalised setting. It also online? Are we now reading films in a places the ‘reader’ in an audience of other, How do these feelings change our reading? One possibility may be that different way? generally unknown, people who may react to the film in ways which will either our mood is altered before we begin to ‘read’, so we are predisposed to enjoy Some time during the 1970s or 1980s, encourage or discourage readers used to a film more. We might want to think the dominant platform for film exhibition viewing only with their group. of ourselves as being part of a ‘cult worldwide shifted from the cinema to In this article I’d like to explore a third the television screen. In 2012 a survey reading situation – watching a film online of ‘frequent film watchers’ in the UK by on a computer. What is involved? What the marketing company 3SixtyFilms kind of reading experience is it? In what discovered that although their sampled ways is it richer or poorer than watching viewers saw 17 films in cinemas each a film in the cinema or on a DVD in the year, they also watched over 100 on a classroom? video screen of some kind. Payment and legitimacy The first consideration is the range of audience’, sharing a ‘special’ screening. options open to anyone with a fast What may be a mundane film becomes broadband connection and an up-to- something we invest with other qualities. date computer system. There are many But the opposite can also happen. When ways to access films online, ranging from something is free we perhaps don’t value the big brands like iTunes, LoveFilm it as much, and we might decide not to and Netflix, with both fixed prices and bother watching it all the way through subscription rates for rental or download, because we have nothing to lose; we through to the pirate operations that have no investment in reading it further.

20 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM Economists have been aware of these kinds of reactions for a long time. They have formulated theories as to why consumers are often more persuaded to buy a product when its price goes up (the Veblen effect, first discussed in 1899). The opposite may also be true – when the price is too low, or even free, consumers conclude that the product has no value.

A predisposition to read in particular ways Every year, according to surveys by UNESCO, around 7,000 films are produced across the globe. In the UK over 550 films are released to cinemas each year and several thousand more are accessible on TV, DVD and download. Yet most of us choose what to watch from a much smaller group of a few hundred films heavily promoted by the Hollywood studios. We aren’t interested here in whether these are the ‘best’ films available (whatever that might mean); simply that nowadays it is difficult to approach many high-profile films without knowing what the film is ‘about’. We may already have seen several of the standout scenes in trailers and TV clips. A cynical observer might wonder why anyone would bother to pay up to £10 to watch a Hollywood blockbuster in a cinema, given its ‘familiarity’ even before it has been seen. The answer will probably be that it is the excitement of the big screen experience in a packed cinema. OK, but why would we then pay a (lower) fee to watch it on a computer screen, where the sound and image are small and there is no shared excitement? Perhaps this is because Hollywood films are generally conventional and mainly skewed towards offering a comfortable and familiar experience, rather than something challenging.

Reading the unfamiliar: 35 Rhums The familiarity of Hollywood means, in part, that we are much more likely to be thrown or unsettled by another type of film in which the director has no intention of supplying us with familiar conventional sequences. Let’s take an example (see shot sequence on the right). The film 35 Rhums (35 Shots of Rum, France/Germany 2008) begins

english and media centre | September 2013 | MediaMagazine 21 MM website or buy something online, all your ‘preferences’ are stored and compared with shared databases, so that the web provider can predict what else you would like. Is this helpful? It may mean that we become aware of films that we will enjoy, that we otherwise would have been unaware of. On the other hand, the algorithm’s main objective is to push you into with a montage of shots taken from buying or renting something else, or the cab of a suburban train. This is cut simply to keep you on the website – with shots of a man standing smoking which will be earning revenue from by the railway tracks, and of a young advertisers based on the number of woman first seen on a train and then page views. going into a shop to buy a rice cooker. Eventually we see the woman enter a flat with her purchase, and then a little Presentation of films later the man appears in the flat as online: Vimy Ridge well. So far there has been no dialogue How are films actually presented online? YouTube is the most in the film, and no conventional In the cinema we have to make a narrative ‘action’. Even when the man watched video service online. It and woman meet and kiss, we can’t be conscious decision to get up and offers full movies, as well as trailers, sure what their relationship might be. leave a film screening. If we are documentaries and ‘tributes’ to specific Are they lovers or man and wife – or watching the film on TV or on a films and filmmakers. It includes perhaps father and daughter? It is 10 legitimate ‘channels’ hosted by film minutes before we get an answer to computer it is much easier to just distributors, as well as illegal uploads our question. stop and switch to something else. – which may last only a few weeks before they are taken down. Here is one Reading 35 Rhums asks a great deal Here is the dilemma of the enormous example of browsing. of us as an audience, and it may be potential choice of films online. that in this case we do need to know The National Film Board of Canada more about the filmmaker Claire Crowds, preferences and (NFB) is one of the great institutions Denis before we watch one of her social media of global cinema, although perhaps films. An auteur film like this exists with a lower profile today than in its Perhaps the single biggest difference in a different institutional context heyday in the 1960s. Its great strengths in a film culture built on the online – we won’t stumble across it at the have always been documentary and experience of accessing films (and multiplex or on BBC1 or ITV. If we animation. Visiting its YouTube channel other media such as books, games, did, our predisposition towards a at http://www.youtube.com/user/ music etc.) is that sense of having Hollywood reading might mean that nfb/videos I decided to watch a short exchanged a limited sense of ‘coming we feel we cannot engage with the animation on Vimy Ridge (the First attractions’, as listed in the cinema film – our reading has been negated World War battle in 1917 sometimes foyer, for a much wider range of by our predisposition, rather than by seen as the defining moment for recommendations of similar kinds of the logic of the film’s actual narrative. Canadian military action overseas). films, possibly all related to our own In the cinema we have to make a preferences. My attempts to watch this short film conscious decision to get up and leave (2.55 mins) involved several decisions. a film screening. If we are watching There are several aspects to this First I had to pause the film, since it the film on TV or on a computer it is change. First, it could be argued began automatically; then I had to much easier just to stop, and switch to that the established ‘named’ critics select the best image quality (480p – something else. Here is the dilemma of and reviewers – the ‘professional the default is 360). Next I had to get the enormous choice of films online. commentators’ on film culture – have rid of the advert (clearly targeted at We may well stumble across a film been replaced by the aggregated me since it offered to speed up my like 35 Rhums on YouTube or other gradings of all critics on Rotten Mac). Finally, I had the dilemma of platforms. Such films might become Tomatoes, or the comments of ‘ordinary whether to watch the film as a ‘full much more accessible – but who is cinemagoers’, perhaps friends on screen’ presentation, or to remain going to introduce them to us? It could Facebook or Twitter, or the gradings on with a window on the YouTube player. be a service like MUBI.com which IMDB. Because the film’s resolution is so low (it specialises in auteur and independent Second, media texts of all kinds are would need to be 720p to fill the screen films; but elsewhere we are faced with often ‘pushed’ to us by computer at a reasonable resolution) the decision rather different ‘recommendations’. algorithms. If you register with a is always going to be a compromise.

22 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM Often, I prefer to download the video discussions completely transforms my and play it using software which gives reading of the film, and suggests that, me more control. with discipline, an open access site like YouTube can enrich the film reading I enjoyed the film, which uses a variety experience. of animation techniques to explore the meanings of the battle. Afterwards I wanted to know more; and here is Evaluating the new reading the great strength of platforms like environment YouTube. I learned that the film had When Film Studies began, there was been uploaded only a couple of weeks perhaps an assumption that films were earlier, and that very few viewers had like novels and that we would choose accessed it so far. There were no ‘user carefully what we wanted to see, and comments’ as yet. The description would ‘read’ a film in the same way below the viewing window told we would read a novel. That approach me that it was part of a project for was modified when Television Studies ‘emerging filmmakers’ called Hothouse developed, and Raymond Williams 3. I could have explored the project via (1974) discussed the concept of a flow YouTube and the NFB website but my of television programming, suggesting eye was drawn to the display of clips that meanings within a film are also down the right-hand side of the page. affected by the viewing context – Since my knowledge of Vimy Ridge as a what was in the programme before, historical event was limited, I selected the interruption by advertisements a clip which I thought might be a and trails for other programmes, the documentary. I chose The Battle of Vimy channel’s continuity announcers etc. Ridge by ‘billyea’, which turns out to be Cinema programmes did traditionally a student project analysing the battle have a similar flow of shorts, ads and imaginatively and very effectively in trailers, but previously these hadn’t 5.38 minutes. This film was uploaded in been considered. Now we have to shift 2008, and there are some 32 comments our focus again and consider films which offer appreciation and support. simply as another element in the all- Fortunately there are no lurking trolls encompassing ecology of social media to spoil the reading experience. and easily available digital media texts. Whether the changes have enriched If I wished, I could watch several more our readings or diminished them is similar short films, and explore various really up to the individual reader and issues about Canadian history, identity how aware we all are of what the and film culture. But YouTube also reading process entails – and how insists on reminding me of what I’ve disciplined we can be in applying previously watched, so amongst the ourselves. clips about Vimy Ridge, I’m also offered two Nigerian films, because a few Roy Stafford is co-author of The Media Studies Students days ago I had begun to explore the Book, and writes regularly on ‘The Case for Global Film’ at http://itpworld.wordpress.com dedicated channels of Nollywood (i.e. Nigerian Hollywood) film distributors. Watching films in this way is potentially References ‘enriching’ – but also distracting. Williams, R. 1974. Television: technology and cultural form After this experience, I’m tempted to look to see whether YouTube can help UNESCO. 2012. ‘From International me study 35 Rhums, and I discover Blockbusters to National Hits 2010’, that the complete film isn’t available UNESCO Institute for Statistics online. But because it is so celebrated, available from http://www.uis.unesco. there are several recordings of the org/culture/Documents/ib8-analysis- director discussing the film in English. cinema-production-2012-en2.pdf One sequence in the film has become a major talking point, and there are two video essays, one by Claire Denis herself and one by the late Roger Ebert, the leading mainstream American critic. Free access to these and other

english and media centre | September 2013 | MediaMagazine 23 MM

What defines cinema for most What do we mean by people in the world? Hollywood ‘arthouse’ films? dominates to such an extent that Arthouse films, which obviously can American culture is the second also be in English, are artistic rather than commercial in character. In other culture of many Western countries: words, they are films that are purposely American cultural imperialism difficult to understand or ‘read’. Those rules the roost. However, each who think of cinema as being simply week approximately ten films entertainment, which is easier to read, are rarely likely to watch an arthouse are released, only a few of which film. A recent example of this type of are produced by Hollywood. But film is Lore (Australia-Germany 2012) what lies beyond Hollywood? Nick which considers what might have Lacey investigates the ‘readability’ happened to the children of the SS and appeals of arthouse film, and in the immediate aftermath of World War 2. Whilst this narrative could be wonders why it’s not more popular. easily rendered by Hollywood – though it’s likely to be too downbeat ever In 2011, using figures from the most to be made in Los Angeles – Cate recently published BFI Yearbook, £558 Shortland’s direction, using super million was taken at the UK film box into the mainstream; for example Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (Taiwan- 16mm photography, clearly places the office; a miniscule 4.4% (£24.4 million) film outside the mainstream. of this was for foreign language films. Hong Kong 2000) and Amelie (France Distributors categorise these films as 2001). Unsurprisingly, such films are Arthouse films are artistic rather than considered mainstream in their country ‘specialised’, along with arthouse film, commercial in character. documentaries and re-released English- of origin (though Crouching Tiger was language ‘classics’. These films tend not also thought to be a Westernised In his book Art Cinema as a Mode of Film to be part of most people’s ‘cinema- version of the wuxia (roughly ‘martial Practice, the renowned US film theorist going’ experience. So why are these arts’) genre. David Bordwell (http://academic.uprm. films not more popular? edu/mleonard/theorydocs/readings/ Bordwell.pdf), attempted to define art For many, the existence of subtitles is cinema and suggested, amongst other off-putting; however, unless the film is things, that: particularly wordy, the distraction of reading is soon forgotten. Occasionally The art cinema is less concerned with action foreign language films do ‘cross over’ than reaction; it is a cinema of psychological effects in search of their causes.

24 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM it. In addition, the film’s premise is a scientific possibility. Melancholia, on the other hand, offers no plausible explanation of why the Earth is threatened. Instead, as Bordwell suggested, the possibility of the ‘end of the world’ is an expression of the protagonist’s state of mind; Justine (Kirsten Dunst) suffers from severe depression.

Bordwell goes onto to say that few weeks, and follows the last days The lack of narrative arthouse is also characterised by of Dodge (Steve Carell) as he hooks closure ‘maximum ambiguity’, where a bizarre up with the hapless Penny (Keira I’ll avoid spoilers by not discussing turn of events can only be ‘explained’ Knightley) who’s trying to get to see the narrative resolution; but suffice to by characters’ subjectivity, rather than her parents. Whilst the casting and say that the ‘return to the equilibrium’ the world of the film. So the producers the romcom genre are conventionally described by Todorov is often absent of art cinema are not in the business Hollywood, the humour has a darker in arthouse (and indie) cinema. Unlike of making it easy for audiences to hue: ‘polite’ middle class parties Deep Impact (US 1998), another read the film. For example, if we degenerate into drug-fuelled abandon. Hollywood movie with a celestial body consider two films that have an ‘end Surprisingly for a romcom, it does threatening the Earth, we should not of the world’ scenario, the arthouse not ignore the likelihood of violence expect the (Aristotelian) catharsis Melancholia (Denmark-Sweden 2011) as people lose their inhibitions in of a more or less happy ending. For and the independently-produced the face of impending Armageddon. many, this is off-putting – they watch Seeking a Friend for the End of the World It is this which defines the film as films to be entertained, rather than (US-Singapore 2012), we can consider ‘independent’ cinema in its sensibility, feel disappointed that the narrative some of the difficulties in ‘reading’ and not just because of the companies problem wasn’t resolved. arthouse cinema. producing the film (see ‘Independent We expect this narrative closure Hollywood’ – MediaMagazine 42). because of Hollywood’s hegemony. Reading the problems: Hollywood tends to avoid ‘end of the In other words, we think that films Seeking a Friend vs world’ narratives unless there’s a male are meant to resolve narrative Melancholia hero on hand to save the day – for problems because that is almost Seeking a Friend opens with a TV example, Armageddon (1998). Despite always what Hollywood does; and, news announcement that Earth will this, although Seeking a Friend is for many, Hollywood defines what be destroyed by an asteroid within a not a straightforwardly mainstream cinema is because they have grown film, there is no difficulty in reading

english and media centre | September 2013 | MediaMagazine 25 MM up only seeing that type of film. and A Clockwork Orange (1962) by consumption is another). In other In Melancholia, the absence of a Anthony Burgess; and a Steven Meisel words, in our society if you don’t like convincing explanation (the narrative photoshoot. ‘highbrow’ art, such as opera, you are in ‘cause’) for the impending disaster (the some way inferior to those who do. Each reference is used to cast light ‘effect’) is likely to confuse many. This upon the film, which also serves However, since the 1960s there has isn’t so much a difficulty in reading as to emphasise the artistic status of been a flattening of this elitism. disappointment in the denouement. Melancholia, as the filmmakers are Postmodern culture takes an anything However, there are other barriers to clearly highly educated. But where goes attitude and so regards grime understanding arthouse. does this leave the ‘not so educated’ music as being as worthy of analysis audience, who wouldn’t ‘get’ these as opera. Despite this, there are still Intertextual understanding references? people who regard texts that are Like literature and art texts in general, difficult to read as ‘not for the likes of As someone on the ‘wrong’ side of 50, arthouse cinema is often allusive; us’; class distinctions are still very much with a degree in Film Studies, who’s that is, it gains its meanings through in evidence. been teaching cinema for more than 20 reference to other texts. We could years, it’s likely that I will be able to read investigate theories of intertexuality, In our society if you don’t like arthouse cinema more easily than the and the theorists Mikhail Bakhtin and average A Level student. I possess what ‘highbrow’ art, such as opera, you are Julia Kristeva, but that is beyond the Pierre Bourdieu calls ‘cultural capital’ – a in some way inferior to those who scope of this article – see Lacey 2009: familiarity with ‘high’ cultural forms. 95-7. do. My understanding of culture means I Typically Melancholia offers a range am more likely to identify references in Despite my ‘competences’ I didn’t ‘get’ of references. Power and White (2012) arthouse cinema, and so appreciate it many of the references in Melancholia mention, amongst other things, music more than those who don’t recognise – but I still thought the film was terrific. by Wagner (the prelude to Tristan und the allusions. Isolde which runs throughout the film); the film The Celebration (Vinterberg Cultural capital, class and Denmark 1998); the philosophers competence in reading film Spinoza, Marcuse and Lukács; the Bourdieu theorised that having such paintings ‘Hunters in the Snow’ by ‘cultural competences’ to read difficult Bruegel (1565) and Caravaggio’s texts gave the individual cultural capital ‘David and Goliath’ (1610); the novels and is one of the ways in which social Doctor Faustus (1947) by Thomas Mann class is emphasised (conspicuous

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However – and this is a key purpose It’s like living life in black and white mainstream films; in fact there’s more of research! – once I learned about the instead of all its sensuous colours. than enough room in life for both. allusions in the film I appreciated it Those who take the option to embrace Nick Lacey teaches Film Studies at Benton Park School, more. difficult texts, which can readily be Leeds and is the author of several Film and Media There are still people who regard unlocked with a little internet research textbooks published by Palgrave Macmillan. (unless being impenetrable is the texts that are difficult to read as ‘not film’s raison d’etre – see, arguably, the References for the likes of us.’ films of David Lynch), often find that Bourdieu, P. 1984. Distinction: A Social Arthouse film then, as is the case with their choices in life, and indeed their Critique of the Judgment of Taste understanding of life, are enhanced. all ‘highbrow’ art, is difficult to read, Lacey, N. 2009 (2nd edition). Image And, of course, the more arthouse films and remains so even if you do possess and Representation cultural capital. Many take the easy that a person watches, the more they gain cultural competences. In itself, this Power, N. and R. White. 2012. ‘Lars option and decide, in the case of film, von Trier’s ‘Melancholia’: A Discussion’ that cinema begins and ends with doesn’t make you a better person – for that’s pure snobbery; but it might mean Film Quarterly available at: http:// Hollywood. This is similar to deciding www.filmquarterly.org/2012/01/lars- that food is epitomised by McDonald’s. you get more out of existence. Which is not to say that arthouse is better than von-triers-melancholia-a-discussion/, accessed April 2012 See also Shaviro S. 2012. ‘MELANCHOLIA, or, The Romantic Anti-Sublime’, Sequence, 1.1, Online at: http://reframe.sussex.ac.uk/ sequence1/1-1-melancholia-or-the- romantic-anti-sublime/ http://www.bfi.org.uk/education- research/film-industry-statistics- research/statistical-yearbook, accessed April 2013

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Lynx Dry Full Control: they bring, we would find everything meaningless. If you’re reading this 2011 article in a classroom, look around and you will see ‘signs’ everywhere. The So exactly what is there to read in shape, colour and texture of the walls a Lynx deodorant ad? The copy? The and flooring all communicate meaning, as does the colour and design of the puns? The seriously dodgy image? furniture. Your bags and possessions The innuendo? Mark Ramey speak volumes, as do your pens and talks you through the process of paper – or lack of them! The space analysing a print advertisement, and around you is carefully organised, demonstrates why one particular and your choice of clothing, posture, jewellery and hairstyle is just that – a ad got banned by the Advertising choice. The list really is almost infinite. Standards Authority. was just the process of ‘very accurate And that is the key. Certain signs have description’ then a computer could do been chosen, perhaps consciously, If you have ever wondered about the it – luckily it isn’t. perhaps unconsciously, but a choice ingredients of a McDonald’s milkshake has been made and part of a successful All Film and Media courses ask you to or thought hard about why 60% of Dr textual analysis of a media product is analyse still images such as magazine Who’s companions are female then you to explain why. Why is that radio in the front covers, screen shots of websites, have been doing some kind of analysis. Lynx advert (above left) not an iPod print adverts, film posters and film For the first example you would seek dock? Why is the oven old-fashioned screen grabs. Getting good at still- out the expert opinion of a chemist. For rather than hi-tech? In our analysis image analysis (or textual analysis as the second example you would ask a of media texts, no sign happens by it is sometimes called) means learning media analyst. accident and every sign communicates to master the basic tool kit of Film and meaning. ‘Media analysis’ is a scary-looking Media Studies. phrase but an easy idea which tries to answer the following questions: It starts with a sign • What are the ingredients of a media Textual analysis starts with the basic product? unit of analysis: the sign. It is tricky • Why has it been made that way? defining signs but in effect they are everywhere, and they help us navigate • What does it mean? the world – they are the units of Answering these questions is less ‘meaning’ by which we interpret and easy, but that’s the fun of analysis: if it operate. Without them and the sense

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Textual analysis starts with the basic something very, very different. In signs are coded and we decode them unit of analysis: the sign. It is tricky the first list we are describing a to understand them. functional space, built and furnished Let’s now use the main focus of this defining signs but in effect they cheaply, designed to accommodate article’s analysis – the Lynx advert on lots of people for the process of mass are everywhere, and they help us page 30. Think now about the model’s education. In the second we are in a navigate the world – they are the breasts and bottom – go on – you fantasy realm or a palace where money can’t miss them. They are clearly units of ‘meaning’ by which we is no object and the pupils clearly have intended here as a very visible, sexual interpret and operate. status. sign. But in other cultures or even in ‘Substitution analyses’ are great to try other contexts (say a cosmetic surgery Substitution analysis out with clothing and representational advert) their meaning could be very A really easy way to start analysis is issues like gender or age. What could different. Indeed any religiously strict to do something called ‘substitution you be wearing now instead of that culture would decode this image as analysis’ – sometimes also called baseball cap or t-shirt? What would disrespectful, if not blasphemous. Such The Commutation Test. Revisit the you be saying about yourself if you a negative ‘reading’, as this kind of description of your classroom above were wearing a dress suit or a tracksuit? code-breaking analysis is sometimes (or wherever it is you are reading this What about your hair? Are you blonde called, is in this case ‘oppositional’. article) and describe what you see in as or a skinhead, bald or a redhead? What If I were to find the image sexy and much detail as possible. Now substitute if Bond were a woman – Jane rather humorous and a bit edgy, then no each description for a slightly different than James? What if your teacher doubt my reading or decoding would one. were younger than you? Signs are be the ‘preferred’ one – the meaning For example, you are probably sitting everywhere, but they are especially rich the advert’s designers wanted their in some kind of row in a classroom in media texts and so our job is to spot target audience to have. with about 20 other young people at them and interpret their meaning. desks or tables with neon strip lighting Technical codes overhead and some hardwearing Cultural codes There are also technical codes, and just flooring of a functional grey or blue Another useful idea to look at is like cultural codes, they need to be beneath you. But what if you were that of ‘codes’. A ‘code’ is a way of learnt. Lighting, for example, and shot seated at individually carved mahogany communicating that involves prior type are technical signs. A glamour desks, in a circle on a golden, marble- knowledge to communicate effectively. shot like this Lynx advert is often shot floored hall beneath a beautiful crystal If we live in world full of infinite signs in high-key low-contrast light with chandelier? Sounds silly doesn’t it? But then one way we can navigate the some back lighting to bleach out that’s the point, because the first list of potential chaos is to link these signs skin blemishes; the back light creates signs communicates a specific kind of in cultural and technical ways. Thus in a sense of importance by making it meaning, and the latter communicates our ‘culturally specific’ Western culture, distinct from the background and

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Rule of thirds Another good way to analyse a still image is to break the image into three creating an aura. Glamour models are In the second column you try to equal sections horizontally and/or also often shot in long shot or medium establish the meaning (or connotation) vertically – if you actually have the hard long shot so the whole body can be of the signs. Thus the sign of a young copy try folding it. By using just three seen. female model in her bra and knickers equal vertical sections we can see that could mean that she is ‘very hot’ – or in the Lynx advert the model’s face Let’s now analyse this text more closely ‘unready’ or ‘caught unawares’ or, of is in the top right third of the frame – it’s a banned ‘Lynx Dry Full Control’ course, ‘sexy’. Purple is a luxurious and that the middle third contains the internet advert which links to some colour with regal connotations; but sexualised parts of her body – breasts, online videos featuring the model and the colour of her clothing could have legs and bottom. The left third of the minor celebrity Lucy Pinder. It was been green or brown or yellow or silver frame contains the product’s name and banned in 2011 by the ASA (Advertising and so on – and these would all have packaging. Thus we can say that the Standards Authority) along with the communicated different meanings. The image has been constructed using the other campaign materials (five online ‘kitchen’ could mean ‘domesticity’ or rule of thirds. This is a framing device to videos and one print poster) due to ‘comfort’ or ‘hard work’, or, as this advert utilise the limited space in the frame for their overtly sexist representation of seems to be suggesting, ‘a place where maximum visual effect. women – the ASA received over 100 women feel at home’. complaints in total and 15 for the text Finally we could look firstly at Key analysed here. I use this campaign Notice that I say ‘could mean’: this alerts Art (the main images) and then Key (and others for Lynx) in contrast with us to the fact that signs aren’t always Wording (the main words). If time Dove’s ‘Real Beauty Campaign’ (on the literal (like road signs, for example) allows, we then look at the secondary previous page) to develop discussion but often exist within a contextual art and secondary wording. In this on gender representation and the network of other signs. This interplay instance the key art is the model and manipulation of audiences: Dove of meanings provides signs with the kitchen locale; the secondary art and Lynx are both made by the same ‘anchorage’: the action of one sign is the specific mise-en-scène of the cosmetics company – Unilever. on others to make their combined radio, the oven and the turkey. The key meaning clearer. Think of the colour wording is the strap line: ‘Can she make The first thing to do when doing any ‘red’. As a sign it has many meanings – it you lose control?’ and product name. textual analysis is to draw a Textual is polysemic – but if I now make it a ‘red Analysis Grid. Make two columns. In Note that different media like heart’ it means ‘romantic love’; if I make the first you write the signs you have newspapers, magazines and websites it a ‘red traffic light’ it means ‘Stop’. The identified. For example: in a retro will use and display ‘words’ in different colour or sign ‘red’ plus a ‘heart’ or a kitchen a young busty white female ways (headlines, mastheads, sell-lines, ‘traffic light’ anchors the meaning of model dressed in a purple bra and slogans, tag-lines, etc.) and these the colour. Don’t believe me? Then do knickers is bending down in front of an varying generic conventions will need a substitution analysis! Make the heart open oven. to be learnt properly for any analysis to green or tartan, or make the traffic light be really effective. amber – the meaning changes. Let’s then try to put all the above into

30 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM a basic analysis of the Lynx advert retro-designed kitchen (c.1950s), and so will not sweat putrescent buckets like – focusing on 10 signs not already ironically playing on the old-fashioned the hormonal sex-starved loser that you mentioned. First, I will draw a Textual sexist stereotype of a woman’s ‘natural‘ are imagined by the advertisers to be. Analysis Grid and split it into two sub home-making role. She is gazing Analysis is great. sections for the Key Art & Signs and Key seductively at the viewer (the core Mark Ramey teaches Media Studies at Collyers Wood Words & Signs. audience is young male teenagers) and School. seems to be sexually offering herself to In conclusion (and this is where we them whilst at the same time preparing can get a bit intellectual!), this advert Further Reading a classic British roast dinner. If this is a has used many signs to anchor its The following sites give further housewife then she is both a domestic ‘preferred meaning’. This preferred details on this controversial Lynx and sexual goddess – the unconscious meaning is that the product provides campaign, as well as the ASA’s mother/whore ideal of every the consumer with a cool but ironic specific response. unreconstructed male. The product’s sex appeal because the antiperspirant’s strap and taglines emphasise the idea • http://www.mirror.co.ukSearch ‘lucy wearer will not sweat under even the of male ‘control’ and suggest that by pinder raunchy lynx ad’ most physically demanding situations. using Lynx Dry Full Control you will not The model is posing in a sexually • http://www.dailymail.co.uk Search lose power when confronted with a real suggestive way, anchored by her lack of ‘degrading Lynx adverts’ (or idealised) woman. You will rather clothing, body language, make-up and remain cool and in command and you gaze. She is making a roast dinner in a

Key Art & Signs Connotation Red lips parted This is a sexual connotation in our culture. In this instance ‘red’ connotes sexuality and the ‘parted lips’ connote sexual availability. A substitution analysis using a male model highlights this cultural coding of gender: men are often required to look stern and serious in photo-shoots. Gazing at Eyes are powerful communication tools and ‘the gaze’ (the direction and intensity of the look) is a very audience powerful sign, used in many media texts to engage and involve an audience. The model here is striking up a relationship with the audience by creating an intimacy that goes beyond the frame. ‘T and A’ medium Professional photographers may refer to this type of shot as a ‘Tits and Arse’ shot. It involves the model long shot twisting unnaturally to reveal both her breasts and her bottom to the viewer. The connotation of this shot is of course a sexual one, and helps reveal the fetishistic representations of women in glamour photography and in many media texts. Tanned skin The model is white but her skin is tanned. This connotes the healthy and natural glow of someone who spends a relaxed time in the sun. This is a cultural phenomenon; in the past very pale skin was admired as a sign of affluence, and tanned skin was associated with the labouring classes. Long curly brown The model’s hair is stereotypically long, curly and feminine and her hair coloring has a slightly more hair sophisticated connotation than is traditionally associated with, for example, blonde hair. A substitution analysis reveals these connotations more clearly: a punky short cut with dyed red hair would have created a more empowered, unconventional and perhaps even threatening connotation for the young male audience. Key Words & Connotation Signs ‘Can she make This is a rhetorical question, which invites a response even though none is required. The purpose of this is, you lose control?’ of course, to engage the audience. The use of the word ‘you’ directly addresses and engages the audience and the mention of the classically male word ‘control’ is a key part of the product’s design: effective control over sweat. There is also a pun over the idea of the audience maintaining sexual control as well as control over perspiration. This idea is developed in some of the campaign’s other materials, where the sexual pun of controlling ‘premature perspiration’ is made into a slogan. Capital letters The use of capital letters throughout the key wording creates emphasis and modern informality – it is, of course, ungrammatical which may appeal to the target audience. Sans-serif fonts Sans-serif fonts connote modernity and informality, whereas serif fonts are associated with tradition and sophistication. Red colouring on The use of ‘red’ (a polysemic sign) is used here to be primarily eye-catching, emphasising the idea of ‘new’. ‘New’ However in the context of this advert the sign could further anchor the sexual associations of the product. ‘New’ is a common adjective of quality used in many adverts for obvious reasons, but with particular appeal to a young market. ‘Full Control’ This phrase further references the punning on ‘control’ referred to above and the use of the adjective ‘full’ adds a sense of value to the product which will not only offer ‘complete power’ but also ‘complete quantity’.

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It’s been around since the dawn sitcom of all time and a key American becoming a massive global hit. Much of television, has ranged in tone example; The Inbetweeners has been of the strength of the show was in the one of the most successful and quality of the writing. Typical of many from slapstick to surreal, been set ground-breaking British hits of recent American productions, Friends spent in situations from barbershops to years; and Mrs Brown’s Boys marks the a significant slice of its budget on a banks, and created stereotypes award-winning return to the (almost) large, youthful and energetic writing from schoolmarms to scroungers. primetime of the sitcom and is a hybrid team, ensuring that the quality of the And despite struggles with the example which has attracted both gags, storylines and characterisation criticism and acclaim. remained high over each of the show’s schedules, it just won’t go away. ten seasons. The hiring of a talented Jonathan Nunns explores ‘No one told me life was and engaging central cast helped give the conventions, variations and gonna be this way…’ the show appeal across a broad age subversions that make the sitcom so Friends and the classic demographic, ranging from aspirational sitcom teenagers whose flat-share days lay easy – and so enjoyable – to read. Friends (NBC USA 1994-2004) was the ahead, to forty-somethings who, now The situation comedy is a genre for product of the astoundingly successful settled down, are looking back fondly which, to paraphrase Mark Twain, creative partnership of Kevin Bright, to the days when their friends meant ‘reports of its death have been greatly Marta Kaufman and David Crane. everything. exaggerated’. The show ran from 1994 to 2004, Friends was, in many ways, as traditional The death knell has been sounded for this long-standing genre many times, as the form gradually vanished from the UK primetime TV slots that had been its traditional home. However, students of Media Studies may find this a surprisingly rich area of study. The sitcom could easily provide an excellent topic for one of those extended coursework essays your examination board may be asking you to prepare. This article will use three core examples to look at the ongoing significance of the genre. Friends is the most popular

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a sitcom as you could want. Most this being US TV, eight minutes per half mainstay for Channel Four, was the early sitcoms had been based around hour were reserved for ad breaks. attention to detail expended on a family unit. This could be an actual every aspect of the show. It was One of the strengths of this approach family as in shows like I Love Lucy also the partial serialisation of the was that the team used the live process (Desilu USA 1951-57) or Bewitched (ABC storylines, unlike many similar shows to test-run their scripts. Gags that USA 1964-72) or the workplace ‘families’ which featured little or no character fell flat in front of the live audience that featured in Are You Being Served development. Hence, as in a soap, the would be re-written on the spot and (BBC UK 1972-85) and Taxi (ABC USA on-off Ross-and-Rachel romance of re-recorded. Subtle points that might 1978-83). It could also be the ‘friends Friends became a story arc which acted confuse the audience were checked as family’ concept that appeared in as a narrative hook to audiences for and clarified there and then. shows like Men Behaving Badly (BBC UK one season after another. All of the 1992-99) or Friends itself, where it was The show’s permanent sets, the friends’ characters, stereotypical as they might the friendship group that provided the respective apartments and the coffee at first appear, were given depth and a support network, friction and fun that shop Central Perk, were available for history which enabled storylines to go fuelled the show. use throughout. Special sets, such well beyond the humorous and goofy as the casino set for the friends’ visit into areas of emotional depth and Other traditional aspects included to Las Vegas in Season 5, were used pathos. Such was the case in Season the production process. Friends was once, then torn out. In this way, the 9 when Chandler and Monica realised shot on a sound stage at Warner cast and crew could move from set to they would be unable to have a baby. Brothers Studios in California. Almost set, around the stage in front of the This dimension enabled the show to no exteriors were used and those that audience, as the storylines demanded. develop a die-hard fan base, desperate were, were shot on the ‘New York’ It was this need to be ready to move to follow the stories of their favourite street, one of the permanent exterior at a moment’s notice that gave Friends characters, right through to the very sets on the Warner’s back lot. The shows (and other classic studio-based sitcoms) end of Season 10. were filmed in linear sequence and the distinctive and unrealistically after camera blocking, read-throughs even lighting typical of the genre. All All of the characters, stereotypical as and rehearsals, recorded live in front lighting would need to be established of an excitable and enthusiastic studio they might at first appear, were given in advance, since there would be no audience. Episodes were shot using a depth and a history which enabled time for changes once the episode was traditional three-camera shot set up, being shot. storylines to go well beyond the continuity-edited with the addition of humorous and goofy into areas of Foley sound effects and a music score In the end, part of what made Friends to produce the final 22-minute show – such an exceptional US hit and a emotional depth and pathos.

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The Inbetweeners: back to features of the genre. Gone were the school with the anti-sitcom live audience, studio sets and laughter track. Now the action took place on This show may in some ways seem location in an actual school. Gone not to be a sitcom at all. Appearing as too were the even lighting and three- it did in 2008, when the classic studio camera shot set-up. This was a sitcom sitcom was in headlong decline, The that looked nothing like one. The pilot Inbetweeners (E4 UK 2008-10) seemed episode used a hand-held camera to to be a response to the staleness of introduce posh boy Will to the dog- a tired genre, providing an answer eat-dog environment of a nondescript by advocating some pretty radical suburban comp. Using steadicam surgery. This is despite the familiar to navigate through the bedlam of central conceit: four hapless lads, trying the school corridors, Will narrates in to act cool, fit in and get laid, in the voiceover for the audience. With its sixth form of the fictional Rudge Park crudeness and toilet humour, The Comprehensive. School sitcoms such Inbetweeners shares much in common as Please Sir (LWT UK 1968-72) had with gross-out comedy movies such existed long before, as had the notion as The Hangover (Phillips USA 2009). of hapless friends acting as a family/ The cast were regularly involved in support network. However, the ultra scenes of toe-curling embarrassment authentic setting and lack of sitcom reminiscent of The Office (BBC UK trappings also made the show appear 2001-03), and the level of swearing a cousin to Grange Hill (BBC UK 1978- might be true-to-life but not to the 2008), the successful and long-running primetime family sitcom. The grossness drama series that became a staple of of The Inbetweeners ensured it a post- children’s television. watershed slot on E4 and Channel Four. However, where The Inbetweeners was As popularity grew across the three a game-changer was in its radical and seasons, some similarities to classic fundamental reworking of the technical shows became apparent. The quality of

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the writing remained consistently high, laughter track. The conceit of the and her boys than meets the eye. The and this combined with the quality middle-aged man in drag is revived sexually explicit language, especially of the casting enabled the stories to from its 1970s’ heyday with comics from Mrs B herself, is one of the major deliver depth as well as comedy. Jay, like Les Dawson and The Two Ronnies sources of humour. Punctuating her for example, forever boasting to his (BBC UK 1971-87). The central situation language with a torrent of fecks and friends about his outlandishly ‘rampant’ is based around an eternal staple: fucks, Mrs Brown does not fit the sex life is shown to be compensating the extended multi-generational stereotype of the comedy granny. for the endless put-downs of his oafish family, living in each other pockets This is amply demonstrated in the father, which have destroyed his self- and interfering in each other’s lives. episode from Season 3 when Mrs confidence. Mrs Brown ‘herself’ appears to be an Brown hides a ‘stolen’ mobile phone archetypal comedy matriarch, ruling down her knickers, only for the vibrate- In many ways, however, The the roost and dominating her children’s function to send her into a comedy Inbetweeners is not the revisionist anti- lives. The show has consequently been ecstasy that nods enthusiastically sitcom it initially appears. Technically it critically mauled for being extremely to the orgasm scene in When Harry bears few of the visual signatures of the conventional and lacking in originality. Met Sally (Reiner USA 1989). Here genre. However, quality writing, a good Mrs Brown’s Boys demonstrates its central conceit, excellent casting and However, the cross-dressing apart, innate postmodernism. The show relatable characters make this a more there is rather more to Mrs Brown is punctuated with pop-cultural recognisable example than it might superficially appear. Perhaps its success is as much due to these factors as it is to the very different way in which the show interprets the genre. Quality writing, a good central conceit, excellent casting and relatable characters.

Feck! It’s a postmodern sitcom: Mrs Brown’s Boys and a return to the primetime At first look, the Irish comedy Mrs Brown’s Boys (BBC/RTE UK/IR 2011 to present), seems unbearably old- fashioned. The show takes the genre back to the studio, live audience and

36 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM references that add an extra dimension those at home. When the show closes, Follow It Up and reward media-savvy viewers. Mrs Brown and the cast step off set to take their bows to the studio audience. Friends – The One that Goes Behind The same episode features a reaction The final episode of Season 3 sees the the Scenes, Discovery Channel, USA shot of Mrs B’s daughter where her jaw cast break out of character to deliver 1999 (documentary). drops, followed by a rapid close-up a song and dance number to end the and the opening ‘duff-duff’ bars of the www.comedy.co.uk/guide/tv/ show. Mrs Brown’s Boys, like a Pixar EastEnders (BBC UK 1985 to present) mrs_browns_boys/press/?ppage=3 movie, operates on multiple levels and theme tune. Earlier, Mrs Brown seeing 8/04/13 offers surprisingly similar pleasures as the phone, asks her son Buster why www.guardian.co.uk/tv-and-radio/ a result. the brand label has been taped over; tvandradioblog/2012/may/28/ he responds that it’s due to BBC rules Back To The Future? bafta-awards-balance-popularity-risk forbidding product placement, to 8/04/13 which she replies ‘It’s clearly an iPhone With Mrs Brown’s Boys, despite its www.curtainsforradio.co.uk/blog/ 4’. Audiences get to enjoy the multi- (just) post-watershed slot, becoming david-quantick-cans-the-laughter- layered humour that exists alongside a mainstream hit for BBC 1, the sitcom and-asks-whatever-happened-to- the traditional innuendo and farce. seems to be moving back into a more sitcom 8/04/13 The other flourish is that the show familiar environment. This may turn routinely breaks the fourth wall. Mrs out to be a step back from the niche www.independent.co.uk/arts- Brown turns to camera to address audience narrowcasting of late night entertainment/tv/news/is-the- the audience, narrating the story as it shows like The Inbetweeners and inbetweeners-all-its-cracked-up-to-be takes place, as does The Inbetweeners’ Peepshow (C4 UK 2003-present). 8/04/13 Will. At one point Mrs Brown, ambling Whatever the similarities or differences www.netplaces.com/comedy-writing/ between sets on stage, calls to ‘Kiaran between the shows, they have been writing-sitcoms/what-defines-a- with the camera’ to follow her so she lasting hits. Predictions of the sitcom’s sitcom 8/04/13 can continue her confessional with the demise may yet be wrong. What the www.scriptquack.com/3/ audience at home. Mistakes are also shows demonstrate is the sitcom post/2012/09/sitcom-pilots 8/04/13 intentionally left in, when lines are doing what all successful genres www.fredrikaaa.com/the- fluffed or actors corpse and burst into must: remaining familiar enough to postmodern-state-of-the-sitcom fits of giggles. be comfortably recognisable, whilst 8/04/13 Audiences get to enjoy the multi- moving, morphing, changing and evolving, both responding to and layered humour that exists alongside leading, shifts in public taste. the traditional innuendo and farce. Jonathan Nunns is Head of Media Studies at Collyer’s The other refreshingly postmodern College and moderates for the WJEC. nod in Mrs Brown’s Boys comes at the beginning and end of every show. As the lights go up, the camera cranes across the sets and studio audience to introduce the theatrical environment to

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Ian Pike is a TV screenwriter, with Masterchef. Greg and John have a plate Narrative in front of them. It probably involves a credits ranging from Hollyoaks to Narrative. Such a dry word and often smear of foam or red wine reduction involving dreary dissection. Narrative. CBBC, comedy and sketch shows, and a neatly arranged collection of Structure. Plot. In Masterchef this would teen comedy series development, pigeon, rabbit or duck segments. And be the equivalent of Greg chewing then the judges begin deconstructing all primetime drama episodes for saying, ‘Beef. Topside. Sirloin’. In the the component parts that make up the Waterloo Road and Air Babylon and easiest to read and most enlightening end product. And millions of us tune in text written on feature film writing – a whole heap of projects currently to watch. But would we be so hooked Save the Cat by Blake Snyder (put it in development. Here is Ian’s take if they simply listed the ingredients? on your Christmas list now) – Snyder We tune in because of the passion, on how to write screenplays that describes the best way to think of the humour and the arguments. In a TV audiences might want to watch narrative as imagining you are with a similar way, that can be the difference – or, alternatively, how to read the group of friends discussing which film between a successful TV drama analysis to see that night. One of you is reading screenwriter’s tricks of the trade. and a lengthy list of camera angles, out the titles in the listings. After every lighting states and sound SFX. But film is read the question is always what else is behind the TX? Are there asked, ‘What’s it about?’ And if there is any other hidden subject headings no good answer then none of us will to be mined for? What is there from a rush to see it. And equally that should screenwriter’s perspective? be your starting point to a dissection of the narrative: ‘What’s it about? What actually happens?’

38 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM Theme ‘This chicken tastes nice.’ Meaning, in Action our case, that it’s far better to try and And theme. Another bland word, so Action. Hardly ever taught as an art work out how a character is feeling often followed by a yawn-inducing form in its own right, hardly ever even through what they are doing rather discussion. So here is a gift from the discussed properly, but which takes than what they are saying. This was the world of Children’s TV to help make it up a vast percentage of any episode. case with a script I have been working more palatable. CBBC has a lovely rule And which also provides a link to the on with BBC Drama about demobbed when it comes to pitching. Asking two next item for your Christmas list. Doctor soldiers, where almost every scene has simple questions: ‘What’s the story?’ and Who: The Writer’s Tale by Russell T. to be subtext-heavy. Not just because then more importantly: ‘What’s the story Davies and Benjamin Cook. Even if you these characters are extremely private, really about?’ have never seen an episode of Doctor but also because it is more interesting Who, this is a superb dissection of the In other words, if you pitch them a for viewers than if they were honest craft of the TV writer, which includes series idea about a squirrel who gets about their feelings. excellent analysis of action. It certainly lost in a wood who becomes separated Adam nods – understanding – and carries on completely changed the way I now from his family and then falls in with a laying stuff out. approach writing the non-dialogue bits pack of other squirrels, that is clearly of a script. both the story and the answer to the BECCA (CONT’D) question, ‘What’s it about?’ How do Before reading the book I gave similar So how long since...? (you got out) 10-year-olds relate to that story, given weight and tone to every scene that none of them are squirrels, or have ADAM regardless of what was happening, probably ever been lost in a wood? But Few weeks. whereas Davies made me think more if the story is really about bullying, then about the actual language I was using. every child watching will be able to BECCA He even discusses punctuation, and the relate to it somehow. And if you don’t How you finding it? spaces between lines of action; the use believe me, watch my episode in the of hyphens; dot, dot, dots; short broken next series of Dennis and Gnasher. The ADAM (LYING) sentences for big dramatic action story is about Dennis trying to escape Fine. Great. Loving being free. sequences. The lesson learned here that from detention – but the story is really fed straight back into my demobbed Becca nods. about the banking crisis in Cyprus... soldier’s script: BECCA 1. EXT. AFGHANISTAN – DUSK Subtext It gets easier. Ask any of the lads. (FLASHBACK) 1 Subtext. Often to be found in the An Apache helicopter lands, dust blowing. sentence: Visible heat. Through clever/subtle use of subtext the Soldiers spread out to provide cover. Armed screenwriter manages to convey the theme of... and ready. Snidge climbs out. Infantry Colour (Insert the word betrayal, love, identity etc as Sergeant, (36. Good looking. A bloke’s bloke.) applicable) in an entertaining and engaging He looks terrible. Covered in blood and filthy. way. He watches as a body bag is pulled out. Meaning that whoever wrote that My attempt to convey everything I am sentence is either padding out an essay after to the director, lighting, designer or does not fully understand subtext. and art director – and hopefully making The John Torode equivalent of saying you look again at this process in reverse.

Exposition Exposition. Another word which leaves me cold in analysis – and actually which should leave us all cold generally, as it can be the death of TV drama – but which does give rise to another fantastic resource. Charlie Brooker’s Screenwipe was a superb series on all things TV-related, and in Series 5, Episode 3 he talks to a number of top writers about their craft. Tony Jordan, Russell T. Davies, Graham Linehan, Jesse Armstrong and Sam Bain and Paul Abbott discuss everything

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from dialogue to naming characters. Clichés up with something far more original. It’s another extremely succinct and Grant Mitchell is driving Nigel and the Clichés. There used to be a rule on insightful resource, with two nuggets girl to the park and we nervously wait Hollyoaks that no character was allowed on exposition to be cherrypicked. The to see how Nigel will break the news. to slide down a wall with their head in first is a quote from Jimmy McGovern: Nigel then gets out of the car and takes their hands after receiving bad news. the girl off to the playground, but then I would rather be confused for ten minutes Why? Because it was starting to be the whole scene is shot from Grant’s than bored for five seconds. used so often it had become a visual POV without us being able to hear a cliché – the Masterchef equivalent of Speaks for itself. And the other is word of dialogue. Far more moving and a scallop, black pudding and minted an actual opening line of broadcast surprising. pea veloute. We may well slide down dialogue that Russell T. Davies uses to the wall with our head in our hands on And as for Hollyoaks, the sliding down illustrate bad exposition: a nameless hearing of the death of a loved one, but the wall stopped completely – only soap episode which begins with the an audience needs fresh ways of seeing to be replaced by characters in denial line: the old and familiar. And the same who continued to unpack shopping All right Sis. Great day for a wedding. applies to the spoken cliché – watch or fold clothes after hearing bad news, As Davies says: scenes of characters being dumped: ‘It’s refusing to accept anything they had not you, it’s me etc’. just heard, until it was reiterated again, I get it. You’re brother and sister and she’s at which point the washing or clothes One of the best illustrations of how to getting married. Lazy writing and we could would be upended everywhere and a show a familiar moment in a new and easily have found out this plot information in a new visual cliché was born. much cleverer way. clever way comes from Tony Jordan – former lead writer on EastEnders Good handling of exposition is and now running his own production Pace especially important in something like company and creating some of the Pace. Or variation of. Writers fall into Doctor Who, which can have whole most watched dramas on British TV. He a rhythm of typing. You can hear the scenes entirely devoted to large was writing an EastEnders scene where click of the keys from their office. chunks of intergalactic ‘facts.’ Hopefully the character Nigel had to tell a young Unfortunately it seems to follow that something else to look out for when girl that her mother had died: familiar their screenplays can then often fall deconstructing a clip. soap territory and a cliché minefield. So into the same rhythm, and need to rather than write the usual ‘There’s no be broken up somehow. Watch a film easy way to say this...’ scene, he came or episode and think of a metronome

40 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM difference between good and bad dialogue as well as which so called ‘rules’ have been broken. And you have two new books on your Christmas list and a YouTube clip to watch. Filming doesn’t get tougher than this!

Ian Pike is a successful screenwriter who has also worked extensively as a script advisor and workshop leader in schools, further and higher education, and for the International Schools Theatre Association. You can contact him at [email protected]

Follow it up Davies, Russell T. & B. Cook. 2010. Doctor Who: The Writer’s Tale Snyder, B. 2005. Save the Cat! The Only counting a pulse behind the script. again I find myself going back to one Book on Screenwriting You’ll Ever Need: If it stays the same for too long, it of the best to learn how to approach The Last Book on Screenwriting You’ll can become monotonous. It’s a bit certain key areas of TV drama. In this Ever Need like travelling on a high speed train: case again, it’s Tony Jordan, who used once it reaches the highest speed to mentor new writers on EastEnders by you soon forget how fast you are getting them to write sentences, then actually travelling, only becoming take a word away from the beginning aware when the train slows down or and one from the end, leaving stops completely. The same is true something much closer to naturalistic of TV drama. This is something I was dialogue. reminded of in my current soldier ‘I see Man United lost again last night project when I realised I had three then?’ becomes ‘United lost then?’ scenes of similar length and pace following on from each other, resulting ‘See you then Mate. Top night. Really in the invisible metronome slipping enjoyed myself... we must deffo do it into a regular pace. I therefore wrote again some time.... Too right – Bye then’. this extra scene to break it up and offer becomes – ‘Laters.’ variation. Rule-breaking EXT. RIDGEWAY PARK – DAY 16 Which leads neatly onto the final point Becca is laying out exercise equipment in the to look out for in a deconstruction – park. what rules have been broken? What CUT TO: fresh, new and original way of telling a story, working with the medium on 17 EXT. IRAQ – DAY (FLASHBACK) 17 screen, filmmaking techniques, writing Becca is with the rest of her unit. They run or directing has been achieved? Think forward, fling themselves on the ground then The Artist on film. The Royle Family in start firing. One girl Jennie lies down but does comedy. The Wire in TV drama. nothing. Becca notices so crawls over and And there you have it. One writer’s nudges her. The girl snaps out of it and then POV on reading the media in the starts shooting. Becca watches her with concern hope that it will give insight into for a second. other possibilities outside the usual Snap straight back. production lists, leaving John and Greg with the final word from the judges. Dialogue Your narrative discussion is beautifully clear. I Dialogue. A tough subject to can see exactly what it’s about. Your analysis deconstruct but a really vital skill. So of theme then answers the question what‘s where to begin? An understanding of the story really about. You have read between what makes for great dialogue, and by the lines of dialogue to discuss the subtext. extension, therefore, poor dialogue. You clearly understand the intended action. The first thing I always wonder (even You are aware of clever use of exposition. You if subliminally) is does this dialogue have flagged up the clichés and discussed the feel natural and believable? And yet variation of pace. And you clearly know the

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Downton Abbey and now Character driven Analysis Broadchurch… That’s two big The talented scriptwriter behind the The idea that everyone in the community heavyweight dramas which have series was Chris Chibnall who first had becomes a suspect is foregrounded consolidated ITV’s status as the the idea of Broadchurch ten years ago. He through the opening tracking shot from has a solid pedigree with writing credits Episode 1. The murdered boy’s father channel for drama and ‘event TV’. for Law and Order UK, Torchwood and walks along the street unaware that his Broadchurch was a murder mystery Doctor Who. But it was only after working son is dead; he has a friendly wave or that kept nearly 10 million viewers unhappily in the US that he came back to subtle nod to most people he meets. The guessing who killed 11-year-old Danny the UK to resurrect it. He pitched his idea long shot lasts for about two minutes, to the independent production house, and introduces us to the key characters. Latimer. It was a tense and beautifully Kudos (Life on Mars, Spooks, Hustle) who Chibnall noted: shot series which unravelled slowly then took it to ITV. His idea was The germ of it was a piece about a community... over two months. ITV claims it was very cinematic, very image driven, in which it and a piece about a town – in fact, the town the most tweeted TV drama ever. So, wouldn’t just be about the dialogue. where I live in Dorset. But within that, I used the engine of a whodunit to take you through Jane Milton asks, how did ITV create Broadchurch would be character-driven, the people’s lives. the ‘TV’ event of the year? and each character would be affected following the murder. So Chibnall was Tracking shots are used again to great If I think of ‘event TV’, I might consider the keen to get a cast as good as Downton effect in Episode 1, when Danny’s mother final of Britain’s Got Talent, The X-Factor or Abbey. Former Doctor Who star David (Jodie Whittaker) realises that the police the London Olympics ‘Super Saturday’ Tennant and recent BAFTA-winner Olivia sirens could be linked to her son’s failure gold medal events last year – but ITV Coleman were signed up to play the to return. We see her running along the has just pulled off another success. This mismatched cops hunting the child road, but she’s captured in slow motion time it was the slow-burning series killer of Danny Latimer. Their central with horror etched over her face. Great Broadchurch. ITV claims it was their most performances were excellent and ITV drama puts us in her shoes. We start to popular midweek drama hit for nearly would have invested a lot of money to imagine… what if? a decade. Unusually, the one-murder lure them on board. But it was not just Slow motion and high key lighting narrative ran over eight weeks on a the central characters who were good. were regularly used to help produce Monday night from 9pm to 10pm on The supporting cast was also impressive. compelling images of the location, a ITV1. The finale, like most big events, kept In the first episode, Danny is found sleepy seaside town. The Jurassic Dorset the whole family glued to the TV box in strangled on the beach. The Latimer coastline was the backdrop for the key the corner to find out who was the killer. family are devastated but immediately characters as well as the shots for the Everybody was talking about the series, suspicion falls on the dead boy’s father. opening and final credits. The landscapes including many of my A2 students who However, over the next seven episodes, were spectacular and breathtaking. The are more used to the niche audience virtually every key character was feeling writer wanted to show that Danny’s appeal of YouTube. So, it was an event, the pressure including a psychic phone death had a devastating impact not only a ‘watercooler’ moment of 2013 that engineer and a recovering alcoholic vicar on his family but on the town as well. We managed to seep into our consciousness (remember Rory from Doctor Who?…he’s usually associate the seaside with fun but and attract a mass audience. back again with a dog collar!). here the focus was sadness and sorrow.

42 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM killer manipulated Danny and the town. At the end of the episode, Twitter and Facebook fans were offered the chance to see an exclusive scene and, ultimately, we were promised another series next year. But will it feature the same cast? We will have to wait and see. The writer Chris Chibnall has said it will be a very different story. What we do know is that with broadcasters increasingly turning to drama as a key part of their channel’s identity, the importance of a hit such as Selfridge and believes that ITV1 must not Broadchurch cannot be overestimated. be bland. He told The Guardian, It will have generated millions in advertising revenue for the institution, If you really want to broaden your audience more in DVD sales, is likely to sweep the then going for something in the middle won’t board at awards time and may well be do. You have got to be bold, go out on a limb, a global hit. The audience is beginning and people will come with you. to see ITV not for just populist TV, but a brand for bold, artistic and distinctive Marketing heaven home grown drama. It’s not going to be So, why else did we get hooked on This was also helped by the haunting an isolated ‘event’. Broadchurch? There’s no doubt that ITV music of the series which was the perfect Jane Milton teaches Film at Dane Court Grammar School invested heavily in the marketing and complement to the stunning imagery. in Kent and lectures in Film and Video production at the promoting of this gripping drama. For University of Kent. Wanting more… the first time, I watched a Broadchurch trailer at the cinema. In fact, I saw it on Follow it up Event TV also means a great story which three or four separate occasions. Such http://www.guardian.co.uk/ sustains and develops a loyal following synergy was impressive. We also had tv-and-radio/video/2013/mar/12/ and, of course, the writer also managed the obligatory magazine, billboards, TV Broadchurch-mayday-parks- to create the perfect cliffhangers. trailers, newspaper previews; and Tennant recreation-video-review – Andrew Chibnall called it a ‘gasp moment’. So and Coleman were not just on the inside Collins, Telly addict why do we need them? The nature of pages but on the front covers. This was a commercial television means that he hard-hitting expensive campaign across www.itv.com – check out their press had to make viewers want to return all platforms and as the weeks went releases after the advertising breaks, that is on, other characters from the drama References roughly every 11 to 12 minutes. Andrew appeared on the magazines; since it was Collins, the ‘Telly Addict’ TV critic at The so carefully plotted, it was impossible to Chibnall quote from Total TV Guide Guardian described it similarly, as being be sure which of the principal characters 20-26 April 2013 ‘aggressively plotted’; no mean feat for a were guilty before the final episode was 2nd Chibnall quote http://www. Monday night! shown. In fact, ITV refused to send out guardian.co.uk/media/2013/ preview copies of the last episode to the apr/23/Broadchurch-second-series- Where was the BBC? press. The killer of Danny Latimer was killer?INTCMP=SRCH Plunkett, On the opening night of Broadchurch, being kept under wraps: only 29 people Guardian – cast and crew and some executives BBC1 had started a similarly themed http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/ – knew the identity of the murderer crime thriller called Mayday (made by tvandradioblog/2013/apr/27/ before the final programme. No wonder the same production company, Kudos). Broadchurch-downton-abbey- thousands of people took to Twitter Once again, a strong cast, mesmerising itv?INTCMP=SRCH – Fincham quote and other online forums to speculate, camerawork, clever marketing but the from Plunkett article, Saturday prompting a massive surge of interest in drama was stripped across a single week Guardian and despite the aggressive scheduling, the show. the BBC drama failed to hit the peaks of Broadchurch. Perhaps this successful What’s next? surge in ITV’s drama output is down to That led to more than nine million their director of television, Peter Fincham, viewers watching the final episode, and who arrived at the channel five years ago it didn’t disappoint. The culprit was not from the BBC. He has overseen the likes hastily revealed five minutes before of Appropriate Adult (based on the Fred the end; no, it was a ‘considered’ finale and Rosemary West murder case) and Mr with flashbacks used to show how the

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44 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM Period drama, costume drama, In 2008 ITV broadcast a mini-series What is it about period drama historical drama – call it what called Lost In Austen. It was a comic that captures the imaginations of take on the idea that a modern young contemporary audiences to such a you like, it’s one of the television female ‘Jane Austen fanatic’ (Amanda degree? Why are the doings of fictional genres dearest to the hearts of Price) could literally be lost in Pride and characters long since ‘dead’, whose contemporary audiences. What is Prejudice and take part in the events of stories are set anything up to many its appeal, and what pleasures and the novel two hundred years previously hundreds of years ago, so fascinating to gratifications does it offer? Michael by changing places with the novel’s today’s viewers? heroine, Elizabeth Bennet. Amanda’s Massey explores what we look for presence in the Bennet household Narratives and settings when we read the past onscreen. seriously disrupts the ‘normal’ storyline The storylines may have something of the novel, with often hilarious to do with it – romance and sex, consequences. corruption, crime, political intrigue, All of which was great fun and social issues, satire, comic characters capitalised heavily on the nation’s and tragic events all chime with the love of period drama and time- experiences of modern audiences. The travelling narratives (Doctor Who had BBC series Casualty 1909 even cashed been revitalised in 2005). Amanda in on the popularity of modern medical dramas. We seem to enjoy watching people from other eras dealing with the same issues which confront us all in modern times, but having to deal with them by means of the social and cultural conventions of their own periods. Sometimes the settings seem completely removed from our times – the Jane Austen novels, for example, tell of a world which no longer exists: extensive country estates, the landed gentry, rigid class divisions, strict social conventions, women with few rights, men possessing total power in both was represented as a modern young public and private life, the lives of the woman with a rather slobbish wealthy and leisured upper classes, boyfriend, who yearned for some politics the preserve of the aristocracy, old-fashioned romance and genteel dances as the pinnacle of social life, a behaviour. She was in love with the ‘good’ marriage as the pinnacle of social Jane Austen novels and their TV relationships for women, a wife with adaptations because they presented a substantial dowry as the ultimate to her a world of restful households, aspiration for men. And yet Austen beautiful countryside, courtly manners, describes this world with the satirical courtesy, politeness and the purity savagery of a Rottweiler snapping at of love, rather than the noisy bustle the heels of idiocy, pomposity, self- of her contemporary city life and the delusion, pride, prejudice and many sexist, laddish behaviour of her less- other social evils, which would not than-charming partner. This may seem be out of place in a modern stand-up one good reason for the popularity of routine. period drama, but the story certainly doesn’t end there. As I listed the characteristics above, it occurred to me that some of them Mr Selfridge, Dancing On The Edge, are still the preoccupations of people Call The Midwife, The Paradise, Ripper today. We may express them differently, Street, Peaky Blinders, Downton Abbey but seen through the prism of a period – the list of period dramas currently drama, they still provide some very finding favour with British television relevant and recognisable perspectives audiences seems endless, and the on our modern lives. Celebrity may boxed sets of the classic Jane Austen/ have largely replaced aristocracy, but Charles Dickens/Elizabeth Gaskell et al the behaviour of those ‘above us’ is still adaptations are still bestsellers.

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a source of endless fascination for the this country. Mr Selfridge presents us, Accuracy, authenticity, and mainstream audience. amongst other modern developments, identification with one of the earliest aeroplanes and Audiences can also admire many its intrepid aviator, Louis Bleriot, at the Nostalgia and safety? other aspects of period dramas. The beginning of the twentieth century. By Other period dramas focus on more slavish attention to period detail by witnessing the reactions of the ‘world recent times and there may well be the production designers, wardrobe, at large’ to these ‘modern’ phenomena members of the audience who can hair and make-up artists always (‘travelling by train at 30mph will remember what life was like in the attracts considerable attention, as seriously damage a person’s health’ 1950s, for example (Call The Midwife). does the expert photography and was a current belief when railways For them, the fascination derives from often impressive music. In addition, were first built), we can, perhaps, reminiscence and nostalgia. They may more recent period dramas have examine public reactions to the very also have had previous generations of relied heavily on the reconstruction latest technological developments their families from earlier decades in of historical environments by means (‘computers will undermine our ability service to landed aristocrats (Downton of computer-generated imagery (CGI), to read and write’, ‘mobile phones Abbey, Upstairs Downstairs), or may which has resulted in considerable will do away with other forms of have worked in the environments savings on set design and construction. communication’, ‘the internet will described (Mr Selfridge, The Paradise). By contrast, historical accuracy has also destroy retailing and will seriously been achieved by filming on location Period dramas could be regarded damage human interaction’). Perhaps, in period buildings. This has led to as ‘safe’ – we can enjoy the periods period dramas are not so ‘safe’ after all. depicted, but we do not have to live something of an industry spin-off without radio, TV, the NHS, the internet, as audiences now visit the locations rail and road transport. Sometimes we used in filming with as much interest can be ‘in’ on the very first occurrences and enthusiasm as they exhibit when of the industrial or technological visiting stately homes and other revolutions. Cranford is set in the 1840s heritage locations. and allows us to witness the impact of One of the major attractions of railways on the settled communities of period dramas is undoubtedly the

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casting of many ‘household’ names hairstyles, prime locations and of British television in central roles. historically-accurate props (down to Such casting is designed not just to the last clay pipe or vintage carriage) interest the UK television audience, do not a successful period drama make. but also to guarantee sales of the It seems as though a fine balance drama worldwide and to encourage is needed between the escapism advertisers to purchase premium space promised by the production (for the in those productions broadcast by audience, this is a fantasy land, an commercial channels. The BBC drama unreal concoction of character, plot and department, too, can trade on such location), and recognisable features casting as one means of justifying their (language, people, places, events, care, research, technical expertise claim to their portion of the licence fee. behaviours) which allow the audience and ultimately money invested in the to believe that, like Amanda Price, they Period dramas usually involve production. These, in turn, are reflected too could be part of it. characters of different age-groups, in the look of the production. At one and heroes and heroines are often time a production shot on film was young people. This aspect provides regarded as having higher production Generic Features of Period opportunities for young actors to hone values than one shot on videotape. Drama their craft and promote their careers Now that most productions are • Period costume, hairstyles and make- in the company of acting legends. It recorded and edited in high-definition up. also provides a gallery of characters video mode, but made to look like film, • Appropriate settings and locations with which younger members of the those values are invested just as much often based on a specific community, audience can identify. in dramatic lighting design, soundtrack such as a town or village (large construction involving vast arrays of Most of the features of period drama country houses, London slums, multi-track audio, together with the mentioned in the last three paragraphs country estates, palaces, rural scenes, features mentioned above. are said to contribute to what are market towns, villages). known as production values. This term However, a cast list of famous actors, • Period interiors (furniture, fittings, usually refers to the amount of time, flamboyant dresses, extravagant paintings, domestic equipment).

english and media centre | September 2013 | MediaMagazine 47 MM • Depictions of different levels of society (upper classes, lower classes, landed aristocracy, self-made men, the poor and destitute, the criminal class, the professional class – lawyers, doctors, architects, industrialists). • Central characters are often ‘different’ from their families, friends and society generally, displaying independence of spirit and behaviour, unorthodox opinions and aspirations, often deliberately contravening the wishes or demands of their parents or senior figures within their families, particularly where marriage or career is involved, and frequently at odds with the community at large. In our terms, these characters appear ‘modern’. • The arrival of a newcomer, often a young professional male (doctor, lawyer, engineer) or a young aristocrat renting a local property. • External threats to the community from events or developments which will change lives forever (railways, medical progress, industrial developments, political upheavals, military action, modernisations). • Relationships which defy class and age barriers, usually when the male is older and upper class, and the female younger and lower class, or when a young couple are divided by class and/or wealth. • Thwarted romantic relationships, usually where a male is constrained by a variety of circumstances to leave a community, thus abandoning the female with whom he is romantically involved. • Mistaken identities or mistakenly suspected relationships leading to unwanted outcomes, such as departures, public disgrace or even death. • Tragic deaths of all ages, classes and genders, by accident, illness or crime. What picture of the past does the modern audience get from period drama? Much of it is adapted from the fiction of the time (Bleak House, Cranford). This means that what we are watching has been filtered twice – once through the mind of the original author (how accurately does Charles

48 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM Amanda Price’s experience might suggest a strong female demographic – handsome heroes, love-struck heroines, great emphasis on costume design, storylines with ‘Mills and Boon’-type happy endings might all lead us to some stereotypical conclusions. Much period drama, though, actually features strong, capable, intelligent women who are frequently struggling against the male-dominated ethos of their day. Elizabeth Bennet, Emma Woodhouse, Amy Dorrit, Esther Summerson, Matty and Deborah Jenkyns, Dorothea Brooke, the Crawley sisters, the Midwives: find out who all these characters are and what they did, and then keep on adding to the list – you 1807 really look and sound like that? may be very surprised to see how ‘weak And, if so, how do we know? The credits and ineffectual’ women rarely succeed of any period drama bear witness to the in such dramas, and that many of the amount of historical research carried men are represented in a very negative out by the production designers. light. Despite all of this, the letters columns Michael Massey is a freelance writer in Film and Media of the Radio Times can be relied upon Studies. to feature at least one letter pointing out an historical ‘error’ in last week’s Follow it up period offering – wrong type of railway Dickens portray his own times?) and • Ask people who watch period engine, wrong type of military medal, once through the mind of the adapter drama why it appeals to them. Get wrong type of hairstyle, etc. etc. (how much of both the novel and the them to explain their preferences past is refracted through the omissions, with reasons. additions and modernisms of the Photography or painting? • Find out who watches period drama screenplay?). ‘Real’ history can be likened to a (age, gender, class, ethnicity) by photograph – a plausibly accurate Some period drama has been created looking at audience research results. visual representation of a person, by contemporary writers (Downton object or place, often described as • Jump into the shoes of Andrew Abbey, Ripper Street) and offers a capturing a moment in time. Period Davies (Mr Selfridge and countless totally fictional view of the period drama is more like a painting – an other TV period dramas) or Julian represented. How are we to know how artistic representation, designed to Fellowes (Downton Abbey), and devise likely, how plausible, such fictions are? capture the spirit of people, places a period drama of your own. What Some again are based on real events and events – very much a heightened types of characters, what storylines, and/or characters (Mr Selfridge, Call The interpretation rather than historical and what other generic features Midwife), and we might be forgiven truth. could you/should you include? for thinking that this will provide a History has always been a very popular guarantee of truth. What we must school subject. We can all ‘do’ history not forget is that the authors of such in the way that we can’t all ‘do’ maths programmes are attempting to create or physics or French. The clue is in the drama, not documentary, so we should name – ‘story’ is often seen as a strong expect considerable manipulation of part of the subject, full of characters historical accuracy in the service of and events. But ‘history’ actually means dramatic performance. ‘an enquiry’, ‘an investigation’, so it’s not Which, of course, brings us to the unlike a detective story – clues, facts, thorny question: what, exactly, is evidence, hypotheses, proof all find historical accuracy? Did they really a place in such enquiries. Combine a wear that type of jacket/hat/dress? criminal investigation with a historical Did servants really talk to masters like period and you might have a winner as that? Was that expression in use in far as period drama is concerned. the 1900s? Did those events happen Who is the audience for period drama? exactly as depicted? Did the world of

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‘Gangnam Style’ is now the most watched video on YouTube with over a billion and a half views. Proving a silly dance, a catchy song and a great sense of humour are perhaps all it takes to become a global sensation, South Korean superstar Psy has captured audience’s attention all across the world. Pete Turner asks: why Psy?

‘Gangnam Style’ appeared out of nowhere to become more than a simple Korean pop music single. rest of the world. With one song and, and has been the source of countless The music video launched it into more importantly, the music video parodies, despite being a parody itself. a worldwide marketplace where that accompanied it, Psy has become a The song itself topped the charts in everyone had heard of the song, the global phenomenon. And it’s all due to over 30 countries and political leaders silly dance moves were imitated by the wacky and wonderful wit of his viral and celebrities around the world have the likes of Boris Johnson and David video. attempted to copy the iconic dance Cameron, and the video was tweeted moves. The United Nations Secretary YouTube viewing figures are not the about by Hollywood stars as huge as General even went as far as to suggest only measure of its success however. It Tom Cruise. that ‘Gangnam Style’ could influence is also the most ‘liked’ video, has won world peace, stating to Psy, ‘I think the Before ‘Gangnam Style’, Psy was a best music video at the MTV awards, music can play a very important role. I singer, songwriter, rapper and dancer, inspired thousands to attend dancing hope that we can work together using famous only in his native country flashmobs in cities around the world and completely unknown around the your global reach’.

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So why Psy? And how did ‘Gangnam Style’ become the video sensation of the costumes, and, most notably, Psy’s 2012? An investigation of the video many suits, also suggest privilege and world, he dominates the frame, in the context of music video analysis a certain level of class. Music videos performing endlessly in a range of and history will throw some light on from around the globe often position costumes and locations and lip- just why ‘Gangnam Style’ has taken the their stars as wealthy, successful, sexy synching to the Korean lyrics that world by storm. and popular. Costume changes are very few across the world have frequent, showing the stars in the latest ever bothered to translate. Dance Mise-en-scène styles and sexy clothing. The locations, becomes the international language The Gangnam District of Seoul referred props and performances all highlight of the music video, something that to in the song is a wealthy high-class the extravagance of the production anyone who watches can attempt to area of South Korea. The so-called style and help build an image of a star that impersonate. From boats to parking of Gangnam is very different to the silly is worth celebrating due to his or her garages to yoga classes, Psy sings and horseplay featured in the video and impeccable style, taste and, often, his dances, performing energetically and involves being elegant and reserved – a or her choreographed dance moves. infectiously. However, Psy’s superficially classy long way from the silly prancing Psy He apparently spent 30 nights sunglasses and suits are somewhat displays in the video. Psy performs his developing and perfecting the dance, undermined by the cheesiness of dance moves in various locations in saying in an interview ‘I studied hard the dancing and his less-than-typical the video, popping up in two locations to find something new. I spent like a rotund figure. actually in the Gangnam district. Many month to find the horse dance’ after of the locations either suggest wealth first experimenting with panda and before undermining this image or Performance kangaroo moves instead. As with actually do represent a life of luxury This leads us to the inimitable horse many music videos the desire to dance associated with the Gangnam district. riding, side shuffling dance that has appears to spread to all those around The high-rise buildings, horse stables, led to so many people trotting on the star, and he is eventually joined sauna and Jacuzzi all allude to the rich, to the ‘Gangnam Style’ bandwagon. in a club-like environment complete upper-class lifestyle that is ‘Gangnam Throughout the video Psy is centre with lasers by a large cast of fellow style’. of attention. Like a lead singer in a choreographed dancers, all galloping Props such as horses, fancy cars and band or a solo artist from the pop their way to ‘Gangnam Style’ fame.

english and media centre | September 2013 | MediaMagazine 51 MM Parody he may have the suits and sports cars, conventions of the traditional pop everything else about the video is video from choreographed dance The huge success of the song and video purely comical and far from the class of scenes to the cutting to the beat is not simply down to its dance though. Seoul’s most elite district, the Beverly editing before the chorus kicks in. Long It may follow many of the conventions Hills of Korea. shots of backing dancers performing of pop music videos but it does so in behind the superstar Psy help him to tongue-in-cheek ways, often parodying Similar moments of outright parody stand out from the crowd, creating the conventions more than it adheres come with Psy singing from the toilet, an easily recognisable icon with his to them. When first introducing Psy to sharing a sauna with some large sunglasses, slightly plump face and the audience, it appears as though he is gentleman in an unflatteringly short silly but completely memorable and reclining on a beach being fanned by a towel, and being blasted in the face imitable dance moves. young lady. The producers of the video with an excessive amount of fake immediately undermine Psy’s attempts snow. The convention of having a wind Psy also appears similar to a gangster to appear Gangnam style by pulling machine blowing in the face of the rap star, posing with items of luxury the camera back to reveal that he is in a star to make their hair fly attractively and with many women around child’s playground catching the sun. is completely undermined by having him while gesturing with a serious Psy and his two lady friends getting expression on his face and some Psy intended the song and music video covered in the fake snow, their eyes occasionally almost aggressive hand to be about ‘poking fun at those kinds and mouths filled with the suddenly- gestures. The video even borrows from of people who are trying so hard to less-than-glamorous music video prop. the iconography of the Hollywood be something that they’re not’. He blockbuster with a conveniently argues that people from Gangnam timed explosion sending two extras do not boast about where they are Iconography and Genre flying while Psy walks directly into the from and it is actually only posers and ‘Gangnam Style’ also manages to cross camera, seemingly unfazed by the blast pretenders that would ever claim to generic boundaries, appealing to a behind him. His dance moves could have Gangnam style. His video mocks huge range of people with its sense even be seen as parodying the iconic the wannabes and also parodies music of humour but also its recognisable hero of Western films; the cowboy who video conventions themselves. Though conventions and iconography. As discussed, it uses many of the gallops off into the sunset, lasso always at the ready.

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marketing, it is a video that could – and ‘hey sexy lady’ and the title, we can all did – spread like wildfire. Internet users Cameos and crazes have a go at the ludicrously popular share the video and ‘Gangnam Style’ ‘Gangnam Style’ belongs to a sub-genre dance moves. Even if you are the Prime enters the public consciousness. Aided of pop music known as K-pop. This Minister. by social media, Psy has become an international superstar. Like the Harlem music, popular in South Korea, mixes What remains to be seen is whether Shake videos that have followed it, dance beats, hip-hop elements and Psy and his collaborators can bottle expect more silly dances to take the typical pop song writing. The videos of lightning twice and become more many K-pop artists feature cameos by world by storm in the future and celebrities and ‘Gangnam Style’ is no perhaps consider what you can do to exception. However these cameos are make your own music videos stand out from national celebrities and therefore from the rest. are unknown outside of Korea. For Pete Turner is undertaking a PhD at Oxford Brookes example the little boy who dances in University, writes a film blog at http://ilovethatfilm. front of Psy in the playground at the blogspot.com/ and is currently writing a book on The start of the video is from Korea’s Got Blair Witch Project. Talent. This does little to explain the phenomenal popularity of the song Follow it up: and video outside of Korea, however. than a one hit wonder by creating an http://www.guardian.co.uk/ even more eye-catching video with More interesting is where ‘Gangnam world/2012/oct/24/psy-gangnam- an equally iconic dance routine. His Style’ sits in a tradition of one-hit style-united-nations latest single ‘Gentleman’ was recently wonders that have featured distinctive released but looks unlikely to have the dance moves popular enough to http://travel.cnn.com/seoul/play/ same impact. Though it has a similar become a full blown dance craze. Like interview-psy-gangnam-style-posers- sense of parody and celebration, it does the Macarena before it, ‘Gangnam and-hysterical-little-boy-285626 not have anything quite as distinctive Style’ takes an artist formerly unknown as that gallop. outside of Korea and launches him into the mainstream. Pop fans love to ‘Gangnam Style’ is a phenomenon due sing and dance along to their favourite to its inherent silliness, its iconic dance artists and though very few will be moves and the serious expression with able to sing along with much beyond which Psy performs. In an age of viral

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Bristolian rapper David Aidoo, aka ThisisDA, considers what’s important in ‘reading’ the meaning of music. Is it the lyrics, the rhymes, the beats – or the intensity of the emotion created in the listener? Does music have meanings you can analyse – or is it an experience you feel?

Music is one of those things in life that we all interpret differently. It has the power to bring people together whilst simultaneously segregating us. This is more apparent in the social networking world of harsh tweets and hashtag battles fought by rival fan bases – the ‘Chris Brown vs Tyler The Creator’ Twitter feud exemplified this. One thing’s for sure, there is a definite generation gap between the kids and the adults because of it. Popular songs of today have more power than ever before. They dictate social circles, fashion trends, the clubs you go to (preference of DJ playlists), new memes, slang... the list goes on. And let’s not forget – according to popular conspiracies – mainstream music is also responsible for ‘brainwashing’ the delicate minds of the prepubescent population. To me, most chart music doesn’t take much interpreting; the words are as plain as the sky on a summer

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So what’s wrong here? Are they hearing something I’m not? The answer is no. The answer is no because of interpretation. Next time you listen to a song – irrespective of its genre – just ask yourself ‘how does this make me feel?’ Because that’s where basic interpretation comes from: the emotions the music evokes within us. Because my own speciality is in the day. During my last Saturday 6-hour Excuse my condemnation; there’s no rap world, this question is quite easy shift at my part-time workplace, we ulterior motive behind this article. It’s to answer. Hip-hop, grime, urban, rap, had the afternoon radio blaring for not like I’m trying to get you to boycott spoken word – the success of artists the first time since I’ve worked there Kiss FM or anything. I mean you don’t within this multifaceted genre depends (we usually stream music from a set have to… unless you want to... on how easy it is for everybody to playlist of unsigned acts). The incessant understand their lyrics and relate to Anyway, what I’m trying to get at is synths and lack of genuine substance their content. Without this, people that a lot of what we hear nowadays is that emitted from the homogeneous can’t join in at shows, or practise their constructed in a rudimentary format, noise that people call ‘music’ really favourite Eminem verse when a video lacking taste and feeling. Yet it’s had me feeling as if my employers of his is played on TV. We sometimes enough to make some ‘stans’ religiously were conspiring against my wellbeing. overlook the power of diction within follow a musician and collapse at their It’s strange how it takes a team of the various formats we encounter it sight as if they’d seen Jesus in the flesh. songwriters to assemble such garbage. in. Besides, let’s face it, according to

english and media centre | September 2013 | MediaMagazine 55 MM the media, we all know hip-hop is synonymous with youth culture. There’s no disguising that. As a rapper myself, I’ve never really had a problem with making my music comprehensible. Putting the studio business aside, my personality and introverted traits are the things that make me misunderstood as a person. Through this I’ve found that putting my sentiments into rhymes have made my own enigmatic thoughts easier for myself and the people around me to figure out. For me, recording music provided a release (no pun intended) for me to be free and think about my own daily musings clearly. Nevertheless, I can’t say all my music makes sense to those who listen to it. It still holds a sense of mystery as to what goes into the creative process (hence the name of my forthcoming debut album Super Arkane). And the one question I’m asked in every interview or by those who hear my raps always seems to be, ‘What inspires you to write?’ What doesn’t inspire me?! Struggling with depression and teenage woes is enough for me to record hundreds of songs. I’ve learnt not to care if people don’t understand the music, because I know they will feel it. Earlier this year, I put out a song called ‘Demise’. It was described by a music blog and a BBC Radio DJ as my ‘most intriguing and mature track yet’. As much as I love listening to it, the lyrics don’t even make sense to me, yet I feel hop veteran broke a Guinness World for my liking. She was told something so strongly about the content. Record back in ’92 for spitting out 598 along the lines of: syllables in 55 seconds. So how can you I recorded it on the spot, without Most of the people who listen to the music mentally break down that many words writing the lyrics beforehand – a lesson nowadays can’t even construct a proper when they’re thrown at you at that learnt when watching a documentary sentence, nobody cares about the intricate pace? He’s the last person you’d want on the making of Kanye West’s Late stories you put into your songs. to get into an argument with… You’d Registration album. He suggested struggle to get a word in edgeways! But Whoa now! recording material in this way as you I digress. Twista shows us that people ‘connect with the beat more’ and feel I’ll give you a moment to pick your jaw don’t always have to interpret music; the words, inadvertently making the up off the floor, because this isn’t a they are just enjoying the perpetual sound more ambiguous. unique situation. This woman is one of rhythm and flow of it all. countless artists who’ve been told to Listening to another Chi-town Iggy Azealia, a female rapper, recently ‘dumb down’ their material in order to rap legend such as Twista, you’d sat in an interview to discuss the state make it more marketable to the wider genuinely question how anybody with of hip-hop today. She complained of an world. Is this a marketing strategy – or functioning eardrums can actually encounter she had whilst at Interscope are we simply becoming less intelligent decipher the message behind the Records. From what she said, the staff when it comes to interpreting music? music. In case you’re unaware, this hip- members there seem a bit too candid

56 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM In the mid-Sixties, the media were infatuated with Bob Dylan’s music, desperately pulling apart his ingenious lyrics in the hope that they’d piece together a better picture of what was going on in the mind of this creative individual. Thanks to YouTube, you can revisit the press conferences and see how painful it was listening to their misinterpretations. Sites such as Rap Genius allow the public to suggest the meaning behind song verses of any genre. As long as you create an account and upload the song lyrics, you’re free to add explanations line-by-line. I used to communicate regularly with one of the founders, and last I heard, the site had won an investment of $15 million from some wealthy entrepreneur. Surfing through Rap Genius I can see egos in the rap music. One thing that Looks like decoding tracks for everyone how people throw out suggestions is clear is that the older generation has to understand may actually be big without getting themselves into the a tendency to blame for much of the business. Who’d have known that mind of the artist. But don’t worry; it violence that goes on in the world. I interpreting music is such an important is moderated by hierarchical members see this as a misinterpretation. It begs thing to the listeners? I always thought with explanations removed, if they’re the ongoing question of whether the the majority of hip-hop fans don’t even not accurate. Personally, I think it’s media create and reinforce violent listen to the lyrics. I was convinced that best to leave the art where it stands: stereotypes, or whether media some just appear at shows to while admire from afar, don’t tamper with it. producers simply construct a reflection away time, bopping their heads like a Decrypting a message in the wrong of society’s ills? gang of battery farm chickens whilst way can be dangerous. I won’t even Ultimately, that’s a rhetorical question, the performer sweats his or her guts go into the amount of controversy and and I’ll leave it to you to consider your out in vain. That’s what it’s like at my adversity that has arisen over the years own views. performances anyway. due to a misinterpretation of lyrics and The elder generation have an inclination of blaming rap for much of the violence that goes on within the younger world. I see this as a misinterpretation. It begs the ongoing question of whether the media create and reinforce violent stereotypes, or whether media producers simply construct a reflection of society’s ills?

David Aidoo is a student film-maker and rapper from Bristol, known as ThisisDA. You can hear him on soundcloud.com/ThisisDA and ThisisDA.bandcamp.com

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On the 2nd of April, student Luke This year the Department for Education came upon a creative solution to this Robson enrolled on the BFI Talent decided to pump £3 million over three decision. By discreetly re-formatting years into developing filmmaking the application form I created the Campus at the National Film & opportunities for young people, brand new specialism of ‘Art Director’! Television School in Beaconsfield beginning with setting up 24 regional This risky strategy paid off and I was for an intensive and life-changing Film Academies throughout the selected and assigned to be a Producer, 11-day experience in filmmaking. country. I was delighted to attend a holistic role that allowed me to one of these excellent programmes dabble in a bit of everything, including This is his story. earlier this year, run by Film Oxford. Art Production. I couldn’t believe that This was when I first heard about the I had managed to get a place on the To be a writer, you need a pen. To be a painter, Talent Campus. To be honest, the course – and my amazement continued a brush. To be a musician, an instrument. But to opportunity sounded too good to throughout the introductory pre- be a filmmaker, you need the collaboration of be true and I knew that I had to give residential weekend, during which time others to bring your vision to the canvas that is it a shot. In applying, we were asked we had the opportunity to familiarise the movie screen. to choose a specialism from Director, ourselves with NFTS and introduce Martin Scorsese Producer, Cinematographer, Sound ourselves to each other through the or Editor. After some deliberation, I obligatory ‘team-building’ exercises.

58 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM Having left rural Oxfordshire behind, it it more cinematic. By introducing a filming techniques. But this was was fascinating to meet people from dream sequence and a flashback we when the real work began. In his every corner of the country with wildly could enhance the visual impact, and initial briefing Jon Wardle (Director of different backgrounds and interests, all explore the emotional themes in the Curriculum at the NFTS) told us that with a shared passion and enthusiasm story. All the groups were determined we were expected to behave like a for filmmaking. to make the films as professional and professional film crew, which means: engaging as possible and we were no alcohol, minimal sleep, virtually During the weekend, we were ably assisted by a remarkable team of no free time, strict deadlines and lots organised into six groups with students tutors including: Producers Lee Thomas of hard work. For a large group of from each of the five specialisms. Our (Nativity!), and Michelle Eastwood teenagers I think we managed with task was to adapt short stage plays (In Our Name), directors Corin Hardy these conditions remarkably well. into film scripts for the big screen (Butterfly), Ian Knox (The Privilege), Brian Breakfast was at the crack of dawn before the main residential. The ‘big Gilbert (Wilde) and Brian Ward (The and the seemingly endless meetings screen’ in question was, in fact, the Interpreter). After a brilliant weekend continued late into the evening. But prestigious BFI Southbank where our culminating with a Q&A with Edger our collective fatigue was absorbed by films would premier at the end of the Wright (Shaun of the Dead) we left enthusiasm for the exciting schedule main campus! Our script, Cha Cha Cha, Beaconsfield and began developing our of activities, which all flew by at 120 explored the difficulties in a marriage scripts via email and Facebook. frames-per-second and always in between a housewife seeking spiritual glorious Full HD. However, I must admit escapism through trips to India and Three weeks later we reassembled to briefly succumbing to my exhaustion her begrudging and increasingly at the NFTS ready to make our short during a screening of the Ken Loach frustrated husband. We realised that films. Over the previous weeks we had left-wing documentary Spirit of 45’– in we needed to adapt the script to make chosen our lead actors, re-worked the the presence of the film’s producer script and discussed some extravagant Rebecca O’Brien! I later realised that I must have conveniently ‘rested my eyes’ for about 20 years of Conservative-led British history. Throughout the first week we continued to develop our script alongside producing shooting schedules, location reports and call sheets. Each of our films had a decent budget that was spent on actors, make-up artists, locations and props. We only had two days to do all the filming so thorough preparation was vital. On location we were assisted by Directing, Sound and Production Design graduates of the NFTS who ensured everything ran smoothly and kept a careful eye on the expensive equipment in our inexperienced hands! This was understandable, considering that the cameras we were using were the same as those used on Skyfall, and probably cost more than a small house. In the end, the filming went very smoothly indeed, and we all knew our roles. The director was the boss, the cinematographers were fantastic, the editors diligently clapper-boarded and continuity-supervised and the producers made cups of tea and smiled. The whole thing was very professional and smooth (aside from absent-mindedly leaving our van in a public car park with the door wide open all day!). The next two days gave the editors time to shine and they did

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a remarkable job putting together a interesting to see the diverse nature of partners to create film education rough edit and then a ‘picture lock’ the films we had produced. There was a programmes for 5 to19-year-olds. I ready for the sound designers to tinker film about the London riots, an irritated don’t think that there has ever been with in time for the BFI screening. In the homeowner, a grieving mother, a a better time for young people to get meantime we were required to explain frustrated social worker and a maternal into filmmaking. and advertise our film before the drama: each film had its own distinct One of the most valuable aspects of Assistant Editor of EMPIRE magazine. character and tone. After the screening the course was the Masterclasses and We discussed our target audience, we had the opportunity to ‘network’ Q&A from the likes of Menhaj Huda potential film festivals, and produced and give our email address to anyone (Kidulthood), Eran Creevy (Welcome to posters to advertise the film. willing to take it. the Punch), producer Rebecca O’Brien On our penultimate day we visited Rather neatly, our screening at the BFI (The Angel’s Share), sound designer Pinewood Studios, home to the was also used as a platform for Eric Nathan Johnson (Brick and Looper) James Bond films and Europe’s largest Fellner to announce the creation of and cinematographer Brian Tufano permanent ‘Green Screen’ (which is Film Nation UK. Funded by the Lottery, (Trainspotting). But for me the most currently a slightly disappointing it will bring together leading film interesting and important part of charcoal grey colour). One of my organisations and over 100 industry the course was the opportunity to highlights of the Campus was the trip to the BFI National Film Archive, one of the largest film archives in the world, containing approximately 60,000 fiction films and 750,000 television productions. It also has a treasure- trove of film paraphernalia, including an unpublished original script for The Adventures of Luke Starkiller: The Star Wars. Our cultural development continued with a trip to The National Gallery for a spot of charcoal drawing, and to BAFTA where we had a Q&A with BAFTA-winning animator Michael Please and took plenty of photographs in front of that big gold mask. Finally our films were ready for screening, and we headed to the BFI Southbank where they would be premiered in front of our family, friends and a collection of industry big-wigs including Les Miserables producer Eric Fellner and BFI Chairman Greg Dyke. It was amazing to have our films shown on a massive screen to such an appreciative audience. It was also

60 MediaMagazine | September 2013 | english and media centre MM discover more about the role of the Art Department on a film production. I am studying Art at university from September, and have always enjoyed both art and film; but it was only after the talks from concept artists and art directors, Max Berman (Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy, Game of Thrones) and Steven Scott (Hellboy, Hansel & Gretel) that I really understood the diverse and enriching opportunities available within the Art Department. According to Max Berman, a well-designed set can tell a whole story before a word of dialogue is spoken. Approximately two thirds of what you see on the screen is For those of us who attended the Talent Finally I realise the importance of determined by the Art Department. Campus, it has changed the way in a good handshake and the need to which we watch films. The mindless By the time I left the Talent Campus I remember your email address off by was brimming with nuggets of wisdom escapism of cinema has been replaced such as the audience is your enemy by a new-found curiosity in mundane heart. issues such as camera angles, budget, with something better and more I always knew that the NFTS and BFI equipment and shooting schedule! interesting to do than watch your would deliver us a once-in-a-lifetime The main thing that I have learnt is film and modern ‘3D’ is completely programme of trips, master-classes and that filmmaking is not mysterious or irrelevant and expensive equipment is tutorials; but what I hadn’t anticipated inaccessible. On the Talent Campus we no replacement for an engaging script was the affection and friendship for were spoiled with brilliant equipment, and imaginative filmmaking. the people I met. You can learn a lot props, tutor and locations but as Mr from award-winning directors and The audience is your enemy with Scorsese said, ‘the collaboration of cinematographers but I found some of others’ is the only real magic ingredient something better and more interesting the most relevant tips and tricks came in making a great film. I feel assured from the students around me. to do than watch your film. that members of Talent Campus will Moreover ‘if you cast as many of your continue to work together in the future; I would like to take this opportunity to friends and family in your film, they and we might only realise the amazing say thank you once again to the BFI the will all want to see themselves in it and long-term benefits of the campus when NFTS and everyone else whose hard your film gets a much larger audience!’ we are still making films together in 20 work helped make the Talent Campus (©Edgar Wright). Actors don’t ‘pretend’, years time. the unbelievable experience it was. they inject real emotion into fake I hope that the course runs in future situations and environments; and all Expensive equipment is no years and I would encourage anyone drama comes from conflict. Filmmaking replacement for an engaging script passionate about filmmaking to apply, isn’t easy but the process can be as and imaginative filmmaking. because without a hint of exaggeration, rewarding as the final outcome. Finally it was the best two weeks of my life. I realise the importance of a good handshake and the need to remember You can learn a lot from your email address off by heart. award-winning directors and cinematographers but I found some of the most relevant tips and tricks came from the students around me.

Luke Robson attended the 2013 BFI Residential Talent Campus delivered by NFTS. He is currently studying Art at Newcastle University. You can read about the BFI film academy by searching on www.bfi.org.uk

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USA is a trilogy of experimental USA: the speech of the observe Dos Passos’ evocation of ‘a novels by the American author people cinema of fleeting impressions and evanescent states of mind’ (1999). John Dos Passos, written between USA, Dos Passos strikingly proclaims The metaphor of the cinema with its in his foreword, ‘is the speech of the 1930 and 1936. It reconstructs a constant flow of images, its plurality of people’. What he seems to mean by this signifiers, its multiple and sometimes world turned upside down by war, is that USA is an attempt to capture conflicting ‘voices’ richly reflects Dos technology and the advance of the the tone of a period of American and Passos’ sense of how society and artistic mass media. This unusual article world history through the clamour representation were changing. Writing of voices he heard around him. That by Andrew Green, Senior Lecturer in New Republic on June 29th, 1932 he phrase, ‘the speech of the people’, with at Brunel University, explores observed: its strident overtones of democracy or the relationship between reality, revolution, captures something of the …the mass mind…is becoming more and literature, and the power of the kaleidoscopic power of the work and more involved with the apparatus of spotlights, media, and should make challenging the plurality it seeks to represent. radio, talking pictures, newsprint, so that the image-making faculty, instead of being the reading for any A Level student With such a project in mind, it is not concern of the individual mind, is becoming a surprising that Juan Suarez should studying film, literature, or both. social business.

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Dos Passos saw in the developing mass Dos Passos produces meaning ‘not media a powerful social project which by violent juxtaposition but by the was changing the relationship between cooperation of separate functions the individual and society, and which that are simultaneously isolated and repositioned the fields of artistic and integrated’. From this perspective, political endeavour. the multiple ‘conveyors’ Dos Passos employs, and their particular local Experiments with form combinations within the text, become a Dos Passos described USA’s structure multi-dimensional montage. The effects as a ‘four-way conveyor system’. of this montage, however, are not The narrative, if we can call it that, based on the shock or coincidence of the boundaries between fiction and comprises 68 Newsreels, 51Camera collision. Instead they are underpinned non-fiction: Eyes, 12 fictional narratives based by an integrative logic which seeks In Europe they knew what gas smelt like and around central characters, and 27 and encourages connection. Thus the the sweet sick stench of bodies buried too biographical sketches of major multiple forms, styles, narratives and shallow and the gray look of the skin of starved contemporary figures such as Woodrow ‘voices’ of USA are synthesised. children; they read in the papers that Meester Wilson, 28th US President from 1913- A good example of this is found in the Veelson was for peace and freedom and canned 1924, and the legendary dancer section from 1919, entitled Meester goods and butter and sugar; he landed at Brest Isadora Duncan. As this suggests, USA Veelson. Here Dos Passos encodes a with his staff of experts and publicists after a is fragmentary in form, and through variety of media and voices, blurring rough trip on the George Washington. his deployment of these different ‘conveyors’ – conveyor belts? carriers La France héroique was there with the of meaning? – Dos Passos creates a speeches, the singing schoolchildren, the literary multimedia text. mayors in their red sashes. (Did Meester Veelson By juxtaposing media forms (the see the gendarmes at Brest beating back the Newsreel sections), fiction, biography demonstration of dockyard workers who came and fictionalised autobiographical to meet him with red flags?) sketches (the Camera Eye sections), Dos Passos explores the possibilities of both At the station in Paris he stepped from the train artistic connection and fragmentation. on to a wide red carpet … Critics are somewhat divided on In this very rich passage, we hear the this issue. Wesley Beale argues that

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‘voices’ of wartime experience in the J. Ward Moorehouse. This character is smell of gas, death and starvation, set based, according to Dos Passos in an against the authoritative voice of the interview for The Paris Review, on Ivy papers; we have Veelson/Wilson’s voice, Lee, the man credited with initiating with its uneasily contrasting messages public relations. He represents the of peace and consumerism, the voices voice and the power of the media of his travelling publicists (an early PR in USA. In 1919 he proclaims that machine), the speeches and singing, ‘The lack of properly distributed not to mention the forcible ‘voices’ of information is the cause of most of the the gendarmes’ truncheons. We also the ‘parts’ he presents us with. There misunderstandings in this world.’ see, as in a film, the repeated motif of is a perpetually unsettling lack of Dos Passos deals extensively with the the colour red – the mayor’s sashes, the coherence for the reader between nature of information and its value as workers’ red flags (and, presumably, people, places, times, families, names a tool both for good and for evil. As their blood), and the red carpet. We and nations, but this is in itself an we saw in the passage from Meester see here how artfully Dos Passos aptly unifying representation of works with fragmentation. He both diversity. At the very point where USA separates and unifies the voices, the forces disconnection, it also insists on political imperatives and the meanings interconnectedness and unification – of this passage as he balances on the ‘the speech of the people’. edge between fiction and non-fiction, moving fluidly between one and then USA is thus a literary exploration of other. pluralistic cultural production and cultural representation; a reflection on As the trilogy develops, Dos Passos the relationship between the media, uses synthesis and disjunction to fiction and society and the dangers of explore how subjective existence the power of the mass media. and personal experience feeds into broader societal narratives through The mass media the multiple aesthetics and content The development of the mass media of the Newsreels, the Camera Eyes, and what we now call the Public the biographical sketches and the Relations industry is a central focus narrative threads. Through this, Dos of USA. One of the trilogy’s narrative Passos implies larger ‘wholes’ from threads centres on a character named

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Veelson, withholding information people are encouraged to ‘walk the Eye/I homophone – which uses to the about protesting dockworkers allows streets and walk the streets inquiring of full the subjective point of view of the the American President to proceed Coca Cola signs Lucky Strike ads.’ camera. They also serve other functions, untroubled with his own information however. Suarez identifies similarities programme of ‘peace and freedom’. Dos Passos deals extensively with the between Dos Passos’ use of multiple And throughout the trilogy the nature of information and its value as ‘conveyors’ and the ability of the ‘Internationale’ (the revolutionary a tool both for good and for evil. cinema to cross-cut between different anthem for left-wing thinkers, adopted locales and actions, to merge multiple universally as the song of socialist and In USA, therefore, Dos Passos not only storylines into an overall design, and communist struggle) sounds as the represents and makes use of media to convey the abrupt jolts of modern mouthpiece of international Socialism. methods, but actively explores the life. In this matrix of meaning-makers, In The Big Money, information takes conditions for the development of the the Camera Eye sections draw on a different turn; we enter the world mass media and their social impact. the pioneering cinematography of of advertising and ‘brand identity’ as This builds upon the methods he had Dziga Vertov, the Soviet theorist of already begun to explore in Manhattan documentary cinema, best known Transfer, where the billboards and for his film Man With a Movie Camera. advertisements of New York feature Vertov’s concepts of the ‘kino-eye’ and as a prominent feature of the city’s ‘kino-pravda’, or film-truth, showing ‘life topography. as it is’ through montages of everyday life without the rhetoric of drama or The Camera Eye fiction, are particularly significant as The Camera Eye sections of USA modes of representation. As Dos Passos’ obviously relate to the world of the personal autobiographical reflections, media. In fact, these sections represent they may bear the stamp of truth, but a kind of ‘personal memory bank’, they are also artful constructs designed offering a sequence of deeply personal to appear as a kind of personal cinema. stream of consciousness reflections by Dos Passos as they arise from, and Newsreels impinge upon, surrounding passages. Dos Passos’ Newsreels also draw on These sections in one sense serve as emerging theory and practice in a sophisticated compositional device filmmaking in the 1930s. Again the – a unifying ‘I’, perhaps playing on the work of the Russian filmmaker Dziga

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Vertov, in which an avant-garde the workers of Bavaria have overcome their philosophy of montage is a means of party divisions and united in a mighty bloc narrative construction, is a significant against all domination and exploitation; influence. The Newsreel sections of USA they have taken over in Workers’, Soldiers’, are built out of ‘found texts’, including and Peasants’ Councils entire public snatches of songs, journalistic prose, authority political speeches, headlines and news Right above her kidney releases – the equivalent of today’s sampling perhaps. Was a bird’s eye view of Sydney Juan Suarez refers to the content of But what I loved best was across her chest the Newsreel sections of the trilogy My home in Tennessee as ‘the inexhaustible linguistic debris churned out by the media’ (1999: 57) FORMER EASTSIDERS LARGELY RESPONSIBLE and sees this as evoking ‘confusion in a media-saturated environment’. It is FOR BOLSHEVISM, SAYS DOCTOR SIMONS important, however, to look at how Dos Passos uses these elements. The ORDERS HOUSING OF LABOR IN PALACES Newsreels are artfully constructed, not UKRAINIANS FIRE ON ALLIED MISSION random collages of media fragments. The text elements he employs it looks at present as if Landru would be held are both integrated into, but also spatially separated from, the narrative responsible for the deaths of all the women contexts and fictional ‘space’ of the of Newsreel text on the page, and the who have disappeared in France, not only text. Interpolated between narrative, ‘white space’ between component biographical and Camera Eye sections parts of the Newsreel sections. Here is for the past ten years but for many decades of USA, they reflect to and fro between an example from Newsreel 37: the ‘media world’ and the world in previously All up and down her spine which these media function. We We could read Dos Passos’ spatial may see in the snatches of song that Was the King’s Own Guard in line layout as a presentational device punctuate the Newsreel sections a And all around her hips to assist readability, or to represent rudimentary ‘soundtrack’. the disjunction between disparate Streamed a fleet of battleships It is interesting also to note the shaping elements. However, we may also see

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it as encoding a warning about the Shaping the world through In USA, Dos Passos simultaneously uses, nature of the media and their power to the tools of the media explores and exposes the (media) world control through selectivity, suggesting in the inter-war years. Dos Passos was hailed by Jean-Paul the presence of multiple omissions Sartre as ‘the greatest writer of our Andrew Green is Senior Lecturer in English Education at implied in the very act of selection. The time’ (1947). It is clear that he was a Brunel University. repeated use of the word ‘responsible’ writer who sought to shape the world in Newsreel 37, for instance, highlights in which he worked using its own the idea of blame. Setting this Follow it up tools. USA responds to the unfolding alongside the stories dealing with Beale, W. 2011. ‘Network Narration in mass media world by dislocating the violent emergence of socialism John Dos Passos’ USA Trilogy’, Digital conventional fictional narrative and in Bavaria, the USA, Russia and the Humanities Quarterly, Vol. 5(2). critically reconstructing it to serve new Ukraine may well prejudice political functions. He was prepared to work Dos Passos, J. 1938. USA. views and systems. Similarly, how does with the emerging media industries, the suggestive song about a tattooed Sartre, J-P. 1947. ‘John Dos Passos and but he was never uncritical of them. lady feed into our reading about the 1919.’ In Literary and Philosophical Indeed, throughout his long career he ‘disappeared’ women of France? Essays. Trans. Annette Michelson. New remained alert to the darker side of York: Criterion. media production. As Suarez observes: Suarez, J.A. 1999. ‘John Dos Passos’ the media do not simply channel information; USA and Left Documentary Film in they also screen, select and censor. the 1930s: The Cultural Politics of ‘Newsreel’ and ‘The Camera Eye’’, American Studies in Scandinavia, Vol. 31, pp.43-67.

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