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Home , Chinese people, Confucianism, Letters on the English, Sinophile

Voltaire’s View of

Tae-Hyeon Song

Abstract: For , who was a representative in France during the , Confucius was the core of his Sinophilia. Labeling and intolerance as “the infamous,” he used the motto “Crush the infamous!” to fight against the French . Voltaire criticized both the Christian , which has elements, and . His religious viewpoint was tolerant , and he found , as a philosophical system, to be its closest equivalent, free from superstition and fanaticism. Voltaire saw Confucius as the ideal Deist and representative of Deism, which he presented as a substitute for revealed religion. The encounter of Confucius provided Voltaire with an opportunity to fundamentally reflect on European civilization and . However, Voltaire can be criticized for excessively idealizing Confucianism and distorting other , such as and , through the way he used Chinese religious as a tool to criticize the situation in France and Europe at the time. Key words: Voltaire Confucius Deism Sinophilia Author: Tae-Hyeon Song, Ph. D., is professor at Ewha Womans University in , . He has published articles on French and comparative study between Eastern and Western cultures, and three books, including Image and Symbol and Fantasy. He is editor-in-chief of The Journal of East-West Comparative Literature. This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2007-361-AL0015). Email: [email protected]

标题：伏尔泰眼中的孔子 内容摘要：伏尔泰是法国启蒙运动时期向往中国的代表人物之一，孔子是他亲华思想的核 心。他把宗教狂热和缺乏宽容视为“卑劣”，并且以“砸碎卑劣”为座右铭来反抗当时的 法国天主教会，既批评包含某种超自然因素的基督教，又反对无神论，表现出宽容的自然 神论宗教观。他发现作为一种哲学体系，儒教最接近自然神论，因为它既不迷信也不狂热。 伏尔泰认为孔子全然就是一个理想的自然神论者，是试图代替现有的天启宗教而提出自然 神论的代表。伏尔泰对孔子的发现为他从根本上反思欧洲文明与基督教提供了契机。然而， 伏尔泰在把中国的宗教思想作为一种工具来批判当时法国和欧洲现状的过程中过度美化儒 教而扭曲了道教、佛教等其他中国宗教，这一点是值得批判的。 关键词：伏尔泰 孔子 自然神论 亲华思想 作者简介：宋太贤，博士，韩国梨花女子大学教授，主要从事法国文学与东西文化比较研究， 出版《意象与象征》、《幻想》等三部著作。现任韩国学术期刊《东西比较文学》主编。 ���� 外国文学研究 2014 年第 3 期

Confucius: The Patron Saint of Enlightenment Europeans started to become concretely aware of Confucius and Confucianism through reports and books on by from the of , who were in China in the 16th and 17th centuries. The book that made the most significant contribution to the spread of Confucianism was Confucius, of the Chinese (Confucius Sinarum Philosophus), published in in in 1687. In this book, which was widely read in Europe, Confucius was highly praised. In the “Introductory Exposition,” Confucius was described as follows: “One might say that the moral system of this philosopher is infinitely sublime, but that it is at the same time simple, sensible, and drawn from the purest sources of natural .... Never has Reason, deprived of Divine , appeared so well developed nor with so much power” (Hobson 194). Most of the , who had been evangelizing China since the late 16th century, focused on the religious ideology of Confucianism. As a result of the positive evaluation of Confucius by the missionaries of the Society of Jesus and the translation of the Confucian scriptures, European Enlightenment thinkers generally had a positive attitude towards Confucius and Confucianism. As the trend of the European Enlightenment period was to promote and intelligence, these thinkers were more interested in Confucian scriptures than either Buddhist scriptures, which contain supernatural elements, or Taoist literature, which is full of parables and aphorism. Those Enlightenment who tried to destroy the social structure and that supported monarchy or metaphysical were surprised to find that “Confucius had thought the same thoughts in the same manner, and fought the same battles”(Reichwein 77) 2000 years earlier in China. In addition, they judged that Confucius advocated the clear expression of language and clear logical reasoning. Given these facts, Confucius became “the patron saint of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment” (Reichwein 77). As a representative Sinophile in France during the Age of Enlightenment, Voltaire (1694– 1778) was very interested in China, to the extent that he claimed, “Although I have never been to China, I have met over 20 people who have travelled to China and think I have read all the literature mentioning the country” (Voltaire, Philosophical Dialogues 264). In various works of his, Voltaire introduced China as an ideal country. In Letters on the English, he described China as “the wisest and best governed country in the world” (50), and in Philosophical Dictionary, he described it as “the most extended and best governed kingdom of the world” (108). In “The Travels of Scarmentado,” one of his satires, Voltaire presented China as “a free and enjoyable country” (140). In on the Manner and Spirit of Nations, he argued that it is impossible to imagine a better than that of China at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and pointed out that all power lay in the hands of a “whose members were admitted only after several severe examination” (221). Voltaire was aware that positive aspects of Chinese politics, ethics, and religion were closely related to the teachings of Confucius. For the French writer, Confucius is a “” who “deemed too highly of his character as a legislator for mankind, to stoop to deceive them” (Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary 343). After this estimation of the Chinese sage, Voltaire adds, “What finer rule of conduct has ever been given since his time, Tae-Hyeon Song: Research on Voltaire’s View of Confucius 21 throughout the earth?” (Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary 343) Confucius was at the core of Voltaire’s Sinophilia.

Voltaire’s Deism and Confucius Like other Enlightenment thinkers, such as Rousseau, Diderot, and d’Alembert, Voltaire also struggled with issues connected to . As an engaged in the process of constructing reality, his key interests were political and religious freedom and the protection of . He labeled fanaticism and intolerance “the infamous,” and used the motto “Crush the infamous! (Ecrasez l’infâme!)” in his fight against the French Catholic Church. Although his criticism of the Catholics was related to corrupted and immoral Catholic priests, its fundamental origin was the Bible itself, the foundation of the Catholic Church. The Bible is seen as a revelation of , and it contains reports of miracles that occur through divine intervention. However, Voltaire claimed that it should be understood in the light of rationality. As the idea of its a divine revelation could not be explained rationally, he rejected it. He saw the miracle (of the water turned into wine) at Cana in Galilee as a shameful trick. He claimed that the miracles attributed to Jesus, such as the healing of the sick or the raising of the dead, and notably Christ’s own resurrection, were even more suspicious (Cronk 201). Voltaire fought the Bible, attacking and ridiculing it (Cronk 202). For Voltaire, Christianity, which had gone beyond the limits of reason, was not a religion but was a “superstition.” Before Kant’s work, Voltaire had already presented an idea of “religion within the limit of reason alone.” Voltaire did not believe in “Orthodox” Christianity, but this does not mean that he advocated Atheism. In “Atheism,” an article in the Philosophical Dictionary, Voltaire stated, “It cannot be doubted that, in an organized society, it is better to have even a bad religion than no religion at all” (42). In A Treatise on , he pointed out the importance of having a religion: “Religion is necessary wherever there is a settled society. The laws take care of known crimes; religion watches secret crime” (179). In the seventeenth century, Pierre Bayle questioned whether a society of atheists can exist. Voltaire deemed it impossible. He argued that humans needed an idea of the “ of a Supreme Being” in order for society to maintain ethics, because people’s in God makes them refrain from sin (Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary 43). Voltaire even said, “If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him” (Voltaire, “Letter to the author” 402). Because Voltaire advocated to the exclusion of Atheism, he was criticized by French Atheist materialists who had once been his followers. In response to d’Holbach, an Atheist who claimed that religion has caused countless misfortunes, he said it is not a religion that reigns on our unhappy globe, but superstition (Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary 167). The religious viewpoint of Voltaire, at the same time criticizing Christianity for its supernatural elements on the one hand and Atheism on the other, is known as “Deism.” Alongside the development of modern science, Deism raised doubts about various Christian beliefs. It is an ideology that in the existence of a God based on the evidence of reason, and it rejects God’s intervention in the functioning of the natural world. The historical background of Deism can be traced to Bacon, Galileo, and Descartes and continued to Hobbes. ���� 外国文学研究 2014 年第 3 期

Deism had reached its peak by the time of Locke and Newton, who were founding fathers of . According to modern philosophy, faith in reason, rather than faith in God’s revelation, is the foundation of all . Accordingly, the basic tenets of Christianity, such as revelation, miracles, and the Bible, were questioned. Deism was a religious that sought to maintain Christianity while excluding these doubtful elements (Gay 19-20). Although most Western researchers of Deism think that it emerged from the West, some claim that Confucianism is the foundation of Deism in Europe. According to them, Deism was formed as a result of the translation of Confucian scriptures by the priests of the Society of Jesus. An in-depth study is needed to examine these claims. However, what is clear is that some European Deists considered to be Deists and assumed that their own Deism was consistent with Chinese ideology. According to , “the Chinese were the only regular body of Deists in the universe,” and this is why Chinese did not have priests or religious organizations (Hume 149). Matthew Tindal argued that the ethical teachings of Confucianism are equivalent to the teachings of Christianity, but have a foundation of rational thought rather than a revelatory basis, and stated as follows, “I am so far from thinking the maxims of Confucius and Jesus Christ differ, that I think the plain and simple maxims of the former help illustrate the more obscure ones of the latter” (Tindal 296). As Deism is usually seen to have developed with the of Locke and Newton, England was its epicentre. Voltaire propagated English Deism into France. From the perspectives of , reason, and ethics, Deists generally rejected “Orthodox Christianity” as an antithesis. Although they acknowledged the existence of a God who created the world, they rejected revelation or miracles. From the perspective of deism, Voltaire viewed the Bible and Catholics as superstitious, and thus criticized them. In addition to his disgust at “superstition,” Voltaire had a very negative attitude towards “fanaticism” because he considered it to be the cause of the in Europe and the persecution of other religious people groups, such as the massacre of the French Huguenots. He was very sensitive about caused by fanaticism. “For Voltaire, the massacre of St. Barthélemy was a serious psychological shock and the memory of this crime against humanity would not be lost to the end of his life. When the anniversary of the famous slaughter arrived, he caught a fever and suffered at night from of the people who were the sacrificial victims of religious intolerance” (Crugten-André 109). He was fiercely opposed to religious intolerance caused by fanaticism. He wrote to support and exonerate people such as Calas, who was falsely accused of killing his son who wanted to convert Catholicism, and died as a result of torture, the Sirven , who were falsely accused of drowning a daughter who wanted to convert to Catholicism, and received a verdict of guilt, and a young man, La Barre, who was charged for destroying a crucifix and died as a result of torture. Thus, we can see that Voltaire was “an active guardian of oppressed innocent people” (Mornet 127). “The Calas affair” is the most famous of his defenses. Taking a stand for Calas as his starting point, Voltaire wrote A Treatise on Toleration, systematically pointing out the need for religious tolerance. He presented “reason” as a cure to the illness of religious intolerance caused by fanaticism. “If there was a solution for reducing the number of fanatics, it would be lighting the light of reason to the mental illness of fanaticism. Tae-Hyeon Song: Research on Voltaire’s View of Confucius 23

Although the effects of the solution of reason are slow in enlightening humans, the solution is a prescription that never fails” (70). Voltaire paid special attention to Chinese religious thought in the hope of overcoming the superstition and fanaticism of European Christianity and religious intolerance. He saw Confucianism as a rational religion without superstitious or fanatical elements, and tolerant in that it would not cause a religious war. Accordingly, he had a very positive attitude towards Confucianism. Voltaire saw Christian superstition as originating from . According to Voltaire, and the Christian Church were influenced by superstition in their earliest times (Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary 396). He criticized the Catholics and Protestants who had fought against each other in Europe, arguing that both sides were superstitious. He pointed out that China was home to a religion without superstition. “Can there exist a people free from all superstitious prejudices? This is asking, Can there exist a people of philosophers? It is said that there is no superstition in the magistracy of China” (398). Furthermore, in his article on “fanaticism” in the Philosophical Dictionary, he praised Confucianism, stating “[T]here has been only one religion in the world which has not been polluted by fanaticism and that is the religion of the learned in China” (198). He took the opportunity to critically examine European religious through Chinese ideology. He presented Confucianism, as a “natural religion” without revelation, as an alternative to Christian ideology, which was characterized by transcendental revelation. Voltaire argued that Confucians were Deists and that their holy belief was not based on faith but on the natural right of reason. Regarding the issue of religious tolerance, which was a key problem in Western religion, China was a model for religious tolerance. Voltaire argued that Confucianism was more tolerant than Christianity, as it had co-existed along with Taoism and Buddhism and the emperors of the Ming and Dynasties had permitted Christian missionaries. “As we know, Chinese rulers have adopted only one religion for over 4000 years on the basis of simple of the one and only God. However, they allowed the people to believe in Buddha and tolerated many Buddhist despite the fact that monks can be a dangerous group if they are not controlled through a legal system” (Voltaire, A Treatise on Toleration 37). If China was tolerant to other religions, how could the banishment of Catholic priests from China be explained? In 1724, Emperor Yongzheng sent all missionaries to except those needed by , and cancelled church-building projects. In addition, the next Emperor, Qianlong, continued this persecution by issuing an imperial order for the abolition of the faith in Christianity in 1736 and minimizing Catholic work. Voltaire was well aware that the persecution of Christianity by the Emperors was related to an in which the Vatican did not accept Chinese religious , as it considered Chinese religion to be atheism and idolatry. Voltaire criticized the intolerance of Western missionaries toward Chinese religion and claimed that the Chinese Emperors who expelled the missionaries were rather more tolerant. Although Emperor Yongzheng expelled the foreign missionaries, he showed an attentive consideration for them by ensuring that they returned comfortably without being attacked by angry people. His attitude during the expulsion of the missionaries became “an example of tolerance and humanity” (Voltaire 1763, 38). In “The Princess of Babylon,” which is one of Voltaire’s philosophical contes, when the ���� 外国文学研究 2014 年第 3 期

Chinese Emperor, “the most just, polite and wise monarch in the world,” expelled the priests from the West, he stated as follows: “You came to the most tolerant country in the world to preach intolerant dogma. I ask you to leave so you will not have to be punished. You will be guided honorably to my border. We will provide everything that you need in order to ensure you return safely to the hemisphere you left” (379-380) .

Voltaire, an Admirer of Confucius Voltaire saw Confucianism as the ideological system that was most similar to tolerant Deism, without superstition or fanaticism. He saw Confucius as the ideal Deist, and Deism as an effective substitute of revealed religion (Rowbotham 1057). Voltaire was impressed that Confucius did not talk about miracles and preach empty and nonsensical messages, and that his speech was simply pure ethics. In his Essay on the Manner and Spirit of Nations, Voltaire stated as follows regarding Confucius: “Confucius of the Chinese people did not bring the imagination of a new or new to replace what existed before. He did not act as if he were a prophet or someone sent by God. He was a wise administrator, teaching the laws of the past. It is not appropriate to describe ‘the religion of Confucius.’ His religion was a religion of the emperor and administration and the religion of ancient sages. Ethics is the only thing that he recommended and he did not preach any mysteries” (58). In practice, Confucius did not volunteer to be a prophet, did not claim to be a messenger or bring a divine revelation, and did not discuss mysterious phenomenon or the existence of things that it is hard to explain rationally. In response to a disciple who asked about death, he said, “While you do not know life, how can you know about death?” Therefore, he also kept silent regarding the . Voltaire sought to highlight Confucius’ aspect as an excellent moral teacher rather his status as the “founder of a religion.” He adored Confucius as a great figure, and considered the period in which his teachings were observed as a golden era. The disciples of Confucius were very close to each other as if they were a people of brothers. If there were a most respectable period in the history of the world, it would be that time in which Confucian precepts were created. In the article on “China” in the Philosophical Dictionary, Voltaire testified that the following piece of poetry was printed on the bottom of a portrait of Confucius that was hanging in the study room of a philosopher that he knew.

Without assumption he explored the , Unveiled the light of reason to mankind; Spoke as a sage, and never as a seer, Yet, strange to say, his country held him dear. (106)

In fact, this “philosopher” described by Voltaire was Voltaire himself. Voltaire expressed his own view of Confucius by implicitly comparing him with the founders of new religions such as Jesus and . Through these comparisons of reason and revelation, sage and prophet, one betrayed by the people of his own country and the other respected by the people of his own country, Voltaire highly praised Confucius for teaching pure ethics, unconnected to divine Tae-Hyeon Song: Research on Voltaire’s View of Confucius 25 revelation. Voltaire argued that the ethics of France and Europe were corrupted. On the other hand, he claimed that China was ethically superior to Europe, as the moral teachings of Confucius were still effective. In this respect, he postulated that Europe should embrace the ethics of Confucius and that Europeans should become disciples of the Chinese people (Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary 107). The Orphan of China reflects Voltaire’s praise of Confucius well. It is a re-working by Voltaire of The Orphan of by the Dynasty dramatist Ji Jungxiang. Joseph Henri Prémare, a , was responsible for distributing The Orphan of Zhao throughout the West. In 1731, he translated The Orphan of Zhao into French in China, added the title “L’Orphelin la Maison de Tchao,” and sent the manuscript to Europe (Liu 201). Jean-Baptiste du Halde, a priest who received the manuscript in France, inserted it into a voluminous book, The General , vol. 3, which he published himself. Voltaire’s remake became widely known in Europe in the eighteenth century, and many works were produced that were based on it. In a dedicatory letter to Duke of Richelieu in The Orphan of China, Voltaire argued that his work was a great example of the superiority of the “reason and genius” of the Chinese people to the “blind and barbaric power” of the people of Tartary (Mongolia) (vii). The Mongolian military, which conquered the Sung Dynasty in the thirteenth century, were in response conquered by Chinese civilization during their occupation. Although the Manchurian Imperial Army led the to fall in the seventeenth century, it, too, was conquered by Chinese civilization. Voltaire was very impressed by this history. He highlighted the image of Chinese people having great ethics, introducing the context of a contrast between the Chinese people and the Mongolians represented by Genghis Khan, to replace the power struggle between Chinese people, which was the context of the original work. He also granted the honor of the “conqueror conquered” to the Chinese people. When Voltaire dramatized The Orphan of Zhao as The Orphan of China, he changed much of it, apart from certain key parts. The core of Voltaire’s remake was the spirit of the Chinese people and especially the praise of the great ethics of Confucius. In particularly, he used part of the narrative to demonstrate the strength of Confucian ethics: Genghis Khan was touched by the spirit of a Chinese woman who refused his offer to divorce her husband and marry him in exchange for granting a pardon to her husband, son, and the crown . As a result, he discharged a Chinese couple who made a false claim that their son was crown prince, in order to save the real crown prince, and promised to respect the . Accordingly, in a letter to the Marquis d’Argenson, Voltaire stated that his work The Orphan of China was “Five Acts that summarized the ethics of Confucius” (Martino 223).

Voltaire’s Contribution and Limitations European culture has not simply formed as a result of the inherent development of the West without external influences. In Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization, a historian named Martin Bernal states that a large majority of the theology, philosophy, and science that are seen as creative elements of the ancient Greek civilization were actually formed due to the effects of Egypt and oriental civilizations. He argues that the West, showing its “” and ���� 外国文学研究 2014 年第 3 期

“continental chauvinism,” has long been denying this fact by distorting its history (Bernal 2). This Eurocentric view had already been formed even in Voltaire’s time. Since Herodotus and , it had been standard for European thinkers to schematize “free Europe” and “subordinate ” when comparing the two continents. As many thinkers at the time of Machiavelli, Bodin, and Locke gained their understanding of Europe and Asia within this scheme, they eventually reinforced it (Anderson 397-400). This ideology continued through to , a contemporary of Voltaire. This schematic understanding was solidified by Montesquieu, and continued to recur in Europe until it reached Hegel and . Voltaire overcame the Euro- centrism based on the superiority of Europe by acknowledging the superiority of China to Europe in terms of ethics and politics and arguing that Confucianism was an ideal Deism; in other words, that Confucianism was a tolerant religious ideology that was free from superstition and fanaticism. China, and his encounter with Confucianism in particular, provided Voltaire with an opportunity to fundamentally examine the civilization of Europe and the civilization of Christianity. Criticizing his own civilization through encountering the other, and providing solutions for the problems he saw in his civilization, was Voltaire’s major contribution. However, he can be criticized for excessively idealizing Confucianism and distorting other Chinese religions, such as Taoism and Buddhism, in the way that he used Chinese religious ideology as a tool to criticize the contemporary reality of France and Europe. In fact, Voltaire rarely mentioned Buddha or Lao-tzu, and when he did mention Taoism or Buddhism, it was usually in a negative context. Voltaire’s bias toward reason and Deism and rejection of the supernatural was what led to his negative evaluation of Lao-tzu and Buddha (or Taoism and Buddhism). In Chapter Two, “the Religion of China,” in Essay on the Manner and Spirit of Nations, Voltaire states the following regarding Lao-tzu: “Some time before the era of Confucius, Laokiun had introduced a that believed in spirits, enchantments, and other delusions” (187). If Taoism is divided into philosophical Taoism and religious Taoism, the Lao-tzu (Laokiun) mentioned by Voltaire is the Lao-tzu espoused in religious Taoism. Voltaire argued that the sect of Loakiun introduced “superstition” to the public. It seems that he was unaware of the Te Ching, which is not irrelevant to this “superstition.” In addition to Taoism, Voltaire was also critical about Buddhism. He described Buddhism as the superstition of bonzes worshipping “Idol Fo,” and saw the worship of Buddha as “extremely ridiculous, and therefore the better adapted for the vulgar” (187). He said contemptuously, “bonzes are supposed to cast out devils, to work miracles” (187). He also criticized bonzes for selling people absolution. In short, he described Buddhism as a religion full of fanaticism, superstition, and the corruption of priests. Voltaire, who understood Chinese religion in the context of the conflicting dualism of Confucianism and Taoism and Buddhism, saw Confucianism as a religion of scholars and Taoism and Buddhism as religions of the ignorant public. His view of Chinese religion was built on a dualistic division of separate religions for elites and the public. Moreover, he also claimed that elites pursued religion within the limit of reason, whereas the public pursued religion that went beyond the limit of reason: in other words, religion that accepts supernatural elements. In his biased perspective, he viewed those Chinese religions with supernatural elements as inherently Tae-Hyeon Song: Research on Voltaire’s View of Confucius 27 superstitious. As a result, he devalued and distorted Taoism and Buddhism. It is at this point that Voltaire’s view of Chinese religion shows its limitations.

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