DOCSLIB.ORG

Which Way Is Jerusalem? Which Way Is Mecca? the Direction-Facing Problem in Religion and Geography

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Which Way Is Jerusalem? Which Way Is Mecca? the Direction-Facing Problem in Religion and Geography Which Way Is Jerusalem? Which Way Is Mecca? The Direction-Facing Problem in Religion and Geography Daniel Z. Levin ABSTRACT Why would a mosque in New York City face toward the northeast when Determining the direction in "everyone knows" that Mecca is south and east of New York? This question is which to face another location on the globe an example of the direction-facing problem in geography: When standing at a is a problem with significant social and reli­ particular point on the globe, in what direction is another point elsewhere on gious meaning, and one with a rich and the globe? As in the above example of the New York mosque oriented more or interesting history in the Western world. less toward Greenland, the answers can be surprising. Perhaps even more sur­ Yet a fully satisfying geographic solution to prising, though, is that, from the perspective of mathematics and cartography, this problem is hindered by our intuitive there is not just one scientific answer to the direction-facing problem, but two perception of the world as a flat surface­ where a 0 straight0 path (1) is the shortest potentially valid mathematical answers. As we shall see, the reality of compass distance, and (2) maintains a constant direction on a round earth does not always fit with what our intuitive notions of angle. On a curved surface, however, only distance and direction would have us believe. one of these two properties can be satis­ For religious Jews and Muslims, for example, this issue is not merely fied: the first, by a great circle; the second, academic. In both faiths, worshippers have been conducting their prayers for by a rhumb line. These two solutions are centuries while facing a holy city: for Jews, Jerusalem; for Muslims, Mecca. analyzed, compared, and applied to the Thus, beyond its usual importance to social science, public policy, and industry, direction-facing problem. the tools and techniques of geographic analysis in this case have significant social (even theological) meaning to religious institutions as well. Although reli­ Key Words: direction facing, religion, great gions have relied upon various folk traditions and rules of thumb, modern wor­ circle, rhumb line shippers might also wonder if mathematics, geography, and cartography can provide a scientific answer to the direction-facing problem. Yet, deciding what exactly is the direction in which to face another point on the globe turns out, for theoretical reasons, to be far from straightforward, even scientifically. In fact there are two potential mathematical solutions to the direction-facing problem: either the initial compass direction of a great circle (i.e., the shortest path) con­ necting the two locations; or the constant direction of a rhumb line (i.e., the path of constant compass direction) connecting the two locations. In this arti­ cle-designed to spark the interest of students of geography and requiring no more than high-school trigonometry-I review the diverse history of prayer ori­ entations and then describe how and why we might use the great circle versus the rhumb line to solve the direction-facing problem. DIRECTION FAONG IN WESTERN REUGIONS Several major religions-Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Baha'i-have historically observed the practice of orienting prayer in a particular geographic direction. Moreover, over time, these groups have approached the direction-fac­ Daniel Z. Levin (Ph.D., Northwestern ing problem in a number of different ways. University, 1999) is an assistant professor of organization management at Rutgers University. Ordinarily, his research interests Judaism include organizational learning, change, and The tradition among Jews to face in the direction of Jerusalem while innovation, but they also extend to intellectu­ praying is an ancient, biblical one. According to the Bible, King Solomon (10th ally interesting problems in social science, century B.C.E.) built the first Temple in Jerusalem and then stated when dedi­ geography, and the overlap between the two. cating that structure that the Israelites would "pray to the Lord in the direction of the city which You have chosen [Jerusalem], and in the direction of the House [Temple] which I built to Your name" (I Kings 8:44). After the destruction of this Journal of Geography 101:27-37 ©2002 National Council for Geographic Education 28 Levin Temple, the Bible notes that Daniel (6th century B.C.E.), should lean a little towards the southeast. while in exile in Babylonia, faced in the direction of (L'vush, as quoted in Mishna B'rurah, O.H. 94:2) Jerusalem while praying (Daniel 6:11). After the final However, a rabbi writing in 17th-century Prague destruction of the secorid Jewish Temple (70 C.E.), located noted that he had only witnessed Jews facing directly east­ on the same site as the first, this tradition remained and ward. He therefore concluded-even though his own opin­ was soon codified into Jewish law. For the most part, how­ ion was to face southeast-that most Jews must be taking ever, it appears that in actual practice Jews have had a the view that simply choosing one of the four compass rather flexible attitude toward the direction of Jerusalem directions mentioned 1,400 years earlier in the Talmud was and moreover, even in theory, have never been extraordi­ sufficient (Divrei Hamudot, B'rachot 30a). In fact, most syna­ narily precise about determining its direction. gogues from the middle ages to the 18th century placed the The earliest rabbis, whose views were first record­ ark along a wall that was due east; one notable exception, ed around the year 200 C.E., believed that Jews should though, was the 16th/17th-century 0 Spanish synagogue" in physically face Jerusalem when praying, but added that Venice, which was oriented to face south by southeast someone on a boat could simply direct his 0 heart" to the (Kashtan 1971). At the turn of the 20th century, yet anoth­ site of the destroyed Temple in Jerusalem (Babylonian er Jewish legal authority-one who lived in Lithuania and Talmud, B'rachot 28b). Another source from the same time Poland-again reiterated that Jews in Europe should face period elaborated, "Those in the north face the south, southeast; that is, toward where the sun is 30-60 minutes those in the south face the north, those in the east face the after sunrise in the spring or fall (Mishna B'rurah, O.H. west and those in the west face the east so that all Israel 94:2). Despite these admonitions, however, today all, or [i.e., the Jewish people] prays toward one place" (Tosefta nearly all, synagogues in Europe and North America (if B'rachot 3:16). By the late 5th century, subsequent rabbis they have any intentional geographic orientation at all) are had reiterated this viewpoint but added the opinion that a oriented to face due east. blind man or someone who does not know the direction Besides praying in the direction of Jerusalem, 3rd­ should simply direct his 0 heart" towards his Father in heav­ to 5th-century rabbis also applied the direction-facing prin­ en (Babylonian Talmud, B'rachot 30a). Archaeological evi­ ciple to a Jewish law that one should avoid showing disre­ dence confirms that 2nd- to 5th-century synagogues were spect by relieving oneself while facing the Temple in roughly oriented to face Jerusal~m (Avi-Yonah 1971). Jerusalem when it is in view. These early rabbis debated As Jews migrated to North Africa and Europe, and differed over whether this prohibition applies when later commentaries on this Jewish law-e.g., rabbis writing the Temple is not in existence (i.e., after 70 C.E.), or when in 13th-century Germany (Mord'khai, B'rachot 30a) and in Jerusalem is not in sight, or when one is not due north or 14th-century Spain (Tur, O.H. 94)-noted simply that Jews due east of Jerusalem, or when one is outside the Land of to the west of the Land of Israel should face eastward. Israel entirely. Interestingly, those who followed this prohi­ Interestingly, in Arab lands-where Muslim astronomers bition would avoid facing Jerusalem and avoid turning their and Qthers focused intensely on the direction-facing prob­ backs to it; thus, many rabbis argued that someone to the lem-medieval Jewish scholars showed no interest in treat­ east of Jerusalem should face north or south when reliev­ ing more scientifically the direction of prayer (Goldstein ing himself (Babylonian Talmud, B'rachot 61b). Many cen­ 1996). Perhaps the only scientific treatment of this issue turies later, Jewish burial also became associated with the was by a 15th-century Jewish astronomer in Lisbon who direction of Jerusalem. One early-19th-century European wrote in Hebrew of finding the direction of Jerusalem rabbi wrote that, although it is not mentioned in ancient or using geographic coordinates, although he did not indicate early Jewish texts, it had become an established Jewish cus­ what method he used or what dire,::tion he found tom in Europe to bury a person with the legs to the east (or (Langermann 1999). By the 16th century in Poland, one sometimes south) "as symbolic of the faith in resurrection . legal codifier (a rabbi) wrote of facing eastward, but then of the dead, indicating that he will stand up from his grave added that Jews should build a synagogue such that the and leave ... to travel to the Holy Land [when the Messiah direction of prayer is actually southeast, since facing direct­ comes anq ends the Jewish exile]" (Responsum Hatam ly east (toward where the sun rises) is the way Christians Sofer Y.D.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Greatest Holy Leaf's Unparalleled Role in Religious History and The
    The Greatest Holy Leaf’s Unparalleled Role in Religious History and the Significance of the Arc, the Site of Her Resting Place Baharieh Rouhani Ma`ani The year 2013 marks the hundredth anniversary of `Abdu’l- Bahá’s return to the Holy Land from His historic trip to Egypt and the West. He left Haifa for Egypt in September 1910 and returned there three years later. The person “invested … with the responsibility”’ to attend “to the multitudinous details arising out of His protracted absence from the Holy Land” (Bahíyyih Khánum, the Greatest Holy Leaf [henceforth, “BK”], p. 39) was His honoured sister, Bahá’íyyih Khánum,1 the Greatest Holy Leaf. In the words of Shoghi Effendi: “At the time of His [`Abdu’l- Bahá’s] absence in the western world, she was His competent deputy, His representative and vicegerent, with none to equal her” (BK 28). The centenary of `Abdu’l-Bahá’s return to the Holy Land after His protracted absence coincides with the fiftieth anniversary of the establishment of the Universal House of Justice. As we gather to celebrate these landmarks, we take time to ponder upon the life of a most remarkable woman in the history of religion, focus attention on the outstanding services she rendered and on the significance of the site Shoghi Effendi chose for her burial place. It was his choice of a specific spot on Mount Carmel that determined the location of the Arc, around which are built the institutions of the world administrative 200 Lights of Irfán vol. 15 centre of the Faith, the Seat of the Universal House of Justice occupying its centre top.
    [Show full text]
  • Direction of Jerusalem from My Location
    Direction Of Jerusalem From My Location Furriest Hillary backcomb very agnatically while Manuel remains Moresco and unprejudiced. Sheepish Andre dandle that Suetonius enhance then and raptures illimitably. Scrophulariaceous Otis featuring or bedraggled some fetor episodically, however frolicsome Nelson undercharges inerasably or jinxes. Old jerusalem from my struggles and he sent for commerce and a microcosm of nisan they defended from all the location for a cisc or tops and. But is fifteen years earlier. Two thumbs up? But the location, my information about this location of jerusalem my direction of creation began an essene community. The jerusalem from my dream to locate the wall area known in the digs on temple mount during the walk is located within the defensive wall? Apocryphal and from direct the location on the camera frame of tibet, located within the east was applied to locate. Will direct to jerusalem from a uniform plan to those who at its location of intense literary treasure. This direction of jerusalem from direct to locate the directions when i will be located, and eventually be seen in the soldiers of the legionaries. During very rich treasures, from your location one who is an artist who, then he is a jewish communities any lost much! Abraham and direction of the direction of jerusalem from my location of recreational activities that location of supplementing the dawn that. Davidson park there are located on the antonia; half to locate the scribe works almost any case rot at that. When he became sacred ones below shows the location of jerusalem from my direction of my direction? They quite recently that certain levels, located my college board with a shorter variety with david.
    [Show full text]
  • People, Look East! Celebration of Mass Ad Orientem at Good Shepherd Advent and Christmas 2020
    PEOPLE, LOOK EAST! CELEBRATION OF MASS AD ORIENTEM AT GOOD SHEPHERD ADVENT AND CHRISTMAS 2020 INTRODUCTION Angels announce with shouts of mirth Him who brings new life to earth. Set every peak and valley humming With the word, the Lord is coming. People, look East and sing today – Love, the Lord, is on the way.1 1. In the normal course of events, outside of pandemic restrictions on our Masses, we would put these words on our lips at least once during the Season of Advent. People, look East, and sing today – Love, the Guest, the Rose, the Bird, the Star, the Lord, is on the way. Why look East for the coming of the Lord? 2. Part of that answer may come readily. “Because Bethlehem is to the East!” During this Season of Advent, we prepare to welcome the Christ Child, who was born in that direction. Just as those magi from the East set their sights West toward Bethlehem to find him, we in the West set our sights East for the same reason. We look East so that we may encounter the Lord who comes to us in gentleness, in mercy, and in love. 3. There is, however, another reason to look East during Advent – a reason why people both West and East of Bethlehem look in that direction. For we also enter into this Season of Advent preparing to welcome Christ when he comes again2 “in glory to judge the living and the dead.”3 Love, the Lord, tells us that when he comes again, he will come from the East.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 15: Africa - World’S First Busiest Drone Operational Proving Ground - Where Counter-Terrorism and Modernization Meet
    Nichols, Ryan, Mumm, Lonstein, & Carter Chapter 15: Africa - World’s First Busiest Drone Operational Proving Ground - Where Counter-Terrorism and Modernization Meet Student Learning Objectives – Africa has become the drone investment -playground of many nations. The student will be introduced to activities of these geopolitical players (US, France, EU, Germany, Egypt and China) and the significance of their intentions. The history of drone investments / operations in Africa is directly a function of the growth of terrorist organizations and African economy. Africa – Overview Africa is a developing continent comprised of unstable states due to undeveloped economy, poor education, and unified government among the states. Africa’s leaders want to see their country develop and become a world leader. They look to their long-term allies to solve their issues. Radical Islam continues to spread and threaten the future of Africa. With the turbulence of state’s government, insurgence groups have joined forces with terrorist organizations affiliated with radical Islam. Radical Islamic extremists are a global security threat. Therefore, several countries fighting terror at home are also assisting Africa in the fight on terror. A priority goal of many African leaders is to defeat terrorism. They feel this can be achieved by stopping terrorist organizations membership growth. Conflict on land is not the only issue facing Africa, maritime security is a huge factor in Africa’s economic growth. Other countries willingly assist Africa in protecting their waterways to reap the benefits of trade and profit. There are high stakes for China, European Union, and United States to ensure Africa’s perimeter allows for safe passage of Commercial and Military vessels.
    [Show full text]
  • * * * * * * Selections from the Writings of The
    Selections from the Writings of the Báb Compiled by the Research Department of the Universal House of Justice and translated by Habib Taherzadeh with the assistance of a Committee at the Bahá’í World Centre * * * 1. Tablets and Addresses 2. Excerpts from the Qayyúmu’l-Asmá’ 3. Excerpts from the Persian Bayán 4. Excerpts from the Dalá’il-i-Sab‘ih 5. Excerpts from the Kitáb-i-Asmá’ 6. Excerpts from Various Writings 7. Prayers and Meditations Key to Passages Translated by Shoghi Effendi * * * References to the Qur’án In footnotes referring to the Qur’án the súrihs have been numbered according to the original, whereas the verse numbers are those in Rodwell’s translation which differ sometimes from those of the Arabic. 1 Tablets and Addresses A Tablet Addressed to “Him Who Will Be Made Manifest” This is an epistle from this lowly servant to the All-Glorious Lord—He Who hath been aforetime and will be hereafter made manifest. Verily He is the Most Manifest, the Almighty. In the name of the Sovereign Lord, the Lord of Power. Glorified is He before Whom all the dwellers of earth and heaven bow down in adoration and unto Whom all men turn in supplication. He is the One Who holdeth in His grasp the mighty kingdom of all created things and unto Him shall all return. He is the One Who revealeth whatsoever He willeth and by His injunction “Be Thou” all things have come into being. This is an epistle from the letter Thá1 unto Him Who will be made manifest through the power of Truth—He Who is the All-Glorious, the Best-Beloved—to affirm that all created things as well as myself bear witness for all time that there is none other God but Thee, the Omnipotent, the Self-Subsisting; that Thou art God, there is no God besides Thee and that all men shall be raised up to life through Thee.
    [Show full text]
  • Worldwide Equipment Guide
    WORLDWIDE EQUIPMENT GUIDE TRADOC DCSINT Threat Support Directorate DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. Worldwide Equipment Guide Sep 2001 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Page Memorandum, 24 Sep 2001 ...................................... *i V-150................................................................. 2-12 Introduction ............................................................ *vii VTT-323 ......................................................... 2-12.1 Table: Units of Measure........................................... ix WZ 551........................................................... 2-12.2 Errata Notes................................................................ x YW 531A/531C/Type 63 Vehicle Series........... 2-13 Supplement Page Changes.................................... *xiii YW 531H/Type 85 Vehicle Series ................... 2-14 1. INFANTRY WEAPONS ................................... 1-1 Infantry Fighting Vehicles AMX-10P IFV................................................... 2-15 Small Arms BMD-1 Airborne Fighting Vehicle.................... 2-17 AK-74 5.45-mm Assault Rifle ............................. 1-3 BMD-3 Airborne Fighting Vehicle.................... 2-19 RPK-74 5.45-mm Light Machinegun................... 1-4 BMP-1 IFV..................................................... 2-20.1 AK-47 7.62-mm Assault Rifle .......................... 1-4.1 BMP-1P IFV...................................................... 2-21 Sniper Rifles.....................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Journal of Bahá'í Studies
    THE JOURNAL OF BAHÁ’Í STUDIES La Revue des études bahá’íes/La Revista de estudios bahá’ís Volume 29, number 3 Fall 2019 A Publication of the Association for Bahá’í Studies–North America THE JOURNAL OF BAHÁ’Í STUDIES LA REVUE DES ÉTUDES BAHÁ’ÍES/LA REVISTA DE ESTUDIOS BAHÁ’ÍS Volume 29 Number 3 Fall 2019 Publications Mail Registration No. 09448 EDITOR John S. Hatcher POETRY EDITOR Peter E. Murphy EDITORIAL COORDINATOR Nilufar Gordon EDITORIAL COMMITTEE Roshan Danesh, Nilufar Gordon, Mehran Kiai, Pierre-Yves Mocquais, Bahhaj Taherzadeh French translation: Louise Mailhot and Juliette Goudreau Spanish translation: John S. Hatcher The Journal of Bahá’í Studies (USPS #013-468) is published by the Association for Bahá’í Studies–North America. The views expressed in this Journal are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the opinions of the Editorial Board or Executive Committee of the Association for Bahá’í Studies, or authoritative explications of Bahá’í teachings. Periodicals postage paid at Champlain, NY, and additional mailing offices. Postmaster: Address changes should be sent to IMS of NY, 100 Walnut St. #3, P.O. Box 1518, Champlain, NY, USA 12919-1518. For details call IMS at 1(800) 428-3003. Articles in The Journal of Bahá’í Studies are available on EBSCO Publishing’s aggregated database. This journal is abstracted in Science of Religion Abstracts, Religion Index One: Periodicals, Index Islamicus, and Index to Book Reviews in Religion, and catalogued at American Theological Library Association and the Institut de L’Information Scientifique et Technique. Annual subscription fees (in Canadian funds): Individual subscriptions: Canada $70; United States: $80; International: $90.
    [Show full text]
  • The Aerospace Cluster in Israel: Take Off in the Startup Nation
    The Aerospace Cluster in Israel: Take Off in the Startup Nation Microeconomics of Competitiveness: Firms, Clusters, and Economic Development Winter 2015 Omar Aziz Zhuldyz Bakytzhanova Sara GreenberG A. M. May 2015 Table of Contents Executive Summary .......................................................................................................................... 3 I. Israel: Country Overview ................................................................................................... 4 Background: Hostile Environment a Major Driver of Industry ......................................... 4 Model of Economic Development: Endowments and Processes ....................................... 4 Limited Natural Resources but High Potential for Gas Export .................................................... 4 Favorable Geographic Position with Access to Two Oceans ........................................................ 5 Human Capital is a Major Economic Development Factor ............................................................ 5 Impact of the Global Jewish Diaspora ..................................................................................................... 6 Economic Transformation: From Socialism to a Start-up Economy ......................................... 7 Framework for Assessment of Competitiveness ................................................................. 10 Macroeconomic Competitiveness ............................................................................................. 11 Human Development and
    [Show full text]
  • Searching for May Maxwell: Bahá’Í Millennial Feminism, Transformative Identity & Globalism in the New World Order
    Searching for May Maxwell: Bahá’í Millennial Feminism, Transformative Identity & Globalism in the new World Order Shaping Women’s Role in Early Bahá’i Culture 1898-1940 A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Research in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, SK, Canada By Selena M. Crosson © Copyright Selena M. Crosson, June 2013. All rights reserved. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis/dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis/dissertation in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis/dissertation work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis/dissertation or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis/dissertation. DISCLAIMER Reference in this thesis/dissertation to any specific commercial products, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the University of Saskatchewan.
    [Show full text]
  • On the 'Orientation' of Ancient Synagogues and Churches
    84 chapter three CHAPTER THREE ON THE ‘ORIENTATION’ OF ANCIENT SYNAGOGUES AND CHURCHES Introduction This chapter is divided in two sections. In the first section, the theological implications for having a direction of prayer are exam- ined in light of the Jewish sources. This evidence is contrasted with what is known about direction of prayer from the Christian sources. Apparently Jewish writers were not overly concerned with this issue. Moreover, no single authoritative view is expressed, which might be a result of the form of the Jewish sources themselves. This situation stands in marked contrast to the Christian view from as early as the second century CE, in which the East is understood as the ‘correct’ direction to offer prayer. In the second section of this chapter, the archaeological evidence is presented for prayer in the Jewish and Christian realms. First, the criteria used by archaeologists to define the functional aspects of rectangular synagogue halls used by Jews are examined. Second, evi- dence found by archaeological excavation is reassessed to determine the validity of modern assumptions regarding direction of prayer. Indeed, apses and niches in synagogues are the best evidence for direction of prayer in synagogues, as in Christian practice. Finally, the archaeological evidence from Palestine and Syria is presented to show that apses and the raised bema preceding the apse were features of even the earliest churches. 3.1. Where was the Divine Presence? In 70 CE, after a three-year siege, the Legio X Fretensis had not only destroyed Jerusalem, but had also obliterated the Temple, the unique house of Yahweh, where the Shekinah or “Divine Presence” supposedly dwelt.
    [Show full text]
  • Successful Test Arrow Weapon System
    : STATE OF ISRAEL SPOKESPERSON OF THE MINISTRY OF DEFENSE February 11th, 2007 Successful Test Arrow Weapon System The Arrow Weapon System marked tonight at 9:18 PM, 11/02/07, an important milestone by completing another successful test. The test, the 15th for the interceptor, the 10th for the complete weapon system, is part of the Arrow System Improvement Program, ASIP, which is being carried out jointly, by Israel and the United States. The objectives of the test were: To examine improved performance including widening of the interception envelope To test the system in an integrated operational configuration engaging two batteries located at a distance from each other. To check implementation of lessons from previous tests. Several novel elements marked this test: The test took place at night time. The target missile simulated a yet nonexistent ballistic missile operating under extreme conditions. The interceptor belonged to the first series of interceptors jointly produced by Boeing and Israel Aerospace Industries/ MLM. The target trajectory demonstrated an operational scenario and all the system's components performed in their operational configuration. Immediately after the target was launched, the Arrow Weapon System started its operation. The Fire Control Radar (FCR) acquired the target and sent its data to the Battle Management Command and Control (BMC). A defense plan was issued and a mission command was sent to the launcher. The interceptor was launched and performed its trajectory toward the interception point. The Arrow program is managed by the Israeli Missile Defense Organization in the Research and Development Directorate in the Israeli Ministry of Defense (IMOD), in close cooperation with the US missile Defense Agency (MDA).
    [Show full text]
  • Worldwide Equipment Guide Volume 2: Air and Air Defense Systems
    Dec Worldwide Equipment Guide 2016 Worldwide Equipment Guide Volume 2: Air and Air Defense Systems TRADOC G-2 ACE–Threats Integration Ft. Leavenworth, KS Distribution Statement: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. 1 UNCLASSIFIED Worldwide Equipment Guide Opposing Force: Worldwide Equipment Guide Chapters Volume 2 Volume 2 Air and Air Defense Systems Volume 2 Signature Letter Volume 2 TOC and Introduction Volume 2 Tier Tables – Fixed Wing, Rotary Wing, UAVs, Air Defense Chapter 1 Fixed Wing Aviation Chapter 2 Rotary Wing Aviation Chapter 3 UAVs Chapter 4 Aviation Countermeasures, Upgrades, Emerging Technology Chapter 5 Unconventional and SPF Arial Systems Chapter 6 Theatre Missiles Chapter 7 Air Defense Systems 2 UNCLASSIFIED Worldwide Equipment Guide Units of Measure The following example symbols and abbreviations are used in this guide. Unit of Measure Parameter (°) degrees (of slope/gradient, elevation, traverse, etc.) GHz gigahertz—frequency (GHz = 1 billion hertz) hp horsepower (kWx1.341 = hp) Hz hertz—unit of frequency kg kilogram(s) (2.2 lb.) kg/cm2 kg per square centimeter—pressure km kilometer(s) km/h km per hour kt knot—speed. 1 kt = 1 nautical mile (nm) per hr. kW kilowatt(s) (1 kW = 1,000 watts) liters liters—liquid measurement (1 gal. = 3.785 liters) m meter(s)—if over 1 meter use meters; if under use mm m3 cubic meter(s) m3/hr cubic meters per hour—earth moving capacity m/hr meters per hour—operating speed (earth moving) MHz megahertz—frequency (MHz = 1 million hertz) mach mach + (factor) —aircraft velocity (average 1062 km/h) mil milliradian, radial measure (360° = 6400 mils, 6000 Russian) min minute(s) mm millimeter(s) m/s meters per second—velocity mt metric ton(s) (mt = 1,000 kg) nm nautical mile = 6076 ft (1.152 miles or 1.86 km) rd/min rounds per minute—rate of fire RHAe rolled homogeneous armor (equivalent) shp shaft horsepower—helicopter engines (kWx1.341 = shp) µm micron/micrometer—wavelength for lasers, etc.
    [Show full text]