In search of Nubian master-builders: an architectural drawing from the Cathedral... SUDAN IN SEARCH OF NUBIAN MASTER-BUILDERS: AN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FROM THE CATHEDRAL IN FARAS Piotr Makowski1 with an appendix by Vincent W. J. van Gerven Oei2 1 University of Warsaw, 2 The Centre for Modern Thought, University of Aberdeen Abstract: A makeshift drawing from the Cathedral in Faras may be a depiction of the ground plan of a church. Nevertheless, the naive appearance of the sketch and an almost complete lack of sufficient parallels from either Nubia or the Eastern Mediterranean make a proper examination of this assumption unfeasible. A reassessment of the architectural drawing from the cathedral, however, draws a wider perspective for a discussion of originality in Nubian architecture. The following paper presents the rather modest evidence available for a study of the nature of Nubian architecture from the point of view of its builders. Keywords: Nubia, Faras/Pachoras, cathedral, architectural drawing, architectural practices, floor plan, originality, master-builders, architects, Old Nubian language, Nubian studies Of the vast repertoire of impressive wall church architecture, but without addressing paintings from the Cathedral in Faras all the research issues. Many studies have (ancient Pachoras) one drawing has escaped focused on structural changes introduced attention so far [see below, Fig. 4]. The in particular buildings (Gartkiewicz 1986; drawing, which is now in the collection of 1990; Godlewski 1990; 2006a; Żurawski Nubian paintings of the National Museum 2014) or on the general line of formal in Khartoum, appeared in print on the evolution of architectural types (Adams margin of Michałowski’s Die Kathedrale 1965; 2009; Gartkiewicz 1982a; 1982b; aus dem Wüstensand (1967: 65), but Godlewski 1998; 2006b; Grossmann without adequate commentary. A cursory 1990). Yet it is important to interpret the look at it brings to mind an architectural nature of Nubian architecture from the plan, leading one to wonder whether it point of view of its builders. This approach might not refer to a master plan and if raises questions about the circumstances so, then could it be an allusion to the use of the original conception and primary of blueprints by Nubians for developing construction. Integrating building prac- architectural ideas. tices and design is fundamental to archi- Fifty years of archaeological research tectural studies and it should undoubtedly have expanded the overall view of Nubian be examined in Nubia as well. 809 PAM 25: Research Piotr Makowski SUDAN The present paper aims not to study draws on discussions of originality in the architecture as such, but to examine Byzantine architecture already in print the process by which the initial idea was (Bouras 2002; 2005; 2007; Buchwald formed, as well as its transmission into an 1992; Hadjitryphonos 2010a; 2010b; actual building. Nothing short of a sizable Mihaljević 2012; Ousterhout 1992; monograph could treat the subject in 1995; 1997; 1999), hence the need for comprehensive fashion, hence the remarks some general remarks on Nubian church here on creativity in Nubian architecture architecture, which precede the main are quite basic. The author’s approach discussion below. NUBIAN MASTER-BUILDERS: EPIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE The social status of architects and master- comes from the interior of the Cathedral -builders in Christian Nubia is under- in Faras. Stefan Jakobielski rightly pointed recognized and much of our modest out that the six names in commemorative knowledge comes from epigraphic records. inscriptions on the reused blocks of the One indirect clue, fairly rare all things south wall of the south aisle of the building considered, comes from an inscription with were left there probably by the masons the signature of the architektôn Petrou from or master-builders constructing the so- the cathedral church in Qasr Ibrim [Fig. 1]. -called Cathedral of Aetios.1 However, The archaeological context and paleog- only one of them, Paulos, was identified raphy of this short text suggest a date in as a tektôn (Jakobielski 1972: 181–186). the 6th or 7th century (Łajtar and van der Numerous early Byzantine sources show Vliet 2010: 22–24). Another important that this expression was often used as epigraphic reference to the functioning an abbreviated version of architektôn of the architectural profession in Nubia (Zanini 2007: 395). Fig. 1. Signature of Petrou from the Qasr Ibrim church (Qasr Ibrim Archive, courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum) 1 The inscriptions are part of a larger group of commemorative texts. The Greek examples addressed to Mary were pub- lished by Jadwiga Kubińska (1974: 126–130). 810 PAM 25: Research In search of Nubian master-builders: an architectural drawing from the Cathedral... SUDAN The termarchitektôn is rooted deeply Architectural terminology is often in late antique tradition. It is generally very confusing (for examples see: assumed to mean a master-builder or Papaconstantinou 2007: 43; Schibille even craftsman, rather than an architect 2009: 365). The understanding gleaned (Downey 1948: 108; Mango 1986: from many, mainly hagiographical 31; Meek 1952; Kostof 1977: 63–64; sources is that planning the design and Papaconstantinou 2007: 43–44; Schibille its execution were overlapping processes, 2009: 378). A similar meaning is also in late antiquity as much as in Byzantine assigned to the word technitês, although it is times. The line between the architectural also frequently translated as figure-painter, professions is thus blurred significantly. wall painter, mosaicist, mason, carpenter, TheLife of Porphyry, for instance, confirms and even military engineer (Ousterhout that working with plans was not necessarily 1999: 44; Zanini 2007: 395–396). In some reserved for mêchanikoi, who fulfilled the cases, technitai were also responsible for requirements both in theoretical education creating architectural designs.2 In Nubia, and manual dexterity. According to Mark three technitai were mentioned at the end the Deacon (Life of Porphyry, bishop of of the 6th century in a building inscription Gaza 75–78), the architektôn Rufinus from from Ikhmindi (Bingen 1961; van der Vliet Antioch was able to use a plan prepared 2002: 191–194). However, the lack of earlier (skariphos) and was responsible for context makes it difficult to identify issues laying it out on the ground. One should connected with their building activity. note, however, that the drawing of the plan Written sources indicate that the was ascribed to divine intervention (Milson social status and pay of the architektôn 2006: 245; Papaconstantinou 2007: 34– were considerably lower than those of 35). This procedure is recounted in several the mêchanikos, who had to undergo late antique and Byzantine sources (see comprehensive training in the liberal arts. Papaconstantinou 2007; for a selection The division of architectural professions of later sources and their interpretation, appears to result from the learning profile see Ousterhout 1999). This issue clearly outlined by both Pappus of Alexandria illustrates that the modern distinction and Vitruvius (Downey 1948: 107; between the architect and master-builder Papaconstantinou 2007: 43–45; Schibille should not be extrapolated to the medieval 2009: 361–371; Zanini 2007: 393–394). reality (Papaconstantinou 2007: 43). The lack of references tomêchanikoi in In the light of the above, the masons Nubian texts is not surprising. Importantly, from the inscriptions in Qasr Ibrim as observed by Enrico Zanini, mêchanikoi and Faras were master-builders or chief appear rarely and only in “elite” contexts, craftsmen, involved in organizing and most frequently connected with the managing construction sites, rather than Byzantine court (Zanini 2007: 394). qualified architects in the antique sense 2 The most prominent example comes from the limestone massif in Syria, where inscriptions in the churches at Kaṣr il-Benât, Ksêdjbeh, Bābisḳā and Dâr Ḳita mention a technitês named Markianos Kyris. An architectural analysis shows that although he applied the same unit of measurement in three of the four churches, the plans of each of these buildings were based on a different geometric scheme. Furthermore, his methods apparently had origins in the works of antique mathematicians, such as Nicomachus of Gerasa. These implications suggest that Markianos Kyris was not only a simple mason, but rather a creative and well-skilled architect (Milson 2003). 811 PAM 25: Research Piotr Makowski SUDAN (Łajtar and van der Vliet 2010: 24). hardly any information about the technical However, their responsibilities cannot aspects of planning, or it could reflect be clearly distinguished because of the important changes in the understanding of ambiguity of late antique nomenclature the architectural profession. The patron or and the lack of a broader context. Still, to donor undoubtedly replaced the architect judge by the modest epigraphic evidence, as the person responsible for the process the work of master-builders and masons was of creation of a particular building. An appreciated in Nubian society, although examination of written sources clearly no assumptions can be made regarding illustrates that during the Middle Byzantine their involvement in designing based on period (843–1204), the theoretical just the names of architectural professions orientation of an architect educated in painted in church interiors. The presence the Vitruvian tradition was converted into of such signatures