Positive Thinking, Coping with Daily Stressors and Health:
A Comparison of Male and Female Faculty Members, at
University of Education
Zarghuna Naseem
(2012)
Department of Psychology and Applied Psychology
University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Positive Thinking, Coping With Daily Stressors and Health:
A Comparison of Male and Female Faculty Members, at
University of Education
A dissertation submitted to the University of the Punjab,
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
(Psychology)
Zarghuna Naseem
(2012)
Department of Psychology and Applied Psychology
University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Certification
It is certified that this Doctoral dissertation is the genuine work of the researcher. It has beenconducted under my direct supervision. I have reviewed the manuscript of this dissertation and guarantee its originality.
I certify that the material has not ever been used in a manuscript already submitted in a partial or complete fulfillment for the award of any other degree from any other institution.
I also certify that the dissertation is accordant to the prescribed format of the Punjab
University. I approve its evaluation for the of Ph D degree through the official procedure of the university.
Dr. Ruhi Khalid
Director Institute of Psychology,
Beacon House National University,
Lahore
Declaration
I, Zarghuna Naseem, declare that this dissertation is solemnly my work and has not been submitted to any other institution for PhD degree. It has been supervised and certified by Dr.
Ruhi Khalid and completed under the authorization of the Department of Psychology and
Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore.
Researcher: ______
Zarghuna Naseem
Dated:
Acknowledgements
I express my hearty gratitude and humble regards for Dr. Ruhi Khalid, Director Institute of Psychology, Beacon House National University, Lahore who supervised this dissertation and remained a source of reinforcement and inspiration for me throughout my work. It was due to her tireless efforts and assistance which made the completion of this dissertation possible.
I am really thankful to faculty of University of Education, Lahore for their friendly cooperation and participation in this study. Without their cooperation, the research could not have been completed.
I would like to acknowledge the cooperation of Psychology and Applied Psychology
Department where the study was performed.
I am grateful to all the university teachers of Pakistan who participated in this study and
shared their valuable opinions which made the study worthwhile.
I am thankful to my friends and family for their unconditional support and insightful
comments which helped me to formulate this doctoral dissertation.
Zarghuna Naseem
Abstract
Present study is an effort to explore relationship between positive thinking, coping with daily stressors and health outcomes. The researcher hypothesized that those who have positive thinking will appraise stressors less threatening, use problem focused coping strategies and will have better health as compared to the negative thinkers. Research was divided into two parts:
Study I and Study II. In study I, the researcher developed and validated a Daily Stressor Scale
(DSS) for university teachers. In order to develop the scale, countrywide data was collected from the university teachers. To make the data representative, 264 university teachers from the major universities of all provinces of Pakistan, Federal area and Azad Jammu & Kashmir were included in the study. A 27 items Daily Stressor Scale (DSS), having four subscales, was validated by factor analysis. The psychometric property of DSS was established by convergent validly. Separate norms were developed for total scale, subscales and for males and females. In study II, relationships among positive thinking, coping with DSS and health were analyzed in a sample of 182 faculty members, selected randomly, from University of Education. Positive thinking, operationalized as optimism, was measured through Life Orientation Test–Revised
(LOT-R, Scheier, Carver & Brigades, 1994), coping with Brief Cope (Carver, 1997) and health with General Health Questionnaire (Goldberg, 1972). The results indicated significant relationships between positive thinking, daily stressors, and problem focused coping and health.
Positive thinking accounted for 42% of variance in stress reduction, 12% in effective coping and 20% in health and wellbeing. Optimism and gender were the significant predictors of stress, coping and health. The findings were congruent with Fredrickson’s Broaden and Build Theory of Positive Emotions and Lazarus Model of Transactional Approach to Stress. Implications for clinical, counseling and educational settings, institutions, family and community are discussed.
I
Table of Contents
Page No
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Rationale of the study 5
1.2 Theoretical background 9
1.3 Indicators of positive thinking 21
1.3.1 Optimism 22
1.3.1.1 Optimism as an explanatory style 23
1.3.1.2 Optimism as a personality trait 25
1.3.2 Hope 27
1.3.3 Positive affects 28
1.3.4 Self-esteem 30
1.3.4.1 Sources of self esteem 30
1.3.5 Happiness 33
1.4 Stress 34
1.4.1 Stress as a response model 34
1.4.2 Stress as a stimulus model 35
1.4.3 Stress as a transactional model 36
1.4.4 Work stress 39
1.4.5 Home stress 41
1.4.6 Stress and disease 42
II
1.5 Coping Strategies 43
1.5.1 Direct action and palliative 44
1. 5.2 Problem focused and emotion focused coping 44
1.5.3 Avoidance-focused coping 44
1.5.4 Assimilative and accommodative coping 45
1.5.5 Reactive, anticipatory, preventive, and proactive coping 45
1.5.6 Searching for meaning in adversity: An effective approach 46
1.6 Health 48
1.7 Gender Differences 49
1.8 Plan of the study 54
1.9 Independent Variable 56
1.10 Dependent Variables 56
1.11 Statement of the problem 57
1.12 Justification and likely benefits 57
1.13 Objectives of the study 59
1.14 Hypothesis of the study 60
Chapter 2 Related Literature 61
2.1 Positive thinking in stress appraisal 61
2.2 Positive thinking and occupational stress 68
2.2.1 Stressors among university teachers 71
2.3 Gender differences in coping with stress 74
2.4 Positive thinking and health 78
III
2.4.1 Positive thinking and cardiovascular diseases 78
2.4.2 Positive thinking and cancer 79
2.4.3Positive thinking and immune system 81
2.4.4 Positive Thinking and longevity 85
2.4.5 Positive thinking and resilience 88
2.4.6 Positive Thinking and other Diseases 89
2.5 Indigenous Research on Positive thinking, Stress and Coping 91
2.6 Summary of Review of literature 96
Chapter 3 Study I 98
Development of Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) 98
3.1 Aims of the study 98
3.2 Rationale behind Scale Development 98
3.3 Method 100
3.3.1 Phase I: Stages of Scale Development 100
3.3.1.1 Item Generation and Item Review 101
3.3.1.2 Pilot Testing of Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) items 102
3.3.2 Phase II. Validation of Daily Stressor Scale 103
3.3.2.1 Sample 104
3.3.2.2 Procedure 104
3.3.2.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) 107
3.3.2.4 Criteria for Determining Factors 109
IV
3.3.2.5 Interpretation of Factors 116
3.3.2.6 Internal Consistency of the Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) 117
3.3.2.7 Correlation of Daily Stressor Scale with Subscales 118
3.3.2.8 Establishment of Norms for DSS and Four Subscales 119
3.3.3. Establishment of Convergent Validity of DSS 120
3.3.3.1 Sample 121
3.3.3.2 Research question 121
3.3.3.3 Measures: 121
3.3.3.3.1 Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) 121
3.3.3.3.2 Daily Stressor Scale 122
3.3.3.4 Procedure 122
3.3.3.5 Results 123
3.3.3.6 Conclusion 124
Chapter 4 Main Studies 127
4.1 Positive Thinking, Coping with Daily Stressors and Health 127
4.2 Hypothesis for the main study 134
4.2 Method 136
4.2.1 Population 136
4.2.2 Sample 137
4.2.2.1 Inclusion criteria 139
4.2.2.2 Exclusion criteria 139
4.3 Study variables 141
V
4.3.1 Positive Thinking 141
4.3.2 Daily Stressors 141
4.3.3 Coping with stress 142
4.3.4 Health 142
4.3.5Demographic variables 142
4.4 Research design 143
4.5 Tools 143
4.5.1 Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT) 143
4.5.2 Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) 145
4.5.3 Brief Cope Questionnaire 147
4.5.4 General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) 148
4.5.5 Demographic Sheet 149
4.6 Procedure 150
4.7 Demographic Characteristics of the sample 150
Chapter 5 Results 155
5.1 Descriptive Statistics for Study variables 157
5.2 Zero Order Correlation 161
5.3 Gender Comparison 162
5.4 Group Differences 170
5.5 Optimism as a predictor of daily stress, coping and health 173
5.6 Multiple Regression Analysis 177
Chapter 6 Discussion 181
6.1 Overview 181
VI
6.2 Positive Thinking, coping with stress and health 181
6.3 Gender differences in positive thinking, coping and health 191
6.4 Group differences in DSS 202
6.5 Conclusion 209
6.6 Limitations 213
6.7 Future Research 213
6.8 Theoretical and Practical Implications 214
6.9 Suggestions/Recommendations 216
References 219
Appendices 269
VII
List of Tables
Page No
Table 3.1 105
Demographic Characteristics of the Countrywide Sample of Study I
Table 3.2 107
Mean and Standard Deviation of the Demographic Variables for study I
Table 3.3 109
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin and Bartlett’s Tests
Table 3.4 110
Eigenvalues and Percentage of Variance of 30-item of DSS Explained by Four factors
Obtained through Principle Component Factor Analysis
Table 3.5 112
The Factor Loading of the 30 items of Daily Stress Scale (DSS) on Four Factors
Obtained Through Varimax Rotation
Table 3.6 114
Eigenvalues and Percentage of Variance of 27-item of DSS Explained by Four factors
Obtained through Principle Component Factor Analysis
Table 3.7 115
Factor Loading of the 27 Items of Daily Stress Scale (DSS) on First Four Factors in
the Factor Solution Obtained Through Varimax Rotation
Table 3.8 117
Alpha Coefficient for the Daily Stressor Scale and its four subscales
Table 3.9 118
VIII
Inter-correlation among Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) and its Subscales
Table 3.10 120
Norms: Means and Standard Deviations for Daily Stressor Scale and Subscales
Table 3.11
Convergent Validity of Daily Stressor Scale 123
Table 4.1 140
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Participants by Campus and Designations
Table 4.2 152
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Participants by Gender, Marital Status,
Designation, and Employment Type
Table 4.3 153
Descriptive Statistics for Demographic Variables
Table 5.1 156
Scale reliabilities for Study Variables
Table 5.2 159
Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables
Table 5.3 160
Correlation between Study Variables
Table 5.4 163
IX
Independent Sample t-test Comparing Demographic Variables of Male and Female
Table 5.5 164
Independent Sample t-test Comparing DSS, Coping and Health of Males and Females
Table 5.6a 166
MANOVA Summary: Gender’s relation with DSS and Subscales
Table 5.6b 168
MANOVA Summary Table: Gender’s relation with DSS, Coping and Health
Table: 5.7 171
ANOVA: Analysis of Variance for Comparing Daily Stressors of Faculty by Designation
Table 5.8 172
Analysis of Variance for Comparing Daily Stressors of Faculty by Campuses
Table 5.9 173
Summary of Linear Regression Analysis: Positive Thinking as Predictor of Daily
Stressors
Table 5.10 174
Summary of Linear Regression Analysis: Positive Thinking as Predictor of GHQ
Table 5.11 175
Summary of Linear Regression Analysis: Positive Thinking as Predictor of Problem
Focused Coping
Table 5.12 176
Summary of Linear Regression Analysis: Positive Thinking as Predictor of Emotion
Focused Coping
Table 5.13 176
X
Summary of Linear Regression Analysis: Positive Thinking as Predictor of Avoidant
Focused Coping
Table 5.14 177
Step Wise Multiple Regression: Predicting Daily Stress from Gender and Positive
Thinking
Table 5.15 178
Step Wise Multiple Regression: Predicting General Health from Gender and Positive Thinking
Table 5.16 179
Step Wise Multiple Regression: Predicting Coping from Gender and Positive Thinking
XI
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Page No
Scree Plot Showing Extraction of Factors for Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) 111
Figure 5.1
Showing interaction between DSS and Gender 167
XII
Annexure
Page No.
A. Informed Consent 269
B. Focus Group 270
C. Departmental permission 272
D-I. Questionnaire for pilot study 1 273
D-II. Questionnaire for pilot study 2 277
D-III. Questionnaire For factor analysis 280
D-IV. Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) 282
E Study Questionnaires 284
E-I. LOT-R 285
E-II. DSS 286
E-III. Satisfaction With Life Scale 288
E-IV. Perceived Stress Scale 289
E-V. Brief Cope 291
E-VI. GHQ 293
F.Permission letters from the authors for the use of tests in present study 294
F-I. Perceived Stress Scale 295
F-II. LOT-R 296
G. Sampling frame 302
XIII
H. Population Matrix 317
I. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Participants by Campuses and
Designation 319
Abbreviations
AJ&K Azad Jammu and Kashmir
DSS Daily Stressor Scale
FA Factor Analysis
GHQ General Health Questionnaire
HEC Higher Education Commission
LOT-R Life Orientation Test- Revised
PSS Perceived Stress Scale
SD Standard Deviation
UE University of Education
1
Chapter 1 Introduction
Positive thinking can be defined as looking at the brighter side of the situation. McGrath,
Jordens, Montgomery and Kerridge defined positive thinking as “the conscious effort to manage ones’ own thoughts, emotions, speech, nonverbal behavior and beliefs in such a way that one entertains only the possibility of good outcomes and not the possibility of bad outcomes for any difficult or challenging circumstances” (2006, p.665).Fredrickson (1998) suggests that positive emotions encourage exploration and creativity and result in building of social, intellectual and physical resources. In an Australian study, positive thinking has been defined in term of personal attributes, such as hope, acceptance, fighting spirits and optimism and is shown by participants dealing effectively with illness (O, Baugh, Wilkes, Luke & George, 2003).It is associated with a range of things namely, optimism, hope, confidence, trying and getting on with it (McGrath, Montgomery, White, Kerridge, 2006). A positive mind is optimistic and anticipates happiness, contentment and a successful outcome of every event and action. It makes a person productive and creative by considering real solutions for the problems objectively and logically. It is a psychological approach that urges constructive and productive thoughts, words and images that ensure progress and success. It is a mental attitude that may provide benefit to patients in term of enabling them to cope with diseases (Schou, Ekeberg &
Rauland, 2005).
On the contrary, negative thinking is the inability to see the positive features of an experience. It is the perception of things that provokes criticism or self demoralization (Teasdale
& Rezin, 1978).This sort of thinking prevails in depressed person and incites anxiety, frustration and low self esteem (Peden, Hall, Rayens, Beebe, 2000) and maintains the depressed mood 2
(Abramson, Seligman & Teasdale, 1978). Negative thinkers usually expect the worse; their glass is always half empty. They engage in dysfunctional coping and are, therefore, more prone to psychological and physical ailments.
Historically, the psychologists majorly studied negative states of mind which cause psychological abnormalities and disorders. This approach was named ‘negative psychology
(Gillham & Seligman, 1999).The impact of positive thinking and positive emotions on life contentment and health aftermaths was generally ignored. According to Lopez and Snyder
(2003) scientific and professional psychologists remained biased towards identifying psychopathology and problems in everyday living. They knew a great deal about how to help people resolve problems and alleviate symptoms. Considering pathology and psychological diseases were important and essential topics for psychology, they only explained part of human experience. By focusing only on weaknesses, the psychologists neglected the strengths of human personality. They had a little knowledge of the anatomy of optimal functioning and the enhancement of human strengths. They should have presented a more balanced view of human life to maintain balance between weaknesses and strengths of the person and environment.
Now the psychologists are identifying the shortcomings of psychological assessments and describing the practical model of positive psychological assessment to address the imbalance.
They have realized that the people possessing positive thinking are able to lead a happy and productive life. In contrast, people with negative thinking see the world through a more negative filter and their general dislike for themselves effects their perception of everything around them
(Snyder & Lopez, 2002). Positive thinking has proved to have beneficial affect on psychological and physical well being (Fredrickson 2001; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000;
Taylor, kemeny, Aspinwall, Schneider, et el., 1992). 3
American psychologists have devoted their sole efforts to the newly establishing domain of positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000a).For the last couple of years, positive psychology is gaining immense popularity among the psychologists as it seems to have quite a huge impact on longevity and life satisfaction (Danner, Snowdown & Friesen,
2001).According to Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi positive psychologists have three basic goals. The first is to define and measure positive traits that pass or go beyond particular cultures and approach universality. The second goal is to promote positive experiences and emotions through different exercises. The third is to create more positive societies and institutions e.g. religion, politics, family, community and nation that will increase these strengths and experiences. Meaningful activities produce a sense of satisfaction and meaning associated with happiness (Lyumbomirsky, King & Diener, 2005).The cause of depression was found in fewer positive emotions, less engagement and lack of meaning in life (Shimai, Otake, Park, Peterson
& Seligman, 2006).
In Pakistan, males and females both are living under enormous amount of stressors. They are facing critical circumstances due to the country’s geopolitical situation. The collisions between contemporary and religious forces in the country have resulted in political instability.
Eventually the evil of terrorism, bomb blasts and suicidal attacks has taken over the country.
Terrorism has become a major and highly destructive phenomenon in the recent years. Internal security threats in Pakistan are not merely based on terrorism, extremism or any other religious ethnicity, but it is comprised of weak institutions, inefficient system capabilities, overlapping of political elite by non-political elite, media fabrications and non availability of honest leadership that makes the system dysfunctional (CSS Form, Friday, 18 May, 2012). 4
Kidnappers, dacoits and terrorists openly threaten the unarmed civilians. The private properties are being burned by the people. Their lives, dignity and property are in danger. They are not sure whether their sons and daughters will return home safe and sound. That is why people are unsecure, frightened and depressed.
Along with these environmental stressors the social stressors are affecting peoples’ health. Youngsters are not learning the values. They are only struggling for a better life, trying to keep in pace with the modern world. People are getting overwhelmingly workaholic to excel in their professions and maintain healthy interpersonal relationships. Multinational companies have trapped the local people into working 24/7 a day by offering them luxurious living facilities and attractive perks. Their working conditions have increased work-related stressors i.e. long working hours, considerable amount of travel, corporate politics and competition at work(Alveson & Billing, 1997).
Bio-ecological stressors (Seawart, 1997) like natural disasters trigger stress responses in people. In Pakistan these are earth quakes, floods, dengue, pollution, radiation and the problems of poor governance i.e. load shedding, overpopulation and traffic problems have made the people negative not only in their thinking but also in their behavior, which affects their health.
Scarcity of electricity, gas, water and other basic necessities of life have made people aggressive and violent consequently making them nonproductive. Whenever people suffer from such circumstances, they develop negative attitudes towards others and their country. In response to the consequences of stressful event, they start doing strikes, burning tires, ultimately thinking of themselves as a failure and believing that they have a little influence over the course of their lives. These feelings lead to depression and health problems. Females have another type of 5
stressors that is related to the gender oppression and social injustices (Sharmeen Ubaid Chinoy,
2012).
Personality traits also play their own role in stress appraisal. Individuals whose personalities include high level of anxiety, depression, anger, hostility and pessimism are more prone to heart diseases and several other illnesses (Scheier & Bridges, 1995).
In such circumstances, if people remain positive and try to find out their personal resources i.e. optimism, resilience and hope, they will be able to perceive the stressful situations as a challenge rather than threat and tackle them easily.
1.1 Rationale of Study
In this hour of need psychologists, social workers, educationists and scholars in Pakistan should emerge in the field and realize the psychological needs of people. Psychologists are the reformers of the society who know the pulse of the nation. They should introduce new ideas and trends to urge the individuals to break free from their daily stressors which induce fears and negativity and make them ready to utilize their strengths, potentials and qualities so that they can meet the challenges of the 21st century. This is only possible if people become more positive in their thinking and develop optimistic attitudes by identifying their strengths. These have been described by positive psychologists, such as courage, humanity, wisdom, temperance, justice and resilience (Peterson & Seligman, 2004).
This study will make the society gain a new perspective on the Western theory of positive psychology. The idea of positive thinking, optimism and hope has not been borrowed from the western culture but it is according to the teachings of Quran. The themes of positive psychology related with human flourishing, good life and signature strengths are consonant with the tenets of 6
Islam and have been embedded in the culture of Pakistan. The parameters of good life reduce fear and anxiety and increase wellbeing. God says that “Behold! Verily (truthfully) on the friends of Allah there is no fear, nor shall they grieve” (AlQuran, Yunus, 10:62). The friends of God are those who serve humanity, tolerate others’ negative behavior, do justice and have courage to deal with adversity.
Present research firstly, is an attempt to apply Western theories of human flourishing in Eastern culture with the assumption that due to globalization and advancement in technology, people of developing countries are adopting the Western culture. So the theories developed in those cultures can be applied in Pakistani cultures with a little bit modifications. In this study, the researcher will investigate the relationship between positive thinking and coping with daily stressors and its consequences on health with a special emphasis on gender differences. Positive thinking will be measured through optimism. The concept of optimism explained by Western psychologists is a belief deep in the roots of Muslim society and is practiced by Muslims in daily life. Quran says despair not of the mercy of Allah (Al Quran, Alzumar, 39:53). Do not be pessimistic, remain positive in all circumstances, face the adversity bravely and expect positive in future.
This study will be done on a sample of university teachers. Although the whole nation is under stress but the university teachers, being the most sensitive segment of society, are under extreme stress due to the emerging trends in education that are technological advances and the flood of information. The introduction to so many innovations in higher education such as initiation of different programs, change of curriculum, more detailed and time-consuming methods of assessment and more emphasis on research has increased the stress in teachers.
Gender also plays its role in the perception of stress. Female teachers are more prone to stress 7
due to multiple responsibilities in different domains such as job, family and interpersonal relationships.
Beside occupational stressors university teachers are facing environmental stressors.
These stressors contribute to the ever worsening crisis in the universities resulting societal dynamics which produce adverse stressful situations that lead to increased personal pressures and emotional disabilities among teachers. Our country is facing critical circumstances due to its geopolitical situation. There are collisions between modern and religious forces in the country.
These forces are attacking the faculty of the universities. The attack on Professor Iftikhar Baloch of Punjab University at the hands of student’s wing of a religious political party spread a wave of insecurity and frustration among the faculty and has been condemned by The Punjab University
Academic Staff Association (PUASA). The association staged a protest rally in front of the
Lahore Press Club “Violence on Campuses”: Universities black day (2010).
Bomb blast at Islamic university killed six people and two blocks were damaged. This is the first time that militants have targeted women and a prestigious Islamic educational institution
(“Terrorists attack university in Islamabad”, 2009). The teacher’s associations, Universities of
Sindh, observed a black day on Monday April 12, 2010. They demanded effective measures to recover Professor Lutfullah Khan Kakakhel vice chancellor of Kohat University who was kidnapped six months back. The attacks of students on two teachers of the University of Sindh and Azad Jammu and Kashmir University were also condemned (“University teachers observe countrywide black day”, 2010). Assassination of teachers by the students at Baluchistan
University spread a wave of fear and insecurity among the faculty. A woman assistant professor of Baluchistan University Nazima Talib was gunned down on 27th April by the terrorists (Shahid, 8
2010). Baluchistan Libration Army claimed responsibility for her killing. It led to a number of strikes and upheaval among the academic community. “Sexual harassment at Quaid-a Azam university". Yet another shameful attempt of sexual harassment at QAU (17 June, 2011). All these workplace and environmental stressors are affecting the performance of university teachers consequently damaging the quality of their teaching. The researcher of present study feels the need to explore whether positive thinking, operationally defined as optimism, has any impact on the appraisal of daily stressors and coping among the university teachers. Whether there are gender differences in positive thinking, stress appraisal, coping and health outcomes. If the results are in expected direction then positive interventions can be introduces to face the challenges of terrorism, bomb blasts, suicidal attacks, poverty, unemployment, corruption and social injustices.
For this research, Fredrickson’s theoretical model of positive emotions (1998) will be used as a frame work. He suggests in “Broaden and Build Theory of Positive Emotions” that a critical adaptive purpose of positive emotions is to help prepare the organism for future challenges and stressors. Fredrickson proposed that positive emotions lead to positive thinking, encourage exploration and creativity. This results in the building of social, intellectual and physical resources which provides the individuals the opportunity to build the repertoire of skills for future use. By thinking optimistically people would have courage and creativity to resolve the stressors and problems. Lyubomirsky (2005) conducted meta-analysis on the studies related to happiness, well-being, positive affect and life satisfaction. He found that the people possessing positive emotions ask for new challenges and have a goal seeking approach.
Positive thinkers face situation optimistically and on encountering stressful circumstances, they appraise it as manageable and engage ineffective coping strategies. People possessing positive 9
emotions perceive life as satisfactory, productive and have adequate resources (Carver &
Scheier, 1998; Cantor, Norem, Langston, et.al, 1991).
Researcher will investigate the role of positive thinking in the appraisal of life problems, adjusting coping techniques and health. It is a quest to determine whether optimistic individuals interpret the distressful situations differently as compared to the pessimistic individuals. The participants of the study will be the faculty of University of Education, Lahore.
1.2 Theoretical Background
The concept of positive psychology has its origin in religious books, ancient literature and linguistic origins of words, Greek and Eastern philosophy, the Bible and the Holy Quran.
Historical writings provide significant information about the strengths bestowed upon the human beings. Scheme (2000) suggested that psychologists should screen ancient philosophy and religious writings to gather knowledge about positive psychology. Positive psychology has its foundation in humanistic psychology which is considered the first organized form of positive psychology. In the 1950s, humanistic psychology evolved as the third force in psychology.
Previously behaviorist school of thought and psychoanalysis dominated psychology.
Behaviorism was considered the first force having mechanistic foundations. It was exclusive of the subjective data of consciousness and complexities of human personality. It emphasized on objective data and scientific approach to understand human phenomena. Later on, psychologists diverged from behaviorism and expressed their theoretical views in 1930. They were followed by
Solomon, Jerome Bruner, Fritz Heider, George Kelly, David McClelland, Gardener Murhpy,
Julian Rotter, Mutzafer Sherif and Robert White, who published their work in 1950. They broke 10
away from behaviorists and led psychology as a science of mind and set the stage for renewed interest in cognitive mediation and value-expectancy theory.
The second force, psychoanalysis, focused on dynamic unconscious and claimed that human behavior is determined by what occurs in the unconscious mind. Freud suggested that healthy functioning could be operationalized as the ability to love and work. Similarly, a recent gathering of social scientists identified love, intimacy and satisfying work-occupation as salient characteristics that contribute to a positive life (Clifton, 2000).
Humanistic school of thought emphasized mainly on phenomenological world of individuals and other human issues for example self-worth, well being, hope, optimism, intimacy, creativity, nature, individual differences and meaning in life. Carl Roger’s ideal of fully functioning person (1951) and Abrahim Maslow’s concept of self actualization (1970) was consonant with positive psychology’s flourishing person. These were the eminent psychologists, who emphasized on a subjective outlook of human experience and deviated from quantitative methods to understand human behavior. They introduced qualitative methods to find out the complexities of human nature. Abrahim Maslow believed that values could be approached scientifically. A non-pathologizing view of a human being was opened up beyond the medical model of psychology. Frankl (1963) having an existential approach, during World War II, wrote about his experiences during his stay at German Concentration camps. He wrote that during forced marches, he would contemplate his wife and those imaginings sustained him during some of the most difficult ordeals. He found that those who could find a purpose, even in the smallest of activities in their lives at the camp, were able to retain a semblance of hope.
Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) argued that the utilization of empirical methodologies not only distinguishes positive psychology from previous examination of human 11
flourishing, proposed by Humanistic, but also make it superior to all other attempts to determine the sources of optimal functioning, as history and philosophy are too subjective and dependent on faith. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi found in their review, that in the beginning the humanistic psychology was not based on scientific approach. Some of its domains were more focused on self centeredness such as narcissism, self praise and selfishness. This was a misconception about humanistic school of thought. In their response to Seligman and
Csikszentmihalyi, Bohart and Greening (2001) reported that, in addition to self-actualization and individual fulfillment, humanistic psychologists conducted empirical research on different dimensions ranging from social issues such as the violence reduction, justice, equality, peace, human welfare and awareness of the deaths due to wars.
Nowadays, American psychologists have devoted their sole efforts to the newly establishing domain of positive psychology (Seligman &Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). First they conceptualized happiness in term of emotional satisfaction; more recent efforts have focused on conception of good life as ‘authentic happiness’. Authentic Happiness (Seligman, 2003) theory holds that there are three different kinds of happiness: the Pleasant Life (pleasure) by Bentham
(1978), the Good Life (desire) by Griffin (1986) and Meaningful Life or the objective list theory by Nussbaum (1992).The first two are subjective, but the third is at least partly objective and lodges in belonging to and serving what is larger and more worthwhile than just the self's pleasures and desires. Authentic Happiness synthesizes all three traditions: The pleasant life, involves fleeting positive moods and immediate experience of comfort and pleasure; the good life which arises from exercising talent and virtues or ‘signature strengths’ is characterized by engagement in work, intimate relations and leisure; the meaningful life is dedicated to something larger than oneself. They tried to create a ‘science of strength and virtue’ that would flourish 12
what is best in our personalities. The procedures they adopted to identify the universal ingredients of human flourishing, that is the content of Values in Action (VIA): A Handbook and
Classification (Peterson and Seligman, 2004), were as follows: A group of eight scholars
(Donald Clifton, Mihaly Csikzsentmihalyi, Ed Diener, Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Robert Nozick,
Daniel Robinson, Martin Seligman and GeorgeVaillant, Christopher Peterson joined later) brainstormed a tentative list of human strengths; the list was presented to others for feed-back and compared against historical and contemporary list of virtues and strengths as well as popular sources such as song lyrics, greeting cards and Norman Rockwell paintings. Through extensive examination of the world’s religions, philosophical text from the Hebrew Bible to the Klington
Code from the star track TV series, cultures and histories, the authors identified 24 human character strengths that were grouped into a list of six core virtues that were then compared to virtues endorsed by other traditions and cultures to assess level of convergence. These virtues are courage, justice, humanity, temperance, wisdom and transcendence.
When positive psychology was introduced by Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, (2000a) it faced mixed reactions. Held (2004) argued that there is no theoretical and practical evidence to keep advocating positive psychology. Lazarus (2005b) suspected that “positive psychology does not mean the same thing for all psychologists” (p.93).
Another criticism raised by the researchers is that Positive psychology unreasonably deals with psychologically problematic aspects of our current way of life, that is, individualism and instrumentalism (Becker & Marceck, 2008; Christopher & Hickinbottom, 2008). It recommends moral values and mental health ideals, specific to individualistic societies which stress on personal autonomy and individually defined fulfillment. Even when it incorporates values and virtues from other moral or spiritual outlooks, it tends to present them as valuable mainly 13
because they serve as means to such individual ends. This ultimately leads to emotional disorders, higher rate of depression, various personality disorders and other emotional ills in
Western society (Becker, 2005; Frank & Frank, 1991; Gergen, 1991; Hillman & Ventura, 1992;
Schumacher, 2001; Smith, 1990).
Many showed concern that the proposed science seemed ethnocentric and narrowly focused on the values of Western culture (Christopher & Hickinbottom, 2008). In response to this criticism, Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi assured that they did not intend to form a restricted movement. Their work will be objective and replicable. They said that “our common humanity is strong enough to suggest psychological goals to strive for that cut across social divides” and that both “the accusation of cultural, ethnic, political, and gender bias” and the label of “prescriptive” rather than descriptive “can be avoided by classifying only the strengths that every major subculture in America today values positively” (p.90). The authors of positive psychology were sincere enough to develop a science of human flourishing that extended beyond specific cultural interpretation of the good life. The example is character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification (Peterson & Seligman, 2004), which purport to have identified positive traits that surpass temporal and cultural boundaries.
Christopher and Hickinbottom further criticized that the components of Authentic
Happiness are not grounded in any broad ethical theory of good life, but they are framed as different orientations to happiness that derive value through their ability to produce individual satisfaction. Moreover, meaningful life has been defined as ‘using skills and talents in the service of greater goods’ (Peterson, Park & Seligman, 2005), the greater good is held to be whatever the individual chooses. Further, Christopher (1999) identified that positive psychology does not consider the cultural embeddedness of all human activities. Christopher claimed that Positive 14
Psychology rejected moral relativism and challenged to accept Universal Values as applicable to all societies.
In response to this criticism, researcher of the present study has identified that the concepts of good life by positive psychology, as derived from historical and philosophical orientation to life are entwined in Islamic teachings.These concepts of human flourishing and meaningful life are practiced in all Muslim cultures.
Reviewing the intervention of positive psychology, researcher of the present study observed that Positive psychologists have assembled close to one hundred and fifty exercises that purport to raise happiness (Seligman, 2003) and congruent with the teachings of Islam. These exercises have been emphasized in world’s major religions. These have been mentioned in Quran and already have been embedded in Pakistani culture to remain healthy and satisfied. For example, Quran says count your blessings (Then which of the Blessings of your Lord will you both deny? Al Quran, Ar-Rehman, 55:13), positive psychologists ask for the three blessings exercise. God says forgive others to increase wellbeing (Those who remained patient and put their trust in their Lord, God will certainly give them goodly residence in this world, Al Quran,
An-Nahl, 16:42, Allah is with the patient ones, Anfal, 8:66), positive psychologists propose forgiveness exercises. Quran says (If you give thanks, I will give you more of My Blessings”, Al
Quran, 14:7), positive psychologists ask to have gratitude visits, Quran says (whoever is grateful, truly, his/her gratitude is for the good of his/her ownself and whoever is ungrateful, he/she is ungrateful only for the loss of his/her ownself,Al Quran,Al Naml, 27: 40).Quran says, Despair not of the mercy of Allah (Al Quran, Alzumar, 39:53), positive psychologists talk about learned optimism and that when one door closes, another door opens. Quran says"Are those who know equal to those who know not?" It is only men of understanding who will remember (i.e. get a 15
lesson from Allah's Signs and Verses, Alzumar, 39:9), positive psychologists propose identifying and using signature strengths of wisdom in a new way.
It was further claimed (Christopher & Hickinbottom, 2008) that the measures which explore meaning and happiness in a decontextualized manner, positive psychologists presuppose that the source of personal meaning is irrelevant. In response to these criticism, positive psychologists, engaged in the task of developing (VIA) signature strengths, state that it yields a ‘surprising amount of similarity across cultures and strongly indicated a historical and cross-cultural convergence of six core virtues’ these values were courage, justice, humanity, temperance, wisdom, and transcendence, identified as ever-present, if not universal. (Peterson &
Seligman, 2004, p.36) Studies, done with English speakers were extended to Japanese speakers, resulted in a strong convergence in the relative prevalence of character strengths across language communities as well as their relation to happiness (Shimai, Otake, Park, Peterson &
Seligman, 2006). Biswas-Diener (2006) studied character strengths in three cultures and found evidence for the ubiquitous nature of VIA. The sample consisted of three groups: Kenyan
Maasai lived in Kenya without electricity and running water, Inughuit, a group in North
Greenland, still retain a hunting lifestyle and students from the University of Illinois. Majority of respondents, from all three cultural groups, recognized and acknowledged the existence, importance and desirability of all character strengths in their society. Biswas-Diener concluded that these virtues are more than Western culture phenomena. It further suggested that research, intervention and application based on VIA taxonomy will have widespread appeal and utility.
In a study of Michigan High School students (n= 459), researcher found the VIA strengths to be an important topic for adolescent (Steen et al, 2003).VIA strengths were 16
associated with subjective well being in (n=5000) a cross cultural internet study (Park et al,
2004).
Modern Western societies focus on only one tier view of the world (Weber, 1978; Tylor,
1975) while Eastern societies have two tired view of the world. Positive psychologists, considering good life and search for decontextualized universals, did not capture the cultural practices of two tired view (Christopher & Hickinbottom, 2008). If the horizon of identity is an inner horizon, (Tylor, 1985) as it is in Western society, well being and mental health will be achieved through freedom, autonomy, and self expression. However, if identity is defined in a more extended manner, as it happens in Eastern world, the indicators of a good person tend to be interpersonal.
A critical review of Western Individualism shows that it relies on the perception of the person as being and separate from other person (Sullivan, 1986). Utilitarian individualism root back in the European Enlightment (Bellah, 1985), rejection of what comes to be seen as hierarchical, patriarchal and authoritarian excesses of Middle Ages (Tylor, 1989). Before individualism, the masses were emphasized obedience to hierarchy.
Decades ago, in many non-western societies such as Taiwan and Japan, the kind of self assertion that American consider normal and a sign of health were considered immature and an invitation to bad luck (Bond,1986). Generally in collectivist cultures one should be modest and avoid drawing attention to oneself (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Chinese were far less inclined than Americans to say that they were experiencing a state of well being, even if they were not
(Hu, 1986). These tendencies in Asians were called self abnegating (Bond, 1986) do not mean that one actually felt weak or treated himself negatively. As Heine and Lehman (1995) suggested that individuals in interdependent cultures come closer to realizing their cultural ideals by self 17
effacing, thereby removing their distinguishing features and allowing them to maximize their sense of belongingness.
For Westerns people, (Tylor, 1985b) good life was defined in term of emotional satisfaction while (King and Bond, 1985) good life in non Western cultures was measured not by happiness but by the ability to live in harmony with others. In China, a person’s worth as a human being was based on the extent to which he or she was a dutiful son or daughter and fulfilled family obligation (Mei, 1968). Personal happiness has not traditionally been considered the highest good for Chinese (Johoda, 1958). This interpretations draws support from a recent research finding that “how a collectivist feels about himself is less relevant to his life satisfaction than is his view of whether he behaves properly in the organized social order” (Diener & Diener, 1995).
Hannah Arendt (1958) points out how ancient Greeks distinguished between the life of necessity and good life. In many East Asian societies, being a dutiful son or daughter through respect and obedience to one’s parents and elders, has traditionally been regarded as the most distinguished feature of good character and maturity (King and Bond, 1985).
Muslims also follow these traditions. In Holy Quran Allah ordered Muslims to be courteous to their parents (And that you be dutiful to your parents. If one of them or both of them attain old age in your life, say not to them a word of disrespect, nor shout at them but address them in terms of honor, Al-Quran,Al- Israel, 17:23). In contrast, in the Western society, duty, obligation and social expectations are often thought of as constrains that hinder the fullest expression of human potential. Ultimately the happiness in both societies is different and the measures developed in Western countries for estimating happiness and wellbeing should be applied in
Eastern societies with caution. 18
In researchers’ point of view, there is paradigm shift from collectivistic approach to individualistic one in Eastern countries. A reflection upon the cultural practices regarding positive psychology shows that both Western and Eastern societies stress upon the same virtues and strengths to lead a happy and satisfied life. Although there is some difference of individualistic and collective culture but due to globalization the entire world is changing into a single place, a single culture and a single identity (Naz, Khan, Hussain, and Daraz, 2011).
Globalization is a source of transformation of new and modern ideas, but on other side it is threat to socio-cultural environment in the context of identity. Naiz and colleagues said that globalization is bringing psychological crises in Pakistani culture. The prominent trait of
Pakistani culture i.e. simplicity has been altered to complexity, while the solidarity has been replaced by individualism. Globalization creates a global culture in which the identity is amalgamated that tends to bring a homogenous culture throughout the world that might assist the local beliefs and cultural values to be universalized rather than to be demolished.
In Pakistan, youngsters are following the Western culture, perceiving it more close to their needs and wishes. Joint family systems are perceived as a hindrance in personal autonomy and they are shifting towards nuclear family system to get freedom. Females are no more ready to accept domestic violence. The efforts of Sharmeen Ubaid Chinoy (2012) against acid attacks have not only made women aware of their rights but also made men alert not to carry on such practices any more.
In researcher’s point of view, most of the concepts of positive psychology related with good life and virtues are universal. All the religions and cultures support and inculcate these values in their citizens. Islam teaches to adopt virtues to lead a happy and satisfied life. Apparently it 19
seems that different cultures assume happiness in different way but a deeper look tells us that pursuit of happiness is more or less same in all cultures.
However, psychologists all over the world should explore the Western concepts of human flourishing and compare it with their own cultural practices. If they find any relevance among the cultural practices, use measures developed by positive psychologists.
In researcher’s point of view a deep comparison of two cultures makes us realize that the
Western Individualism brings betterment for their society on the whole. For example, in Western culture the individuals do not interference to others lives. Likewise they take care of other’s rights by following rules and regulations. But in collective societies like Pakistan, people during social interactions interfere in others lives too much, some times, making them miserable. They do not follow the laws which are made for the betterment of the society as a whole. So apparently our cultures are collective but working for individuals while Western individualistic cultures are working for the betterment of society on the whole.
Moreover, the concepts of good and satisfied life are apparently different in East and
West but if we go in depth both are teaching more or less the same things. For example Islam asks a person to live a meaningful life by serving humanity and getting being courageous, grateful, patient, positive and just. By increasing all these virtues people may have internal satisfaction, spirituality and well being which ultimately will make their life good. People’s life will be meaningful when they will do well to others without the desire of return. Therefore, individualistic and collectivistic cultures both are teaching the same things but in a different way.
Western people are striving for good life by giving attention to human rights through the law enforcement while in Pakistan it is done individually through the religious teachings as law 20
enforcing agencies are weak. One of our great Eastern poets Iqbal (2009) said that “the
Christians have adopted the Quranic teaching that is why they are flourishing”.
However, the critics of positive psychology have presented an alternative theoretical and philosophical framework which suggests new goals and methods for positive psychology
(Christopher & Campbell, 2008; Fowers, 2008; Richardson & Guignon, 2008; Slife &
Richardson, 2008; Sundararajan, 2008). These psychologists suggest a theoretical foundation for inquiry, having sensitivity to cultural context that might help to correct the one-sided individualism and instrumentalism that seem to instill positive psychology.
Sundararajan (2008) explores the relevance of Asian conceptions of the good life to positive psychology. Summarizing several Chinese and Indian philosophies and related thoughtful practices, his study discusses non western conception of indigenous positive psychologies that rely on quite different understanding of the self.
Christopher and Campbell (2008) suggested interactive-Hermeneutic metatheory for human action and development for positive psychology. They discussed two aspects of interactivism-----implicitness and the knowing levels----that will provide more integral ontology for positive psychology. This non dualistic metatheory contends that the development of goals, values and the self involves rising through levels of knowing. From interactive standpoint in each culture people are thrown in to an inter-subjective world of social practices, they begin by taking over the understanding of what’s pleasant, good and meaningful underlie these social practices. If the pleasant, good and meaningful is the scope of positive psychology, then every society has at least a folk positive psychology where persons are already committed to these psychologies. For example, children in our Pakistani society, from early childhood listen to their parents and grandparents about the good life consisting of the virtues taught by Quran and they 21
see their parents practicing these virtues in daily life. They make their own theory of human flourishing and good life that is serving humanity, being optimistic at the face of adversity, having wisdom, open mindedness, kindness and positive thinking. They bring these virtues into their daily practice. This approach is close to the Western theories of good life.
This interactive-Hermeneutic understanding of the person has a number of implications for positive psychology. First, it would ask psychologists to take a harder look at the question of cultural practices of different societies and give better guidance to its empirical research program and to its typologies, such as the values in action project (Seligman & Peterson, 2004a) by developing a psychological ontology.
For the present study researcher has found that the Western idea of positive thinking in terms of optimism is just according to the teachings of Islam. Researcher will explore whether optimism, that is positive expectancies about the future, makes a person more resourceful for meeting the challenges in life.
1.3 Indicators of Positive Thinking
Positive thinking refers to a range of characteristics that is optimism, hope, positive affect, confidence, well-being and trying and getting on with it (McGrath, Montgomery, White,
Kerridge, 2006). Positive thinking is concerned with the enhancement of well being, involving the scientific study of the role of personal strengths and positive social systems in the promotion of optimal well-being (Carr, 2004). McGrath (2004) expressed positive thinking as an overall behavior that is reflected in thoughts, attitude, actions and feelings. McGrath, Jordens,
Montgomery, Kerridge (2006) claimed two advantages of positive thinking. One it enables the ill 22
person to cope better with illness. The other is that it will increase the likelihood of a good outcome, leading to cure or extended remission.
Wilkinson and kitzenger (2000) defined it as an idiom, with typical vagueness and generality. Critics say that the concepts of positive thinking, optimism and good life can not simply be transported to other cultures without risk of serious misunderstandings. In researcher’s point of view, the ideas of positive psychology are not totally alien to Pakistani society. Most of the Islamic concepts prepare a person for a life which provides internal satisfaction by adopting virtues e.g., courage to face adversity, patience, justice and wisdom.
These are the universal truths and values necessary for human flourishing and well-being.
Following are the indicators of positive thinking.
1.3.1 Optimism. Optimism is an important aspect of positive thinking. Matlin and Stang
(1978) in Pollyanna Principle,also called positive bias, showed that peoples’ thinking was positive so they recalled positive things sooner than negative things. Tiger (1979) argued that the capacity to think in an optimistic way was naturally selected characteristic of our species.
Taylor (1989) found that most people are biased towards viewing themselves in an optimistic way. Our minds are designed to think positive rather than realistic or negative way. Mruk
(1999) said that people who think positive hold others in high esteem and are more popular with others.
Dictionary definition of optimism encompasses two related concepts. The first of these is a hopeful disposition or conviction that good will ultimately prevail. The second conception of optimism refers to the belief that, this world is best of all possible worlds. In psychological research, optimism has been referred to hopeful expectation in a given situation (Scheier & 23
Carver, 1988) and recently, to general expectancies that are positive (Scheier & Carver, 1993). In
Pakistani society, optimism that is hopeful expectation about future is a superior personality characteristic as it has been said “despair not of the mercy of Allah” (Al Quran, Alzumar, 39:53), means that remain positive in all circumstances. Face the adversity bravely and remain hopeful.
Never fall in depression other wise you will be collapsed. Researcher of the present study assumes that the concept of optimism goes well with the teachings of Islam.
Critics say that the optimistic attitudes vary across the cultures. So in this regard a mutual dialogue with other cultures is necessary if we want to make psychology and its theories more scientific, deepened and universal. The generalized expectancy or dispositional optimism is related to a variety of indexes of health. Individuals who score high on measures of dispositional optimism report fewer depression symptoms, greater use of effective coping strategies, fewer physical symptoms than do pessimists (Scheier & Carver, 1993).
1.3.1.1 Optimism as an Explanatory style. The term optimism and pessimism, recently has been applied to the ways in which people routinely think about causes of events in their lives (Seligman, 1991). According to Seligman (1998), optimism has been interpreted as an explanatory (attribution) style, rather than a broad personality trait. He said that people’s expectancies for future are derived from their understanding of the causes of the events in the past. According to the Reformulated Learned Helplessness Theory (Abramson, Seligman, &
Teasdale, 1978), the manner in which we explain events in our lives can drain or enhance our motivation. The RLHT describe three dimensions on which explanations can vary: internal verses external, stable verses unstable and global verses specific. Optimistic explanations for negative events are those that are mostly external, unstable and specific. The problems are 24
believed to be caused by other people, or situational factors, the causes are seen as fleeting in nature and are localized to one or a few situations in one’s life. Pessimistic explanations for negative events are those that are more internal, stable and global. When explaining positive events, pessimist and optimist patterns reverse. Optimistic explanations for positive events are internal, stable and global. That is the source of success and good fortune is seen as caused by the self, lasting and likely to affect many domains in life. In contrast, pessimist’s explanations for good events are external, unstable and specific. These three types of interpretations can put a person at risk for depression following a negative event. First the event may be attributed to stable and global causes. Secondly, negative consequences of the event may be inferred.
Thirdly, negative characteristics about the self may be inferred. When these interpretations are made frequently, they lead to negative expectations about the occurrence of highly valued outcomes leading to depression, sad affect, lack of energy and apathy. To avoid these emotions one should be optimistic.
Optimists differ in how they approach problems and challenges they encounter and the manner with which they cope with life’s difficulties. Definition of optimism and pessimism rests on the people’s expectations for the future. This grounding in expectation links optimism and pessimism to a long tradition of expectancy-value approach to motivation. As a result, optimism construct is grounded on the human motives and how motives become expressed in behavior. An optimistic explanatory style is associated with higher level of motivation, achievement, physical well-being and lower level of depressive symptoms (Buchana &
Seligman, 1995).
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1.3.1.2 Optimism as personality trait. Optimism has been conceptualized as abroad personality trait characterized by general optimistic expectations (Scheier & Carver, 1985).
Optimistic individuals, during the difficult circumstances, continue to pursue their valued goals and regulate themselves and their personal states using effective coping strategies so that they are likely to achieve their goals (Scheier, Carver & Bridges, 2000).Expectancy-value theories begin by assuming that behavior is aimed at pursuit of goals. The first element in the theory is the goal which is action, end state or value that people see as desirable or undesirable. People try to fit their behavior in to what they see as desirable. The more important the goal is greater is its value in the person’s motivation. Without having a goal that matters, there is no reason to act. The second element in expectancy–value theories is expectancy- a sense of confidence or doubt about the attainability of the goal value. If the person lacks confidence, again there will be no action. Doubts can impair effort before the action starts or while it is ongoing. Only if people have enough confidence they will act or keep acting. When people are confident about an eventual outcome, effort continues even in the face of great adversity. Expectancy based theories generally suggest that behavior is predicted best when the level of expectancy fits that of behavior being predicted. Sometimes it is argued that prediction is best when you take into account several levels of specificity that pertain to the behavior (e.g., action specific, domain specific and generalized). Many events in life, however, are new, or evolve over time. In such situations, generalized expectations may be particularly useful in predicting behavior.
Carver and Scheier (2002) argued that dispositional optimism and explanatory style theories are conceptually linked. However, several researchers caution that casual attribution and prediction can be unrelated (Abramson, Alloy& Metalsky, 1989). Given these conflicting views it is necessary to clarify the link between experience and expectations. 26
The principles that apply to a focused confidence also apply to the generalized sense of confidence we think of as optimism. When we talk about optimism and pessimism the confidence is just diffused and broader in scope. When confronting challenge, optimist should tend to approach it with confidence and persistence. Pessimists should be doubtful and hesitant.
This divergence may even be exemplified when things get difficult. Optimists should assume that the adversity can be handled successfully, whereas pessimists are more likely to anticipate disaster. These differences are likely to have important implications for how people cope with stress (Carver & Scheier, 1999; Carver& Scheier, 1992).
One important issue is that optimism overlaps with the concept of control (Thompson &
Spacapan,1991) or personal efficacy (Bandura, 1986). Both of these constructs have strong overtones of expecting desired outcomes to take place. However, there is an important difference in the assumption that is made regarding how the desired outcomes are expected to come to pass.
Self efficacy would appear to represent a construct in which self as a casual agent is paramount.
If people have high self-efficacy expectancies, they presumably believe that their personal efforts are what will determine the outcome. The same is true for the concept of control(Carver at al.,
2000; Carver & Scheier, 1998). In contrast to this emphasis, the view of optimism construct always has been that it is broader than personal control. People who are optimistic can be optimist because they believe that they are immensely talented, because they are hard working or they are blessed or lucky or have friends in the right places, or any combination of these or other factors that produce good outcomes (Murphy et al., 2000).
Rois (2009) says that the tyranny of perfectionist positive attitude in the living process and obsessive eagerness in search for self actualization (Held,2002) is frustrating and may lead to non realistic kind of optimism, in other words to excessive and obsessive confidence in 27
oneself. The relevant thing for psychologists is to highlight the agency ability that is to live and struggle for personal development(Bandura, 2006) and coping strategies. In the present study it will be observed whether during the course of life people who face hardships become pessimistic or face the circumstances with courage and hope.
1.3.2 Hope
The Macquarie Dictionary(1991) defines hope as ‘an expectation of something desired; desire accompanied by expectation’. Loss of hope results in loss of anticipation, desire and conviction about the future; loss of agility and loss of perspective and purpose in life. Hope is a strong belief embedded in Pakistani culture. Most people believe that if one door closes, another surely opens. Theories of hope can be classified as emotion-based or cognition-based. In literature, hope often is treated as an emotion, a particular feeling that upholds one’s belief in crucial circumstances. A great deal of research was done in cognitive side of hope.
Erickson(1964) suggested that hope is an element of healthy cognitive development. He defines hope as "the enduring belief in the attainability of fervent wishes, in spite of dark urges and rages which mark the beginning of existence"(1964, p. 118).Thus, hope is a concept that motivates an individual to keep up and overcome all the obstacles finally reaching the goal.
Snyder defined hope as focused thinking in which people perceive that they can generate new channels which lead to their desired targets and catalyze themselves to survive and succeed.
Hope theory explains the role of impediments stressors and emotions. When ordeals confront the person and hurdles challenge one’s strengths one perceives the circumstances as stressful.
According to the postulates of hope theory, perception of successful goal pursuit leads to 28
positive emotions. High-hopers tend to struggle and sustain in the pursuit of their objectives and eventually achieve their targets. High-hopers have positive emotions; they are zealous, arduous, passionate as well as confident and witty (Snyder, Sympson, Michael& Cheavens, 2000). Hope is not just a yearning – some unrealistic and unachievable fantasy – but aspiration accompanied by reasonable expectation. It is therefore an amalgam of our ambitions and cravings fortified with our realistic approach and sanity.
Hope and optimism have significant correlations (Peterson, 2000b; Snyder, 2000) with the current measures of psychological diseases and current depression in particular. These are predictors of physical and mental health as reported by a variety of measures including subjective well-being, exuberance, functional coping, health promoting behavior, positive response to medical treatment, positive emotions and immunological strengths (Peterson,
2000a; Snyder, 2000).
1.3.3 Positive Affect
Many researches (Watson, Clark & Tellegen,1988; Watson, Clark, 1995; Watson,
Clark, 1988) show that there are two general dimensions of Affect that influence an individual’s relationship with their environment: Negative Affect (NA) and Positive Affect
(PA). NA describes subjective affliction, agony, oppression and frustration and is composed up of negative emotional states such as rage, anxiety, hopelessness, self-condemnation, contempt and hatred. In Quran it has been said that “turn not your face away from men with pride” (Al-
Quran, Luqman, 31; 18). 29
Positive affect, in contrast, reflects the co-occurrence of positive emotional states, such as optimism, vivacity, exhilaration, zestfulness, confidence and agility. People high in PA are more inclined to feel enthusiastic, active, joyful and alert while experiencing pleasant events more frequently (Watson et al., 1988). People with high PA view risk related uncertainty more optimistically (William, Zainuba, Jackson, 2003). It has been suggested that Trait PA is positively related to extraversion and negatively related to depression, while Trait NA is associated with anxiety/neuroticism (Clark & Tellegen, 1988). Depression comprises of high levels of negative affect and also low levels of PA (Watson & Clark, 1995). Psychological wellbeing is described as cognitive and affective components and is defined as a subjective global state of contentment and psychological health (Lawton, 1984), with positive and negative affect as its integrals. Costa and McCrae (1984) also describe positive affect and negative affect as independent contributors to global well-being and have differential associations with extraversion and neuroticism. Researches tend to inter-mix the concept of optimism with that of positive affect. Research on positive affect includes studies using a variety of affect measures and mood induction.
It has been empirically supported that frequent positive affect is the hallmark of happiness. Dinner and his colleagues (1991) suggested that the relative proportion of time that people felt positive relative to negative emotions was a good predictor of self-report of happiness as compared to the intensity of emotion. They found that optimism is related to positive affectivity, but independent of each other.
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1.3.4. Self Esteem
Self-esteem is another integral of positive thinking. According to Maslow (1970), it is an essential constituent of humanistic positive psychology. Self esteem is expressed as the extent to which we admire and respect ourselves. People possessing high self-esteem are likely to be psychologically exhilarated and vivacious(Branden, 1994; Taylor & Brown, 1988). On the contrary, those who have low self-esteem tend to incline towards desolation and torment(Tennen
&Affleck, 2002).Individuals with low self esteem face more solicitude and depression than those with higher level of self esteem (Pierce, Gardener, Dunham & Cummings, 1993).Those who have high self esteem appreciate themselves; they face obstacles and criticism effectively.
People’s self esteems in Pakistan are getting low as they are under heavy debts of Western countries, especially that of America.
1.3.4.1 Sources of Self- Esteem .Homo-sapiens are the only living species that are capable of self reflection (Andrews, 1998). This involves a process by which the individual perceives itself, for which William James (1890) first catogerized the self as ‘I’ and the self as
‘me’. The self as ‘I’ is regarded as the subjective knower of the self, responsible for notions of continuity (the self existing over time), separateness (the self as distinct from others) and reflection (consideration of the self by the self), yet because of its nature has primarily fostered philosophical or conceptual debate. The self as ‘me’, in contrast, refers to objective aspects of self, reflecting ways people present themselves to others and being more observable. Most of the research on the self has been done to measure the concept of self as ‘me’. 31
James (1890) defined self-esteem as the feeling of self worth that derives from the ratio of our actual successes to our pretensions. It develops from the augmentation of experience in which peoples’ outcomes exceed their targets related to their concerned aspects of life (self- esteem=success/pretensions). Cooley’s (1902) description of the looking glass self, is the concept in which self appraisals are viewed as inseparable from social network. Mead’ symbolic interactionism (1934) suggested a process in which people adopt ideas and attitudes expressed by significant figures in their lives. It is a general assumption that those who have high self esteem act independently, accept responsibility, tolerate anxiety, attempt new tasks with a great confidence and provide assistance to others generously. A lot of research has been done on self- esteem mostly related to the issues of definitions and etiology, with over a thousand published articles a year regarding self esteem (Elmer, 2001).Christopher& Hickinbottom, (2008) criticized that positive psychology is concerned with the development of self that is different in individualistic and collectivist cultures. Self enhancement seems to be higher in individualistic cultures, whereas it lowers in collective ones. It is risky to infer Estern cosmovision into Western
Crocker culture. The alternative may be through the research on the psychological mechanism to be a good person in each culture (Christopher, 2007). It might be relevant for positive psychology to extract, positive life styles of each culture in order to enhance psychological wellbeing.
Rois (2009) suggested that the benefit of adequate self esteem are many while that of high self esteem are few because it interfere in personal autonomy, in the learning process, in interpersonal relationship, self control and in health ( 2006). The solution to this problem may lie on the concept of optimal self esteem (Kernis, 2003) in each socio-cultural context in order to reach authenticity in those social and cultural living conditions. 32
Self esteem is different from self concept. Self concept refers to the entirety of cognitive beliefs that people have about themselves including entities like name, race, likes, dislikes, beliefs, values and the appearance description. On the contrary, self esteem is the emotional response that people experience as they ponder on and evaluate different things about themselves.
While talking about gender differences, mostly working women are more esteemed than working men (Bala &Lakshami, 1992). While it may be measured multidimensionally
(Bracken, Bunch, Keith, & Keith, 2000; Fleming & Courtney, 1984), the view of self-esteem as a unidimensional, global sense of self-worth (Rosenberg, 1965) is supported by second-order factor analyses (Fleming & Courtney, 1984) and by studies utilizing the Rosenberg Self-Esteem
Scale among American adults and adolescents (Corwyn, 2000). Both level and stability of self- esteem are important (Stratton, 1999), but level is the best predictor of affect and motivation
(Amorose, 2000).
Self-esteem is an attribute claimed to be a strong armor against stressful circumstances
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Pearlin & Schooler, 1978). High self-esteem refers to the positive attitude towards oneself. He defined it as ‘‘the level of global regard that one has for the self as a person’’ (Harter, 1993, p. 88). A recently published review proposes that positive self-esteem is a vital element of psychological health, related to the positive affect acting as an ability that determine the consequences of torment incidents (Kling, Hyde, Showers, & Buswell, 1999).
High self-esteem is also associated with functional coping techniques. Carver et al. (1989) described positive correlations between self-esteem and active coping or planning, while negative correlations for avoidance coping. Literature indicates that high self-esteem is a primary contributor to health and contentment (Dubois & Flay, 2004). Self-esteem leads to 33
affect (Tesser, 2000; Torrey, Mueser, McHugo, & Drake, 2000). Persons with high self-esteem also experience less negative affect than the ones with low self-esteem (Moreland & Sweeney,
1984).
Self-efficacy, greatly related with self concept, is concerned with judgment about personal worth and personal capabilities. Self efficacy, expressed as ‘beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize or execute courses of action required to produce given attainments’(Bandura 1997, p. 3). It leads to initiation of action with full efforts and persistent pursuit of the desired goals despite of the obstacles, and eventual accomplishment of the ambition. Bandura described that self-efficacy beliefs effect the ability to endure adverse circumstances. It is a crucial factor of response of the people to stress.
1.3.5 Happiness
Positive psychology claims that happiness, defined as positive emotions, is a fundamental goal of life (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). There are three types of traditional theories of happiness.
First, Hedonism, it holds that happiness is a matter of raw subjective feeling. Second, Desire theories hold that happiness is a matter of getting what you want. Third, Objective List theory lodges happiness outside of feeling and onto a list of "truly valuable" things in the real world.
Happiness is a part of moral vision that sits squarely in the midst of Western socio-historical culture. The cross cultural studies of happiness, in Western term of individual satisfaction
(Biswas-Diener & Diener, 2001) can seriously distort the experience of Non-western people.
In collective cultures emotional satisfaction experienced by people is that of different kind. It is derived not from internal positive emotions, but from living in accordance with a social order 34
and expectations. Apparently the happiness in non-western cultures like Pakistan seems different but it is the same emotional satisfaction, gained in a different way. In Pakistani culture, it can be gained by serving others, helping poor’s, giving charity, expecting better in future and enhancing spirituality by tolerating others.
Davison (2001) expressed that happiness is a vivid and sustainable feeling; it is a physical state of the brain that can be inculcated deliberately. As researchers have realized that a happy mind has a powerful impact on the rest of the body. Various studies have ( kubzansky, Sparrow,
Vokonas& Kawachi, 2001) shown that happiness, vivacity, optimism and contentment limit the intensity of cardiovascular disease, pulmonary disease, diabetes, hypertension, cold and upper respiratory infections.
1.4 Stress
Researchers have examined stress in three ways (Baum, 1990). One approach focuses on physically and psychologically challenging events or circumstances called stressors. Another approach centers on the psychological and physiological responses to stressors, which are called strains. The third approach treats stress as a process involving continuous interactions and adjustments, called transactions between the person and environment (Lazarus & Folkman,
1984). There are gender differences in stress.
1.4.1 Stress as a Response. Selye’s (1956) work focused on describing a physiological response pattern known as (1974) general adaptation syndrome (GAS). The following are postulates of Selye’s response based theory of stress. Firstly, the stress response (GAS) was a 35
defensive response that did not depend on the nature of the stressors. Moreover the GAS, as a defense reaction, progressed in three well defined stages (alarm, resistance, exhaustion).
Thirdly, if the GAS was severe and prolonged, disease could result. In Selye’s (1956) three stage theory, the affect of long term, intense stress advance through: the alarm reaction with very high arousal, the stage of resistance in which arousal declines somewhat but remains above normal as the body tries to adapt, and the stage of exhaustion when the body’s defenses weakens. The alarm reaction phase of GAS is triggered when there is a noxious stimulus. In the stage of resistance, physiological forces are mobilized to resist damage from the noxious stimuli. Often, the stage of resistance leads to adaptation or improvement or disappearance of symptoms and does not progress to the third stage of exhaustion. The stage of resistance can also lead to disease of adaptation, such as hypertension, arthritis and cancer. According to him adaptive energy is limited by an individual genetics. He believed that we all have limits as to how much stress we can tolerate before the regulatory systems in the body which preserve homeostasis break down. Selye proposed that cognitive variables such as perception played no role in contributing to the initiation of the GAS. In 1983, he said that (eustress) both positively and negatively toned experience could be contributed to or moderated by cognitive factors.
Although selye did not specifically address the concept of coping in his work, his notion of defense and adaptation are conceptually similar to that of coping. Stress is interpreted as
“eustress”- that is productive arousal and vital energy (Selye, 1974).
1.4.2 Stress as a Stimulus. Holmes and Rahe (1967) proposed a stimulus-based theory of stress. The body does not know the difference between good or bad stress. However, with new psychoneuro immunological data available, there is some physiological differences between 36
good and bad stress (e.g., the release of different neuropeptides), the definition of stress has been expanded: stress is the inability to cope with a perceived threat to one’s mental, physical, emotional and spiritual well being. There are three kinds of stress; eustress, neustress and distress. First is positive, a good stress, second is neither good nor bad and the third is bad stress. There are two types of distress: acute stress, which is quiet intense and chronic stress, which seems to linger for prolonged period of time. Sources of stress and its effects are multiple. It may relate with every domain of a person’s life such as work, home, family, money, environment and interpersonal relations. Following is the major stress producing theory of stress, which treats life changes as the stressors to which a person responds. The central proposition of this theory is that too many changes increase one’s vulnerability to illness. The theory was based on the premise that (a) life changes are normative and each life change results in the same readjustment demands for all persons (b) change is stressful regardless of the desirability of the event to a person (c) there is a common threshold of readjustment demands beyond which illness results. During the 1970’s, hundreds of studies were conducted on the ability of the life event scores to predict illness. Therefore, unlike the response-based model, stress is the independent variable in research.
1.4.3 Stress as a Transaction. Lazarus was a social personality psychologist who developed a transactional model of stress (Lazarus1966, Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). In his research on the effects of stress on skilled performance, Lazarus explored the individual differences in psychological stress. During the research, it seemed evident that arousal and influence of stress depend on how different individuals evaluate and cope with the situation regarding personal resources. Lazarus (1966) expressed that appraisal was the center piece of stress and coping. 37
Two main sets of variables, environmental and personality are central in the perception of stress. Some environmental circumstances impose huge demand on a person’s resources, where as others provide a considerable space for available capabilities and endurance. He proposed stress, as a concept, which has an analytical value and is not a single variable as it envelops cognitive, effective and coping variables. Stress does not exist in the “event” but is an outcome of a transaction between a person and his environment. Lazarus (1966) and Folkman (1984) declared that the primary mediator of person environment transaction was the judgment of stress. Lazarus (1991) explains that an emotional meaning of a person –environment relationship is framed by the process of appraisal. The number of automatic decisions concerning a particular situation determines the relevancy of that situation to one’s ambitions, beliefs or morals.
There are three type of appraisal classified as primary, secondary and reappraisal.
Primary appraisal is a judgment about how the person apprehends a particular situation. A person judges the possible influence of demands and resources on psychological health. If the demand of a situation outweighs available resources, then the person may determine that the situation represents a potential for harm or considers that actual harm has already occurred or on the contrary he may perceive the situation as somewhat challenging.
The intuition of threat triggers secondary appraisal which comprises of determination of coping options available to deal with threat. Reappraisal is the process which involves continuous appraisal, alteration or redefining earlier primary or secondary evaluation as the situation evolves. Eventually, previously perceived as threatening may now be considered a challenge. There are several factors that effect the appraisal of threat which includes person’s positive affect, positive thinking, values, goals, capability of enduring stressful situations, 38
gravity of situation, social support, situational constrains and proximity. Emotion and coping behavior is determined by the significant transaction which occurs in the appraisal process
(Lazarus1966; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Transactions model, unlike response based and stimulus based orientation to stress, involves coping efforts. So, it is not the stress that matters, but the appraisal of the stress, which determines the gravity of the situation.
Personality disposition plays an important role in determining whether a person is more prone to threat or has the confidence to face the dire circumstances employing self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1977, 1989, 1997).The more confident we are of our abilities to sustain the dangers and obstacles, the more likely we are challenged rather than threatened. In transactional approach, environmental circumstances and personality dispositions play a vital role in appraisal of a particular situation as either a stress or a challenge.
Synchronizing with all three approaches, stress can be expressed as the state which occurs when transactions lead the person to evaluate a discrepancy between the demands of a stressor and the capabilities of his or her biological, psychological and social systems. This divergence minimizes when a person thinks positively and appraises the stressor as manageable.
Strain occurs when stress exists and can involve psychological distress and physiological reactions called reactivity that includes heightened blood pressure and heart rate.
Lazarus’s transactional model is the basic foundation of the present research. The principle of his theory is that stress is dependent on the thinking of individuals. If an individual perceives the circumstances and cope with them positively, the appraisal of stress will be different as compared to the negative thinkers.
In Pakistan, stress prevails in the majority of the population. External and internal issues affect literate and illiterate both in a similar way. The competitive national and international 39
market, ever-increasing inflation and economy put a lot of financial pressure on the adults. In addition, they bear a lot of social pressure regarding financial status, maintaining a respected image and fulfill the moral obligations. Globalization, a major source of change, has widened the gap between the older and the younger. Youngsters, busy in the world of computers and internet have confined themselves in the rooms for hours and hours. By watching and adopting the Western culture the Eastern collectivism has been gradually replaced by Western individualism. This phenomenon is frustrating for elders. The huge difference between the beliefs of youngsters and elders worsens the situation. The institutions of society are getting week so the conduction of huge amount of research, conferences, seminars and workshops are vital for the reduction of stress.
1.4.4 Work stress.
Work is important in terms of producing income, boasting up self-esteem, creating opportunities for constructive activities and producing the goods and services needed by society.
Hence, it is highly valued in modern societies. However, with the increasing professional responsibilities one tends to get pressurized. This gives rise to the anxiety, burnout, frustration and depression which result in workplace stress.
Work is now-a-days a major source of stress for Pakistani people. Multinational companies have occupied their employees for working 24/7 a day by providing handsome salaries but it has raised their stressors and affected their health negatively. National institute of
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH, 1999) defined Work stress as the negative physical and psychological responses that occur when the requirement of the job do not match the abilities, resources or needs of the workers. Some jobs are stressful by definition because they are 40
physically challenging (firefighting or criminal justice), involve matters of life and death
(emergency functions) or are psychologically demanding such as social work and teaching.
The occupational stressors can be categorized into four major groups which include the working conditions, relationships at work, role conflict and ambiguity including ill-defined role and organizational structure which includes communication policy and practice. Another stressor is career development which is obstructed by the factors such as under utilization of skills or inability to reach full potential and physically and emotionally challenging jobs (Parikh &
Tuatara, Bhattacharya, 2004). Other work stressors include long working hours, considerable travel, corporate politics, competitive environment and job insecurity (Elverson & Billing,
1997).Workplace stress is usually the outcome of unmanageable workload, deadlines, feeling undervalued, type of colleagues, lack of job satisfaction, having to work for long hours and frustration with the working environment.
One of the most serious occupational health hazards is the work-related stress leading to employee discontentment, less output, low attendance and transfer (Cummins, 1990; Spiel
Berger & Releaser, 1995). Eleven million workers claimed health-hazardous levels of work stress in nationwide surveys (Saunter, Murphy, & Harrell, 1990, p. 1148). According to Spiel
Berger and Reheiser, (1995) 25% of the employees report various illnesses due to stress, 69% report lessened output and 53% declared work as the highest among the stressors (pp. 51–69).
Rosch (1991) expresses work stress as occupational liabilities in which the individual appraises having a great deal of responsibility, yet little or no authority. Workload, interpersonal relationship complications, role conflict and ambiguity, work versus home, lack of resources and demands of the employer are the most significant stress determinants. 41
Teaching has always presented stresses and strains, but today’s teacher is the most over- stressed professionals without any doubt (Travers & Cooper, 1996). The intervention of so many technological innovations in universities has increased tension and stress in teachers’ community.
Gender differences play a vital role in work stress. In Pakistan half of the population that is female, remains at home. Males mostly do not allow their females to go outside for job.
However, working outside is considered as a privilege granted by men. It is a"permission" and not a right (Kadir, Fikree, Khan & Sajan 2003). Research clearly shows that although both male and female managers consider their jobs challenging and stimulating, men are still in a more favorable position than women (Lundberg & Frankenhaeuser, 1999). Along with gender differences, there are health related problem of work stress.
1.4.5 Home stress. It is clearly mentioned in researches that non-work stress can affect behavior at work. Researches show the effects of work and non-work stress when fused together.
Such relationships have been practically affirmed for single parent families and families in which both parents are employed. Work such as domestic chores produce exhaustion and insomnia and high blood pressure (Brisson, 1999). There are gender differences in home stress. Females’ home stress is far more than the males’ stress. Frankenhaeuser(1988) reported that the accumulation of catecholamine level as the work stressors decline at the end of workday for men, but for a married, employed women the elevation remains considerably high until the house hold chores are done. Literature reports mental and physical influences of stress related with care giving.
Society expects that females will take the major responsibility of child care and household duties
(Long & Cox, 2000). Females are expected to take all house hold responsibilities in spite of job 42
liabilities. Vermeulen (2004) reported that in African cultures girls are still emotionally programmed to become good wives and mothers, and are preached about the need to sacrifice themselves for husbands and children. Females are doing many responsibilities at a time: mother, daughter, daughter in law, aunt and guardian. Taking multiple roles exert immense and enormous pressure on the females to respond to such expectations.
In the nutshell, females encounter stressors such as long working hours, work-home interference, household responsibilities, family liabilities, interpersonal relations and daily disputes.
1.4.6 Stress and disease. For many decades, psychologists have been finding negative relation between work stressor and physical and psychological health. Researchers have defined three major categories of possible responses to stress: physiological, psychological and behavioral. The physiological responses to stress include cardiovascular symptoms (Polanski,
1999) increased blood pressure (Pickering, 1990) and cholesterol level, biochemical responses i.e. catecholamine, kidney damage, uric acid and gastrointestinal symptoms i.e. peptic ulcers and digestion problems. There is evidence that stress effects infectious ailments(Biondi &
Zannion, 1997) and autoimmune illness (Affleck et.al., 1997). Mortimer, Winefield and
Chalmer (1996) showed that Lymphocytic 5-ectonucleotidasereduced significantly in persons experiencing stress with a relative variation in mood disturbances. Enzyme values were reversible i.e. they returned to normal once the stress had been decreased.
Pickering (1990) reported the role of stress in the development of hypertension and coronary heart disease. The influences of stress tend to depend on at least three factors: the nature of the stressor, its appraisal by the individual and the individual's physiological vulnerability. Researcher found that men in high strain jobs are more likely to be hypertensive 43
and show left ventricular hypertrophy than men in less demanding jobs. Review of research literature shows that stress has direct and indirect impact on a person’s health.
Psychological responses to stress at workplace include emotional variables such as rage, anxiety, depression, apprehensions, distress and hypersensitivity. Mental and cognitive problems include shortening of memory and reduced focusing power. More passive aftermaths are boredom, lassitude, lethargy and desolation.
Behavioral responses to stress are absenteeism, theft, criminal mischief, turnover and drug addiction, insomnia, narcolepsy, adopting the negligent attitude, and loss of motivation. In extreme cases, there may be suicidal threats. Individuals with high level of positive thinking and personal resources would be less likely to experience job tension and pressures.
1.5 Coping Strategies
Coping can be defined as a response required of an organism to adapt to challenging and detrimental circumstances. Folkman and Lazarus offered the following view of coping: “We define coping as constantly changing cognitive or behavioral efforts to manage specific internal or external demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person.”
(1984, p.141). This definition of coping presents it as a process oriented phenomena instead of a characteristic. Pearlin and Schooler (1978) expressed coping as the thing people do to avoid being harmed by life burdens. It is “the cognitive and behavioral effort made to master, tolerate or reduce internal and external demands and conflicts among them” (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980, p.219-239). Following are the different types of coping.
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1.5.1 Direct action and palliative (moderating vs. intensifying) coping. In 1966, Lazarus classified coping as direct action and palliative.
1.5.2 Problem focused and emotion focused coping. In 1984, Lazarus changed the name of these two classifications to Problem focused and Emotion Focused. The reason of these coping efforts was to alter or manage the sources of stress. These coping techniques envelop efforts to define the problems, produce substitute solutions, consider the pros and cones of various actions change what is changeable and learn new skills. Problem focused coping regulates the emotions related to stressful situation that can be directed outwards to alter the condition of environment or inwards to change some aspects of self. Many of the efforts directed at self fall in the class of reappraisal such as changing the meaning of situation, reducing ego involvement or recognizing the existence of personal resources or strengths.
Emotion focused coping deals with the feeling and responses to the stressful situations by managing the emotions. These techniques involve efforts such as dissociation, selective attention, blaming attitude, minimizing, desirous thinking, catharsis, social support seeking behavior, exercise and meditation. Females use emotion focused coping more as compared to males (Eaton and Bradley, 2008). In Pakistan, females being the suppressed segment of society, cope in term of back biting and gossip.
1.5.3 Avoidance-focused coping. Various writers have identified a third dimension of coping i.e. avoidance-focused. This dimension involves techniques (withdrawal, escape, behavioral disengagement and denial) that were previously classified as emotion focused coping. 45
Researches exploring psychometric characteristics of three dimensional coping inventories have shown empirical support of the separation for avoidance and emotion focused strategies(Cosway et al., 2000; Duhachek, 2005).
As far as recent positive psychology movement is concerned, the concept of coping is enlarging and now encompasses self regulated ambition accomplishment strategies and personal growth (Snyder & Lopez, 2002). Many efforts have been made to lessen the range of possible actions against stress to a more brief set of coping dimension. Researchers have come up with two basic distinctions: instrumental involving observant, vigilant and resistive coping and secondly avoidant including comforting and emotional coping (Schwarzer & Schwarzer, 1996).
1.5.4 Assimilative and accommodative coping. Assimilative coping aims at improving the environment and the accommodative coping targets self-modification( Brandtstadter, 1992).
The former coping applies persistent goal-seeking and the latter deals with goal adjustment.
Likewise, the term primary control versus secondary control(Rothbaum, Weisz, &Snyder, 1982) or mastery versus meaning(Taylor, 1983) has been recognized.
1.5.5 Reactive, anticipatory, preventive and proactive coping. The other outlook of coping discriminates among reactive, anticipatory, preventive and proactive coping and how each form of coping aids us in dealing with incidents of past, present and future. Reactive coping implies to damage experienced in the past, the target is compensation, a specific optimistic belief in their ability to overwhelm stressors and adversities (Schwarzer, 1999).
However, anticipatory coping apply to expected risk in the near future. Anticipatory coping is the management of expected threat which involves taking adequate measures to avoid adverse circumstances. Preventive coping indicates an uncertain threat. Preventive coping aims at 46
preparing against uncertain incidents in the long run. Proactive coping encompasses forth- coming challenges that are self-promoting.
Positive thinkers use proactive coping(Schwarzer, 2000)as it does not needs any negative appraisal. It indicates the efforts to generate resources that help in promotion towards challenging targets and personal development. They seek prospects, demand, challenges and opportunities in the distant future but they do not perceive them as potentially threatening. On the contrary, they appraise challenging situation as personal tests and trails. Coping becomes goal management instead of risk management. The proactive individual struggles for life betterment and generation of resources that guarantee advancement, prosperity and quality of functioning. Present study is coherent with this concept and hypothesizes that individuals who are optimistic and positive use proactive coping to face the challenges of life.
1.5.6 Searching for meaning in adversity: An effective coping. In the researches related to the issue of finding meaning in adversity, researchers perceived it as an effective approach related to the lessening of threat to a person’s physical ( Afflect, Tennen, Croog, & Levine,
1987) and psychological health (e.g., Davison, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Larson, 1998). Finding meaning in adversity has been a focus point in a variety of coping theories and associated with adaptation to many kinds of stressful encounters (Lazarus, 1991). Researchers tend to differ in the role they ascribe to the exploration of meaning in the coping process i.e. they conceptualize it as different from coping (Afflect & Tennen, 1996), intertwined with coping (Folkman &
Moskowitz,2000) or being a factor that shapes the process of coping (appraisals; Lazarus,
1991). Researchers also analyzed various level of meaning in the coping process for example
Folkman and Moskowitz (2000) distinguished between situational and global meaning. 47
Situational meaning implies the appraisal of stress where it aids in the determination of the degree of importance of the encounter relative to a person’s beliefs, goals and values. Global meaning is more related with ideal, generalized meaning that deals with a person’s more existential conjecture.
In a review of coping strategies, Folk man and Lazarus (1980) declared that approaches to coping measurement involve coping in terms of ego processes (reaction formation, altruism), coping as personality characteristics (people cope similarly in different situations) and coping in specific situations (coping in illness). Koala (1979) found three personality traits i.e. commitment, control and challenge which constitute the hardy personality which acts as resistor to stress. Hardiness is crucial to the resiliency for not only sustaining, but also struggling, under stressful circumstances. Hardiness boosts up progress, refines leadership, builds up stamina and promotes well-being.
Positive mind perceives the stressful situation in a more realistic and logical way and uses positive and creative coping styles to manage daily stress. Another personal resource factor is situation specific coping efficacy (Schwarz & Renner, 2000).
There are gender-related effects on the coping techniques in response to stress. Men tend to be more likely to engage in effective coping that alters a situation than women (Folk man &
Lazarus, 1980). Women implemented emotion focused coping techniques more than men (Eaton and Bradley, 2008). In Pakistan females mostly are suppressed, submissive and timid. When ever they encounter stress they use emotion focused strategies to cope with it. For example, they seek social support, do catharsis, indulge in conspiracies; back biting, leg pulling and withdrawal behaviors by taking sedatives.
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1.6 Health
‘Health’ implies a sphere of positive states of physical, mental and social well being- not the absence of injury or disease- characterized by variation in healthful signs and life styles. In states of injury or disease, destructive process generates typical signs, ailments or disabilities.
Illness and wellness are not entirely separate concepts: they overlap with elevating degree of wellness and of illness varying along a continuum with neutral on the halfway. At the extreme ends are optimum wellness and death (Sarafino, 2002).
Previously, model of health was on mechanistic outlooks that mind and body are separate elements and bodily ailments should be treated by medicine and surgery. This model failed to mention the multiple dimensions of a human personality which contribute to both disease and healing process (Seawart, 1997). The aspects of mind, emotions and spirit became “connected” to the body with the development of theories of stress and psychosomatic illness. This theory emphasizes that mind and emotions play a significant role in the origin and advancement of illness.
Mental health applies to optimal functioning or wellbeing which is equivalent to happiness and positive thinking. It consists of different emotional and cognitive components identified as positive emotions, minimum negative affect and cognitive judgment of contentment with life. Regarding gender differences Nelson, Hitt and Quick (1997) reported that women suffer from poorer mental health than men as they experience greater psychological and physiological stress.
Dubos (1965) noted that even infectious organic diseases did not occur just because pathogenic(disease-causing) microbes entered the body. These are always present in the 49
environment. Negative emotions such as torment, violence, agitation and fear lessen the body’s immunity to these ever present microorganisms, elevating the possibility of disease. Doubos, on the basis of work of Sale (1936) declared that stress was the determinant that contributed to alleviated immunity and eventual infection. Borysenko’s 1991(cited in Seawart , 1997) model explained that when immune system is functioning normally, it is precisely managed. When it is not in homeostasis, the outcome can be overcorrection or under reaction of immune function.
Disease can occur in both cases. The causes of overreaction can be exogenous (allergic reaction to a foreign substance) or endogenous (lymphocytes attack and destroy healthy tissues). Stress can disturb the homeostasis of the immune system. Therefore, these theories support the interrelation of stress and health.
1.7 Gender Differences
Current study is a pursuit to find out gender differences in positivity, functional coping with stressors and health outcomes. Gender differences play an important role in human behavior. Pakistan is a gender sensitive society where gender roles are learned through parents, media and society. Males think that they are superior to females because they are bread winners, managers of the home and have more financial powers, physical strengths, emotional stability and decision making abilities. Females are trained to belief that they are inferior to males. Our religion also gives second rate status to females (Men have authority over women because God has made the one superior to the other and because they spend their wealth to maintain them:
Quran, Al-Nisa, 4:34). Man’s role is that of a manager. So, Islam also requires women to submit to men. A man gets more of an inheritance than his sister gets. "A man shall inherit twice as 50
much as a female" (Qur'an, Al-Nisa, 4:11). A woman's legal testimony is worth half of a man's.
God says that " call in to witness two witnesses, men; or if the two be not men, then one man and two women, such witness as you approve of, that if one women errs the other will remind her"(Qur'an, Al-Baqara, 2:282).
Historically, in the Indo-Pak's tribal and rural cultures, women were treated as the property of men. Role of woman has been submission, to serve as a commodity and to sacrifice herself for the sake of values determined by man (Niaz, 2003). That is why women “consider themselves insecure, incomplete, ineffective and inefficient without males” (Niaz, 2003). If any woman rebels against the cultural norms she has to face physical violence at home and psychological violence in the society. In Pakistan, domestic violence is considered a private matter, as it occurs in the family and therefore not an appropriate focus for assessment, intervention or policy changes. Women have to face discrimination and violence on a daily basis due to the cultural and religious norms that Pakistani society embraces (Fikree & Bhatti, 1999).
Due to injustices of society women face more stressors and use ineffective coping styles as compared to men ultimately resulting in poor health.
Unfortunately, in most of the Pakistani and Indian societies there is no education, no freedom, women are treated like slaves or prisoners in the households and violence against women in these societies is very common. There is a famous proverb, used and believed so universally, in such societies, "Zan, Zar, Zameen" (Woman, Money, Land) being the source of everything evil. This is a sound wisdom in these cultures. In such societies, women's personality is determined by the man's wishes. If she is non-compliant and rebellious she can become a 51
victim of acid attacks (Chinoy, 2012). In most cases, she is battered, isolation, virtually imprisoned and sometimes murdered (Ali, Irma, Gavino, 2008).
There are many theories which provide the roots of gender differences. Although these theories are developed in Western countries but they describe the cultural aspect of these differences. For example, Social role theory says that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men (Eagly, 2000; 2001). In most cultures around the world, women have less power and status than men have and they control fewer resources (Denmark,
Robinowitz, & Sechzer, 2005). Compared with men, women perform more domestic work, spend fewer hours in paid employment, receive lower pay and are more thinly represented in the highest levels of organizations. In Eagly’s view, as women adopted to roles with less power and less status in society, they showed more cooperative, less dominant profiles than men. Thus the social hierarchy and division of labor are important causes of gender differences in power, assertiveness and nature (Betz, 2006; Eagly & Diekman, 2003).
Social cognitive theory says that the children’s gender development occurs through observing and imitating what other people say and do and through being rewarded and punished for gender appropriate and gender in-appropriate behavior (Bussy & Bundra, 1999). From birth onward, gender roles are rewarded. Culture, school, media and other family members also provide gender role models (Smith, 2007). Parents by action and by example, influence their children’s gender development (Bronstein, 2006). Cultures around the world tend to give them differing roles. Mothers are more consistently given responsibilities for nurturance and physical care. Fathers are more likely to engage in playful interaction. Fathers seem to play an especially important part in gender role development. They are more likely than mothers to act differently towards sons and daughters (Leaper, 2002). 52
Cognitive development theory of gender states that Children’s gender typing occurs after children think of themselves as boys and girls. Gender schema theory states that gender typing occurs when children are ready to encode and organize information along the lines of what is considered appropriate for females and males in their society (Martin & Dinella, 2001). Children are motivated to act in ways that conform to these gender schemas. Thus, gender schemas fuel gender typing (Hyde, 2007).
In a wide-ranging study of college students in 30 countries males were widely believed to be dominant, independent, aggressive, achievement oriented and enduring, while females were widely believed to be nurturant, affiliative, less esteemed and more helpful in the time of distress (William & Best, 1982). In another study women and men who lived in more highly developed countries perceived themselves as more similar than women and men who lived in less developed countries (William &Best, 1989). In this study the women were more likely to perceive similarity between the sexes than the men were. And the sexes were perceived more similarity in the Christian than in the Muslim societies.
Several theories have been proposed to explain the phenomenon of gender differences.
Brofenbrenner’ s ecological framework (1986) which has been used by other authors in relation to child abuse (Dasgupta,2001 & Edleson, 2000 ), neglect ( Belsky, J. 1980 ) and domestic violence (Heise, 1998 & Carlson, 1984) suggests that behavior is shaped through interaction between individual human beings and their social environment. Development of male and female personalities is a result of interaction at five levels of social organization (Dasgupta,
2001;Edleson, 2000) including individual, microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem levels. The individual level caters the biological and personal factors, which influence individual behavior. In this level biological differences cause the society to 53
discriminate against women. The microsystem levels encompass the family and work-place situations. In this research more attention is given to this level where females face more discrimination. The mesosystem level involves the interaction between a person's microsystems.
The exosystem level relates to the structures and systems of the society where the person lives.
Finally, the macorosystem level considers the role of culture and larger background in gender development (Dasgupta, 2001).
According to Feminist theory woman abuse is one of the outcomes of a structure that allows prostitution and other sexist restrictions to keep women in servile (obedient) positions.
The feminist view also holds that until women are seen as other than obedient, compliant victims, little will change. It is a deeply embedded social problem that has to be addressed by social change (Gondolf & Fisher 1988). In Pakistan, females are getting more sensitive about their status in the society. They are at war either explicitly or implicitly. This burdens the females with an additional stress of insecurity. They are struggling hard to get emancipation in the society.
Present study will empirically test the gender differences regarding positivity, coping with daily stressors and health outcomes in a sample of Pakistani university teachers. It will help policy makers to design strategies to raise the status of females by providing them more facilities at home, work place and in society as well as more representation in politics, jobs, administrative posts and decision making matters to reduce the stressors of females.
The concepts of positive thinking empirically tested in different cultures can be replicated in Pakistan making it culturally sensitive. Pakistani researchers can develop their own psychologies relevant with their religion, cultural practices and gender roles. These can be the stepping stones in the path of self discovery and might facilitate an individual to realize and 54
utilize one’s own potential and make the best out of it. They might provide a different perspective towards life and build up esteem and courage in an individual to face the dire circumstances of our country and handle worse consequences. They might help in the development of strong exhilarated minds and staunch individuals who pursue their ambitions and gathers motivation from their inner self.
After reflecting upon the circumstances of Pakistan the researcher of the present study incorporated Western concepts of positive psychology in its own cultures after aligning it with
Pakistani cultural norms. Researcher operationalized positive thinking, as optimism, for the present study. The researcher will explore whether optimism lessens the stressors and makes coping strategies effective for both males and females. The challenge is great and extensive but it will enable the people to identify this strength and use it to face the daily stressors and prepare themselves for future challenges of terrorism, poverty, corruption and injustice of society which are threats on the physical and psychological health of Pakistanis.
1.8 Plan of the study
Pakistani people, like other citizens of underdeveloped countries, are following the western culture where life is fast-paced due to the advancement in technology. In Pakistan, both males and females are under a lot of pressure due to the environmental, economic and political stressors. Females are more vulnerable to health problems in stressful circumstances. It has been repeatedly shown in literature that females tend to report higher level of distress, unipolar depression and other forms of negative affect than the males (Fujita, Diener, Sandvik, 1991).
The need of the hour is that psychologists not only conduct extensive research in the area of positive psychology but also test Western theories of positive psychology in our own culture. 55
Further more they should try to search new ways and methods of increasing optimism and resilience to deal with the turmoil of the nation. Current study is an effort to meet this challenge.
This study will investigate the impact of positive thinking on stress appraisal, coping and health in a sample of university teachers. It will also explore gender differences in university teachers regarding all the study variables.
Since the establishment of Pakistan, education has never been considered a priority.
Recently, education has received special attention by public and private sectors. New policies, strategies and goals have been set. Stakes are high and so are the stressors of the teachers. They have to pace up to achieve the international standards of education.They are under enormous stress due to the Higher Education Commission’s requirements regarding quality education, research work and publication. Workplace stressors such as lack of empowerment at workplace, workload, student’s negative behavior and violence against the teachers have heightened their stressors.
Part I of the current study will identify the stressors of university teachers. Researcher will develop an indigenous daily stressor scale for university teachers. In this regard, stressors affecting their lives will be collected qualitatively. Based on that data a daily stressor scale will be developed for university teachers on a countrywide sample.
In part II the impact of positive thinking will be investigated on daily stressors, coping strategies and health. This study will also find out gender differences in the sample regarding study variables. Fredrickson’s model of positive emotions will be used in the study which assumes that positive thinking changes the appraisal of stressor by making it less threatening and leads to effective and efficient coping and better health outcomes. The main study will be conducted in a sample of a large public university. 56
1.9 Independent Variable
Positive thinking is the independent variable in this study. There are many indicators of positive thinking and optimism is one of them. Many researchers have found optimism as conceptually related with positive thinking (Carver & Scheier, 2002a, b). Other researchers (Wilkinson & Kitzinger 2000), studying cancer patients, found out definitional ambiguity about positive thinking. Mostly patients understood it as a conversational idiom, characterized by vagueness and generality and a socially normative moral requirement. To avoid this ambiguity, positive thinking has been expressed as optimism for the present study and will be measured through Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) (Scheier, Carver&
Brigades, 1994).
1.10 Dependent Variables
Daily stressors, coping techniques and health of the participants will be the dependant variables in this study. Researcher will develop an indigenous daily stressor scale by investigating the stressors of university teachers through in-depth interviews and focus groups discussions. Coping will include ways of managing stress. The impact of positive thinking will be investigated on daily stressors, coping strategies and health in a sample of public university teachers.
57
1.11 Statement of the problem
It is said that the stress varies with individual characteristics. Positive thinkers appraise daily stressors less threatening, use functional coping strategies and remain healthy while negative thinkers perceive the adverse circumstances as threatening, use dysfunctional coping strategies and remain unhealthy. The study intends to identify the above mentioned relationship in a sample of university teachers.
1.12 Justification and Likely Benefits
Pakistani people are living under stressful circumstances. Political instability, corruption, injustice, terrorism, overpopulation, unemployment and environmental pollution have elevated the stressors of the people. Natural calamities such as floods, earthquakes and hurricanes have targeted our nation. Men and women both face occupational, cultural, social and environmental stressors however females encounter additional stressors related to health care, domestic violence, isolation, lack of authority and economic independence. Women recently entering in different fields as a working force such as police, banking, marketing, industry or any other profession may have some privileges but they encounter work-home conflicts. Mostly they become overburdened and face difficulties managing household and interpersonal relationships.
Professional females have to survive in a competitive and somewhat oppressive environment. It leads them towards negativity and depression. They adapt dysfunctional coping strategies to deal with daily stressors which lead to different psychological and physical health problems.
For quite sometime, many studies have reported psychological distress among university teachers due to different reasons. Being a university teacher was traditionally regarded as a highly desirable occupation with low level of stress (Fisher, 1994). Major highlights of the 58
profession were flexible working hours, less work load and research in the desired field. They enjoyed the job security that came with tenure and were able to travel for work related studies and conferences sponsored by the institutions. However, over the past one or two decades many of the benefits have been diminished hugely leaving the university teachers with low productivity and high stress (Fisher, 1994). Comparative salaries for academics have fallen and work load has increased. The motto “publish or perish” has made the university teachers desperate and distressed.
Fisher (1994) reported that the university teachers scored higher in tension, distress and obsession than the general population. Professional burnout is another major cause of manifestation of distress. Some particular predictors of burnouts have been role conflict, role ambiguity and lack of authority (Pretorius, 1994; Leung, Siu, & Spector, 2000).
The general conclusion to be drawn from these studies is that the psychological distress related to the university teachers is the cause of concern and largely the outcomes of elevated work load intermixed with personality factors in university teachers. Although, some studies have tried to explore the occupational stress in Pakistan, the impact of positive thinking on the appraisal of stress, coping and health in Pakistani culture has not been investigated throughly.
Consequently, there is a need for a more in-depth examination of the role of stressors in psychological problems experienced by university professors.
Current study is an endeavor to investigate the effect of optimism on the appraisal of daily stressors in Pakistani culture. The researcher will explore this relationship in a sample of university teachers. Present research will find out the sources of stress and propose strategies to reduce the stressors of faculty members to enhance the quality education and productivity in research by identifying the expertise of their faculty. Present study is also designed to put 59
different theories of positive emotions and stress appraisal, with regard to gender differences, to test in a Pakistani culture.
This study will help administration, teachers, parents and counselors to inculcate positive thinking in their employees, students, children and clients respectively, so that they could tackle the daily stressors effectively. It will promote and enhance mental and physical health of the citizens of Pakistan. It will urge teachers to employ problem solving approach and creativity. It will lead psychologists to prepare interventions for positive thinking. This study will also help government and private universities to initiate steps to reduce the stressors of faculty members so that they could enhance the potential of their students.
1.13 Objectives of the study
The objectives of the study are to:
Assess positive thinking in males and females of Pakistan.
Investigate the relationship of positive thinking with stress, coping and health.
Identify the daily stressors of male and female university teachers countrywide.
Explore the coping strategies employed by university teachers while dealing with daily
stressors.
Investigate the health status of positive thinkers.
Evaluate the Frederickson’s model of positive thinking and effective coping in relation
with gender differences in a sample of university teachers. 60
Provide insight to administration, educators, counselors, psychotherapists, professionals
and parents about the power of positive thinking to deal with the stressors of their
employees, students, clients and children respectively.
Make faculty aware of their coping repertoire and help them modify their behavior
according to the changing circumstances.
1.14 Hypothesis of the study:
Following hypothesis will be examined in the present study:
There is a significant negative relationship between optimism and daily stressors.
There is a significant relationship between daily stressors and general health.
Optimism is significantly related to general health.
There is a positive relationship between positive thinking and the implementation of
effective coping strategies for daily stressors.
There is a negative relationship between positive thinking and the use of avoidant
coping strategies for daily stressors.
There are gender differences in positive thinking.
Females experience more daily stressors than males.
There are gender differences in the implementation of coping strategies for daily
stressors.
Problem focused coping will predict psychological wellbeing in males and females.
61
Chapter 2 Related Literatures
Over the past two decades, huge amount of research has been done in western societies by positive psychologists to examine the relationship between positive thinking and distress among the people facing stressful situation. The emotion or coping strategy which best predicts prompt and long term stress reduction has always been a question which led to hundreds of books and thousands of articles. Researchers have also analyzed the association of coping strategies with higher level of positive aspects of wellbeing, strength, vivacity, agility and engagement as well as alleviated stress. Researches prove the relation of positive thinking, optimism and positive affect with distress abatement and predict healthy aftermaths in both males and females (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004; Tugade, Fredrickson & Feldman Barret,
2004).There is empirical affirmation of positive thinking being a main element in the preservation of health when encountering stress. The contribution of positive thinking in enhancing health is obvious in the studies of cardiovascular health, protection of blood pressure, cancer and other heart related ailments (Affleck, Tennen, & Croog, 1987).
2.1 Positive Thinking in Stress Appraisal and Coping
Positive mind-set during stressful situations enhances various coping abilities. Positive thinking in terms of optimism is referred to as attributional style (Seligman, 1991) or as general positive expectancy (Carver & Scheier, 1991, 2001). Extraversion (McCrae & Costa, 1986), sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1988, 1993), hope (Synder,2000) and hardiness (Maddi &
Kobassa, 1991) all are the personality characteristics that are correlated with positivity and optimism and promote positive thinking during adverse conditions. These have been associated 62
with health benefits (e.g., Maruta, Colligan, Malinchoc, & Offord, 2000; Snyder, 2000).
Although, these theories differ in many aspects, they have authentic correlations with positive affect (Clark & Watson, 1991).
The personality traits associated with positive thinking encompasses optimism, confidence and self-efficacy; likeability and positive construal of others; sociability, activity, strength; pro-social behavior; resistance and physical well-being; efficacious coping with challenges and stress; originality and flexibility. All these personality characteristics encourage active involvement with environment and goal seeking. Positive thinking motivates an individual to accomplish his goal rather than avoiding it. Likewise, positive emotions generate resources by promoting optimism, resilience and perseverance (Salovey, Rothman, Detweiler,
& Steward, 2000).Various studies show that being optimistic and having positive thinking may act as defensive factor, beneficial in promoting short term health advantages as well as long term benefits for coping in adverse circumstances. Positive thinking may be considered as a significant health-promoting element.
The above researches support that those who have a greater ability to think positively, while encountering stress, may enjoy beneficial outcomes in coping process.
Researchers have further described that positive thinkers tend to recall health related information more than the negative thinkers (Aspinwall, 1998; Aspinwall & Brunhart, 1996) and they engage in humor and positive reframing while dealing with dire situations (Carver et al., 1993). It is likely that the influence of these concepts on positive emotions moderate their association with health aftermaths (Segerstorm, 2000).Chang (2002) worked on a model of optimism–pessimism and stress regarding psychological symptoms and life contentment. The sample consisted of a group of younger (N = 340; M = 20.4 years) and a group of older adults 63
(n = 316; M = 46.6 years). A significant amount of the variance in each of the measures was reported. Further analysis showed definite continuity of elevation in the association of appraised stress with poor mental adjustment due to pessimism.
Studies show that positive thinkers, who are optimists, differ from pessimists in the subjective well-being they enjoy when experiencing several kinds of unfavorable circumstances.
These two sorts of people also differ in coping strategies when facing dire circumstances: optimists are realistic, accept the challenges and adapt to their current situation. They involve in more focused and effective coping. They have lesser tendency to show symptoms of withdrawal and surrender their goals (Scheier & Carver, 2001). Positive thinkers feel well-contented and satisfied with their progress and resources (Carver & Scheier, 1998; Cantor et al., 1991).
The positive emotions, while facing stress, appear to have maximum effect in building immunity against the adversities. Lyubomirsky and King (2005) conducted a meta-analysis related to the advantages of recurring positive emotions expressed as positive thinking, optimism, life contentment, vivacity and happiness, concluded that positive affect is a key ingredient of success across multiple life domains, including work progress, marriage, friendship, income, self-concept, problem solving, creativity, coping and health. Three classes of evidence: cross sectional, longitudinal and experimental were documented to test the positive emotions-success model. Lyubomirsky, after examining Psycinfo data base and implementing ancestry method, which included the reference list of every practical, theoretical and review paper, combined relevant articles. Finally from 225 papers, 293 samples were examined, comprising over 275,000 participants and computed 313 independent effect sizes. They included a study in the table if it met the criteria of measures of happiness or closely related concepts such as positive affect and optimism. Review of the literature showed that positive 64
affect and positive thinking promote following resources, capabilities and attributes: sociability and activity (mean r =.51). Altruism (mean r =.43), adoring of self and others (mean r =.36), bodily strength and immune system (mean r =.38) and effective conflict resolution skills (mean r =.33). Research showed that positive mood fosters original thinking (mean r= .25).
A large amount of research on optimism and distress has been done keeping in view the measures of coping tendencies. The researchers were able to examine whether the differences they observed in health and well-being were moderated by differences in coping.
Optimism, a personality attribute characterized by chronic experience of positive affect, has supported these positive outcomes (Carver & Scheier, 2002a, b) in cancer patients. At diagnosis,
59 breast cancer patients reported their overall optimism about life; 1 day pre-surgery, 10 days post-surgery and at 3, 6, and 12-months follow-ups, they reported their current coping responses and stress levels. Results revealed that optimism associated inversely to stress at each point, even controlling for previous stresses. Acceptance, positive reframing and seeking religious guidance were the most common coping reactions; denial and behavioral disengagement were the least common reactions. Recognition, acceptance and the positive reframing prospectively predicted lessened stress while denial and withdrawal predicted more distress. Path analyses showed that several coping responses played moderating roles regarding the influence of optimism on stress.
It was evident that optimists experienced better physical recovery shortly after coronary artery bypass surgery and up to six months post surgery (Carver., Pozo, Harris, Noriega, et al. 1993). In a study on male war veterans, optimists were less likely to suffer from angina and heart attacks(Kubzansky, Sparrow, Vokonas & Kawacgi, 2001) and evidenced higher level of pulmonary functions and slower rates of pulmonary decline, a defensive affect that is independent of smoking (Kubzansky,Wright, Cohen, Weiss, Rosner, & Sparrow,2002). 65
Therefore, optimism is associated with less incidence and better prompt recovery, probably due to the chronic positive emotional states that optimists experience. Recent research also shows that the influence of dispositional positive thinking on health parallel the effects indicated by positive emotions related to hope (Aspinwall & Leaf, 2002)
Boland (1996) examined the relations among optimism, perception of stress, coping and adaptation in 113 women over the age of sixty. She hypothesized that optimism in older women is associated with lower levels of appraised stress, a greater tendency to perceive stressors as challenge rather than threats, more effective coping strategies, fewer signs of stress and greater levels of life contentment. Optimism was correlated with most of the dependent variables.
Hierarchical regression analyses showed that it lost its predictive power when the effects of the covariates, particularly Time 1 measures of the dependent variables and neuroticism were statistically removed. The most important predictors of coping, stress and satisfaction with life were initial measures of these variables, followed by neuroticism.
Scheier and Carver (1985)showed that optimist students engage in effective and successful coping with the challenging circumstances during the semester. They were less prone to ailments. Study questionnaires included Life Orientation Test (LOT), which measured optimism and pessimism, the Private Self-Consciousness Scale and 39-item Physical Symptom
Check list. Results showed that the LOT correlated significantly with Physical Symptom
Checklist. Optimist individuals more successfully coped with the difficult situation during the semester and showed fewer symptoms of somatic diseases.
Optimistic pregnant women use constructive thinking more often than the pessimistic ones
(Park et al., 1997). Moreover, a negative correlation was found between constructive thinking and anxiety whereas a positive correlation with positive mind-set. Subsequent analyses showed 66
that the relation between optimism and each of these markers of psychological adjustment was moderated by the likelihood of optimists to engage in constructive thinking.
Affelect, Litt, Tennen and klock (1992) recorded the responses of people unsuccessful in vitro fertilization. Optimism was assessed four months before the attempt, as were specific expectancies for fertilization success, coping strategies, distress levels and the impact of infertility on participant’s lives. Two weeks after the notification of a negative pregnancy test, distress was assessed again. Neither, demographics, obstetric history, martial adjustment, nor the rated affect of infertility on participants’ lives predicted Time-2 distress levels but pessimism did. Controlling for time-1 distress, pessimism was the strongest predictor of time-2 distress. Pessimists were found to use withdrawal as a coping technique, which in return caused even more distress after failure in fertilization attempt.
All this research support that positive thinkers especially optimists, differ from negative thinkers in the kinds of coping strategies they implement while confronting health threats. Generally, findings from these researches propose that positive thinkers are likely to implement more problem-focused coping strategies than the negative thinkers. If problem-focused coping is not possible, positive thinkers turn to adaptive emotion- focused coping strategies such as acceptance, recognition, use of humor and positivereframing.Pessimists or negative thinkers tend to give up their goals if they encounter hurdles in their pursuit of its accomplishment.
Researchers also declared positive reappraisal independently related to increases in positive effect, denoting care giver’s reappraisal of distressful experience as worthwhile. They maintained that all caregivers were able to report positive incidents in the middle of their ongoing stress. Techniques of positive thinking and maintaining positive moods help safeguard 67
against stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000). These strategies help an individual to emerge from crisis with effective coping skills, intimate relationship and a rich appreciation for life, all of which promote psychological wellbeing.
Shiota (2006) did research on the students of West Coast University in America, explained the influence of positive coping strategies on daily stressors. Participants completed wellbeing measures, described the most stressful event of the day and their emotional adjustment for seven days. Positive emotions were mostly related to positive phases of well being, including coping techniques. Implementation of positive coping did not lessen with elevated objective stress during the week and the implementation of particular strategy was partially predicted by the kind of stressors that were reported.Hence, it was proved that positive thinking played critical role in coping resources when negative incidents promote stress. Tugade and Fredrickson (2004) reported in study 1,conducted in America, that positive emotions are related to speed-up recovery from cardiovascular reactivity generated by negative emotions for resilient individuals. This finding is important in screening the health- enhancing qualities associated with positive emotions. Tugade and Fredrickson in study 2 suggested that Positive
Emotional Granularity (PEG), defined as the tendency to explain positive affect with precision and particularity, has a significant effect on coping. The computer run custom software
(Experience Sampling Program; Barret & Feldman Barret, 2000) ESP presented 29 affect terms for each sampling occasion. Participants indicated how they felt at the moment. Findings indicated that PEG was negatively correlated with scores on the cope mental distraction. The result showed that in coping context, those with higher positive emotional granularity appraised themselves as being more focused towards the situation at hand, more likely to evaluate coping options from every angleand less likely to respond promptly. 68
An extended empirical work is present on the role of cardiovascular reactivity, occasioned by negative emotional states of hostility, anger and anxiety plays in the etiology of cardiovascular diseases, such as coronary heart disease and blood pressure (Blasscovich &
Katkin, 1993). Present research will test the role of these theories in Pakistani context.
2.2 Positive Thinking and Occupational Stress
A meta-analysis of 27 studies regarding affect and job satisfaction was conducted by Connolly and Viswesvaran, (2000). They reported 10%-25% of the variance in job satisfaction due to dispositional affect. Optimistic people were more satisfied with their jobs, usually secured better jobs, satisfy their employers and build up their careers. In a research, it was reported that employees high in dispositional positive affect had jobs having more authority, definition and variety (Staw, Stutton, & Pelled, 1994). They assessed that employees high in dispositional affect gained more favorable evaluations from supervisors and employers. Staw and colleague researched on employees possessing high positive affects in three Midwestern organizations.
They received higher scores for quality of work, production, creativity and reliability. Staw and
Barsade (1993) proposed that those high in dispositional positive affect performed better on a manager assessment task. Positive thinkers, optimists and well contented workers are more likely to be high performers on the job as there is less possibility to be absent from job and show negative behavior (Donovan, 2000). Similarly, positive affect at workplace was negatively related with less disengaged behavior and organizational reappraisal and higher organizational ownership (Donovan, 2000).
Winefield and Richard (2001) conducted a study on 2,040 staff members of a University.
They compared stress level between various categories of staff; psychological distress was 69
highest among academic staff engaged in both teaching and research resulting in greater work load and research funds.
Smári, Arason, Hafsteinsson and Ingimarsson, (1997) explained the role of coping styles in anxiety and depression. Two hundred and thirty three, checking in unemployed service, participated. They filled COPE (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub; 1998) and Hospital Anxiety and
Depression Scale. They gave information about the duration of unemployment and their appraisal of the situation. Results revealed that women focus on emotional coping as well as avoidant which is related to higher anxiety and depression score. For men, only avoidance was related to anxiety and depression.
Ferreira (2006) examined the role of direct action coping and palliative coping in the relationship between work stressors and psychological wellbeing in a sample of 464 bank employees. Three components of psychological distress were stress, psychosomatic complaints and job satisfaction. The results revealed that work related stressors correlated positively with psychological distress and psychosomatic complaints. Direct action coping strategy correlated negatively with these two measures of distress. Hierarchical analysis revealed main influence of direct action coping on wellbeing. Palliative coping was correlated with higher level of psychological distress. The interaction between two types of coping was important for psychosomatic complaints and psychological distress, but not for the job.
Healy and Mckay (2000) studied 129 nurses (F=125, M = 4) to find out the relationship between nurses work related stressors, efficient coping strategies and its effect on the job contentment and mood variations. It was suggested that higher level of appraised work stress and implementation of avoidant coping strategies would elevate mood disturbance, while problem focused coping would be related to lessened mood disturbance. They completed nurses 70
stress scale, ways of coping questionnaire, cope humor scale, job satisfaction and profile of mood states. The possible stress buffering effect of humor coping and job satisfaction upon the relationship between work stressor and mood disturbance was explored. Results showed positive correlation between nurse’s stress and mood disturbance and a significant negative relation between nurse’s stress and job satisfaction. The implementation of avoidant coping and the appraisal of work overload were found to be significant predictors of mood disturbance. No major or resistive effect was found for humor coping upon the relation between stress and mood disturbance.
From a social-environmental outlook, relationship has been found between job strain, defined as high psychological demands and lack of control and elevated ambulatory blood pressure (Schnall, Schwartz, Landsbergis, Warren, & Pickering, 1992). As a strong link between the two, high blood pressure has sometimes been used as an index of job stress
Hogan (2002) studied job and daily stress, bio psychosocial stress, emotionality, medical symptoms and appraised social support in a sample (N = 831) of university personnel. The result revealed that job and non-work stress correlated positively with behavioral, cognitive and physiological reactions to stress in addition to negative emotionality. Stress also correlated with medical symptoms (Hogan, Carlson, & Due, 2002).A sample of 345 custom workers and dentists was studied, using a longitudinal framework, to test several competing mechanisms specifically perception, hypersensitivity and causality mechanisms on the relationship between work stressors and psychological well-being. Results strongly supported the perception mechanism, indicating that the effects of NA on psychological health were partly intermediated by work stressors. 71
Few researches have been done on the sources of stress at work place and the type of coping people implement in Pakistan. Nizami, Rafiq, Aslam, Minhas and Najam (2006) conducted a study to find out the sources of occupational stress and the level of job satisfaction among nurses working at General Hospital Rawalpindi. Job satisfaction was assessed among 50 female staff members by Pressure Management Indicator (PMI), a 120 item self report measure, encompassing many areas of stress evident in work place (William & Cooper, 1998). Stress was measured in terms of job satisfaction, organization, mental and physical wellbeing. Results revealed that nurses had a high index of occupational stress and a great deal of it strengthens from the administrative disorganization, while personal or minority factors are less significant.
The result of the study showed that the administration unconsciously created a lot of stress for the employees.
2.2.1 Stress among University Teachers
Being a university teacher was traditionally regarded as a highly desirable occupation with low level of stress (Fisher, 1994). Many of the benefits of this profession were thought to lie in the great number of unusual features of employment such as flexibility in the working hours and the tasks they performed. For example, professors pursued areas of self- interest while carrying out the research activities. They enjoyed the job security that comes with tenure and were able to travel for work related studies and conferences. However, over the past one or two decades many of the advantages have been diminished, leaving a growing discontentment among the teachers (Fisher, 1994). Comparative salaries for academics have fallen in the countries worldwide. Increased work load, significant reduction in government funding of 72
public universities place academics under ever increasing burden. The motto “publish or perish” has posed great stress among the university teachers. Universty teachers in Pakistan are facing similar circumstances.
Following studies mostly conducted in Western countries report the psychological distress among university teachers. In United States (Blix, Cruise, Mitchell, & Blix, 1994;
Gmelch, Lovrich & Wilke, 1984; Gmelch, Lovrich, & Wilke, 1986; Richard & Krieshok, 1989),
Great Britain (Abouserie,1996; Bradley & Eachus, 1995; Danial & Cuppy, 1992; Wilkinson &
Joseph, 1995), Australia (Winefield & Richard, 2001) , Canada and Pakistan (Jamal, 1999) researchers have recorded high stress among university teachers due to variety of reasons. The general conclusion drawn is that the psychological distress related to university teachers is largely the result of elevated work load intermixed with personality factors.
The psychological distress experienced by the university teachers emerges and effects in several ways in these studies. Fisher (1994) reported a study done on 85 academic staff that used the Middlesex Hospital Questionnaire (Crown & Crips, 1966) to check the level of psychoneurotic symptoms. The result showed that the professors scored higher regarding anxiety, depression and obsession than the general population. Psychological distress also appeared in the form of professional burnout among university teachers. The predictors of burnout usually are role conflict, role ambiguity and lack of authority (Pretorius, 1994).
Gmelch and his colleagues (1984, 1986) surveyed 80 universities in United States; the sample consisted of 1,221 assistant, associate and full professors. Gmelch and his associates created a 45-item Faculty Stress Index by factor analysis. It resulted 5 stress related factors that were: a) reward and recognition (55%variance), b) time constraints (12% common variance), c) departmental influence (7% common variance, d) Professional identity (6% common variance), 73
and e) student interaction (6% common variance). Reward and recognition were the main factors related to stress which encompassed the three major functions of a university professor i.e. teaching, research and service. Gmelch et al. (1986) proposed that the strength of this factor was the outcome of the extreme ambiguity in the role and performance of a professor as well as the lack of recognition for time commitments and goals. They cited “inadequate rewards, unclear expectations and insufficient recognition being heightened” (Gmelch et al., 1986, p.
272) and the most influential element in a professor’s stress level.
Leung, Siu, and Spector (2000) also reported the effect of recognition and role ambiguity on psychological distress among university teachers.Their research revealed that the recognition and perceived organizational practices was responsible for the most variance in faculty stress.
Contrary to Gmelch and his colleagues’ findings (1984, 1986), recognition was the best predictor of job satisfaction. However, consistent with Gmelch et al. (1984), the role ambiguity factor was the best predictor of psychological distress. Study of Hind and Doyle (1996) was also coherent to Gmelch et al.’s findings (1984) showing the same five factors. They reported similar results on the most serious sources of stress in academia. For example “excessively high self expectations,” “excessively heavy work-load ”and“ job demand interfere with personal life” were rated among the most serious in both Hind and Doyle and in the studies of Gmelch.
Likewise, Boyd and Wylie (1994) recorded that the level of one’s workload and greater expectations at workplace were the main two sources of serious stress in a sample of 500 academic staff. The coherence among the results of these studies proposed that the psychological health of university professors may be closely associated with excessive demands imposed by both themselves and the nature of job. Role ambiguity, uncertainty about standards of excellence in academic work and confusion about how faculty members are evaluated have 74
all enhanced the distress (Seldin, 1987). Research literature shows that much of the distress suffered by professors is associated with the likelihood of setting high standards; employ overly critical self-evaluation and ambiguity about their decisions.
2.3 Gender Differences in Coping with Stress
Reactions to stress differ among individuals and groups. Research related to the role of negative affectivity or the relevant theories of neuroticism has shown that this personality dimension predicts stress related results (Moyle, 1995; Oliver & Brough, 2002). While studying negative affects (NA) and positive affects (PA) on coping, previous studies have revealed that individuals having negative attitudes show avoidant behavior (Bolger & Zukerman, 1995;
Bouchard, 2003). Other researches (Gunthert et al., 1999) have reported positive association between stress and negative thinking. Negative affectalso correlates positively with the implementation of emotion focused coping and negatively with problem focused coping
(Cosway et al, 2000; Endler & Parker, 1994; Mcwilliam, Cox, & Enns, 2003). Two opposite explanations have been suggested to account for the coherent results that stress results varying with NA. Differential exposure hypothesis suggested that some individuals suffer from more stress than others due to greater exposure to stressors (McDonoigh & Walters, 2001; Roxburgh,
1996; Vermeulen & Mustard, 2000). On the contrary, the differential vulnerable hypothesis suggests that even encountering same stressors, individuals vary in their susceptibility or resistance. Such variation in vulnerability may eventuate from various processes, including variation in appraisal of stress, reaction to stress, experience of positive and negative affect, choice and effectiveness of coping techniques (Bolger & Zukerman, 1995; Roxburgh, 1996). 75
Researchers testing differential exposure hypothesis have found that stress exposure differs with gender (Bolger & Zukerman, 1995; McDonoigh & Walters, 2001) and NA (Bolger &
Zukerman, 1995). A study of differential vulnerability hypothesis was done by Day and
Livingstone (2003). In this research, all the participants were presented same, stressful, written scenarios. Females declared three of the five scenarios as more stressful than did males. Eaton and Bradley (2008) conducted a study in American university students and explored the role of gender and negative affectivity in stressor appraisal and coping selection. Day and
Livingstone’s research was the foundation of their study. Differential exposure to stressors was regulated requiring participants (121 females, 95 males) to rate the stressfulness of four same hypothetical written scenarios. Measures of prior stress were taken using Mood States
Inventory. Coping selection was checked using items from six subscales of Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced Inventory (COPE; Carver et al., 1998). NA was checked using a measure of neuroticism from 12 item neuroticism scale from NEO-Five Factor Inventory (Costa
& McCrae, 1992). The results revealed that women declared the scenarios as more stressful than men and appraisal of stress elevated with participants’ NA. Women implemented emotion focused coping techniques more than men, even when appraised stress was regulated. NA predicted implementation of both emotion and avoidance focused coping.
The studies related to gender differences in stress and strain have revealed that women experience more psychological stress and strain than men (Hall, Chipperfield, Perry, Ruthing, &
Goetz, 2006; Roxburgh, 1996). Females perceive stressors as more disturbing than males. A
Meta analysis by Tamres, Janicki, and Helgeson (2002) showed that women perceived stressors as being more stressful in 17 of the 26 study reports. Tamres et al. (2002) tried to find out gender differences in coping. Women tend to use all types of coping strategies more often than 76
men. On the contrary, studies related to relative coping revealed that men tend to use problem focused coping, whereas women mostly seek emotional support.
Anjum (2001) explored gender differences in stress level and coping styles in a sample of students at University of Punjab, Lahore. A stress inventory was prepared which included 20 stressors that were faced by students living in hostels. The stressors such as test anxiety, noise, insufficient time, sleep disturbance and hostel food had higher priority among the students.
COPE scale was used to find out the coping techniques. Men used instrumental coping and women used palliative coping techniques to lessen the stress which prove the gender difference.
The reported stress level was higher in women as compared to men. Other studies about gender and coping have suggested the similar outcomes regarding gender differences (Endler & Parker,
1994). Vingerhoets and Van Heck (1990) reported that men are more likely to use active problem-focused coping techniques, planning and rationalizing their actions, positive thinking, persistence, adaptation and progress. On the contrary, women prefer emotion focused solutions, self blame and wishful thinking.
Not every research is consistent with these stereotypical views. Some studies reveal that although women more often seek social support and use emotion focused coping, no gender differences exist in the use of problem focused or avoidant coping behavior (Carver, Scheier, &
Weintraub, 1989). Results may seem to depend on how coping is defined and measured.
Lazarus’ theory of stress and coping was used as the theoretical frame work in George and Nickole’s (2007) research on learner’s developmental contextualism and stress. This study investigated stress, psychosocial factors and the results of anxiety, depression, and substance abuse in a sample of 466 rural adolescents. Stress involved life events and psychosocial factors were optimism, perceived social support, and coping. Gender differences were also considered in 77
the study. Gender had both a direct and indirect effect on the scores of depression and anxiety with negative life events and psychosocial factors such as optimism, social support and coping, acting as moderators.
Lindiwe, Asner-Self, Kimberly and Schreiber (2005) explored Stress and coping strategies among Zimbabwean adolescents. The study revealed some major stressors such as school work, relationship, social life, financial hardship and estimated their coping repertoire in a sample of 101 students. The students suffered slight stress on Perceived Stress Scale. Females showed higher level of appraised stress than males. Adolescents engage in emotion focused coping more often than problem focused coping. Researcher concluded that adolescents should enhance their problem-solving skills to cope effectively with the challenging situations.
Wong and Keung (2002) researched on stage-specific and culture specific coping strategies, implemented during the resettlement stage of the immigration process. A qualitative analysis was done to handle psychosocial stress encountered during the immigration process.
Direct action coping techniques of problem solving and compromise were implemented by immigrants to deal with recurring and daily resettlement difficulties. Cognitive techniques of positive comparison and positive thinking were used to alter the appraisal of these problems.
Emotion focused coping of acceptance and avoidance techniques were culture specific and were significant in alleviating the stress related to the resettlement problems. It was also showed that techniques for example acceptance, compromise and avoidance might have detrimental influence on the adjustment of immigrants in the long run.
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2.4 Positive Thinking and Health
The advantages of positive thinking are obvious in the studies regarding cardiovascular health, cancer and other diseases. Optimism has been shown to be associated with higher levels of self reported liveliness and psychological health (Achat, Kawachi, Spiro, Demolles, &
Sparrow, 2000) and lower levels of depression. It is evident that positive thinking provides a sense of control in particular conditions and lessen the depression (Taylor,1983). Optimistic individuals are less likely to become ill than negative thinkers and mostly recover more quickly if ever get sick (Reker & Wong, 1985).
2.4.1 Positive thinking and cardiovascular diseases. Positive emotions and positive thinking indeed have a significant role in maintaining blood pressure and other heart diseases
(Affleck, Tennen, & Croog, 1987). Afflect researched on 287 men who suffered from heart attacks and recorded their optimism experience for seven days. About half of them considered this experience beneficial. For some participants, heart attack resulted in change in philosophy of life, including becoming more moral in conduct. Others reported that they learned the values of healthy lifestyle; while 25% reported that they modified their lifestyle so they could enjoy life more.
Helgeson and Fritz(1999) gathered direct evidence that positive thinking effected recovery from coronary heart disease by studying 199 men and 99 women who had just experienced angioplasty. Three psychosocial measures were administered to the heart patients namely negative emotional states, healthy behavior and cluster of positive mental health measures cited as cognitive adaptation, self-esteem, optimism and sense of mastery. 79
Researchers tested whether these three variables would predict adverse coronary effects in the six months following surgery. Effects of income, education and other socio-demographic indicators on angioplasty success were ruled out. Only the measures of cognitive adaptation i.e. self-esteem, optimism and sense of mastery, reliably predicted successful recoveries following surgery. After breaking apart the measures within the adaptation index and testing them against one another it was evident that self-esteem and optimism states of mind saturated with positive emotions were responsible for the influence. Helgeson and Fritz also proposed that self-esteem and optimism may cause low blood pressure and heart rate directly through neuroendocrine mechanism and result in a less abrupt change in heart rate and blood pressure during stressful situations. Scientists have discovered the connection between positive thinking and health through the studies of neurophysiological influence of exercise on cardiovascular fitness.
McCubbin (1993) and Dishman (1996) has been examining the relation of physiological processes responsible for such positive feeling states. McCbbin has studied a class of opioids substances in the brain known as beta-endorphins, released during exercise, elevated positive feeling and thinking.
2.4.2 Positive thinking and cancer. There are two great advantages of thinking positively under stress. Firstly, positive thinking will enable effective coping. Secondly, positive thinking elevates the tendency of good outcomes. Positive emotions have been found to have a direct influence on the quality of life of cancer patients in the duration of their ailment (Collins,
Hanson, Mulhern, & Padberg, 1992).It seems that people suffering from cancer having optimistic mind-set and a fighting spirit have a quality life than negative thinkers and hopeless 80
persons (Schou, Ekeberg & Rauland, 2005).Positive thinking may provide a sense of control in particular conditions and alleviate depression (Taylor, 1983).
Research conducted on cancer patients examined the ways women cope with treatment for early stage breast cancer (Carver et al., 1993). Optimism, coping and mood were recorded the day before surgery and 10 days post-surgery and at three follow-up points during the preceding year. Optimism was related to a pattern of reported coping strategies regarding acceptance of reality of the situation, most possible positive appraisal of the situation,humor, positive reframingand taking necessary steps. Pessimism was associated with denial and behavioral disengagement at each measurement point. The coping techniques regarding optimism and pessimism were also associated with distress. Positive reframing, acceptance and the use of humor all were related inversely to self-reported distress. Denial and behavioral disengagement was related positively to distress at all measurement points.
Many professional writers admire the benefits of positive thinking. Unlike them, others question the physical benefit, indicating divergent evidence as to whether positive thinking has any biological effect on ailments such as cancer development, growth and progression
(Patticrew, 2002; Schofield, 2004, McGrath et al, 2006). Some commentators have also proposed that general injunction upon patients suffering from cancer to think positively may have negative outcomes, implying an unbearable social or psychological burden(McGrath,
2004; Rittenberg, 1995) or guilt if things do not get well (De Reave, 1997).The evidence is greatly contested and is derived from a few methodologically incompetent studies (Petticrew,
2002). Some studies gathered clear proof related to positive thinking as they have previously focused on psychological reaction to cancer instead of positive thinking itself (Greer, 1979).
The hypothesis that they provide practical support to the advantages of positive thinking is a 81
post hoc interpretation that courts the definitional difficulties. McGrath and colleagues
(2006)conducted a study in Australia and examined the narratives of two female care givers, related with positive thinking, whose husbands experienced and died due to cancer. The result showed that it increases the likelihood of a good outcome and enables to cope better with disease. They say that clinicians should be careful about prescribing ‘positive thinking’ to patients as it has different meaning for different people and there are differences in consequences. On the one hand it deprives them of the chance to grief, prevent them from making practical preparation for adverse and acknowledge the approach of death and prepare for the time when other person will die. Rather they should get the clarity of what the patient means by positive thinking and what they expect from it, otherwise it will pressurize the patient to behave in an un-natural way.
2.4.3 Positive Thinking and Immune Functioning
Positive emotions enhance the immunity in human beings. Cruess, Antoni, McGregor and
Milbourn (2000) urged a group of women with breast cancer to find meaning in adversity.
Thirty four women, who had just undergone surgery with breast cancer were assigned one of two conditions: a 10-week cognitive behavioral stress management program or a waiting list control group. The two main results were psychological distress and the level of cortisol in circulation in the bloodstream. They suggested that cortisol was a good predictor of stress reactions that subdue immune system. High cortisol would be a threat to breast cancer patients.
Results revealed variation in cortisol; the treatment group which had undergone behavior therapy displayed alleviated level of this immune suppressing hormone in blood stream than the 82
control group. The cognitive treatment had encouraged the patients to find new and more positive interpretation of their ailment and ways of facing the stress caused by the ailment.
Moreover, sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1993) was related to natural killer (NK) activity among older adults encountering the stress of relocation. In another research, optimism was negatively related to occurrence of upper respiratory infection (Lyons & Chamberlain,
1994). These health advantages of positive thinking also effect other health ailments for example common cold and allergic responses (Cohen, Doyle, Turner, Alper, Ans & Skoner,
2003). Positive thinking and positive emotions moderate the influence of coping with humor and immune system functioning (Dillon, Minchoff, & Baker, 1985-1986). Those with more likelihood to cope with humor report daily positive mood. Eventually, as a result of stress, those with higher tendencies to cope with humor showed elevation in levels of salivary immunoglobulin A (S-IgA), an important immune system protein, which wasa major defensive agent against respiratory ailment (Dillon et al, 1985-1986). In an experience sampling study, self report of positive emotions predicted elevation in S-IgA levels, hence increasing immune functioning (Stone, Valdimars-Dottir, Jandorf, Cox, & Neale, 1987). These researches imply that people who are able to regain and maintain positive thinking while encountering stressful life experience can show increased immune functionality. Valdimarsdottir and Bovbjerg(1997) researched 48 healthy women to investigate the relation between positive emotions and NK cell activity. Women showing more positive mood had greater level of NK cell activity than women with negative mood.
Another research was conducted by Segerstrom, Taylor, Kemeny and Fahey (1998) regarding this issue. They recorded changes in NK cell activity in 50 students of Law School, in their first semester at University of California. In the beginning of the semester, blood sample 83
was taken and their degree of optimism was recorded. Segerstrom et al.(1998) took two measures of optimism, one emphasized on student’s global belief and expectations, called dispositional optimism, about their lives by asking questions as In “uncertain times , I usually expect the best”. The other measure was associated with the situational optimism, which measured immediate beliefs such as “it is unlikely that I will fail”. The natural stressors were midterm exams. The research question was whether two forms of optimism would influence immune activity, especially, in the number and function of lymphocytes, immune cells found in peripheral blood. Among lymphocyte subsets, natural killer (NK) cells and T cells were particularly sensitive to naturalistic psychological stressors in healthy adults. It was identified from samples of initial blood drawn at the beginning of semester compared with the immune samples on blood drawn during midterms. A significant relation was found between situational optimism and immune activity in term of variation in NK cell activity during the exam stress.
Optimistic students (Penebaker & Francis, 1993) had immune system better prepared to surround and destruct cancer cells than those who were not optimistic.
Yoshino, Fujimori, Kohda (1996) and Nakajima, Hiari and Yoshino (1999) conducted two laboratory research on rheumatoid arthritis patients to explore the influence of positive emotions on autoimmune processes. Positive mood was induced in the patients by making them watch an hour long comic movie. In the first study, they compared the patient’s pain level before and after the video. They tested blood for variation in level of interleukin 6 (Il-6), a pro- inflammatory cytokine related to autoimmune disease process in rheumatoid arthritis. In the second study, IL-6 level of patients who watched the film was compared with the patients who did not watch it. In both studies, inducing positive emotions lessened the production of immune products responsible for inflammation, pain and damage to the body’s joints. 84
Positive mood and the release of endogenous opioids are both related to lower acute stress reaction (Fredrickson& Levenson, 1998). Taylor et al. (1992)explored positive emotions such as optimism and psychological well-being among a sample of gay and bisexual men who were at risk of developing Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Among both sero- positive (HIV+) and sero-negative (HIV-) men, distress was measured by a composite index of negative affect which showed that optimism was related to lower levels of distress.
Practical evidence for the prediction that positive thinking helps in adaptive coping and adjustment to acute and chronic stress is documented in research conducted on HIV patients.
Research conducted on 40 gay men who suffered from HIV AIDS (Bower, Kemeny, Taylor, &
Fehey, 1998).Participants were of Folkman et al.’s (1996) research. Each of these men had experienced death of their close friend. Bower et al. (1998) scored the transcript of their interviews with these men to evaluate whether or not the men had found some meaning in the death of their loved ones. A particular predictor of disease progression for those who were HIV positive was the rate of loss of CD4 cells, which were key cells in immunity, lost by the passage of time to the AIDS virus. Those who found meaning in the death of their loved ones had a slower rate of loss in circulating CD4 cells. Moreover, men who found meaning in the death of their partner had a three year longer life span (Bower et al., 1998).These results have empirical significance. However, this relation may be driven primarily by PA effects on how people perceive their bodies rather than by affect-elicited changes in physiological processes
(Pennebaker, 1983).
However, other researches presented conflicting results. Knapp and colleagues (1992) found that both positive and negative mood states have similar effects on immune system functionality, resulting decreased lymphocyte production in reaction to mitogens. Likewise, 85
studies showed that pleasant and unpleasant moods have similar influence on natural killer cell activity (Futterman, Kemeny, Shapiro, & Fahey, 1994).
2.4.4 Positive Thinking and Longevity
Researchers have proved the association of positive thinking with longevity. A study in
1990s was conducted in Notre Dame, on 180 nuns to find out the relation between positive thinking and longevity (Danner, Snowdon & Friesen, 2001). The nuns were born before1917 and ranged in age from 75- 95. Over the course of 9-years follow up, 42% of these women died, and the variables predicting survival were sought out. It was discovered that when the nuns took their vows for the order, they were asked to write their autobiographies. Each word was coded for positive emotion, negative emotion and the absence of emotion. Researcher analyzed positive and negative emotions and ranked each nun on her emotional expressiveness. The presence of positive emotions in the writing was related to longevity. The researcher judged that nuns who had positive thinking lived an average of 10 years longer (Danner et al., 2001).
Greater the number of positive emotional words and sentences, greater was the probability of life 60 years later. However, the overall effect of positive affect and mortality was more complicated. Most of these researches have been done on elderly persons (over 60) living either on their own or with their families. These researches are accordant in linking positive emotional disposition to a longer life.
Cohen, Doyle, Skoner, Fireman, Gwaltney, and Newsom (1995) drew significant relationships between negative mood states and susceptibility to respiratory viruses. 86
Higher trait PA has been related with better health practices such as improved sleep quality, more exercise, more intake of dietry zinc, as well as lower level of stress hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine and cortisol. PA also influences health by altering social interaction
(Pressman & Cohen, 2005). According to them it facilitates social behavior and form attachment with pleasant people which is associated with lower risk for morbidity.
Cohen and Sara (2006) in various studies found out relationship between trait positive affect and mortality, morbidity, sustainability against life threatening disease and reports of symptoms and pain. Cohen, Doyle,Turner, Alper, and Skoner,(2003) did laboratory study to find out morbidity(illness onset) while studying the relationship between positive affect and health. In a sample of 334 adults, researcher interviewed seven times over a 3-week period.
Daily mood was scored and averaged across the seven days to create composite measures of trait positive affect and negative affect. Previously, they were exposed to one of two rhinoviruses that cause common cold and measured both the antibody reaction to the virus and nasal mucus during the five days after the exposure.Resultsrevealed that positive thinkers were less likely to develop a cold even after being exposed to a rhinovirus. These signs were reported and maintained. This relation remained consistent after controlling for age, sex, immunity, education and negative affect. More prone to the ailment were the less cheerful and energetic people.
There is a popular hypothesis that positive affect elevates longevity of people suffering from life threatening diseases. This hypothesis was made the basis of survival test. People suffering from diseases that have relatively greater prospects for long term sustainability such as early stage cancer, coronary heart disease and AIDS may have beneficial effects of positive affect. However, high level of trait positive affect may be damaging to the health of individuals 87
who suffer from diseases with poor prognoses such as melanoma, matastatic breast cancer and end stage renal disease (Pressman & Cohen 2005).
There were empirical evidences linking PA to reports of lessened symptoms, less pain and greater health. For instance, a laboratory study showed that trait PA was related to lessened symptom reporting when objective disease was held constant (Cohen et al., 2003). Patients were then exposed to a virus that causes common cold and recorded objective signs of illness. To examine whether positive emotions affect symptoms reporting, they were asked to self-report common cold symptoms (collected for 5 days following viral exposure). Keeping objective symptoms of ailments constant, those higher in trait PA showed less severe signs and those higher in trait NA showed more severe ones.
Laboratory studies have provocative proposals related to the ways positive emotions may aid people encounter stress (Fredrickson & Levenson, 1998). Folkman and Moskowitz (2000) reported three techniques that predicted higher level of positive well being in their longitudinal study of care givers of partners with AIDS. First positive reappraisal, second, problem focused coping and the creation of positive events as the third variable. Likewise, women who stressed on the positive aspects despite hazardous child delivery and prolonged hospitalization post delivery evidence greater well being and this also further influenced the developmental wellbeing of their children (Affleck & Tennen, 1996).
Along with physical health promotion, inculcating positive thinking and emotions is related to psychological health (Fredrickson, 2000). He declared that negative emotions are related to narrow and fixed thinking and action while positive emotions extend an individual’s thoughts and action repertoire and generating the personal resources. Emmons and McCullough 88
(2003) divided the participants in three groups: (1) count your blessing (2) List daily hassles (3) control. People, of the first group, counted their blessings weekly for ten days by listing things for which they were grateful, were reported to have better health by having lessened physical problems, more exercise and more sleeping hours.
2.4.5 Positive Thinking and Resilience
Many researches have revealed that there is an evident relationship between psychological resilience and positive thinking. A research on coping with stress, following the September 11,
2001 attacks in the United States, found that resilient individuals were less likely to suffer from depression and reported enhanced psychological growth after the attacks (Fredrickson, Tugade,
Waugh& Larkin, 2003).
Resilient people possess positive emotionality: they are zealous and agile in approach towards life(Block & Block 1980). They engage in coping strategies of positive thinking and humor (Masten & Read, 2002; Masten, 2001; Warner & Smith, 1992; Wolin & Wolin, 1993). In addition to that, resilient people not only inculcate positive emotions in themselves, but they incite positive emotions in others close to them, which generate a supportive social network that helps in coping (Demos, 1989; Warner & Smith, 1992). Tugate, Fredrickson and Barret (2004) suggested that if high resilient individuals have the psychological ability to resist in spite of stress it should be reflected physiologically as well. They recorded the cardiovascular activity of the participants promptly after their exposure to stress. High resilient participants experienced faster cardiac recovery as compared to those having low resilience. Further cardiac recovery from negative emotional arousal was subjected to experience of positive emotions in resilient 89
individuals. This study showed the utility of positive emotions in coping. These results have application in health domains.
Ong Anthony (2006) explored the role of positive emotions and psychological resilience in facing stress. Three studies were conducted in which study 1a and 1b investigated naturally occurring stressors. Study 2 explored data from a sample of recently bereaved widows. Analysis showed that the occurrence of daily positive emotions help to mediate stress reaction. Results also implied that differences in psychological resilience were responsible for variation in daily emotional responses to stress. These finding simplied that by the passage of time high experience of positive emotions aid high resilient individual in their capability to recover remarkably from daily stress.
2.4.6 Positive Thinking and other Diseases
In recent studies, it was described that emotional disclosure can generate remarkably increased health functioning (Penebaker, 1993) especially when positive emotional content is present in the disclosure. For instance the use of more emotional words when writing about a mild stressor resulted in lesser ailment related physician visits over the following months as compared to control (Penebaker, & Francis, 1993). These findings have been replicated with various groups and various measures. Moreover, as compared to a control condition, individuals who were asked to write about appraised benefits related to trauma (including positive emotional experiences) generated remarkable health results and lessened health center visits as an outcome( King & Miner, 2000). Penebaker, Mayne and Francis (1997) after producing 90
fruitful effects of self disclosure on health, explored the mechanism that was responsible for these effects.
Caregivers whose partners recently died of AIDS were interviewed at three time points: 2 weeks, 1 month and 1 year post bereavement (Stein, Folkman, Trabasso, & Richards, 1997).
Those who expressed more positive emotion (vs. negative emotions) words reported greater morale and less depression. This research revealed that writing about positive emotions can have significant implication for health. Folkman (1997) in his AIDS’s study revealed that participants although showed high level of negative mental states, they also showed high level of positive affect. When data was qualitatively analyzed, the evolving themes were searching for and finding positive meaning. Folkman and Moskowitz, (2000) maintained that the finding of meaning out of adversity not only helped to evaluate the relevance of a situation and choice of coping but also played a key role for coping behavior itself, especially coping that supports positive affect.
Lazarus (1991, 2000) in his cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotions said that motivation, cognition and the meaning constructed about the person-environment relation are interrelated in the emotional process. The theory of stress and emotion needed to be interrelated, with emotion being the more inclusive concept. To analyze positively toned emotional states the analysis must be extended from a focus solely on harm, threat and challenge to a focus on variety of advantages- each related to its own emotion. Emotions are deeply related to social and physical conditions of importance and person variables such as goals, goal hierarchies, personal values, belief system and personal resources. When we shift our attention from stress to emotions the primary secondary judgments and relational meanings change that must be added to accommodate each of the emotions we wish to understand. 91
Lazarus (1966), Lazarus and Folkman (1984) interlinked stress related variables to health aftermaths. All of their constructs in the transactional model, when summed up, affect adaptational results i.e. (a) functioning in work and social living (b) life satisfaction (c) somatic health.
The need is to inculcate skill development to promote positive emotional states that induce more holistic health in all people (Seligman& Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). People, who think positively strengthen their resources and lessen their weaknesses. That is why they engage in effective coping with their daily stressors and remain healthy.
Researcher of the present study proposed that the results of this literature review can be replicated in Pakistan where negativity due to illiteracy and poverty is prevailing everywhere.
There are implications for the educationists who wish to reduce the stressors of their students by preparing them to face the challenges of teaching learning situations and professional life.
Building on the substantial body of positive thinking outcomes research, the focus of this study is on the question of whether thinking positively enhances health outcomes in Pakistani culture. In the current study the researcher has hypothized that those who are positive in their thinking and have optimistic abilities will perceive their stressors as challenging and would try to increase their potential to meet the upcoming demands of the society.
2.5 Indigenous Research on Positive Thinking, Stress and Coping
To the best of researcher’s knowledge a little research on positive psychology has been conducted in Pakistan. Few researches have been reported on optimism, positive affect, well- being and life satisfaction. Gulraiz (2008) examined the effect of optimism on the coping techniques of diabetic patients. He also examined the effect of related concepts such as hope, 92
life satisfaction, gratitude, religious faith and subjective happiness. Results revealed that optimism and its related variables had an evident positive effect on the coping of diabetic patients as a whole.
Riaz (2009) examined the effect of optimism and hope on the coping techniques in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients. The researcher used LOT_R (Carver, 1989) and
Herth Hope Index Test. It was hypothized that there is an evident relation among optimism, hope and effective coping techniques. The findings supported this hypothesis showing significant effect of optimism and hope on the coping of patients suffering from the disease.
Suhail and Chaudry (2004) researched on happiness and well-being in a Pakistani sample. The prevalence and predictors of well being were observed. The sample consisted of
(n=1000) Pakistani people from various areas of Lahore. Every 10th house in a street was included to reduce personal bias. By means of several scales, work satisfaction, social support and marital satisfaction were measured to find out its association with well being and happiness.
Extraversion/ Introversion Scale (EIS) of Eysenck Personality Inventory (1953) was administered to the sample to determine the personality traits i.e. introversion and extroversion.
An 18 item scale (Suhail & Akram, 2002) was used for the evaluation of religiosity and religious affiliation in the Pakistani Muslims. To measure self perception and well-being,
Rosenberg’ self esteem scale (1965) was provided to the sample. General well-being was evaluated by two predictors namely personal happiness and life satisfaction. Faces scale
(Andrews & Withey, 1976) was used to determine personal happiness. Ladder Scale of General
Well-being (LSWB) was utilized to measure life satisfaction. 93
The results of the study were coherent with previous worldwide researches that there is a majority of happy peopleas compared to unhappy.Seven out of ten rated themselves as being happy despite the social conflicts, economic problems and political restlessness in Pakistan.
There was a positive correlation between personality characteristic such as self esteem with psychological well-being. The predictors of psychological well-being i.e. social support, work satisfaction, income level, religious affiliation and marital satisfaction were responsible for 19% and 23% of variance in happiness and life satisfaction respectively. However, the job satisfaction was the best predictor of both happiness and life satisfaction and could alone accounting for 10% to 15 % of variation in both measures of well-being.
Amjad and Misbah (1998) investigated the effect of religious meditation on anxiety level and well-being. Spiritual attitude measure questionnaire was designed by the researcher using
Quranic translations, sufi texts and commentaries. Eighteen volunteer females were directed to meditate for 40 days. Pre and post test were taken for each variable. A significant mean difference was found between the pre and post measures of well-being and anxiety after the meditation. No significant mean difference was found on life satisfaction scale. Results showed that well being could be elevated and anxiety could be alleviated through religious interventions.
Malik and Rehman(2003) examined the effect of occupational stress on psychological well-being and work motivation in (n=100) medical professionals. A negative correlation between occupational stress and psychological well-being was found out. Najam and Ghazal
(1997) Compared coping techniques of working and nonworking women with stress. A
Questionnaire was designed to evaluate coping techniques which consisted of 15 variables.
Working women cope with stress more effectively as compared to the other group on six out of 94
15 variables i.e. self-disclosure, self-directedness, confidence, social support, problem solving and cognitive restructuring. Najam and Mobin (1991) suggested that Pakistani working women not only perform house hold task along with their jobs but also participate in family functions, thereby enhancing social interaction.
Gouhar and Amjad (2004) explored gender differences in interpersonal conflict resolution while encountering stress. Eighty four faculty members from four different educational institutions were the participants of the research. Conflict Resolution Questionnaire by McClellan (1993, 1997), having ten factors was given to the participants. High score showed that respondents were successful in resolving the conflict that would satisfy their needs and improve the relation between conflict participants. Stress was measured by stress inventory consisting of 28 items (Ross & Altmaier, 1994). Results revealed inverse correlation between stress and conflict resolution, both overall and in term of conflict resolution strategies in faculty members. It supported the hypothesis that interpersonal conflict at workplace can lead to stress.
The result proposes that lesser the conflict resolution more will be the stress. No gender differences were found in conflict resolution among university teachers.
Haque and Suhail (1997) explored stress, social support and burnout in (n=74) nurses in two large hospitals of Lahore. Home-work Stress designed by Ray and Miller (1994) and
Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1986) was provided to the participants. Social support from five sources (supervisors, coworkers, friends, family and administration) was measured. Results revealed that administrative support had a direct effect while that of supervisory and coworker support was seen in the form of direct as well as resistive effect in reducing the stress-burnout relation. 95
Imam (1998) investigated the relation between job satisfaction and personality traits(Type A)among university teachers. Job satisfaction referred to the affective orientation of individuals to the work roles they occupy and characteristics of their job. A sample of (n=125) managers and employees was drawn randomly from five organizations. Questionnaires were developed for measuring the leadership style. Results showed that type A personality had evident correlation with job satisfaction. Researches conducted on teachers’ job satisfaction
(Imam, 1990) and perception of work environment (Haq & Sheikh, 1993) with personality traits indicated significant relationship between positive affect and work satisfaction.
Pervaiz and Hanif (2003) found out the levels and sources of work stress among female teachers of (N=50) secondary and primary schools of Islamabad. Levels and sources of work stress were measured by Teacher Stress Inventory (TSI-Urdu, Hanif & Pervaiz, 2003). The scale consisted of ten subscales, five measuring sources of stress and other five measuring manifestations of stress i.e. emotional manifestation, fatigued manifestations, gastronomical and cardiovascular manifestations. The findings revealed secondary school teachers rated high on all the subscales of TSI as compared to primary school teachers. Government school teachers rated themselves high on TSI and on the two sources of stress i.e. time management and work stressors while private school teachers rated high on manifestations of stress i.e. cardiovascular and gastronomical manifestations, providing the evidence of influence of stress on health.
Salik and Kamal (2007) examined relationship between occupational stress and personal resources in coping among people suffering with or without hypertension. A sample of 200 (100 suffering from hypertension and 100symptoms free) was selected from private and public sector organizations. Occupational Stress Inventory (OSI) a measure consisting of occupational stress, psychological strain and coping resources was used. Occupational stress involved role overload, 96
role insufficiency, role ambiguity, role boundary, responsibility and physical environment.
Vocational, psychological and physical strains were measured. Coping techniques consisted of recreation, self-care, social support, rational and cognitive coping. The results indicate that people with hypertension faced more stress and strain than people without hypertension. Non hypertensive people used more social support and rational cognitive coping than hypertensive people. Overall, it was revealed that personal resources reduced stress and strain. People who employ more coping resources are less stressed.
2.6 Summary of literature Review
In the above section, we reviewed literature to see the influence of positivity on handling stress and maintaining wellbeing. We examined correlation, experimental and longitudinal researches regarding positive thinking and its related constructs i.e. optimism, resilience, positive affect, hope and happiness. Most of the studies were done in Western countries that were
America, Canada and UK.
The theoretical frame work of this research was “Fredrickson’s Broaden and Build
Theory of Positive Emotions” (1998, 2001) to examine the functional utility of positive emotions and “Lazarus Appraisal of Stress” (1984). Fredrickson suggested that positive emotions are significant facilitators of adaptive coping and adjustment to acute and chronic stress (Fredrickson, 2000).
The review of empirical studies shows that positive thinking and personality resources effect the stress appraisal, determine our coping strategies and influence our health. Hence, the evidence supports the researcher’s conceptual model that positive thinking resists against 97
adversity and act as defensive factor for psychological as well as physiological health. It enhances the ability to deal with stressors effectively and result in many successful health outcomes.
The review of literature has also shown that researches on positive thinking, coping and health have been done mostly in western countries. To the best of researcher’s knowledge, a little research in this country has been done on coping with stress in the context of positive thinking.
The results of this review can be replicated in Pakistan where negativity due to illiteracy and poverty is prevailing everywhere. People are under a lot of stress due to terrorism, shortage of resources and lack of education and justice. Political restlessness is enhancing in the country adding up the daily stressors of public day by day. In these circumstances, measures should be taken to protect them from negativity. There is a dire need to find out whether cultivation of personality characteristics i.e. optimism and positive emotions can reduce their stressors. Present study targets two central aims in this regard, first, testing Western theories of positive thinking in
Eastern culture and second, observing its effect on stress appraisal, coping and health in a sample of university teachers. Current study is extending the previous work in Pakistani context. This study is designed to put different theories of positive emotions to practical test in a Pakistani culture.
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Chapter 3 Study 1
Development of Daily Stressor Scale (DSS)
3.1 Aims of the study:
To develop an indigenous daily stressor scale for university teachers countrywide.
Validate the daily stressor scale through convergent validity
Use the DSS in present study to find out the impact of positive thinking on stress
appraisal
3.2 Rationale behind Scale Development
This study will be conducted to develop a daily stressor scale for Pakistani university teachers. University teacher are under stress due to the emerging trends in education and are unable to cope with the challenges of technological advances in teaching-learning situations.
Higher education in Pakistan seriously lacks international compatibility and competitiveness.
Global pressures are emphasizing on the quality education. There are gaps in various aspects of educational quality which call for an intensely focused approach to enhance the quality of education. Our degrees are not recognized at world level. Increasing pressure of the government and the regulatory bodies is on quality education. Higher Education Commission, established in 2002 to maintain the educational standards, is putting a lot of responsibilities on the shoulders of university teachers to meet the global needs of education.
Universities are trying to improve the quality of education by increasing the quality of its faculty, infrastructure, research and strategic planning procedures. There is an intense pressure 99
on teachers to modify curriculum, incorporate new delivery methods, make appropriate use of technology and enhance the quality of assessment and research in higher education. Meeting all these challenges have added into the stressors of university teachers all over the country.
Apart from workplace stressors social and environmental stressors are lowering the morale and spirits of the university faculty. Teacher’s assassination by the students is threatening for the faculty. Bomb blasts at Islamic university on October 20, 2009 was a conspiracy to threaten the university teachers. Keeping in view the above mentioned problems the objective of the study was to develop an indigenous scale which could measure the entire stressors encountered by the university teachers in their daily life and convey it to policy makers and administration for appropriate actions.
Although there were many scales which measured daily stressors but they have been developed for western people and to the best of researcher’s knowledge no one was particularly measuring the daily stressors of the university teachers in Pakistani context.
Psychologists have developed scales such as Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kessler, &
Gorden, 1995), Occupational Stress Inventory (William & Cooper, 1988) and Pressure
Management Indicator (PMI, 1998) which have been used extensively in research conducted on stress since its publication. These scales are reliable and consistently correlated with symptoms that are related to stressful encounters. Although many researchers adopt this easy approach to assess stress but the problem is that these measures are not appropriate in Pakistani context.
Another major factor hindering the use of these scales in research is the lack of consistency in the measurement tools. In an interesting comparison of different stress scales,
Jick(1980) compared three stress scales taken from slightly different scaling schemes. Each of the scales was psychometrically reliable and conceptually plausible. However, the scales did not 100
agree on the identification of high-stress individuals. Only 50% of the highly stressed individuals overlapped between any pair of measures. The absence of a reliable, valid and usable standardized measuring instrument makes studies of occupational stress highly problematic
(Love & Beehr, 1981).
The researcher in the present study realized that some stressors were specific only to
Pakistani culture and could not be measured by these scales. Researchers felt the need for a more in depth look at the sources of stress causing psychological difficulties among university professors. The ideal solution was to develop indigenous instruments and establish their psychometric properties in the local population. Although it was difficult due to lack of resources, but the researcher tried to meet this challenge.
3.3 Method
The study 1 was done in three phases. In the first phase, the items for daily stressors scale were generated through different techniques and piloted on a sample. In the second phase, for the validation of daily stressor scale, the items for daily stressor scale were administered to a sample of university teachers countrywide. In the third phase, psychometric properties of the scale were tested through convergent validity.
3.3.1 Phase I:Stages of Scale Development
There were many stages involved in the scale development such as item generation, item pool, pilot testing, reviewing, retaining and discarding items in the light of the results of pilot study and finalizing the items.
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3.3.1.1 Item Generation and Item Review
The first step in constructing the daily stressor scale was to generate a pool of items aimed at assessing daily stressors of university teachers. The task was not an easy as university teacher’s stressors were different from college and school teachers due to the nature of teaching, research work and long working hours. Researcher reviewed stress literature and theories related to teacher’s stressors before constructing the items for the scale.
The researcher used qualitative and quantitative methods for the scale construction: a)
Made focus groups of university teachers to discuss their daily stressors b) Used brain storming techniques to cover a broad range of experiences of university teachers that reflected their stressors c) Generated items based on the stress literature d) Identified the daily stressors of faculty members of different universities by conducting unstructured interviews with individual faculty members.
Two focus groups were arranged for discussion, one consisting of ten females and the other consisting of ten males. Before probing their stressors informed consent was obtained (See annexure A) from different university teachers and ensured them about the confidentiality of their responses. They were told that their participation was voluntary. Focus group discussions
(see annexure B) generated realistic and genuine items about their stressors. Inductive Thematic
Analysis technique was used in which themes emerged from the data collected (Hayes, 2000).
These items were categorized according to the themes emerged from these discussions.
Researcher conducted individual interviews with faculty members from different universities and asked them to talk about their problems and share their stressful experiences related with job and other domains of life. They were ensured about the confidentiality of the 102
responses. The researcher fully probed the teachers and urged them to talk freely about their daily hassles. They generated a lot of stress items; some were personal and could not be initiated in focus group discussions. After categorizing the items under relevant themes, initially
51 items scale was constructed (see Annexure D-1). In devising items, attempt was made to generate both positively and negatively worded items to control the response style. In addition, an attempt was made towards each item in such a way that it did not imply gender bias. The responses were presented on Likert scale as 5= strongly agree, 4= Agree, 3=Neutral,
2=Disagree, 1=strongly disagree. Scoring was reversed for positive items. High score showed high stress while low score indicated low stress level.
3.3.1.2 Pilot Testing of Daily Stressor Scale (DSS)
Daily Stress Scale having 51 items in English language was pilot tested on 187university teachers to find out its clarity, relevance and comprehensibility. For the development of scale piloting was done on large sample so that a diverse group of university teachers could express their opinions about the daily stress. Participants were selected randomly from 10 campuses of
University of Education. Before the administration of the test departmental permission was gathered from the principals/directors (See annexure C). The results of pilot study showed many deficiencies needed to be overcome. The participants felt that response rates were being affected by the length of the questionnaire and asked for a shorter version. They also felt that some of the items were too long, some ambiguous (item no. 4,6, 7, 10, 33, 34, 38, 39) or too complex. Some items were redundant (item no. 15, 9, 17, 45), some overlapping (item no. 5, 19, 28, 22, 30, 31,
40, 41, 42),some difficult for the participants to understand and some did not meet the criteria of 103
stress (item no. 16, 51). These items were removed from the scale. Some were merged under one theme (item no. 25, 27, 29). Participant also suggested some stress related items which they thought had been neglected during the item generation processes which were especially related with the professional growth of the university teachers.
After deleting irrelevant items and adding the new ones a daily stressor scale consisting of 43(See annexure D-II) items was prepared for the present research. New items were added related with further studies and professional growth of university teachers.
Developing a scale is an iterative process so the items were again pilot tested on 25 university teachers selected from University of Education. Items of the scale were presented in the form of five-point likert type scale that directed the participants to express their responses ranging from strongly agree=5, to strongly disagree=1.After piloting, the items were further reduced by combining the similar ones to make the stress scale more parsimonious. At the end, 30 items
(See annexure D-III) were finalized for the factor analysis.
3.3.2 Phase II. Validation of Daily Stressor Scale
In phase II, the 30 items daily stressor scale, developed in phase I was subjected to factor analysis to find out its factorial validity. The alpha co efficient for the internal consistency of scale items was analyzed. Inter scales correlation and norms for the present scale were also developed.
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3.3.2.1 Sample
The daily stressor scale having 30 items was validated on 264 university teachers taken from different public universities countrywide. Although random sampling was not done but to make the data nationally representative, university teachers from all the major universities of Pakistan were included in the sample. Researcher gathered 39.4% (N=104) data from five major universities of Punjab, 25.8 % (N=68) from NWFP, 21.2 % (N=56) from Baluchistan, 4.2 %
(N=11) from Sindh, 4.2 % (N=11) from AJ&K and 5.3 % (N=14) from Federal area.
3.3.2.2 Procedure
Researcher approached most of the faculty members in person at their workplaces, presented the study goals and asked for their participation. All the participants were provided with Daily Stressor Scale, along with informed consent form and a covering letter describing the purpose of the study. They were assured of the confidentiality of their responses. Participants approached by mail received a pre-stamped envelope addressed to the researcher. Frequent reminders through emails were sent to ensure the return of questionnaires. Two hundred questionnaires were sent by email and 160 were received (response rate of 80 % due to frequent email reminders). 104 questionnaires were returned from the people contacted. A total of 264 questionnaires were returned, for an overall response rate of 75 %. Table 3.1 is showing the demographic characteristics of the sample.
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Table 3.1
Demographic Characteristics of the Countrywide Sample
Variables Frequency %
Gender
Male 142 53.8
Female 122 46.2
Marital Status
Single 103 39
Married 148 56.1
Divorced 1 .4
Widow 0 0
Missing 12 4.5
Designation
Lecturer 158 59.8
Assistant Professor 62 23.5
Associate Professor 11 8.3
Professor 22 8.3
Missing 11 4.2
Employment type
Government 37 14
University 224 84.8
Missing 3 1.1 106
Education
Masters 153 58
M Phil 48 18.2
Ph. D 55 20.8
Post Doc 2 1
Missing 6 2.3
Note: N= number of participants, %=Percentage
107
Table 3.2
Showing Mean and Standard Deviation of the Demographic Variables
Variables M SD
Monthly income (Rs) 40527.5 23055.02
Years in service 9.22 9.68
Age 35.23 10.15
Note: M= Mean, SD = Standard Deviation
Most of the participants were male (53.8%). Participants’ mean age was 35.23 years (SD=10.15), with an age range of 22-66 years. The mean job tenure was 9.22 years (SD =9.68) indicating that mostly the young adults participated in the study. Among all participants, 22 were professors, 11 associate professors, 62 assistant professors and 158 lecturers. Participants came from different universities with 84.8 % working under the university administration and 14 % working at universities under the Government Education Department.
3.3.2.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)
Factor analysis was performed on the data to find out the underlying structure of the data.
Factor analysis is a statistical technique that can serve several purposes (Fabrigar et al., 1999) two of which tend to predominate, first data reduction and the second Scale development.
In the present research Principal Component Analysis (PAF), the most frequently used technique (Coakes, & Steed, 2003) was performed on the 30 items measuring daily stressors as 108
the factor analysis extraction technique. Varimax rotation was used as its purpose was to maximize orthogonality and interpretability of the factors. Researcher tried to meet assumptions before applying factor analysis. First assumption was the sample size. Although the subject to variable ratio for the factor analysis was 5:1 rule of thumb ratios recommended in some multivariate statistic books (e.g., Hair, Anderson, Taham, & Black, 1995). A minimum of 5 per variable is required for factor analysis. A sample of 100 is acceptable, but sample sizes of 200+ are preferable. Researcher selected 264 participants for the study. Second, factor analysis is robust to assumptions of normality. However, if variables are normally distributed, than the solution is enhanced. Exploratory analysis showed that the variables were normally distributed.
Linearity is the third assumption for factor analysis. A correlation matrix was computed to determine the appropriateness of the factor analytic model. Tabachnick and Fidell (1996) recommended not conducting factor analysis if there are no correlations larger than .30.
Researcher inspected the correlation matrix and found several correlations above 0.30. The anti- image correlation was used to assess the sampling adequacy of each variable. Variables with a measure of sample adequacy that fall below the acceptable level of .5 should be excluded from the analysis. The condition of the distribution of subject’s responses was evaluated through
Bartlett’s test of sphericity. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was calculated to examine that if the ratio of number of participants to daily stressor scale items was sufficient.
Both tests were used to determine the factorability of the matrix as a whole. The Bartlett’s test was large and significant (Chi sq = 2106.09, do = 435, p < .001), showing that the data were adequately distributed to allow an evaluation of the potential factor structure. Kaiser-Meyer-
Olkin’s measure of sampling adequacy yielded a value of .83 to assume factorability, indicating that the ratio of number of participants to DSS items was sufficient to run factor analysis. Table 109
No. 3.3 is showing the results of these tests. Multi-colinearity and singularity was the last assumption which was identified by observing the correlation matrix, not any of the squared multiple correlations were near or equal to 1.
Table 3.3
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin and Bartlett’s Tests
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin’s Measures of Sampling adequacy = .83
Bartlett’s Test of sphericity Chi square (df = 435) = 2106.09**
**P < .01
3.3.2.4 Criteria for Determining Factors
Factors for 30 items of daily stressors scale were derived through extraction technique of factor analysis. First criterion for determining factors was that several factors loading should exceed .30. Factor analysis should not be done with less than 100 observations (Bartlett, Kotrlik
& Higgins, 2001). Assuming an alpha level of .05, a factor would have to load at a level of .75 or higher to be significant in a sample of 50, while a factor would only have to load at a level of
.30 to be significant in a sample of 350 (Hair et al., 1995). For present study researcher has chosen a value of .40 as the cut off. An examination of the factor matrix indicated that there were several factor loadings which were large and thus the matrix was suitable for factoring. 110
Second criterion, Kaiser’s (1960) rules that ‘eigen value greater than one’ and scree test were used to determine the number of factors to retain from the initial exploratory analysis.
Factors are extracted in order of importance (Whitley, 2002). A factor’s eigen value represented the percentage of variance in the variable being analyzed that can be accounted for by that factor; the larger a factor’s eigen value, the more variance it accounted for. Scree Test (Cattell,
1966) was used to reduce the number of factors as many factors have eigen values greater than
I. The four factor solution was obtained using varimax rotation on 30 items of daily stress scale. Table 4 shows the eigen values and percentage of variance explained by four factors.
Table 3.4
Eigen values and Percentage of Variance of 30-items of DSS Explained by Four Factors
Obtained through Principle Component Factor Analysis
Factors Eigen values Variance % Cumulative %
1 6.61 22.06 22.06
2 2.133 7.10 29.17
3 1.729 5.76 34.93
4 1.567 5.22 40.15
Note: N= 264, %= percentage
111
Figure 3.1: Scree Plot Showing Extraction of Factors for Daily Stressor Scale (DSS)
Scree plot in figure 1 shows the extraction of factors. Initially the numbers of factors were equal to number of items.
The factor matrix showed that eight factors had eigen values greater than one. In figure 1 scree plot graphically shows the eigen values. It declined sharply after the first factor indicating an apparent break after five factors and then level off providing the evidence for selection of four or five factors. Researcher, after conducting the scree test, reran the factor analysis, constraining the number of factors to be rotated to the number indicated by the scree test. 112
Rotation was done which reduced the number of complex variables and enhanced
interpretation. Tabachnick and Fidell (1996) recommended varimax rotation (a type of
orthogonal rotation, forces factors to be uncorrelated) for most purposes. Varimax rotation was
used to perform six, five and four factor solution. Four factors solution was yielded (see, table
3.5) which corresponded to the best simple structure. A notable characteristic of factor loading in
table 3.5 was that an item can load on more than one factor. Pure variables had loading of .40 or
greater on only one factor. Complex variables had loading on more than one factor and made the
interpretation of output more difficult.
Table 3.5
The Factor Loading of the 30 Items of Daily Stress Scale (DSS) on Four Factors
Obtained Through Varimax Rotation
Item Items Factor Loading
No F1 F2 F3 F4 h
1 Lack of empowerment at workplace is a source of tension for me. .115 .631 .093 .117 .433
2 I am stressed when I can not find time for my further/higher studies. .015 .589 .196 .070 .390
3 I remain anxious about my professional growth. .071 .508 .075 .222 .318
4 Trying to meet HEC criteria is stressful. .079 .190 .009 .608 .412
5 Technological advances in education are difficult for me to keep up with. .211 .033 .038 .664 .488
6 Publication requirements by HEC for selection create stress for me. .056 .244 .153 .492 .328
8 Satisfying boss is difficult for me. .089 .555 .028 .336 .430
9 It is not easy for me to meet the deadlines. .068 .313 .141 .551 .427
10 I am not satisfied with my pay and benefits. .357 .184 .065 .217 .213
11 My working conditions are not satisfying for me. .346 .297 .014 .303 .300 113
12 Over ambitious colleagues try to put me down. .062 .562 .200 .141 .380
14 Inconsistent policies of my institution bother me. .511 .417 .039 .024 .437
15 Communication gap between administration and faculty is stressful. .580 .372 .040 .074 .481
16 The law and order situation in the country is a great stress. .646 .054 .033 .091 .430
13 There are more demands on my time than usual. .256 .564 .007 .082 .390
17 Facing corruption in my daily life frustrates me. .511 .160 .125 .034 .303
18 Traffic problems add stress in my daily life. .659 .044 .151 .032 .460
19 Pollution is adversely affecting my health. .490 .019 .470 .064 .466
20 I fear suicidal attacks at public places. .546 .002 .161 .203 .365
21 Geopolitical conditions in the country are stress for me. .603 .101 .089 .036 .830
22 I get disturbed by the injustices of society. .599 .131 .136 .105 .406
23 Rapid cultural changes bring tension to my life. .334 .019 .210 .458 .366
24 It is difficult for me to deal with family issues. .232 .060 .500 .228 .359
25 At work I remain anxious about my family responsibilities. .032 .072 .745 .230 .614
26 Disciplinary problems at home are unbearable for me. .133 .006 .598 .256 .441
27 I am not able to fulfill my moral responsibilities. .018 .200 .595 .060 .398
28 I do not take care of my health. .176 .308 .478 .063 .358
29 Load shedding is not affecting my performance. .194 .373 .010 .286 .258
7 My workload is more than I can handle. .035 .553 .156 .442 .527
30 I become stressed when people misunderstand me. .322 .389 .460 -.143 .487
Table 3.5 is showing the factor loadings and commonalities of the items.
Item No10, 11 and 29 had less than .40 loading so these items were removed from the scale.
The remaining 27 items had loading from .40-.75. Principal component factor analysis was
performed on 27 items again to get the final factor structure. These four factors accounted for 43
% of variance. Factor 1 had eigen value of 6.22 with a variance of 23.06 %, the second factor an 114
eigen value of 2.12 and the explained variance of 7.87 %, third factor an eigen value of 1.68 with an explained variance of 6.22, while the fourth factor had an eigen value of 1.51 with a variance of 5.59 %. Overall the four factors explained 43 % of the total item variance. Table 3.6 shows eigen values and percentage of variance explained by each factor.
Table 3.6
Eigenvalues and Percentage of Variance of 27-item DSS Explained by Four
Factors Obtained through Principle Component Factor Analysis
Factors Eigen values Percentage of variance Cumulative%
1 6.22 23.06 23.06
2 2.12 7.87 30.93
3 1.68 6.22 37.15
4 1.51 5.59 42.75
Four factors structure was emerged from the rotated factor matrix and corresponded to the best approximation of simple structure. There were seven items loaded on factor 1, eight items on factor 2, six items on factor 3 and six items on factor 4 with factor loading greater than
.40. Four items had double loading and these items needed interpretation. These items were placed where they were conceptually related. The item number 14 had double loading on factor
I and 2 and was placed in factor 2. The item No. 15 had double loading on factor 1 and 2, was conceptually related with factor 2 in spite of high loading on factor 1 so it was placed in factor 115
2. The item no. 19 had double loading on factor 1 and 3 but it was placed in factor1 where it
was conceptually related. Items no. 7 had double loading on factor 2 and 4; it was placed in
factor 4. Following is the final Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) with four factors.
These 27 items had a range of factor loading from .40 to .75 on the four factors and
formed the Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) for university teachers (See annexure D-IV). Table 3.7 is
showing factor loading for Daily Stressor Scale.
Table 3.7
Factor Loading of the 27 Items of Daily Stress Scale (DSS) on First Four Factors in
the Factor Solution Obtained Through Varimax Rotation
Sr. Item Items Factors
No No 1 2 3 4
1 16 The law and order situation in the country is a great stress. .655
2 17 Facing corruption in my daily life frustrates me. .524
3 18 Traffic problems add stress in my daily life. .659
4 19 Pollution is adversely affecting my health. .515
5 20 I fear suicidal attacks at public places. .548
6 21 Geopolitical conditions in the country are stressful for me. .628
7 22 I get disturbed by the injustices in the society. .611
8 1 Lack of empowerment at workplace is a source of tension for me. .653
9 2 I am stressed when I cannot find time for my further/higher education. .573
10 3 I remain anxious about my professional growth. .482
11 8 Satisfying boss is difficult for me. .618
12 12 Over ambitious colleagues try to put me down. .565
13 14 Inconsistent policies of my institution bother me. .480 116
14 15 Communication gap between admin and faculty is a stress. .420
15 13 There are more demands on my time than usual. .575
16 24 It is difficult for me to deal with my family issues. .550
17 25 At work, I remain anxious about my family responsibilities. .753
18 26 Disciplinary problems at home are unbearable for me. .622
19 27 I am not able to fulfill my moral responsibilities. .594
20 28 I do not take care of my health. .439
21 30 I become stressed when people misunderstand me. .452
22 4 Trying to meet HEC criteria is stressful. .696
23 5 Technological advances in education are difficult to keep up with. .654
24 6 Publication requirement by HEC creates stress for me. .520
25 9 It is not easy for me to meet the deadlines. .518
26 23 Rapid cultural changes bring tension to my life. .405
27 7 My workload is more than I can handle. .456
Note: Above loadings are based on a sample of 264 university teachers
Fac
tors
3.3.2.5 Interpretation of Factors
The final step in factor analysis involved assigning a label to these factors. Having
decided which variable load on which factor, researcher decided the names underlying each
factor. Assigning labels was a judgmental process. A total of 7 items loaded on first factor and
labeled “Environmental Stressors” as items were measuring stress related with environment and
society. Eight items were loaded on second factor and appeared to represent workplace
stressors of university teachers so it was named “Workplace Stressors”. Six items were loaded 117
on the third factor reflecting family related and personal Stressors of university teachers. It was named “Family and Personal Stressors”. Factor four consisted of six items representing stressors related with professional growth of the faculty. It was labeled as “professional stressors”. The total 27 items, having 43 % of the variance and four dimensions of stress made the Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) for university teachers.
3.3.2.6 Internal Consistency of the Daily Stressor Scale (DSS)
Cronbach alpha, coefficient of internal consistency was the next step to ensure the scale reliability. For 27 items the coefficient alpha was .87, indicating that the degree of homogeneity among the items was consistent with degree of homogeneity theoretically expected from Daily
Stressor Scale. The alpha’s for the four subscales were found high(environmental stressors:
α=.75, Workplace stressors: α =.76, Family & Personal stressors, α =.70, Professional stressors:
α =.70). Table 3.8 is showing Cronbach alpha for DSS and four subscales.
Table 3.8
Alpha Coefficient for the Daily Stressor Scale and Four Subscales
DSS and Subscales No. of Items Alpha Coefficient
Daily Stressor Scale 27 .87
Environmental Stressors 7 .75
Workplace Stressor 8 .76
Family and Personal Stressors 6 .70
Professional Stressors 6 .70
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3.3.2.7 Correlation of Daily Stressor Scale with Subscales
Significant positive correlations were found among the Daily Stressors Scale and its four subscales. Table 3.9 is showing that the highest correlation was between DSS and Workplace
Stressors (r=.82, p <.01). The correlations between DSS and Environmental Stressors (r =.729, p < .01), for DSS and Family and Personal Stressors (r= .722, p < .01), for DSS and
Professional Stressors (r=.757, p< .01) were also high and significant. Inter-scale correlation was positively significant showing that the domains of stress are interrelated and the scale is uni-dimensional. The degree of inter-correlation among the subscales was significant showing that the DSS scale is psychometrically strong test to measure university teacher’s daily stressors.
Table 3.9
Inter-correlation among Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) and its Subscales
Scales No. of Items 1 2 3 4 5
1 Daily Stressor 27 1 .729** .820** .722** .757**
Scale (DSS)
2 Environmental 7 1 .432** .412** .374**
Stressors
119
3 Workplace 8 -- 1 .432** .402**
Stressors
4 Family and 6 1 .402**
Personal Stressors
5 Professional Stress 7 1
Note: **p< 0.01, n=264
3.3.2.8 Establishment of Norms for Daily Stressor Scale and Four
Subscales
In order to provide norms means and standard deviations were computed for the Daily Stressor
Scale and for four subscales. The mean and standard deviation for males and females were also derived separately. The mean and standard deviation of DSS for the whole sample was 89.41 and 14.29. The mean for male was 88.81, (SD=14.37) and for female faculty was 90.19
(SD=14.38). Mean for females was slightly higher than for males. The means and standard deviations for Workplace Stressor were 27.00 (SD= 5.58), for Environmental Stressors 27.06
(SD= 4.62), for Family and Personal Stressors, 18.0 (SD= 4.25) and for Professional Stressors were 17.22 (SD= 4.36). Table 10 is showing mean scores and standard deviations of the scores of university teachers for Daily Stressors Scale (DSS).
120
Table 3.10:
Means and Standard Deviations for Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) and Subscales
DSS and Subscales No. of Items M SD
Daily Stress Scale 27 89.41 14.29
Environmental stressors 7 27.06 4.62
Workplace Stressors 8 27.00 5.58
Family & Personal 6 18.00 4.25
Stressors
Professional Stressors 6 17.22 4.36
Note: M = Mean, SD= Standard deviation, n= 264
3.3.3 Phase III: Establishment of Convergent Validity of DSS
This phase of the study was designed to establish convergent validity of DSS. Convergent validity was a subtype of Construct validity. Researcher followed the method used by Scheier and Carver (1985) for the establishment of convergent validity of Life Orientation Test (LOT).
According to Scheier and Carver “Establishing convergent validity for an instrument is a continuous process that is new constructs always arise against which the scale must be evaluated” (p.228). Convergent validity represents the extent to which a scale relates to other measures of the construct or similar constructs (Campbell & Fiske, 1959; Hinkin, 1998). In an 121
effort to establish convergent validity researcher used different scales that seemed reasonable to evaluate daily stress.
3.3.3.1 Sample
For the establishment of convergent validity for the Daily Stressor Scale, researcher of the present study followed the procedures adopted by Scheier and Carver (1985) during the development of the Life Orientation Test (LOT). Researcher consulted same 30 faculty members from University of Education Lahore to participate in the research.
3.3.3.2 Research Question
The research question that needed to be asked, about convergent validity, was “Does
Daily Stressor Scale relate to the similar stress constructs in a conceptually meaningful direction”? Although it was important for the DSS to correlate in the positive direction with conceptually related scales, it was equally important that the magnitude of this relationship should not be too strong.
3.3.3.3 Measures
3.3.3.3.1 Perceived Stress Scale (PSS)
To find out the convergent validity of DSS a measure of Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) (Cohen,
Kamarck, & Mermelstien, 1983) was used. This scale (See annexure-IV) was brief, highly reliable and consistently correlated with measures of depression, anxiety, and symptoms that are thought to be consequences of stressful situation (Cohen, Kessler, & Gorden, 1995). The scale has 10 items, six positively directed and four negatively directed. Scores for the scale were obtained by reversing responses to the four positively stated items (items 4, 5, 7, & 8) and then 122
summing up the scores of all ten items. Norms for males were 12.1(SD=5.9) for females were
13.7(SD=6.6).
3.3.3.3.2 Daily Stressor Scale
The daily stress was measured through Daily Stressors Scale (DSS) developed by the researcher
(See Annexure E-II). It has 27 items and four subscales i.e. Environmental Stressors (7 items),
Workplace stressors (8 items), Family and Personal Stressors (6 items) and Professional
Stressors (6 Items). The items for the Environmental Stressors include “The law and order situation in the country is a great stress for me” and “I fear suicidal attack at public places”.
Workplace stressors include items: “Lack of empowerment at workplace is stressful for me” and
“Communication gap between administration and faculty is a great stress”. For family and personal stressors the items include: “whenever I am at work I remain anxious about my family responsibilities” and “I do not take care of my health”. Professional Stressors include:
“Technological advances in education are difficult for me to keep up with” and “Publication requirements by Higher Education Commission for selection create stress for me”. Respondents indicate the extend of their agreement with each item using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree=5 to strongly disagree=1. High score shows more stress and low score indicates less stress. The range of scores lies between 27-135.
3.3.3.4 Procedure
Researcher sent informed consent forms to the faculty members describing the objectives of the study. Having received the consent forms the faculty was gathered in a comfortable room for the administration of the scales. A logical flow was maintained while taking the tests. Daily
Stressors Scale was administered first followed by Perceived Stress Scale to a sample of 30 123
university teachers randomly selected from university of education. The Perceived Stress Scale was conceptually similar to DSS. Participants of the study completed these scales with in 20 minutes.
3.3.3.5 Results
The Perceived Stress Scale was correlated with Daily Stressor Scale in a conceptually meaningful direction. The direction of relationship was exactly as it was expected, thus offering support for convergent validity. The two measures correlated positively (r=.436, p<.05) answering the research question in positive way. The correlation between the two scales was significant at alpha .05 levels. The university teachers who scored high on DSS also scored high on PSS. Although it is important for DSS to correlate with conceptually related measures in an appropriate direction but the correlation should not be very strong. Other wise two measures will appear to be redundant by measuring the same thing. Table 3.11 is showing the convergent validity of the DSS.
Table 3.11
Convergent Validity of Daily Stressor Scale (DSS)
Perceived Stress Scale
Daily Stress Scale .436*
(30)
p <.05
Note: Numbers in parenthesis refer to sample size.PSS = Perceived stress scale 124
Table 3.11 shows a Significant correlations between the Daily Stressors Scale (DSS) and the
Perceived Stress Scale (r = .436, p <.05) indicating convergent validity of DSS.
3.3.3.6 Conclusion
This study was designed to explore university teachers’ stressors. The objective of this study was to make an indigenous scale which could measure the daily stressors of university teachers covering all aspects of life. University teachers play a dynamic role of educating the young generation in any society. Keeping in view their social role, their well being is of major concern in any society. Blix, Cruise, Mitchell and Blix (1994) concluded that 66% of university lecturers taken as a sample experienced extreme stress at work at least half of the working period.
Gmelch, Lovrich and Wilke (1984) reported five major stressors of university teachers namely reward and recognition, time constraints, departmental influence, professional identity and student interaction. Smith and Milstein (1984) declared that stressors experienced by individuals evolve from themselves and the environment. Stressful work situations are likely to result poor psychological health and physiological disorders in an individual (Sonnentag & Frese, 2003).
Researcher in the present study tried to investigate the stressors of university teachers. Although, some studies have tried to explore the occupational stress in Pakistan but to the best of researchers’ knowledge, no study has explored daily stressors of university teachers in Pakistan through indigenous measure. Most of the stress scales have been developed by western people whose stressors are different from our culture. The present scale measured not only the 125
workplace and professional stressors but all the other relevant sources of daily stress that might affect the performance of university teachers in their cultural context.
The items for the present scale were empirically generated from discussions with university teachers. A principal component factor analysis technique was applied to the 30- items measuring daily stressors to determine the factor structure. A four factor solution was obtained through varimax rotation with factor loadings of more than 0.40. These four factors having 27 items made up the four subscales of Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) and were named
Environmental, Workplace, Family and Personal and Professional Stressors.
To make the Daily Stressors Scale (DSS) psychometrically sound, convergent validity was established. Construct validity assumes that a measure is not assessing something that it is not supposed to assess (Campbell & Fiske, 1959). Convergent validity refers to a relatively high correlation between the test and some criterion thought to measure the same construct as the test (Hogan, 2007). For the establishment of convergent validity Perceived Stress Scale
(Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstien, 1983) along with DSS was administered to a group of 30 university teachers, randomly selected from University of Education, Lahore. It was assumed that the scores on two measures will significantly correlate with each other. The results showed that two scales were measuring the same construct.
The development and validation of DSS has implications for measuring daily stressors among the faculty of any university. Researcher hopes that the construction and validation of the
Daily Stressor Scale will help university administrations to rethink upon their policies and norms that contribute to the stressors in their faculty; basic requirement for maintaining equity, imparting prompt education, providing knowledge, information, clarity about basic rules & regulations and all factors that enhance productivity to reduce stress. Keeping in mind the 126
stressors of faculty, universities should initiate programs which will be preventive (equal work load, equal access to the administration ) and remedial (work shops, seminars, training programs related with technology, salary increments, incentives, equal opportunities for participation in progressive activities) to lessen their stressors and enhance their productivity.
Introducing counseling interventions will make the faculty to utilize their own internal strengths and potentials that induce the ability to handle environmental and workplace stressors, in an effective way.
Researcher believes that the validation of DSS will contribute conceptually and methodologically to the development of a larger body of research in the areas such as gender differences in stress, health outcomes of stress, stress and personality traits, stress and motivational level of the employee and other work related variables. To enhance the generalization of these findings across persons, settings and times, researcher encourages the adaptation and validation of the DSS items across cultures. The development of DSS, with demonstrated reliability and validity, could ultimately contribute to the construction of a generic scale of daily stressors across newly established private universities.
This scale would also be a valuable addition to indigenous psychometric tests in Pakistan. It would be a diagnostic tool whenever there is need to measure stressors of universities teachers.
The evident findings of the present study provide a solid basis for launching future researches on workplace, professional, environmental, family and personal stressors.
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Chapter 4 Main Study
4.1 Positive Thinking, Coping with Daily Stressors and Health Outcomes: A
Comparison of Males and Females at University of Education, Lahore
After winning independence, Pakistan was in its way to progress. People were highly motivated and enthusiastic to have pace with the Western countries. Rights of people were respected.
There was liberty of speech and social justice to ensure ever lasting peace. There was mutual understanding and cooperation among the people. Development in different fields such as education, science, technology, health, food, agriculture and industry was rapid.
But with the passage of time, due to the negligence of people and politicians, things started changing. Country’s economic, social and political position started deteriorating and reached a point where it all started to fall apart. Now-a-days Pakistan is suffering from many ups and downs. The unstable political circumstances (Tanveer Jaffery, 2009), the threatening geopolitical situations, ever increasing poverty ranking Pakistan among the 43 countries most exposed to poverty risks, Hassan Ali, 2011), low resources and high expenditure of the country are making people insecure and disheartened to manage their daily lives. People are under extreme fear, uncertainty and shock. Positivity and urge to live for life is reducing among people.
They think that the country can never get peace and integrity (Nayab & Kamal, 2010). The circumstances are taking them towards deterioration and there is ultimate destruction. Along with environmental stressors natural calamities (National Disaster Management Authority, 2006)
such as floods, earth quakes and recently Dengue virus have affected millions of people in the country (Khan & Khan, 2008). Health of people has been affected by the after math of floods and Dengue virus. 128
The new generation is lost and unable to decide whether follow the liberalization of
Western culture or our own religious teachings. The nation has been clearly divided into many segments. One fundamentalist, the others liberals and the rest confused. Corruption is prevailing in each department at every level and becoming uncontrollable. Those who want to become fair and honest can not survive in the country. The literacy rate is of Pakistan is 54% (Govt. of
Pakistan, 2009). Pakistan is spending only 2 % of its GNP on education. Education system has been divided into two extremes. The liberal and elite are getting education in expensive private institutions and preparing themselves for western degrees while middle class is fighting for its survival and the poor are getting education in madrassas (religious schools). Job opportunities are diminishing (Nasim, 2012) as there is load-shedding of electricity, gas and water. Industry is dependent on these resources. Government is entangled in foreign debts and unable to initiate new projects such as construction of dams and solar energy. Politicians are looting money and resources of the country with both hands. The ongoing war between politics and media has painted a picture of our country in front of the world, a picture that is black that has no colors or emotions. People have been forced to think that the terrorism, suicidal attacks and bomb blasts in the country will eventually remove its existence from the world. At present, people in Pakistan are so overwhelmed by worries and difficulties that they have lost optimism and hope. They are submerged in anxiety and depression, and making ends meet has become impossible for the ordinary person. Life has little meaning; resentment is pervasive (Nasim, 2012).
The above picture of the country is stress inducing. The psychologists and social workers on urgent basis should find out the ways to reduce the stressors and inculcate positivity and optimism in the people so that they could live a healthy and productive life. This study was 129
aimed to test the Fredrickson’s broaden and built theory of positive emotions (1998). Whether optimism increases the ability to deal with adverse circumstances? Researcher wanted to test the
Western notion of hope and optimism in the Eastern culture. The purpose of this study is to describe the effects of positive thinking on the appraisal of daily stressors, coping and health outcomes in relation with gender.
Researches support the relation of positive thinking and optimism with distress abatement and predict healthy aftermaths in both males and females (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004; Tugade,
Fredrickson & Feldman Barret, 2004). Boland (1996) found that optimism in older women is associated with lower levels of appraised stress. Positive mood and the release of endogenous opioids are both related to lower acute stress reaction (Fredrickson & Levenson, 1998).
Positive thinking is related with positive affectivity. In research literature the positive affectivity (PA)-negative affectivity (NA) taxonomy of affective temperament (D. Watson, 2000) has been presented as one typology. Research by Watson, Tellegen and colleagues suggests that affective disposition is composed of two facets: PA and NA. High-PA individuals are predisposed to experience positive emotionality (e.g., joy, excitement, enthusiasm), whereas high-NA individuals are predisposed to experience negative emotions (e.g., guilt, anger, fear; D.
Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988).
Positive affectivity is related with less job stress and more job satisfaction. It is related with many personality traits such as Extraversion and openness to experience. In a meta-analysis of the relation of affectivity to job satisfaction, Connolly and Viswesvaran (2000) reported true score correlations of PA and NA with job satisfaction of .49 (k = 15) and -.33 (k = 27). 130
In the same way extraverts are predisposed to experience positive emotions (Costa &
McCrae, 1992), and positive thinking likely generalizes to job satisfaction (Connolly &
Viswesvaran, 2000). Evidence also indicates that extraverts have more friends and spend more time in social situations than do introverts and, because of their social facility, are likely to find interpersonal interactions (such as those that occur at work) more rewarding (D. Watson &
Clark, 1997). A Meta-Analysis by Judge, Heller, Mount (2002) revealed that Five-Factor Model of Personality is a fruitful basis for examining the dispositional source of job satisfaction and job stress. First, researchers have suggested that PA represents Extraversion and NA Neuroticism in the five-factor model, thus subsuming PA and NA within the five-factor model (D. Watson &
Clark, 1997).
The contribution of PA and positive thinking in enhancing health is obvious in the studies of cardiovascular health, protection of blood pressure, cancer and other heart related ailments
(Affleck, Tennen, & Croog, 1987). Positive traits have been associated with health benefits (e.g.,
Maruta, Colligan, Malinchoc, & Offord, 2000; Snyder, 2000). Optimism is negatively related to occurrence of upper respiratory infection (Lyons & Chamberlain, 1994), common cold and allergic responses (Cohen, Doyle, Turner, Alper, Ans & Skoner, 2003).
There is a strong relationship between stress and disease. The physiological responses to stress include cardiovascular symptoms (Polanski, 1999) increased blood pressure (Pickering,
1990) and cholesterol level, biochemical responses i.e. catecholamine, kidney damage, uric acid and gastrointestinal symptoms i.e. peptic ulcers and digestion problems. There is evidence that stress effects infectious ailments (Biondi & Zannion, 1997) and autoimmune illness (Affleck et.al., 1997). Mortimer, Winefield and Chalmer (1996) showed that Lymphocytic 5- 131
ectonucleotidase reduced significantly in persons experiencing stress with a relative variation in mood disturbances. From a social-environmental outlook, relationship has been found between job strain, defined as high psychological demands and lack of control and elevated ambulatory blood pressure (Schnall, Schwartz, Landsbergis, Warren, & Pickering, 1992). The studies related to gender differences in stress and strain have revealed that women experience more psychological stress and strain than men (Hall, Chipperfield, Perry, Ruthing, & Goetz, 2006;
Roxburgh, 1996).
Regarding coping strategies there are variations among individuals to deal with stress.
Arousal and influence of stress depend on how different individuals evaluate and cope with the situation regarding personal resources (Lazarus, 1966). The personal resources may be positive thinking, resilience, optimism and extraversion. McGrath, Jordens, Montgomery, Kerridge
(2006) claimed that positive thinking enables the ill person to cope better with illness.
Researchers have further found that positive thinkers tend to recall health related information more than the negative thinkers (Aspinwall, 1998; Aspinwall & Brunhart, 1996) and they engage in humor and positive reframing while dealing with dire situations (Carver et al., 1993).
While studying negative affects (NA) and positive affects (PA) on coping, previous studies have revealed that individuals having negative attitudes show avoidant behavior (Bolger
& Zukerman, 1995; Bouchard, 2003). Other researches (Gunthert et al., 1999) have reported positive association between stress and negative thinking. Negative affect also correlates positively with the implementation of emotion focused coping and negatively with problem focused coping (Cosway et al, 2000; Endler & Parker, 1994; Mcwilliam, Cox, & Enns, 2003). 132
There are gender differences in coping. Men tend to be more likely to engage in effective coping that alters a situation than women (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980). Women implemented emotion focused coping techniques more than men (Eaton and Bradley, 2008).
Gender differences are huge in our society (Noreen & Khalid). Women were regarded sacred and enjoyed respectable place in primitive societies because of their ability to reproduce human race till the time men realized their role to impregnate women. Male role as bread winner in hunter-gatherer societies laid the foundations of male dominant patriarchal societies (Goel,
2004). Till twentieth century authority was more or less exclusively the right of men in many parts of the world. Ahmed (1992) argued that all the decisions about family were the right of the family head, who was usually male, in traditional societies of Asia and Africa.
Theories give different explanations for gender differences. Social cognitive theory says that the children’s gender development occurs through observing and imitating what other people say and do and through being rewarded and punished for gender appropriate and gender in- appropriate behavior (Bussy & Bundra, 1999). Social role theory says that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men (Eagly, 2000; 2001). From birth onward, gender roles are rewarded. Culture, school, media and other family members also provide gender role models (Smith, 2007). Parents by action and by example, influence their children’s gender development (Bronstein, 2006).
The role of gender in stress appraisal is evident from the researches that revealed stress varies with gender (Bolger & Zukerman, 1995; McDonoigh & Walters, 2001; Lindiwe, Asner-
Self, Kimberly, Schreiber, 2005). In the patriarchal societies such as Pakistan, "sons are perceived to have economic, social or religious utility; daughters are often felt to be an economic liability (Fikree & Pasha 2003). Women are usually not included in making decisions and are 133
considered socially and economically dependent on men (Fikree, Pasha, 2004; Jejeebhoy, Sathar,
2001). Females consider themselves insecure, incomplete, ineffective and inefficient without males (Niaz, 2003). These circumstances make females more prone to stress. One reason of high stress in females is the discrimination women face due to the cultural and religious norms that Pakistani society embraces (Bettencourt, 2000). Females face family stress more as compared to males (Esping, Gallie, Hemerijck and Myles, 2002). Society continues to expect that women will take responsibility of the majority of child care and work in the home (Long &
Cox, 2000).
With the passage of time and increase of education women’s status in the society is changing. It is indicated (Govt. of Pakistan, 2007) that opportunities for employment are increasing based upon increasing education skills among women. Women have started to enter in
Armed Forces, electronics, textile, medical specialists, banking and financial experts and their visibility in professions and blue-collar occupations such as paramedics, teachers and police is mostly due to their improved levels of education. Although these opportunities are raising the status of women in the society but at the same time they are getting overburdened due to multiple roles. On the one hand they are getting professional and career oriented on the other hand they are expected to serve perfectly to their husbands and in-laws.The need is to conduct research on daily stressors related with work and family, child care, marital functioning, and how positive thinking help to cope and balance multiple work/nonwork roles in males and females.
Based on the above theories and researches the hypotheses mentioned in the first chapter have been restated in this chapter. These hypotheses have also been formulated in the light of
Daily Stressor Scale developed by the researcher. 134
Following hypothesis based on literature were empirically tested in the present study:
1) There is a significant negative relationship between optimism and Daily Stressors Scale and
its subscales.
2) Optimism is positively related with problem focused coping and negatively related with
avoidance and emotion focused coping.
3) Optimism is positively related with GHQ and its subscales.
4) There is a significant relationship between daily stressors and general health.
5) There are gender differences in optimism.
6) There are gender differences in the perception of daily stressors on DSS.
6a) Females score high on the family and personal stressors of DSS as compared to males.
6b) there is significant mean difference between males and females on the environmental
stressors of DSS.
6c) Females perceive work stressors more as compared to males, whereas males perceive
professional stressors more.
7) There is a significant mean difference between males and females on the scores of GHQ and
its subscales.
8) There are gender differences in coping.
8a) Males tend to choose problem focused coping strategies more often than emotion focused
coping strategies, whereas females tend to choose emotion focused and avoidance focused
coping strategies.
9) There are significant mean differences on DSS among the participants regarding their
designation.
10) Participants belonging to different campuses of UE score differently on DSS. 135
11) Optimism predicts daily stress negatively and psychological health positively.
12) Optimism predicts problem focused coping positively and avoidance coping and emotion
focused coping negatively.
.
136
In this section, the researcher has described the population of the study, the selection of the sample, tools used for data collection and statistical methods to interpret data. Positive thinking was measured through Life Orientation Test Revised. Stress was measured by the
Daily Stress Scale (DSS) developed in the Study 1. This section analyzed the relationship among study variables and further probed the impact of positive thinking on daily stressors and health.
4.2 Method
4.2.1 Population
The population of the study was the faculty of University of Education, Lahore (UE). UE has 10 campuses in different areas of Punjab, within campuses are three divisions. UE has three campuses in Lahore (Bank Road Campus, Lower Mall campus and Township campus). The other campuses are in the cities of Attock, Dera Ghazi Khan, Faisalabad, Jauharabad, Multan,
Okara and Vehari.The entire faculty of the UE which consisted of 281 members (Male=114,
Female=167) constituted the population of the study. A sampling frame has been attached (See, annexure G). The population of 10 campuses and three divisions was divided into four strata i.e. lecturers, assistant professors, associate professors and full professors. There were 187 lecturers
(male=68, female=119), 67 assistant professors (male=29, female=38), 20 associate professors
(male=10, female=10) and 7 full professors (male=7, female=0) in the University of Education,
Lahore. 137
4.2.2 Sample Researcher chose sample from UE because it was newly established university and faculty was experiencing stress due to burdens of multi-tasks such as research work, further studies, new projects and time pressures. UE was established in 10 September 2002, by upgrading different education colleges, by the Government of Punjab. It was declared as a centre of excellence for teacher’s training and research. It aimed at preparing dynamic teachers and leaders in education, research and management having excellence qualities, skills, commitment and involvement to ensure quality in all sectors of education. The problem aroused when these teachers were asked to implement new techniques and methods for raising the quality of education and come up to the standard of a university. The faculty had been teaching at college level and was unaware of the university culture and research techniques necessary at university level.
The rationale behind choosing a sample of university teachers was that they were facing hard circumstances due to working in a newly established university which was continuously striving to get some position among high universities. University was trying to improve the quality of education by increasing the quality of its faculty, infrastructure, research and strategic planning procedures. There was an intense pressure on teachers to modify curriculum, incorporate new delivery methods, make appropriate use of technology and enhance the quality of assessment and research. University was recruiting new faculty who was more educated and aware of the technological advances. This created a rift between the seniors/government and the juniors/ new university employees. Senior government teachers working under university were overstressed due to the emerging trends in education and were unable to cope with the challenges of technological advances in teaching-learning situations. Females were more prone to stress as 138
compared to the males because they adopted this profession as they perceived it less time consuming. Female teachers face additional stressors due to the religious and cultural norms.
Females have a second position in our culture. In Islam, males have been given an upper status because they are the breadwinners, provider for their families and responsible for family matters.
So the females have to submit to males. For example, females have to live in joint family system forcefully, do all home chores and take care of children and elderly. Working women bear double responsibilities and usually face home-work conflict. Some times male underemployment, forces females to work in order to support household expenditures on rent, food, clothing and the education of their children. If she fails to come up to the expectations of the male members, she becomes the victim of domestic violence. Researcher wanted to know whether there were gender differences in the appraisal of stressors and coping strategies in university teachers. Whether positive thinking can lessen the stressors and affect the health of university teachers.
With this rationale, a random sample was selected from each strata of the sampling frame of University of Education. Sixty five percent of the population was taken as a sample for the study as the population was heterogeneous, belonging to different cities of Punjab (See annexure
I). The sample was selected randomly from each stratum. It consisted of 123 lecturers (male=44, female=78), 44 assistant professors (male=19, female=25), 12 associate professors (male=6, female=7) and 3 full Professors (male=3, female=0) from all campuses and divisions of UE.
Hence, the sample comprised of 182 (65 %) faculty members on the whole.
139
4.2.2.1 Inclusion Criteria
The criteria for the selection of the sample consisted of following measures:
Male and female teachers from government sector who were working under the UE
administration were included in the study
Male and female university employees recruited by the University of Education were
selected as the sample of the study.
Male and female faculty teaching on regular basis was included in the study
Male and female faculty teaching on contract basis was included in the study.
4.2.2.2 Exclusion Criteria
Those who were teaching in the evening programs at UE were excluded from the study.
Teachers having less than one year experiences were also excluded from
the study.
Visiting professors were not included in the sample.
Table No. 4.1 is showing the number and percentage of participants of each campus.
140
Table 4.1
Frequency Distribution of Participants by Campuses and Designation
Campuses Designations
Lec Asst. Prof. Asso.Prof. Prof. Total
Attock 7 1 - - 8
Bank R 22 6 4 - 32
DGK 13 1 - - 14
Faisalabad 15 3 1 - 19
Joharabad 11 4 - - 15
Lower Mall 2 3 3 2 10
Multan 12 12 3 - 27
Okara 22 2 - - 24
Town ship 9 6 1 1 17
Vehari 10 6 - - 16
Total 123 44 12 3 182
Note: 65 % sample was selected from each stratum. Lech = Lecturer, Asst. Prof. = Assistant professor, Asso. Prof.
=Associated professor, Prof.= Professor, Bank R = Bank Road, DGK= Dera Ghazi Khan.
Table 4.1 shows list of 10 campuses selected for study. Eight faculty members from Attock, 32 from Bank Road, 14 from DG Khan, 19 from Faisalabad, 15 from Johar-abad, 10 from Lower mall, 27 from Multan, 24 from Okara, 17 from Township and 16 from Vehari campuses were selected randomly.
141
4.3 Study Variables
4.3.1 Positive Thinking
Positive thinking is looking at the brighter side of the things. It is related with positive emotions and thoughts which lead to a constructive approach towards life and expecting the positive outcomes from future events. Positive thinking is related with positive affect and other related constructs such as optimism, happiness, hope, satisfaction with life and wellbeing. A positive mind anticipates happiness, joy, health and a successful outcome of every situation and action.
Positive thinking reduces distress and heaviness of conscious to light positive feeling. Positive thinking is an independent variable in this study.
4.3.2 Daily Stressors
Lazarus (1984) defined stress as a state of anxiety produced when events and responsibilities exceed one’s coping abilities. Stress is the rate of wear and tear of the body. Stress can be regarded as the pressure in the environment which is brought to bear on an individual (Child,
2007). A person can encounter stress from different sources for example, workplace, environment, family and interpersonal relationships. There are variations in the perception of stressors regarding males and females. Moreover, females have different type of stressors as compared to males.
142
4.3.3 Coping with Stress
The term coping has been used as a response required by an organism to adapt to adverse circumstances. Lazarus and Folkman offered the following view: “Coping is defined as constantly changing cognitive or behavioral efforts to manage specific internal or external demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person” (1984, p.141).
Pearling and Schooler (1978) defined coping as the thing people do to avoid being harmed by life strains. It is “the cognitive and behavioral effort made to master, tolerate or reduce internal and external demands and conflicts”(Folkman & Lazarus, 1980, p.223).
4.3.4 Health
Health refers to a range of positive states of physical, mental and social well being. Health includes psychological and physical states. Psychological health is related to satisfaction with life, absence of depression and anxiety while physical health means absence of disease. For the present study health means general health.
4.3.5 Demographic Characteristics
It involves characteristics of participants such as gender, age, educational level, years of service, occupation, designation, income, marital status and number of children.
143
4.4 Research Design
The first part of the study was exploratory. In the second part of the study a correlational
design was used.
4.5 Tools
In the present study, the researcher used both qualitative and quantitative techniques to gather data. Initially, the researcher developed a daily stressor scale by using qualitative techniques and validating it by quantitative technique i.e. factor analysis. Different standardized tests were used with some adaptations, to measure study variables. All the tests were administered in English language with the assumption that the sample is highly qualified and well aware of the English language. To test the study hypothesis following measures were used.
4.5.1 Life Orientation Test-Revised
Positive thinking was operationalized as optimism and measured through Life Orientation
Test-Revised (LOR-R, See Annexure E-I). The LOR-R measured dispositional optimism, which is defined as generalized positive outcome expectancies. Scheier and Carver (1985) developed a measure called Life Orientation Test (LOT) to assess personal differences in optimism and pessimism. LOT has acceptable psychometric properties and convergent validity with respect to related concepts such as Internal and External control ( Rotter, 1966), hopelessness Scale (Beck,
Weissman, Lester, & Trexler, 1974) Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, 1967)perceived stress scale (Cohen, Kamarch, & Mermelstein, 1983), a measure of social desirability ( Crowne &
Marlowe, 1964) and the self conscious scale(Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975). It has been criticized on the grounds that the optimism and pessimism items sets form two factors that are not always strongly interrelated. Further having used the LOT for several years, it has been 144
found out that some of the items were assessing the constructs other than expectations for the future outcomes. So LOT has been replaced by a newer form, called Life Orientation Test-
Revised or LOT-R (Scheier, Carver & Brigades, 1994). Reevaluation of LOT distinguishes betweenan optimist and a pessimist. On revising the scale researchers omitted items which did not focus explicitly on expectancies for the future. LOT-R has 10 items four of which are filler and are not used in scoring. Three are keyed in positive direction (“In uncertain times I usually expect the best”) and three in negative direction (“If some thing can go wrong for me it will”).
The revised scale is shorter, conceptually cleaner and promises to replace the original scale as the instrument of choice in the future.
Respondents indicate the extend of their agreement with each item using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree=4 to strongly disagree=0.The LOT-R has good internal consistency
(Cronbach’s alpha runs in the high .70 to low .80 and is stable over time). It provides continuous distributions of scores. Distribution tends to be skewed towards the optimistics, but not generally so. There is no specific criterion for saying that a person is optimist or pessimist, rather people range from very optimist to very pessimist, most falling somewhere in the middle.
Most researchers using this instrument use them to create continuous distributions, with optimism and pessimism being defined relative to each other. The authors reported that mostly people score above the mean and distribution tends to be skewed towards the optimistic ones.
Before administering the questionnaire permission was obtained from the authors to use the scale in the present study (See annexure F-II).
4.5.2 Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) 145
Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) was developed by the researcher(See Annexure E-II). The purpose was to develop a self-report indigenous measure which could find out university teachers ‘daily stressors. For the development of the scale items were generated through literature review, unstructured interviews, focus group discussions and brain storming techniques with university teachers. Initially a pool of stress items was generated related with different domains of life i.e. work, profession, social relationship, family and environment.
Finally a 51 item scale was prepared for pilot testing. Respondents indicated the extend of their agreement with each item using a 5-point Likert type scale ranging from strongly agree=5 to strongly disagree=1. High score indicated high stress and low score indicated low stress.
Piloting of the items was done on teachers of University of Education, Lahore. As the result of pilot testing some items were removed, some were reworded and some, neglected during the process, were added in the questionnaire. Another pilot testing was done with 43 items on twenty five faculty members of UE. Finally a 30 item Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) was prepared and administered on 264 teachers of different universities country wide. Data was subjected to principle component factor analysis to find out the factor structure of the scale.
Kaisar’s (1960) rule that ‘eigen value greater than one’ was used to determine the number of factors to retain from the initial exploratory analysis. The scree plot showed four factors solution for the data. The items having less than .40 loading were removed from the scale and the remaining 27 items were subjected to factor analysis. Factor 1 had Eigen value of 6.22 with a variance of 23.06 %, the second factor had an eigen value of 2.12 and the explained variance of
7.87 %, third factor had an eigen value of 1.68 with an explained variance of 6.22, while the fourth factor had an eigen value of 1.51 with a variance of 5.59 %. Overall the four factors explained 43 % of the total items variance. 146
There were seven items loaded on factor 1, eight items on factor 2, six items on factor 3 and six items on factor 4 with factor loading ranged .40-.75.These four factors made four subscales of DSS i.e. Workplace Stressors, Environmental Stressors, Family and Personal and
Professional Stressors.
The norms of DSS for males and females were derived separately. The mean and standard deviation of DSS for the whole sample was 89.41(SD=14.29). The mean for male was 88.81,
(SD=14.37) and for female faculty was 90.19 (SD=14.38). Mean for females was slightly higher than for males. The means and standard deviations for Workplace Stressor were 27.00 (SD=
5.58), for Environmental Stressors 27.06 (SD= 4.62), for Family and Personal Stressors, 18.0
(SD= 4.25) and for Professional Stressors were 17.22 (SD= 4.36).
For 27 items the coefficient alpha was .87, indicating that the degree of homogeneity among the items was consistent with degree of homogeneity theoretically expected from Daily Stressor
Scale. The alpha’s for the four subscales were found high(Environmental Stressors: α=.75,
Workplace: α =.76, Family, α =.70, Professional: α =.70).
To make the test psychometrically strong convergent validity was established. A random sample of 30 teachers from Education University was drawn. A 10 item Perceived Stress Scale
(Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstien, 1983) similar in construct to the Daily Stressor Scale was administered to the participants. A positive correlation (r=.44) between the two measures empirically validated Daily Stressor Scale on convergent validity.
This indigenous Daily Stressor Scale (DSS) appeared to be a psychometrically sound measure of daily stressors of Pakistani University teachers. It contained an adequate level of internal consistency, convergent validity to make it suitable tool for use in research when the stressors of faculty members are desired to be measured. The scale measured not only the job 147
stressors but all the other relevant sources of stress which can affect the performance of a university teacher.
4.5.3 Brief Cope Questionnaire
Present study used Brief COPE to measure the coping style of university teachers while dealing with daily stressors. The Brief COPE (Carver, 1997) is a coping inventory having twenty eight items, (See Annexure E-V) and fourteen subscales. Each subscale consisted of two items.
Carver reported reliability and validity data with Cronbach alphas ranging from .50 to .90. The scale basically measured three types of coping; avoidant, problem focused and emotion focused.
Example of avoidance coping include denial, behavioral disengagement, substance abuse and self destruction. It included item no.1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 11, 16, 19 of the scale. Problem focused coping was measured through active coping, positive reframing, instrumental support and planning including item No. 2, 7, 10, 12, 14, 17, 23, 25 of the scale. Emotional coping was measured using items related with venting, emotional support, self blame, religion, acceptance and humor consisted of item no. 5, 9, 13, 15, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28. The Brief COPE is especially useful to minimize time demands on participants. It is a brief measure modified from the COPE consisted of 60 items (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989), assessing several responses known to be relevant to effective and ineffective coping. For the present study the scale was used to assess coping styles of the participants of the study.
4.5.4 General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) 148
In the present study, mental health and wellbeing was measured using General
Health Questionnaire developed by Goldberg (1972) (See, Annexure E-VI).GHQ is also the most common assessment of mental well-being. Developed as a screening tool to detect those likely to have or be at risk of developing psychiatric disorders, it was a measure of the common mental health problems/domains of depression, anxiety, somatic symptoms and social withdrawal. Available in a variety of versions having 12, 28, 30 or 60 items, the 28-item version was most widely used. This short version of GHQ consisting of twenty eight items was derived from a factor analysis of the original GHQ sixty item data. The purpose has been to identify whether GHQ may be tapping aspects of health and wellbeing other than symptoms. Numerous studies found factors relating to symptoms such as depression, anxiety, somatic complaints as well as factors relating to coping, self esteem and social functioning (Parkes, 1982). This is not only because of time considerations but also because the GHQ28 has been used most widely in other working populations, allowing for more valid comparisons. Examples of some of the items in use included ‘Have you been getting scared or panicky for no good reason?’and ‘Have you been getting edgy and bad tempered? Each item was accompanied by four possible responses, typically being ‘not at all’, ‘no more than usual’, ‘rather more than usual’ and ‘much more than usual’, scoring from 0 to 3, respectively. The 28-version employed a 4-point Likert- scale (0–1–2–3) for all statistical analysis.
A number of scoring methods were available for GHQ (Goldberg & Williams, 1988).
The total possible score on the GHQ 28 ranged from 0 to 84 with higher scores indicating a higher probability of a clinical disorder and a higher probability of general psychological distress (Goldberg & Williams, 1988). It allowed for means and distributions to be calculated, 149
both for the global total, as well as for the four sub-scales. Using the alternative binary scoring method (with the two least symptomatic answers scoring0 and the two most symptomatic answers scoring 1), the 28- and30-item versions classify any score exceeding the threshold value of 4 as was classed as achieving ‘psychiatric case-ness’. It should be noted that the GHQ is not usually used for predictive purposes. If the GHQ scores were compared with the results of independent psychiatric assessment, it would be more likely than not (0.51) to state that the individual would be assessed as being a ‘case’once the threshold is exceeded. Reliability coefficients have ranged from 0.78 to 0.95 in various studies.The GHQ is simple to administer, easy to complete, simple to score and widely used in many studies of well-being. A further advantage of the GHQ is that it is widely used in occupational research.
4.5.5 Demographic Sheet: Demographic variables such as age, gender, designation,
education, years in service, employment type, marital status, number of children,
monthly income, email address and information about the faculty were collected through
demographic questionnaire attached with DSS.
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4.6 Procedure
The study was conducted in the University of Education, Lahore. For the data collection,
the researcher visited each of the 10 campuses of UE. Formal departmental permission was
obtained from the principal/director of each campus for data collection. The participants
were briefed about the objectives of the study and informed consent was obtained (See
annexure A). It was made clear that their participation would be voluntary. A comfortable
room was provided by the principals of each campus for the administration of the tests.
Most of the participants had doubts about the confidentiality of the responses. They were
afraid that their answers related with the workplace stressors might be disclosed to the
administrators consequently distorting their working relationship with administration. They
were ensured about the confidentiality of their responses and made clear that the data would
be used for research purposes only. A rapport was built between the researcher and the
participants of the study.
A logical flow was maintained while administering the questionnaires. Life Orientation
Test-Revised was the first one to be administered as it was the independent variable in the study. Whereas the dependent variables i.e. Daily Stressor Scale, Brief Cope and General
Health Questionnaire were next in the order to be administered. Demographic information sheet was distributed at the end. Approximately one and an half hour was taken by each participant to finish all the questionnaires. The tests were administered in English language because the participants were highly educated. In case the bilingual individual is being assessed, the person’s fluency in the language and preferred language under the test taking circumstances should be evaluated before the assessment processes. Pilot study on 10 faculty members was 151
conducted to find out if the scales had any ambiguity. They reported difficulty in understanding items No. 3 “if some thing can go wrong for me, it will” on the LOT-R. Five bilingual experts were asked to translate the item into Urdu language then other experts and psychologists were asked to translate the item back into English. The item was revised as " if some thing bad has to happen, I can not avoid it" found no difficulty in answering this item.
All the scales measuring study variables were administered to a sample of 182 faculty members belonging to different campuses of University of Education, Lahore.
After the data was obtained it was subjected to statistical analysis to find out the sample characteristics and to test study hypothesis.
4.7 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample
The sample consisted of 182 participants. Demographic information was analyzed related to gender, marital status, designation and employment. Table No. 4.2 is showing the frequency and the percentage of the participant’s characteristics with respect to the demographic variables.
There were 39% (N= 71) males and 61 % (N= 111) females showing that sample was not equally distributed regarding gender as the number of males and females in the University of
Education was unequal. 57.7% (N=105) of the participants were married, 41.2 % (N=75) were single and 1.1% (N=2) were divorced. Among all the participants, 1.6 % (N=3) were professors, 6.6% (N=12) were associate professors, 24.2 % (N=44) were assistant professors and 67.6% (N= 123) were lecturers. Participants, belonging to 10 campuses, where 69.2% (N=
126) were UE employees and 29.1 % (N=53) Government employees, working under the UE 152
administration. A higher percentage of UE employees were in the sample compared to
Government employees.
Table 4.2
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Participants by Gender, Marital Status,
Designation and Employment Type (N=182)
Variables Frequency Percentage (%)
Gender
Male 71 39
Female 111 61
Marital Status
Single 75 41.2
Married 105 57.7
Divorced 2 1.1
Widow - -
Designation
Lecturer 123 67.6
Assistant Professor 44 24.2
Associate Professor 12 6.6
Professor 3 1.6
Employment type
Government 53 29.1 153
UE 126 69.2
Missing 3 1.6
Note: Percentages are rounded off, N = number of participants; % = percentage, UE= University of Education
Table 4.3
Descriptive Statistics for Demographic Variables
Variables N Mini Maxi Mean SD
Education 182 16 20 16.52 1.20
Year service 180 1 34 7.41 8.13
Mon. Income 179 10000 30195 30195 13485
Age 179 22 60 33.61 9.86
Note: N=number of participants, Mini=Minimum, Maxi=Maximum, SD=standard deviation.
Mon. Income=monthly income.
Mean and standard deviations were calculated for continuous demographic variables i.e. education, years of service and age. The mean education of faculty was 16.52 (SD=1.20). Most 154
of the faculty was master degree holder. The years in service ranged from 1-34, with a mean of
7.41(SD=8.13). The mean monthly income for the sample was Rs.30, 195.00 (SD=13485).
Participants’ age range was 22-60 years with a mean of 33.61 (SD=9.86). Mean and Standard deviation of the study variables for participants are displayed in table 4.2.
155
Chapter 5 Results
The data collected in research was used to interpret the results. While acquiring data is the fundamental of research, determining what conclusions are drawn based on the data is also critically important. In order to achieve the goals of the present study, a series of analyses were conducted to test the hypothesis. Furthermore, discussions were held keeping in view the research literature and theoretical foundations of the study.
Different statistical techniques were used for the analysis of data. The first step was exploratory phase in which results were examined regarding missing values, outliers and coding errors. All the study variables were checked for their assumptions of normality and skewness. In the second step, the means, standard deviations, bivariate correlations and the internal consistencies for the study variables were obtained. In the third step, gender differences and group differences were examined through t-tests and analysis of variance. In the fourth and final step, regression analysis was done to establish the impact of positive thinking on stress, coping and health. Multiple regression analysis was done to find out the contribution of demographic variables on positive thinking.
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Table 5.1
Scale Reliabilities for Study Variables
Scales and Subscales No. of Items Cronbach Alpha
LOT-R 6 .70
DSS 27 .84
Environmental Stressors 7 .60
Workplace Stressors 8 .70
Family and Personal Stressors 6 .74
Professional Stressors 6 .61
Cope
Avoidant coping 8 .63
Emotion focused coping 12 .67
Problem focused coping 8 .87
GHQ 28 .90
Anxiety 7 .77
Insomnia 7 .81
Social Dysfunction 7 .73
Depression 7 .86
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Note: LOT-R= Life orientation Test-Revised, DSS=Daily Stressor Scale, GHQ=General Health
Questionnaire.
Cronbach alpha coefficients were calculated for all the scales and subscales of the study to see whether the reliabilities were sufficient to run further analysis. Table 5.1 shows scale reliabilities ranged from.60 to .90 depicting that the most reliable and internally consistent scales were GHQ and DSS. GHQ and DSS showed high reliability while others scales had moderate reliabilities.
5.1 Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables
Table 5.2 shows results related to LOT-R as indicator of positive thinking of faculty.
Total score for LOT-R was derived by summing up the scores of all six items of the scale. High score indicated high optimism and low score showed pessimistic attitudes. Mean optimism score for the participants was 15.06 (SD= 4.15). The optimism mean score for males was
15.38(SD=4.46) and for females was 14.85(SD=3.9). There was a slight gender difference in the mean score of optimism. Males were more optimistic as compared to females. The difference may be due to the power and autonomy males enjoy in Eastern countries. The scores were normally distributed showing that most of the sample falls in the middle, having optimistic attitudes. Scheier, Carver and Brigades (1994) while developing the scale, reported that there is no specific criterion for saying that a person is optimist or pessimist, rather people range from very optimist to very pessimist, most falling somewhere in the middle.
158
e scores for participants on Daily Stressor Scale ranged from 47 to 124 with a mean of 90.79
(SD=14.05) which was a little bit higher than the developmental sample (M=89.41, SD= 14.29).
Females showed higher stress (Mean=93.03)as compared to males (Mean=87.26). Similarly the means of the participants were also high on the subscales of DSS as compared to the means of developmental sample. Regarding the GHQ, mean score (M=22.59, SD=11.63) and distribution of the scores showed that the participants were experiencing good health.
159
Table 5.2
Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables (N=182)
Variables Mean SD Male (SD) Female (SD)
LOT-R 15.06 4.15 15.38 4.46 14.85 3.93
DSS 90.79 14.05 87.26 13.57 93.03 13.95
Job stress 28.43 4.67 29.07 4.89 28.03 4.50
Environ stress 26.90 4.76 26.06 4.89 27.45 4.62
Family& per. stress 17.5 4.64 15.49 4.26 18.83 4.41
Professional stress 18.20 3.83 18.01 3.88 18.33 3.81
Coping 73.42 9.40 70.57 10.03 75.26 8.50
Problem focused 26.41 4.67 26.28 4.99 26.50 4.47
Avoidance 15.67 3.74 15.11 3.63 16.03 3.78
Emotion 31.68 5.62 30.05 5.52 32.72 5.46
GHQ 22.59 11.6 20.35 9.95 24.03 12.43
Anxiety 6.04 3.7 5.69 3.69 6.27 3.83
Insomnia 6.72 4.18 6.43 3.84 6.95 3.38
Social dysfunct. 6.08 3.14 6.05 2.74 6.10 3.39
Depression 3.73 3.86 2.16 2.98 4.73 4.0
Note:*p <.05, **p <.01, M=males; F=females, SD=standard deviation, DSS= Daily Stressor
Scale, GHQ= general health questionnaire, Social dysfunct. =Social dysfunction
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Table 5.3 Correlation between Study Variables
Variable LOT- DSS E. W. F&P Prof Av. Prob. Em. GHQ Anx. Ins. So. Dep R Stress St C C C Dys
------LOT-R -.47** .35** .65** .58** .46** .50** .23** .24** .46** .44** .43** .35** .20**
DSS .73** .71** .70** .78** .13 -.31** .28** .43** .42** .43** .25** .21**
E. Stress .44** .38** .42** .14 -.18* .29** .30** .35** .31** .0 .15
W. Stress .32** .51** .10 -.25** .24** .27** .27** .34** .21** .024
F&P .47** .21** -.24** .16* .42** .32** .38** .25** .36** Stress
Prof Stress .11 .27** .15* .35** .35** .33** .24** .15*
Av. Cope -.12 .11 .12 .12 .11 .04 .10
Prob. - - - - - .20** Cope .33** .21** .26** .33** .25**
Em. Cope .06 .16** .12 -.03 -.07
GHQ .78** .85** .74** .72**
Anxiety .61** .46** .35**
Insomnia .51** .45**
Soc. Dys .43**
Depression
Note:*=Correlation is significant at 0.05 level, **=Correlation is significant at 0.01 level, N=
LOT-R=Life Orientation Test – Revised, DSS=Daily Stressor Scale, E. Stress=Environmental Stress W. Stress=Workplace Stress, F&P Stress=Family & Stressors, Prof Stress=Professional Stressors, 161
Av. Cope=Avoidance Coping, Prob. Cope=Problem Focused Coping, Em. Cope=Emotion Focused Coping GHQ=General Health Questionnaire, Soc. Dys=Social Dysfunction
5.2 Zero Order Correlation
A correlational matrix was generated to examine the bivariate correlation of study variables. The co relational matrix in table 5.3 shows that the relationships of most of the study variables were as hypothized. As expected in hypothesis one (H1) optimism was negatively related to Daily Stressor Scale (r (182) =-.65, p<.01) and its subscales i.e. Environmental (r= -
.47, p<.01), Workplace (r=-.58, p<.01), Family and Personal (r=-.46, p<.01) and Professional
Stressors(r=-.50, p<.01) indicating that as optimism increases the participant’s tendency to take stress decreases. Optimism was positively related to problem focused coping (H2) (r=.353, p<.01) but negatively related to avoidance (r=-.23, p<.01) and emotion focused coping(r=-.24, p<.01) supporting the second hypothesis. It was further observed that optimism revealed strong relationship with health and well being(H3). Table shows that LOT-R was negatively related with GHQ(r=-.46, p<.01) and its subscales i.e. anxiety(r=-.44, p<.01), insomnia(r= -.43, p<.01), social dysfunction(r=-.35, p<.01) and depression(r=.20, p<.01).The negative relation between the
LOT-R and GHQ and its subscalesis indicating that when optimism increases, the health problems decrease. Low score on GHQ means good psychological health.
When the relationship of coping with stress was explored, it was observed that DSS was inversely related to problem focused coping(r=-.31, p<.01) and conversely related to emotion focused coping(r=.29, p<.01). DSS was positively related with avoidance coping although the relationship was not significant. The results indicated that as stress increases the ability to solve 162
problems decreases. Participants suffering from daily stressors used emotion focused coping as well as avoidance focused coping more. DSS was positively related with GHQ (r=.43, p<.01)
(H4) and its subscales i.e. anxiety(r=.42, p<.01), insomnia(r=.43, p<.01), social dysfunction(r=.25, p<.01) and depression(r=.21, p<.01). High score on GHQ was the indication of bad health denoting that high stress has deteriorating effect on the participant’s psychological health and wellbeing thus supporting our 5th hypothesis.
Regarding demographic variables education was positively related with income(r=0.40, p<.01), age and designation(r=.16, p<.05, r=0.39, p<.01) respectively. Years in service were significantly related with number of children, income and designation (r= .56, p<.01, r= .75, p<.01, r=.80, p<.01) respectively. Age was positively related with income and designation (r=
.81 , p<.01) (r= .80, p<.01) respectively. Age, income and education were not related with optimism, stress and health. Demographic correlations are not reported in the correlational matrix. On the basis of bivariate correlations, further regression analyses were done.
5.3 Gender Comparison
Gender comparisons were central to this study as the aim of the study was to find out gender differences in the study variables. Gender differences regarding participant’s education, income, age, orientation towards life, daily stressors, coping and health were analyzed through t- test. Table 5.4 showed that males were more educated (M=16.84, SD=1.49) as compared to females (M=16.32, SD=.91) with a t(180)=2.90, p<.01. Significant mean differences were found regarding income of the participants. Males (M=33970.58, SD= 13778.6) earned more as compared to females (M=2782.8, SD=12823.79) with t(177) =2.99, p<.01. Regarding the years of service, males (M= 8.97, SD=8.10) served more than females (M=6.44, SD=7.85) with t (178)
=2.04, p<.05. The females’ mean age (M=31.93, SD=9.44) was less than that of males’ 163
(M=36.28, SD=9.98) with a t (177) = 2.93, p<.01.Although female’s representation in study was high in number but low on income and education as compared to males.
Table 5.4
Independent Sample t-test Comparing Demographic Variables of Males and Females
Demographic Gender Mean SD df t-value Variables
Education Male 16.84 1.49 180 2.90** Female 16.32 .91
Years in service Male 8.97 8.40 178 2.04* Female 6.44 7.85
Income Male 33970.58 13778.60 177 2.99** Female 27882.88 12823.88
Age Male 36.28 9.98 177 2.93** Female 31.93 9.44
Note:*p<0.05, **p<0.01,df=Degrees of freedom
When study variables were subjected to independent sample t-test,participants did not show significant gender differences on LOT-R (H5) rejecting our hypothesis. Results revealed significant gender differences (H6) on Daily Stressor Scale and its subscales. Table 5.5 shows a significant mean difference between male and female participants regarding DSS supporting our hypothesis. Males got low score on Daily Stressor Scale (M=87.26 ,SD=13.57 ), on
Environmental Stressors (M= 26.06,SD= 4.89) and Family and Personal Stressors
(M=15.49,SD=4.26) as compared to females (M=93.03,SD=13.95) for Daily Stressor Scale with a t=(180) 2.74,p<.05, for Environmental Stressors (M=27.45,SD= 4.62) with t=<05, for 164
Family and Personal Stressors (M= 18.83,SD=4.41) with t(180)=5.05, p<.05. No significant mean differences were found on Workplace and Professional Stressors. It was meant that females like males were thinking that the profession and work was the most important domain of their life. Regarding other stressors females tend to perceive them more stressful as compared to males. It was consistent with previous studies which found out that females were more prone to stress than males.
Table 5.5
Independent Sample t-test Comparing DSS Health and Coping Scores of Males and Females
DSS GHQ Coping Gender Mean SD df t-value
DSS Male 87.26 13.57 180 2.74** Female 93.03 13.95 Workplace Stress Male 29.07 4.89 180 1.46 ns Female 28.03 4.50 Environment Stress Male 26.06 4.89 180 1.93ns Female 27.45 4.62 Family Stress Male 15.49 4.26 180 5.05*** Female 18.83 4.41 Prof. stress Male 18.01 3.88 180 .547ns Female 18.33 3.81 GHQ Female 24.03 12.43 Male 20.35 9.95 179 -2.09* Anxiety Male 5.69 3.69 180 1.01 ns Female 6.27 3.83 Insomnia Male 6.43 3.84 180 .815ns Female 6.95 4.38 Social Dysfunction Male 6.05 2.74 179 .091ns Female 6.10 3.39 Depression Male 2.16 2.98 180 4.59*** Female 4.73 4.0 Emotion Focused Male 30.05 5.52 180 3.19** Coping Female 32.72 5.46
Note: *P- <.05, **P<.01, ***P<.001, ns=Not significant, GHQ=General health questionnaire 165
When the mean scores on GHQ were subjected to t-test male faculty showed significant mean differences on GHQ (H7) and its subscales i.e. depression scale ( M = 20.35, SD=9.95)
(M=2.1,SD = 2.98) as compared to female faculty (M= 24.03,SD= 12.4)for GHQ with t (179) =
2.09, p<.05 and for depression (M= 4.72,SD = 4.04) with t (180) = 4.59, P<.001. No significant gender differences were revealed in anxiety, insomnia and social dysfunction subscales.
When t-test was performed to see differences in coping strategies (H8), significant gender differences were found in overall coping. With regard to different types of coping, significant differences were found only in emotion focused coping (8a). No significant differences were found on problem focused and avoidance focused coping strategies. Females used more emotion focused coping (M= 32.72, SD=5.46) as compared to males (M= 30.05, SD= 5.52) with t (180) =
3.19, p<.01. No significant gender differences were found in problem focused and avoidance focused coping. Male participants expressed low score on emotion focused coping. The reason is that emotionality is mostly expressed when a person is unable to show his/her negative sentiments. Males in our society are dominant and express their anger and negative emotions openly. While women are suppressed in our society, their rights are violated that is why they seek emotional support while experiencing stress as a coping device. Males show less vulnerability to depression that is consistent with world wide studies on depression.
Using multiple t-tests inflates type 1 error rates and MANOVA helps control for the inflation. One way Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was run on the data to determine whether there were any differences between independent groups on more than one continuous dependent variable. Before conducting MANOVA researcher tried to meet the 166
assumptions, 1) one independent variable should consist of two or more categorical independent groups, 2) multivariate normality, 3) equality of variance between independent groups.
Table 5.5 shows descriptive statistics that is the mean and standard deviation for the total and four subscales of DSS (dependent variables) have been split by the independent variable
(Gender).
The assumption of the MANOVA i.e. homogeneity of covariances, was tested for by
Box's Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices. If the "Significance" value is less than .001 (P <
.001) then the assumption of homogeneity of covariances was violated. However, in this case, researcher did not violate this assumption (P = .308) and accepted the null hypothesis that the observed covariance matrices of the dependant variables are equal across groups.
Table 5.6a
MANOVA Summary Table: Gender’s Relation with DSS and Subscales
DVS Univariate F df Sig Lambda df sig
Total DSS 7.55 1,180 .007** 11.19 5,176 .000
Workplace Stress 2.13 1,180 .146
Environmental 3.76 1,180 .054
Family Stress 25.5 1,180 .000**
Professional stress .29 1,180 .58
*p < .05. **p < .01 167
Table 5.6a shows the results of one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA).
The independent variable was gender. The dependent variables (DVs) were DSS and its subscales. To determine whether the one-way MANOVA was statistically significant we run multivariate test of Wilk’s Lambda. It tests the null hypothesis -- that the mean on the composite variable is the same across groups. The test was significant F (5, 176) = 11.19, p < .001. Since a significant result was obtained from the omnibus MANOVA test, a univariate analysis of variance was performed. Levene’s test of equality of error variance was non significant showing that the variance was equall across groups. Results including both univariate F values are presented in Table 5.6a. As predicted by Hypothesis 6, gender had a significant main effect on
DSS (univariate F= (1, 180) 7.55, p<.007; Eta, .24). The effect size of the effect can be gauged by considering the Eta Squared. This value is analogous to the coefficient of determination in regression. It provides an estimate of the proportion of variation in the dependent variable accounted for by the effect (IV or interaction between IV's). So gender accounts for 24% of the change in DSS. There were gender differences on the Family and Personal stressors of DSS (F=
(1,180), p< .000).
Figure 5.1 Showing Interaction of DSS with Gender
100 M e 80 a 60 n s 40 Male 20 0 Female
168
The interaction between DSS and gender is ploted in Figure 5.1. The interaction appears to be produced by the fact that the female mean is high on total DSS and family stressors but remain indistinguishable from the males on other subscales. The fact that two lines are not parallel is what we mean when we speek of an interaction. If the differences for the subscales were same for male and females then the lines would be parallel that is what ever differences on
DSS exit for female participants would be equally presented for males.
Table 5.6 b
MANOVA Summary Table: Gender’s Relation with DSS, Coping and Health
DV Univ F df Sig Lambda df sig
DSS 6.64 1 .011* .909 3,176 .001
Coping 11.58 1 .001*
Health 4.26 1 .04*
A MANOVA was also conducted to examine the contribution of gender in predicting DSS, coping and health. Box's Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices was .225, p> .001. Levene’s test of equality of error variance was non significant showing that the variance was equall across groups. The hypothesis regarding the significant contribution of gender model in predicting the daily stress, coping and health was accepted through Wilks’ lambda criterion ( F = .909, (3,176)
= 5.85, p < .001; Eta, .091). Given the significance of overall test, the Univariate main effects were examined. Significant Univaraite main effects were obtained for DSS (F =6.64, < p .011), 169
coping (F = 11.58, p< .001) and health (F = 4.26, p< .040). There was no interaction of gender on dependant variables.
With respect to the participants’ stress, coping and health, female respondents were more likely to anticipate daily stress and more likely to use coping stratagies and showed low health status than their male counterparts. Since the discrimination occurs against women in our society, these gender differences seem realistic. These results depict the culturally relevant aspects of our society where males are the bread winners and supposed to take less household responsibilities as compared to females. Females shoulder more family responsibilities, take care of children and older people in addition to their jobs. Males are less prone to stress, use less coping and are less vulnerable to depression, insomnia and anxiety that is why their health remains better than females.
5.4 Group Differences
Mean comparisons among different groups of university teachers were done in this study to examine extensively their daily stressors. The univariate analyses of variance were applied to estimate group differences regarding lecturers, assistant professors, associate professors and full professors towards optimism, daily stressors, coping and health. Positive thinking did not show significant mean differences regarding designation. There were no significant differences regarding positive thinking among lecturers, assistant professors, associate professors and full professors. Significant differences were found in daily stressors F (3,178) =3.24, p, < .05, workplace stressors (F (3,178) =3.11, p, <.05), and professional stressors (F (3,178) =3.53, p<.05) regarding designation of faculty (H9). 170
Tukey’s HAD was applied to find out multiple comparison regarding DSS among groups which showed that associate professors scored highest on DSS (M= 102.08, SD= 11.94)as compared to lecturers(M= 90.10, SD=14.08) assistant professors (M= 89.13, SD=13.69) and professors (M= 97.66, SD= 6.11). Associate professors’ mean scores were also high on family and professional stressors. Next were the professors who scored high on environmental and workplace stressors. The least were the mean scores of the assistant professors on the four subscales of DSS.
Table: 5.7
ANOVA: For Comparing Daily Stressors of Participants by Designation
Daily Stressors Designation M SD df F
Daily Stressors Lecturer 90.1 14.08 (3,178) 3.24* Assist. Prof 89.13 13.69 Asso. Prof 102.08 11.94 Professor 97.66 6.11
Environmental Lecturer 26.84 5.01 (3,178) .63 ns Assist. Prof 26.54 4.50 Asso. Prof 28.3 Professor 29.00 3.00
Workplace Lecturer 28.45 4.50 (3,178) 3.11* Assist. Prof 27.36 5.09 Asso. Prof 31.08 3.55 Professor 33.00 3.60
Family Lecturer 17.74 4.58 (3,178) .484 ns Assist. Prof 17.1 Asso. Prof 17.33 3.7 171
Professor 15.00 3.46
Professional Lecturer 17.86 3.58 (3,178) 3.53* Assist. Prof 18.13 4.25 Asso. Prof 21.33 3.60 Professor 20.66 3.21
Note: *p= .05, ns=not significant, df= Degrees of freedom, Assist. Prof=Assistant Professor,
Asso. Prof=Associate Professor
A series of analyses of variance were performed to examine cross-campus mean differences on daily stressor scale(H10). ANOVA revealed a significant mean difference among campuses regarding DSS (F (9,172) =2.011, p<.05). Post hoc analysis (Tukey’s HSD) was performed to find out multiple comparisons between campuses which showed that the faculty belonging to Bank Road Campus scored highest on DSS scale. Significant mean differences were found between the faculty of Bank Road Campus (M= 95.87, SD=13.84) and that of Okara
Campus (M=83.20, SD=14) on DSS. Reported level stressors also varied across the campuses, with Attock, DG Khan, Okara and Township faculty reporting higher levels of stressors than the faculties from Faisalabad, Lower Mall, and Multan Campuses. Although mean differences were found among the faculty of different campuses but these were minor and not significant.
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Table 5.8
Analysis of Variance for Comparing Daily Stressors of Participants by Campuses
Campuses N M SD df F
Attock 8 88.62 17.13 9,172 2.01*
Bank Road 32 95.87 13.84
DG Khan 14 88.21 16.27
Faisalabad 19 93.31 15.35
Joharabad 15 87.33 12.47
Lower Mall 10 96.70 9.10
Multan 27 93.96 9.1
Okara 24 83.20 14
Township 17 88.58 16.62
Vehari 16 88.81 13.26
*P < .05, N= number, M= Mean, SD=Standard deviation, df=Degrees of freedom, BR=Bank
Road Campus, DG Khan=Dera Ghazi Khan.
5.5 Optimism as a Predictor of Daily Stress, Coping and Health
A Series of Linear Regression analyses was performed to establish the impact of positive thinking on daily stressors, coping and health outcomes. The predictor variable was positive 173
thinking and the criterion variables were daily stressors, coping and health. Separate regression analyses were done with positive thinking as predictor of stress, coping and health.
Table 5.9
Summary of Linear Regression Analysis: Positive Thinking as Predictor of Daily
Stressors(N=182)
Variable B SEB β
(Constant) 124.15 2.98
Optimism -2.21 .19 -.65***
Dependent variable= Daily stressors
Note. R²=.43; R² = .42 (p<0.001), Dependent variable=DSS
Table 5.11 shows the regression of optimism on daily stressors. As hypothized
(H11),optimism was a significant predictor of daily stressors. The slope tells that a one unit increase in optimism is related with -2.21 units decrease in daily stressors. The standardized beta
(β =-.65, p<.05) showed us that one standard deviation increase in optimism will be reflected in a two third of standard deviation decrease in stress. R²(0.43) is the proportion of variation in the dependent variable explained by the regression model. The sample R² tends to optimistically estimate how well the models fit the population. Adjusted R² attempts to correct R² to more closely reflect the goodness of fit of the model in the population. In our sample, the ∆ R² explained that 42% variation in stress was accounted for optimistic attitudes. Overall the 174
regression model was significant with F (1, 180) =134.09, p< .001. This model contributed a significant change (∆ R²= .42, p<.001) in the criterion variable.
Table 5.10 Summary of Linear Regression Analysis: Positive Thinking as Predictor of GHQ
Variable B SEB β
(Constant) 42.02 2.91
Optimism -1.29 .19 -.46**
Dependent variable= General health questionnaire
Note. R²= .21; R ²= .20; (p<0.01)
The results in table 5.12 show that optimism is a significant predictor of general health and wellbeing. The slope tells that a one unit increase in optimism is related with -1.29 units decrease in GHQ scores. The standardized beta (β =-.46, p <0.01)tells us that a one standard deviation increase in optimism will be reflected in one half standard deviation decrease in psychological illness. Participants with high optimism reported less psychological symptoms and showed more healthy behaviors. The ∆R² explained that 20% variation in health was due to optimistic attitudes. Results indicated that positive thinking was a significant predictor of general health and well being. Overall the regression model was significant with F(1, 179)
=47.92, p< .01. This model contributed a significant change (∆ R²= .20, p< .01) in the criterion variable.
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Table 5.11
Summary of Linear Regression Analysis: Positive Thinking as Predictor of Problem
Focused Coping
Variable B SEB β
(Constant) 20.41 1.23
Optimism .39 .079 .353**
Note. R²= .13; R ²= .12; (p<0.01)
When the optimism was regressed on coping (H12) it was found out that optimism
was a significant predictor of problem focused coping (β = .353, p <0.01). In table
5.13the slope tells that a one unit increase in optimism is related with .35 units decrease
in daily stressors. Participants with high optimism used more problem focused coping
compared to negative thinkers. The ∆R² explained that 12% variation in problem focused
coping is due to optimistic attitudes. Results indicated that positive thinking was
significant predictor of problem focused coping with F (1, 179) = 25.55, p< .001.
Table 5.12
Summary of Linear Regression Analysis: Positive Thinking as Predictor of Avoidance
Focused Coping
Variable B SE B β
(Constant) 21.50 .949
Optimism -.387 .061 -.429** 176
Note. R²= .184; R ²= .18; (p<0.01)
Table 5.13
Summary of Linear Regression Analysis: Positive Thinking as Predictor of Emotion
Focused Coping
Variable B SE B β
(Constant) 36.54 1.53
Optimism -.32 .098 -.238**
Note. R²= .057; R ²= .051; (p<0.01)
The results in table 5.14 and 5.15 show that positive thinking is the significant negative predictor of avoidance and emotion focused coping. The standardized beta tells that the one standard deviation increase in optimism is related with approximately one half of standard deviation decrease in avoidance coping and one third decrease in emotion focused coping (β
=.43, p< .01, β = .24, p< .01) respectively. The ∆R² explained that 18% variation in avoidant focused coping is due to optimistic attitudes.
5.6 Multiple Regression analysis
Multiple regression analyses were performed to find out the impact of demographic variables i.e. education, income, years of service and number of children on the positive thinking. Results showed that none of the demographic variables was the significant predictor of positive thinking. Multiple regression analyses were also performed to establish the impact of 177
predictor variables i.e. positive thinking and gender on criterion variables (daily stressors, health and coping behavior). The table 5.14 showed the impact of gender and optimism on daily stressors.
Table 5.14
Step Wise Multiple Regression: Predicting Daily Stress from Gender and Positive Thinking (N =182).
Model B SEB β
1 Constant 81.49 3.53
Gender 5.76 2.09 .201**
2 Constant 116.19 4.00
Gender 4.62 1.59 .161*
Optimism -2.18 .188 -.64**
Outcome variable= Daily Stress
Stepwise regression analysis was done for gender and positive thinking. R²= .04 for model 1, R²
= .45 for model 2 (*ps < .00), both t-values are significant.
In Table 5.14 shows that the variables were entered in the regression equation in two blocks. In the first block the variable gender was entered whereas in the second block the variable of positive thinking was entered as predictor variables. The criterion variable was daily stressors. Above table shows the value of R² (.04) for model 1that tells that gender accounts 4% variation in stress. In model 2 the value of R² (.45) tells the joint predictive power of gender and optimism which account for 45% variation in stress. In the above hierarchy optimism is a stronger predictor than gender to contribute to stress. However both are significant predictors. 178
Our beta -.64 tells that one standard deviation increase in positive thinking will cause two third of standard deviation decreases in daily stress.
In addition to telling the predictive value of the overall model, this standard multiple regression tells how well each independent variable predicts the dependent variable, controlling for each of the other independent variables. In the above table, the regression equation tells how well optimism predicted a person's daily strss, controlling for gender, as well as how well gender predicted a person's stress, controlling for optimism.
Table 5.15
Step Wise Multiple Regression: Predicting General Health from Gender and Positive
Thinking (N =182).
Model B SEB β
1 Constant 16.66 2.95
Gender 3.68 1.75 .155*
2 Constant 36.79 3.944
Gender 3.05 1.56 .128*
Optimism -1.27 .185 -.45**
Outcome variable= General health questionnaire
Stepwise regression analysis was done for gender and positive thinking. R²= .024 for model 1, R²
= .23 for model 2 (*ps < .000), all t-values are significant. 179
Model 1 show the value of R² (.024) which means that gender accounts 2% variation in general health. The t value (2.09, p<.03) shows that gender is a significant predictor in health outcome. In model 2 the joint predictive power of gender and optimism account for 23% variation in health outcome. This value has been denoted by R² (.023). In the above hierarchy optimism is a stronger predictor than gender in contributing to health. The negative value of standardized beta (-.45) tells that the relation ship between positive thinking and health is negative. It is necessary to clear that low score on GHQ means good health.
Table 5.16
Step Wise Multiple Regression: Predicting Coping from Gender and Positive Thinking
(N =182).
Model B SEB β
1 Constant 65.89 2.34
Gender 4.68 1.39 .244**
2 Constant 69.77 3.49
Gender 4.56 1.39 .24**
Positive Thinking -.24 .164 -.106
Outcome variable= Coping Skills
Stepwise regression analysis was done for gender and positive thinking. R²= .06 for model 1, R² 180
= .07 for model 2 (*p < .000), t-values is significant for only gender.
Table 5.16 shows that model 1 accounts 6% variation in coping behavior. It means that gender is a significant predictor (t=3.35, p< .001) in coping. In model 2 the variable optimism accounts for only 1% variation in total coping and is not a significant predictor. Our beta value
(.24) tells that change in gender will bring change in coping behavior. Optimism is a non- significant negative predictor (beta = -.11) of overall coping behavior.
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Chapter 6 Discussion
6.1 Overview
This chapter presents an interpretation and discussion of the research findings stated in chapter 5 with regard to the previous research literature reviewed in chapter 2. The discussion is centered on the three main concepts i.e. positive thinking, coping with daily stressors and health outcomes in relation with gender. An attempt has been made to understand the relevance of the results in view of the existing researches cited on positive thinking with relation to adversity, coping and health. This section is followed by conclusion and the limitations of the present study. At the end of this chapter theoretical and practical implications of the study have been mentioned with reference to the educational, clinical and counseling settings. Lastly, the recommendations for further research in this area have been suggested.
6.2 Positive Thinking, Coping with Stress and Health
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of positive thinking on coping with daily stressors and health outcomes in males and females through empirical evidences. The analyses presented in chapter 5 examined the extent to which differences in daily stressors, coping and health could be explained by positive thinking with reference to
Fredrickson’s Broaden and Build theory (1998, 2001) of Positive Emotions. This theory describes that the purpose of positive emotions is to enable the human beings to effectively cope with the future challenges and stressors. To test the model, researcher hypothesized that positive thinking builds a person’s capacity to deal with stressors effectively and exerts good impact on 182
the health of both males and females. Researcher operationalized Positive thinking as optimism.
This study was also a partial test of Lazarus’ Transactional Model of Stress (Lazarus 1966,
Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). They believed that stress does not exist in the “event” but rather is a result of a transaction between a person and his environment. Lazarus (1967) concluded that appraisal was the primary moderator of person environment transaction. Many factors effect the appraisal of stress i.e. person’s positive affect, optimistic attitude and availability of resources, self esteem, social support, coping skills and gender. What occurs during appraisal process determines coping behavior. It is not the pressure itself but the perception of that pressure that is an issue (Cox, 1978; Lazarus, 1966; McGrath, 1970).
Based on the above theories, the 1st hypothesis of the study was “There is a significant negative relationship between optimism and daily stressors”. The central finding to emerge was that highly optimistic participants perceived daily stressors less damaging as compared to the pessimist participants, giving support to our hypothesis. LOT-R negatively correlated with DSS and all its subscales i.e. Workplace, Environmental, Professional, Family and Personal stressors.
Present study’s findings were supported by the research done by Schier and Carver
(1993).They reported that those who scored high on measures of dispositional optimism reported less depression and showed fewer physical symptoms as compared to pessimist. In the present study, consistent with prediction, optimism has been shown to reduce the effect of stressors on psychological functioning of participants. All the participants were facing environmental stressors such as bomb blasts, terrorism and social injustices. They were also facing the family and personal stressors which were related with the finances, family issues and work-home conflict. They were also encountering workplace and professional stressors due to the requirements of a newly established university but their appraisal of stress was dependent on 183
their thinking. Those who had positive thinking appraised the stressors as less threatening and took them as a challenge while negative thinkers scored high on the DSS. Thus, a direct relationship of positive thinking and stress reduction was found in the present research, as it has been reported in previous studies (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004; Tugade, Fredrickson &
Feldman Barret, 2004) across cultures.
Our 2nd hypothesis that “optimism is positively related with problem focused coping and negatively related with avoidance and emotion focused coping” was supported with a significant positive correlation (r (182) = .35, p <.01) between optimism and problem focused coping.
Optimist participants, even in the midst of environmental stressors such as bomb blasts, suicidal attacks and other challenges, did not show absentee, negligence, maladjustment and denial, rather, remained present at duties and tried to solve their problems effectively. They remained focused on their targets in spite of a lot of hindrances and made their stressors their challenges.
These results are consistent with the previous findings that optimistic people in spite of difficulties continue to pursue their valued goals and regulate themselves using effective coping strategies so that they are likely to achieve their goals (Scheier, Carver & Bridges, 2000). This phenomenon was observed in the present study as optimistic participants, in spite of multiple stressors were achieving their goals by doing further studies, enrolling in Ph. D classes and working on different research projects, teaching in diverse programs and doing a lot of work for the betterment of newly established university. These findings were consistent with Lyubomirsky and King’s research who (2005) reported that positive affect originates success in life which emerges in the form of enhancement in work performance, problem solving skill, creativity, coping and health. 184
Positive emotions expanded participants’ resources; they took the opportunity to build their repertoire of skills for the future use such as increasing their professional strengths, knowledge and skills related as reported by different studies (Fredrickson, 1998; Elliot &
Thrash, 2002; Lyubormisky, 2001). In experimental studies, individuals have coped with higher pain thresholds (Alden, 2001).
In a research, participants who imagined being diagnosed with kidney cancer and then induced into pleasant mood reported greater ability in coping with the illness, more optimistic about their prognosis and had stronger intention to follow the treatment regimen and exerted a greater effort to overcome the illness than those induced into a negative mood (Schuettler & Kiviniemi, 2006).
Fredrickson and Joiner (2002) found out that experiences of positive emotion at one time period were associated with more effective coping and even greater positive experiences later.
McCrae and Costa (1986) concluded that positive affectivity was associated with more effective and mature coping. Optimists assume that the stress can be handled successfully, where as pessimists are more likely to expect disaster (Carver & Scheier, 1999; Carver & Scheier,
1992).Optimists engage in more focused and active coping when such efforts are likely to be productive, less likely to withdraw from the pursuit of their goals (Miller & Schnoll, 2000;
Scheier & Carver, 2001). Positive thinkers feel that life is going well, their goals are being met and resources are adequate (Carver & Scheier, 1998; Cantor et al., 1991).Optimistic individuals attend to and remember potentially health relevant information more than pessimistic
(Aspinwall, 1998; Aspinwall & Brunhart, 1996), use more positive reframing, when dealing with highly stressful events (Carver et al., 1993). Optimism has been associated with more problem- focused coping and less denial following open-heart surgery (Scheier et al., 1998).Optimistic 185
pregnant women were more likely to engage in constructive thinking than pessimistic women (Park et al., 1997).Aldridge and Rosh (2008) found out those adolescents who reported using more direct problem solving, reported more positive affect.
Similar attitudes were observed in the present study as the participants having positive attitudes scored high on all the statements of Problem Focused Coping. There was positive correlation between optimism and the item “I have been concentrating my efforts on doing some thing about the situation I am in” (r (182 ) = .258 , p < .01), “I have been taking action to try to make the situation better” (r (182 ) = .20 , p < .01), “trying to see it in different light to make it seem more positive” ( r (182 ) = .40 , p < .01), “Trying to come up with a strategy about what to do” (r ( 182 ) = .255 , p < .01),“Looking for something good for what is happening” (r (182 )
=.23 , p < .01), “Thinking hard about what step to take” (r ( 182 ) = .24 , p < .01). The participants who were optimist thought that the stress was a part of life and it could be controlled by remaining focused on the problems. These faculty members were trying to increase their potential by working hard, attending different workshops and growing professionally. Tugade and Fredrickson (2004) argued that understanding of positive emotions makes a person scan coping options thoroughly and he/she is less likely to respond spontaneously.
In summary, accumulating research shows that optimism and closely related constructs such as positive affect, hope and resilience are indicators of effective coping during adversity. If problem-focused coping is not feasible, they use humor and positive reframing instead of denial when coping with highly stressful events (Carver et al., 1993).
Optimism will negatively relate with avoidance and emotion focused coping”. This hypothesis has been supported in the present study by showing a negative correlation between the two variables(r = -.23, p <.01, r = -.24, p <.01). Pessimist participants were using avoidant 186
coping to deal with their daily stressors. When these participants were overburdened at the workplace they started repatriating, resigning, doing strikes, creating chaos and dealing negatively with the students. They showed sign of disengagement from university activities.
They did not accept the reality that their colleges had been merged into a university. They neither responded well to the change nor realized that the university culture is different from that of colleges and it demands more research work, professional development and better assessment of the students.
Findings of the present study have been supported by past studies that individuals high in negativity prefer avoidant behavior (Bolger & Zukerman, 1995; Bouchard, 2003), perceive more stress (Gunthert et al., 1999), use emotion focused coping and negatively correlate with problem focused coping (Cosway et al, 2000; Endler & Parker, 1990; Mcwilliam, Cox, & Enns, 2003).
Scheier and Carver (1987) suggested that optimists use less avoidance to cope with stressors, they use less alcohol as an avoidance strategy, they sleep better because they have less depression and anxiety.
The 3rd hypothesis of this study was “Optimism is positively related to GHQ and its subscales”. To test whether optimism is associated with superior mental health and wellbeing, the scores of GHQ were correlated with LOT-R scores. A strong correlation between LOT-R and
GHQ and all the subscales of GHQ i.e. Anxiety, Insomnia, Social dysfunction and Depression was found. Optimism and good health of the participants were positively and directly correlated.
The psychological symptoms of participants were screened on the items like “Thinking of yourself as a worthless person” and “Felt that life is not worth living”. Greater positive thinking rendered good health. As optimism increased, participant’s scores on mental and physical illness decreased. A negative correlation was found between the items of GHQ and optimism. These 187
results were aligned with the previous researches which reported that optimism and hope
(Peterson, 2000b; Snyder, 2000) were negatively correlated with current measures of psychopathology and depression. These traits of optimism and hope were predictors of physical and mental health including subjective well-being, effective coping and health promoting behavior, positive response to medical intervention, positive mood and immunological robustness (Peterson, 2000a; Snyder, 2000).
Literature showed that optimism predicted less pain in a sample of aging veterans (Achat et al., 2000), related to the quality of life in cancer patients over the course of their illness, to smaller allergic reactions among healthy students (Laidlaw, Booth & Large, 1996), fewer emergency room and hospital visits, fewer calls to the doctor, less medication use and fewer work absences in sickle cell disease patients (Gil et al., 2004). This relationship has been observed in a wide variety of situations such as optimistic women were less likely to deliver low- birth weight infants (Lobel, DeVincent, Kaminer, & Myer, 2000). It seemed to suggest that positive thinking influences wellbeing in significant and pervasive ways.
Previous researches found out that the positive emotions undo the effect of negative emotions on cardiovascular function (Fredrickson & Levenson, 1998; Fredrickson, Mancuso,
Branigan & Tugade, 2001), increases cardiovascular health, protecting blood pressure, cancer and other heart related ailments (Affleck, Tennen, & Croog, 1987). Optimists evidenced better physical recovery immediately after cardiovascular attack and less likely to suffer from angina and heart attacks (Carver.,Pozo, C., Harris, S D., Noriega, V. et al. 1993; Kubzansky, Sparrow,
Vokonas, & Kawacgi, 2001), evidenced higher level of pulmonary functions and slower rates of pulmonary decline (Kubzansky, Wright, Cohen, Weiss, Rosner, & Sparrow, 2002), associated with lowered level of cardiovascular disease, high quality of life, heightened physical recovery 188
and quicker return to normal behavior six months following the cardiac surgery (Scheier et al.,
1989) and with better risk reduction for cardiovascular heart disease eight months after the surgery (Fitzgerald, Prochaska, & Pransky, 2000). Optimism was negatively associated with the incidence of upper respiratory infection (Lyon & Chamberlain, 1994).
The health related physical symptoms of the participants in this study were in agreement with the previous researches when checked on GHQ through the items “Have you been getting pain in your head?” and “Felt that you are ill”. Participants were also asked to report any ‘other stressors’ on daily stressor questionnaire. Some of the participants suffering from physical diseases scored high on these items. The daily stressors and pessimistic attitudes, according to the participants, led them towards high blood pressure, diabetes, respiratory problems, while the others were suffering from arthritis, allergic reaction and somatic problems. Those who complaint that they were sufferings from cardiovascular problems got low score on LOT-R.
High level of daily and work place stressors and low level of optimism reduced immunity level of some participants of the study. Few of the participants had respiratory problem, others suffered from allergic reactions and some of the rest showed frequent cold and fever, causing absence from the duties, lack of motivation for work, repatriation and negative behavior with students. These findings are consistent with the laboratory studies which showed that the chronic absence of positive affect was related to immune deficiency. Long term deficits in positive mood that is, sadness or depressive symptoms was associated with decreased lymphocyte production (McGuire, Kiecolt, Glaser & Glaser, 2002). Optimists possessed more helper T cells, an essential immune-regulatory cell that mediated immune reactions against infection. Immunity was elevated on days when positive mood was predominated and was reduced on days when negative mood predominated (Stone, Cox, Valdimarsdottir, Jandorf, 189
&Neale, 1987; Kemeny, 1998). Finding by Stone and Colleagues have shown enhanced antibody activity on days with more positive than negative moods. These results may indicate possible buffering effects of negative mood by positive moods (Booth & Pennebaker, 2000).
Optimists (Segestorm, 1998) had higher NKCC; considered to be important in mediating immunity against viral infection and sometimes of cancer. Optimism was associated with lower risk of death for 800 patients followed for 30 years (Maruta, et al., 2000; Peterson, et al., 1998).
Dispositional optimism has been tied with better physical health (Schier et al, 1989) and more successful coping with health challenges (Carver, et al, 1993; Stanton & Snider, 1993).
The findings of our study have been supported by the above researches that the optimistic participants reported fewer symptoms of anxiety, depression, insomnia and social dysfunction as compared to pessimist participants. The present study contributes to the literature in a number of ways. First it replicates the previous studies conducted in Western countries in Eastern culture supporting that high optimism is related with low level of stress. Second, this study verifies that optimism is positively associated with good health. Third, positivity is related with better coping styles.
Our 4th hypothesis was “There is a significant relationship between daily stressors and general health”. Results of the present study supported the hypothesis that there is a negative association between daily stressors and psychological health. The participants who got high score on DSS showed poor health on the GHQ. High stress was related with high score on all the subscales of GHQ i.e. Anxiety, Insomnia, Social dysfunction and Depression. Highly stressful faculty got high scores on the items “Feeling tightness or pressure in your head” and
“Lost much sleep over worry” of GHQ. These symptoms were the indicators of physiological diseases such as blood pressure. Previous studies found out a negative correlation between 190
stressor and health reporting that stress effects heart ( Rozanski, Blumenthal& Koplan, 1999), cause infectious illness ( Biondi & Zannion, 1997) and autoimmune disorders (Affleck, Urrows,
Tennen, Higgins, Pav, & Aloisi, R. (1997). It was also reported that depression increased as reactions of stress in women with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis (Zutra, 2003; Zutra &
Smith, 2001).Pickering (1990) reported that the men in high strain jobs are more likely to be hypertensive and to show left ventricular hypertrophy than those in less stressful jobs.
Participants of this study experiencing high stress scored high on the cognitive dimension of
GHQ such ason the items “Have you been getting scared or panicky for no good reason?” and
“Have you been getting edgy and bad tempered?”. Past researches report similar results that stress correlated positively with negative emotionality and cognitive, behavioral and physiological reactions to stress (Hogan, 2002; Hogan, Carlson, & Dua, 2002).Work-related stress was recently recognized as one of the most serious occupational health problem, consequently leading to employee’s discontentment, less output, low attendance and transfer(Cummins, 1990; Spielberger & Reheiser, 1995).
The participants obtained low score on the items of depression scale of GHQ, indicating that
Pakistani people are less prone to depression. It is a good indication that in spite of severe security crisis in the country, the depression rate is low as compared to other measures of GHQ.
One reason may be that depression leads to suicide which is prohibited in Islam. The other explanation may be that the participants did not report their depression. It is same as alcohol or sedatives are prohibited in Islam. Whenever they use it they try to hide it from others.
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6.3 Gender Differences in Positive Thinking, Stress, Coping and
Health
The present research was also designed to investigate the gender differences in the study variables. The 5th hypothesis that ‘There are Gender differences in positive thinking” was not supported by our research sample as t-test did not reveal significant gender differences regarding optimism. Responses of the participants from all campuses showed variation in LOR-R scores regardless of gender. Scheier and Carver (1985) reported that while developing the scale for optimism analysis were made separately for men and women, and in all cases, gender differences that arose were minimal. Consistent with previous research gender differences in optimism were minimal in the present study.
Since stress is partly a function of the environment in which one lives, systematic differences in life experiences result in systematic differences in stress. Males’ and females’ life experiences may overlap to a certain degree; however, one’s gender affects what experiences one may encounter, what types of behaviors will be reinforced, and how one perceives, and copes with the daily stress.
The effect of gender on stress appraisal was explored through the 6th hypothesis that
“There are gender differences in the perception of daily stressor on DSS”. A significance difference between the means of two groups was found with females reporting a greater likely- hood of appraising daily stressors as severe as compared to males with t (180) = 2.75, p<.01.This difference in the stress level may partially be explained by the societal and religious differences that exist in Pakistani culture. Pakistani society is a patriarchal society where male members bear 192
the decision-making authority and head the families. Women are usually not included in making decisions and are considered socially and economically dependent on men (Fikree, Pasha, 2004;
Jejeebhoy, Sathar, 2001). This phenomenon is true for both literate and illiterate women.
Historically, in the Indo-Pak's tribal and rural cultures, women were treated as the property of men. Role of woman has been submission, to serve as a commodity and to sacrifice herself for the sake of values determined by man (Niaz,2003). That is why women “consider themselves insecure, incomplete, ineffective and inefficient without males” (Niaz, 2003). Due to these factors they perceived more stressors.
The role of gender in stress appraisal found in this study is in agreement with the western researches that revealed that stress varies with gender (Bolger & Zukerman, 1995; McDonoigh
& Walters, 2001; Lindiwe, Asner-Self, Kimberly, Schreiber, 2005). In the present study,female participants exhibited higher levels of occupational stress which is consistent with previous researches (Blix, Cruise, Mitchell & Blix, 1994; Boyd& Wylie, 1994; Gmelch, Lovrich &
Wilke, 1984; Hogan, Carlson & Dua, 2002). Both male and female managers considered their jobs challenging and stimulating, men were still in a more favorable position than women
(Lundberg & Frankenhaeuser, 1999).The mean score of female participants on DSS showed that they perceived all stressors more intensely as compared to males which were in congruence with Day and Livingstone’s (2003) findings that females rated three of the five scenarios as more stressful than did males. A Meta analysis by Tamres, Janicki, and Helgeson (2002) revealed that women appraised stressors as being more severe than did men in 17 of the 26 studies reviewed. Women tend to experience more psychological stress and strain than men
(Hall, Chipperfield, Perry, Ruthing, & Goetz, 2006; Roxburgh, 1996; Tytherieigh, Jacob, Webb, 193
Ricketts, & Cooper, 2007). Women rated the scenarios as more stressful than men and perception of stressfulness increased with participant’s negativity (Eaton & Bradley, 2008).
The gender differences found in this study have various and complex reasons. In the patriarchal societies such as Pakistan, "sons are perceived to have economic, social or religious utility; daughters are often felt to be an economic liability (Fikree & Pasha 2003).Similar results have been reported in a study of college students in 30 countries, where males were widely believed to be dominant, independent, aggressive, achievement oriented and enduring , while females were widely believed to be nurturing, mellow, less esteemed and more helpful in the time of distress (William & Best, 1982).Males and females perceived more similarity in the
Christian than in the Muslim societies. Women were more likely to perceive similarity between the sexes than the men were (William &Best, 1989).
One reason of high stress in females is the discrimination women face due to the cultural and religious norms that Pakistani society embraces (Bettencourt, 2000). Perhaps the economic dependence of wives on their husbands tends to mute their reaction towards discrimination.
The differences in stress between male and female participants may be due to important national and cultural differences in shaping gender and family policies (Korpi, 2000).Females, in this study, scored high mean on the item “It is difficult for me to deal with family issues”
(F=2.90, M=2.43). There are many family issues related with females such as domestic violence, children’s education, and marriage of daughters, infertility, marital conflict, economic status and job permissions. These various types of family issues lead females to emotional, psychological and physical problems.
One major issue is domestic violence and approximately 70% to 90% of Pakistani women are subjected to domestic violence (Human Rights Watch, 1999). Honor killing, spousal 194
abuse including marital rape, acid attacks and being burned by family members are the other types of violence. The practice of “karo kari” is known to occur in many parts of the country
(Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, 2000).
Regarding acid attacks, Sharmeen Obaid Chinoy (2012) did research on female violence and presented a documentary film “saving face” which won 84th female Oscar Award. This was the first Oscar award given to any Pakistani woman for the brevity and courage she showed by giving coverage to cases who were victimized by acid attacks on their faces. She said that “It is a story of hope with a powerful message for the Pakistani audience. I felt this would be a great way to show how Pakistanis can help other Pakistanis overcome their problems” Females bear all these discriminations because divorce is not appreciated in our society as well as in our religion. Many religions expect members to adhere to traditional values. For instance, divorce is discouraged in Islam and is viewed unacceptable by the Catholic Christians. A divorced female is frowned upon and criticized by the society. Rarely remarried, she becomes a burden on her parents or siblings for life. Such attitude makes it very difficult for a woman to end even a violent relationship. Women tend to believe that they were committing a sin by dissolving even an abusive marriage (Hoffeler, 1983). This sort of thinking increases their stressors.
Males are expected to be "masculine" characterized by machismo, bravery and courage.
Females are expected to be "feminine" characterized by fragility, timidity and submission. It would appear that males would possess greater power and females are the weaker sex (Dobash &
Dobash, 1992). Therefore, the male dominance becomes one of the significant predictor of the violence against women in the country. Marital conflict has been found to be related with the domestic violence (Heise, 1998). 195
Other family issues involve large number of daughters. Studies have revealed that females who have more daughters are more likely to suffer from violence than the females who have more sons (Human Rights Commission of Pakistan,1999). In a similar manner, females who do not have children are subjected to not only violence by their husbands and in-laws, but are harassed by the society as well.
Furthermore, the practice of dowry also plays an important role in producing stress. females whose dowries are perceived inadequate by their husband and in-laws, suffer considerably more harassment in the husband's home than do females whose dowries are more substantial (Human Rights Watch).
A major issue for females in Pakistanis that they remain anxious about the marriages of their daughters. Early marriages are a very common practice in the Southeast Asian countries particularly in Pakistan as the girls are considered a social, economical and religious liability on the families, which needs to be disposed off as soon as possible (Fikree & Pasha, 2004). Mothers have the responsibility to train their daughter for taking multiple roles after marriage. Vermeulen
(2004) reported that in African Muslim cultures, girls are still emotionally programmed to become good wives and mothers and are preached about the need to sacrifice themselves for husbands and children. Females are doing many responsibilities at a time: mother, daughter, daughter in law, aunt and guardian. Taking multiple roles exert immense and enormous pressure on the females to respond to such expectations. Males mostly do not allow their females to go outside for job. However, working outside is considered as a privilege granted by men. It is a
“permission" and not a right (Kadir, Fikree, Khan & Sajan, 2003).
In this study female participants showed high stress on work-home conflict. The item “At work I remain anxious about my family responsibilities” in the Family and Personal Scale of 196
DSS was highly endorsed by females. Mean score of females was more than the mean score of males (F=3.25, M=2.45). Due to multiple responsibilities at home as well as workplace it becomes difficult to balance between the two domains. This sort of work-home-conflict increases the family stress in women. Although Najam and Mobin (1991) reported that Pakistani working women not only perform house hold task along with their jobs but also participate in family functions, thereby enhancing social interaction.
In Pakistani society, females are expected to be more concerned with family and shoulder more family responsibilities as compared to men. Females are supposed to take care of children, husbands and elderly. Loscocco (1997) demonstrated that women experience greater interference from family to work than men. There is also a growing literature detailing psychological and physical effects of stress associated with care giving. Society continues to expect that women will take responsibility of the majority of child care and work in the home (Long & Cox, 2000).
The research literature can offer several explanations with regard to gender differences in family stress.
The family related stressors in females can be reduced by following the suggestions of
Esping, Gallie, Hemerijck and Myles (2002) who reported a friendly employment system in the
Nordic countries, which has been extremely successful in attracting mothers in employments by providing high facilities in child care and mother friendly job opportunities in public sector. This system can also be followed in Pakistani culture to lessen the stressors of working women and bring more women force into the main stream of work.
The females who live with in joint family system face a lot of interference in their life causing disciplinary problems. That is why the mean (F=2.7, M=2.5) for females on the item
“Disciplinary problems at home are unbearable for me” on DSS was high. Female participants 197
on the item ‘other stressors’ in the questionnaire reported that their children’s attitudes towards studies, temper tantrums, careless behavior and over protection from grandparents cause indiscipline at home causing high stress in their lives.
Too many family and job responsibilities restrict females to pay attention to their moral responsibilities. For example, a common example of a moral obligation or religious belief in our culture is the act of charity, serving parents, helping the poor, sparing time for neighbors and performing religious rituals. Females score on the item “I am not able to fulfill my moral responsibilities” was high (F=2.63, M=2.21) as compared to males. Working Females, due to excessive responsibilities remain unable to perform their moral duties such as less time to visit their own parents, neighbors, children and religious duties.
Another issue is that females catering for the needs of husbands, children and in-laws remain unable to pay attention to their own health. They involve in the family matters in such a way that their own health deteriorates. That is why the responses of females on the item “I do not take care of my health” were high (F=3.24, M=2.61).
Dealing with others at work place, home and society needs a lot of communication skills, emotional intelligence and patience. Females in Pakistan are trained by their parents to be shy and hesitant. They are not liked to be bold and confident by the society. Due to these communication barriers, they are misunderstood everyday by others. That is why they scored high on the item “I become stressed when people misunderstand me” on DSS.
Regarding hypothesis 6b, “There are gender differences in the perception of Environmental stressors on DSS” the mean of female participants was 26.06 (SD=4.89) and for male participants 27.45 (SD=4.62) which showed no significant gender difference in Environmental stressors. The reason may be that the whole nation was the target of bomb blasts and suicidal 198
attacks. Both males and females were facing scarcity of electricity, gas, water and other resources. Both were the victim of dengue, floods, earth quakes and load shedding.
A little difference of mean was found on different items of the scale. For example, the mean values for the females on the items like “Pollution is adversely affecting my daily life”
(F=3.80, M=2.63), “I fear suicidal attacks at public places” (F=3.72, M=3.42), “I get disturbed by the injustices of society” (F=4.20, M=3.91), “geopolitical conditions in the country are stressful for me” (F=3.80, M=2.64) were high as compared to males.
The hypothesis 6c that “There are gender differences in Workplace Stressors on DSS” was not supported in this study. The mean (F=28 .03, M=29.07) with a t, 1.46, (df = 180) was not significant. Although there was slight mean difference between male and female participants on the items “Lack of empowerment at workplace is a source of tension for me” (F=3.86,
M=3.88), “I am stressed when I cannot find time for my further/higher education” (F=4.1,
M=3.98)“I remain anxious about my professional growth” (F=4.1, M=4.00), “Satisfying boss is difficult for me” (F=2.65, M=2.83), “Over ambitious colleagues try to put me down” (F2.80=,
M=2.87)“Inconsistent policies of my institution bother me” (F=3.45, M=3.64)“Communication gap between administration and faculty is a stress” (F=3.69, M=3.98) “There are more demands on my time than usual (F=3.39, M=3.33)”. No significant differences were found between male and female participants on these items. The reason may be that females entered in the work force after a long struggle. They hardly got permission from their male family members for jobs. They did not want to loose the opportunity so they struggled hard at work place just like males.
Hypothesis6d was that “There are gender differences on the Professional Stressors of
DSS”. Present study found out minimal gender differences in Professional Stressors on DSS. The reason may be that with the global changing trends and attitudes females in Pakistan were 199
equally struggling for career opportunities and professional growth. They were getting jobs in multinational companies, restaurants, bus services, shopping malls, police force and the departments were their entry was prohibited previously. They were outperforming the males in some domains. The female participants of the study were getting further studies inspite of getting married and having children. Many of them were enrolled in PhD studies, doing different research projects, writing research articles and going in Western countries for higher education.
That is why they were experiencing similar level of professional stress.
The 7th hypothesis was that “there are gender differences in health”. When the mean scores on GHQ were subjected to t-test male faculty showed significant mean differences on
GHQ(M= 20.35, SD=9.95) as compared to female faculty (M= 24.03, SD= 12.4) with t (179) =
2.09, p<.05. Females scored high on GHQ. Females mean was also significant on its subscale i.e. depression (M= 4.72, SD= 4.04) as compared to males (M=2.1, SD= 2.98) with t (180) =
4.59, P<.001. No significant gender differences were revealed in anxiety, insomnia and social dysfunction subscale.
The 8th hypothesis that ‘There are gender differences in the use of coping strategies for daily stressors” was also tested for significance. There were gender differences in total coping, female’s mean was high as compared to males (t (179) = 3.36, p = <.001), depicting that females use all type of coping more as compared to males. Previous research supported that females reported a greater likelihood of using all type of coping strategies (Eaton & Bradley, 2008) women reported using all type of coping behavior more often than men (Temres, janicki &
Helgeson,2002).Gender had both a direct and indirect effect on the scores of depression and anxiety with negative life events and psychosocial factors such as optimism, social support and coping, acting as moderators (George & Nickole, 2007). 200
The 8a hypothesis was that “Males select problem focused coping strategies more often than emotion focused coping strategies, where as females choose emotion focused and avoidance focused coping strategies more often as compared to males”. No significant gender differences in problem focused coping were found in this study. Both coped with daily stressors in a similar way. The reason may be that by getting more professional and work oriented they had to adopt problem focused coping along with other types of coping. These findings are in contrast with the findings of the previous research which showed that men were more likely to use problem focused coping. Men have been reported to be more likely than women to engage in coping that alters a situation (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980), men are more inclined to use active problem- focused coping strategies, planning and rationalizing their actions, engaging in positive thinking, perseverance, self adaptation and personal growth (Vingerhoets & Van Heck, 1990). In the present study no gender differences were found in problem focused coping.
However, a significant mean difference in emotion focused coping was found between males and females. Female participants got high score on the items “I have been getting emotional support from others”, “I have been getting comfort and understanding from others” and “Saying things to let my unpleasant feelings escape” as compared to males. Males scored high on the item “I have been making fun of the situation” as compared to females. Previous research supported the findings of the present research that females reported a greater likelihood of using emotion focused coping strategies more than males (Eaton& Bradley, 2008) and men and women cope in different ways (Endler & Parker, 1994). Studies investigating relative coping showed that women were more likely to seek emotional support. Women prefer emotion focused solutions, engaging in self blame and wishful thinking. 201
No significant gender differences in avoidance focused were found in this study. Both males and females showed similar coping responses in this regard. The reason may be that if males use avoidance coping by using alcohol and drugs the females also use tranquilizers and sedatives to avoid stress.
Multivariate analysis of variance was performed on study variables. Using multiple
ANOVAs inflates type 1 error rates and MANOVA helps control for the inflation under certain conditions. MANOVA may find differences that do not show up under ANOVA. One-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for gender as independent variable and DSS and its subscales as dependent variables were performed. To determine whether the one-way
MANOVA was statistically significant we run multivariate test of Wilk’s Lambda. Based on the
Wilk’s lambda criterion, test was significant and the dependent variables varied significantly with gender, F (5, 176) = 11.19, p < .001. Since a significant result was obtained from the omnibus MANOVA test, a Univariate analysis of variance was performed. As predicted by
Hypothesis 6, gender made a significant unique contribution to predicting differences between the daily stressors of males and females, univariate F= (1, 180) 7.55, p<.007. As it was predicted
(H6a) there were gender differences on the Family and Personal stressors of DSS F= (1,180), p<
.000. It was also predicted that males and females will have significantly different scores on the subscales of DSS (H6 b,c,d). There was an interaction between DSS and gender. The interaction appeared to be produced by the fact that the female mean was high on total DSS and family stressors but remained indistinguishable from the males on other subscales.
A MANOVA was also conducted to examine the contribution of gender in predicting DSS, coping and health. Box's Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices was .225, p> .001. Levene’s test of equality of error variance was non significant. The hypothesis regarding the significant 202
contribution of gender model in predicting the daily stress, coping and health was accepted
Wilks’ lambda = .909, F (3,176) = 5.85, p < .001. Given the significance of overall test, the
Univariate main effects were examined. Significant Univaraite main effects for gender were obtained for DSS, F =6.64, < p .011, Coping, F = 11.58, p< .001; Health, F = 4.26, p< .040.
Females consistently scored high on these variables. Results demand to take serious actions to reduce gender bias in the society.
6.4 Group Differences in DSS
Daily stressor scale was developed to find out the stressors of university teachers.
Researcher wanted to know that among lecturers, assistant, associate and full professors who were more prone to stress. The researcher wanted to know that which group had the highest stress level. In case of large discrepancies, remedial programs could be initiated and campus administration could be advised to implement those programs.
When participants’ stress level was measured on DSS regarding their designation, it supported our 9th hypothesis. There were significant mean differences among lecturers, assistant, associate and full professors on DSS scores. Senior participants were facing more stress as compared to junior participants. ANOVA revealed that associate professors showed the highest mean on DSS, following the full professors and the lecturers. The lecturers showed optimistic attitude and were confident about their abilities. Many explanations can be provided in this regard. The reason may be that being the young and energetic, they had more positive expectations from the future. They were trying to solve the problems creatively by growing professionally, getting further studies, meeting the deadlines and being productive at their workplace. The associate professors were mostly government employees, previously working in 203
education colleges. These colleges were merged and as a result Education University emerged in
2002. These government employees’ services were rendered by the UE administration. They were not aware of the university culture where research and professional development was the most important requirement. Initially no research training was provided to the participants in the university. That is why associate professors showed high stress on the statements of Workplace
Stressors such as, “Professional growth”, “HEC standards” “Technological advances”,
“publication requirement”, “Further studies” and “Lack of empowerment at workplace”, as compared to lecturers, assistant and full professors. Associate professors scored highest on the workplace and professional stressors as compared to all other faculty members. The reason may be that the associate professors got pessimistic about their abilities, had their own doubts about their professional development and further studies ultimately perceiving themselves as professionally stagnant and less competent. Other reasons may be that in spite of taking more responsibilities at workplace and showing careful attitude towards the deadlines they were not considered efficient as it was assumed that the seniors did not adapt to change. Another source of stress might be their grown up children who needed more financial assistance to carry on their studies. Family responsibilities and financial pressures might have added up into their daily workplace stressors. The seniors, when unable to meet the stressors, tended to use dysfunctional coping to deal with their job stressors by repatriating, resigning and striking.
The researcher of this study tried to do intercampus comparison to find out the stressors of the teachers of university of Education. Inter-comparison of different campuses enabled the researcher to find out which campus of the university had the least stress and how the campus administration was managing the workload, resources and quality of education. Those campuses which had lower stress levels could be considered benchmark for other campuses. 204
Hypothesis 10thwas that participants belonging to different campuses of UE will score differently on DSS. ANOVA revealed minor mean differences on DSS among the participants of different campuses. Only the participants of Bank Road campus showed a significant mean difference with the participants of Okara Campus depicting that the participants of Okara
Campus were more positive in their attitudes that is why they perceived less stressors. The reason may be that the Okara Campus was constructed after the establishment of UE. The participants were mostly young male members, seemed highly motivated and tasks oriented.
They were professionally developing themselves by enhancing their education that is why they perceived less stress.
The junior participants of Okara campus might be more optimistic as they came from technology driven educational settings, considering that they were more competent, having enough resources to grow professionally by grabbing different job opportunities, foreign scholarships and further education. These results are consistent with the findings of the present study that lecturers perceive less stress as compared to associate and full professors. Studies show that well contented workers were more positive and likely to be high performers on the job as there is less possibility to be absent from job and show negative behavior (Donovan, 2000;
Locke, 1975). Similarly, positive affect at workplace was negatively related with less disengaged behavior and organizational reprisal and higher organizational ownership (Donovan, 2000).
In contrast, Bank Road, being the female campus had the highest enrollment rate, lots of ongoing educational programs and the center for conducting extra-curricular activities. These phenomena made the participants overburdened and negative in stress appraisal. The other explanation can be derived from the research findings that females have high vulnerability to 205
stress (Bolger & Zukerman, 1995; McDonoigh & Walters, 2001; Lindiwe, Asner-Self,
Kimberly, Schreiber, 2005).
Regarding 11th hypothesis “Optimism negatively predict daily stress and positively predict psychological well being” the regression of optimism on daily stressors was performed.
As hypothized, optimism was a significant predictor of daily stressors. The slope told that a one unit increase in optimism is related with -2.21 units decrease in daily stressors. The standardized beta (β =-.65, p<.05) showed us that one standard deviation increase in optimism will be reflected in a two third of standard deviation decrease in stress. R² (0.43) is the proportion of variation in the dependent variable explained by the regression model. The sample R² tends to optimistically estimate how well the models fit the population. Adjusted R² attempts to correct
R² to more closely reflect the goodness of fit of the model in the population. In our sample the ∆
R² explained that 42% variation in stress was accounted for optimistic attitudes. Overall the regression model was significant with F (1, 180) = 134.09, p< .001. This model contributed a significant change (∆ R²= .42, p< .001) in the criterion variable.
Simple regression analysis also showed that optimism is a significant predictor of general health and wellbeing. The slope tells that a one unit increase in optimism is related with -1.29 units decrease in GHQ scores. The standardized beta (β =-.46, p <0.01) tells us that a one standard deviation increase in optimism will be reflected in one half standard deviation decrease in psychological illness. Participants with high optimism reported less psychological symptoms and showed more healthy behaviors. The ∆R² explained that 20% variation in health was due to optimistic attitudes. Results indicated that positive thinking was a significant predictor of general 206
health and well being. Overall the regression model was significant with F (1, 179) = 47.92, p<
.01. This model contributed a significant change (∆ R²= .20, p< .01) in the criterion variable.
In Pakistani cultural context gender accounts for substantial amount of variance in stress, for this purpose multiple regression analyses were performed to see whether optimism remained significant predictor while controlling for gender. It was found out that gender accounts 4% variation in stress. It means that gender is a significant predictor for stress and stress varies with gender. The role of gender in stress appraisal found in this study is in agreement with the western researches that revealed that stress varies with gender (Bolger & Zukerman, 1995;
McDonoigh & Walters, 2001; Lindiwe, Asner-Self, Kimberly, Schreiber, 2005). When optimism was entered in the model as a predictor variable it accounted for 45% variation in stress. In the regression hierarchy optimism is a strong predictor which contributes to stress.
The beta -.64 showed that one standard deviation increase in positive thinking will cause two third of standard deviation decrease in daily stress. Thus positive thinking is the predictor of stress reduction in the present research, as it has been reported in previous studies (Tugade &
Fredrickson, 2004; Tugade, Fredrickson & Feldman Barret, 2004) across cultures.
Multiple Regression Analyses were also performed to see whether optimism remained significant predictor of general health while controlling for gender. Results showed that gender alone accounted for 2% variation in general health. Gender was a significant predictor in health outcomes (p<.05). The predictor variable optimism accounted for 23% variation in health outcome. In the hierarchy of regression optimism was a stronger predictor than gender in contributing to health. Our beta -.45 told that one standard deviation increase in positive thinking will cause half of the standard deviation decrease on General health questionnaire. Low score on
GHQ represented good health of the person. 207
Our 12th hypothesis was that “Optimism predicts problem focused coping positively and avoidance and emotion focused coping negatively”. When the optimism was regressed on coping it was found out that optimism was a significant predictor of problem focused coping. Our standardized beta (β =.35, p <0.01) showed that one standard deviation increase in optimism will be reflected in one third of standard deviation increase in effective coping. The ∆R² explained that 12% variation in problem focused coping was due to optimistic attitudes. Results indicated that positive thinking was significant predictor of problem focused coping with F (1, 179) =
25.55, p< .001. Optimist participants, even in the midst of environmental stressors such as bomb blasts, suicidal attacks and other challenges, did not show absentee, negligence, maladjustment and denial, rather, remained present at work and tried to solve their problems effectively. They remained focused on their targets in spite of a lot of hindrances and considered their stressors their challenges.
Previous researches were consistent with the present findings that optimism has been associated with better psychological adjustment after breast cancer diagnosis (Epping-Jordan et al., 1999), with the tendency to cope with breast cancer surgery (Carver et al., 1993) and with more problem-focused coping and less denial following open-heart surgery (Scheier et al., 1998).
Preexisting level of positive mood predicted the tendency to cope through active engagement in breast cancer women (Carver et al., 1993). Induction of pleasant mood into kidney cancer patients reported greater ability in managing the illness, more optimistic about their prognosis and stronger intention to follow the treatment regimen and exert effort to overcome the illness than those induced into a negative mood (Schuettler & Kiviniemi,
2006). 208
The results show that optimism negatively predicts avoidance and emotion focused coping. The standardized beta tells that the one standard deviation increase in optimism is related with approximately one half of standard deviation decrease in avoidance coping and one third decrease in emotion focused coping (β =-.43, p< .01, β = -.24, p< .01) respectively. The ∆R² explained that 18% variation in avoidant focused coping is due to optimistic attitudes. Consistent with previous research avoidance coping was predicting psychological problems in the participants. A significant correlation was found between GHQ and tranquilizers used by the participants in this research, r (182) = .15, p <.05.
Multiple regression analysis was performed to see the predictive value of gender and optimism on overall coping behavior. In model 1Gender accounted for 6% variation in coping behavior. It was meant that gender was a significant predictor (t=3.35, p< .001) in over all coping. In model 2 the variable optimism accounted for only 1% variation in total coping and was not a significant predictor. Our beta value (.24) tells that change in gender will bring change in coping behavior i.e. males and females cope in different ways. Previous research supported that females reported a greater likelihood of using all type of coping strategies (Eaton & Bradley,
2008) women reported using all type of coping behavior more often than men (Temres, janicki &
Helgeson, 2002). Optimism is a non-significant negative predictor (beta = -.11) of overall coping behavior. It tells that when optimism increases the overall coping behavior decreases whether it is emotion focused, avoidant focused or denial (Scheier et al., 1998). Regression analysis showed that optimism and gender were the best predictors of stress reduction, health and coping behavior in the present research.
Most of the concepts researched in Western countries have been replicated in this study.
Most of the results were in agreement with the previous researches. So it can be suggested that 209
the theories related with positive thinking, stress coping and health, developed in Western countries can be applied in Pakistan if the researcher aligns these concept with the culture and carefully uses the foreign measures or develops indigenous tools.
6.5 Conclusion
The goal of fostering positive thinking has ushered a new wave of interest and research over the past two decades. Literature review revealed a high correlation between positive emotions, effective coping and health outcomes. Work done in Western countries up till today as a basis, researcher investigated the relationship between positive thinking, its effect on stress appraisal, coping and health among university teachers in Pakistani context. The result showed that positive thinking can be an important factor that buffer individuals against stress and dysfunctional health outcomes. Participants having optimistic attitudes perceived less stress, used problem focused coping and enjoyed more health. Gender differences were found among the participants. Female participants perceived more stress as compared to male participants, especially on Family and Personal dimension of the DSS. Gender differences were also found on coping strategies and health outcomes.
The present study has its significance as the entire nation is under extreme chaos. There are religious and liberal forces colliding, dividing the nation into fragments. The external and internal negative forces are threatening the integrity and solidarity of the country. These circumstances are inculcating depression, fear, violence and frustration in the university teachers who unconsciously induce this negativity in the students. 210
Being psychologist, researcher did extensive research on the sources of stress, its appraisal, consequences and factors affecting stress management. The findings revealed that positive thinking plays a crucial role to deal with adversity, positive thinkers use problem focused coping while encountering stress and they maintain good health in the midst of adversity. The results also revealed that the optimists appraised the hindrances as manageable and stressors as more easily resolvable. They developed fewer psychological symptoms by using more problem focused coping. This research indicates that finding ways to cultivate positive thinking is a critical need for optimal functioning.
The researcher tried to improve the quality of research by using adequate sampling strategy, increasing the reliability of instruments by developing indigenous scale and applying appropriate method of instructions. When foreign made standardized tests were used for this study some items of the standardized tests were modified by the researcher keeping in view the social, cultural and moral aspects. The language of some items was synchronized with the native culture. These steps were vital to increase the generalizability of the findings and made the study authentic. Countrywide data was collected to develop indigenous scale for daily stressors. A stratified random sample was collected for the main study from a large public university.
The results of this study suggest that optimism is associated with better psychological adjustment to stressful events. It also supports the hypothesis that positive thinking is inversely related to the daily stressors and prepares an individual to use problem focused coping in adverse situations. The conclusions were consistent with the Fredrickson’s Broaden and Build Theory of
Positive Emotions. These results can be utilized to deal with the challenges encountered by each
Pakistani. 211
Based on the findings of current study, psychologists can make interventions which can enable the people to become optimistic citizens and deal with the national stressors collectively to transform the country into a land of peace. Institutions can introduce a module consisting of positive psychology which could enhance the positive traits of the youngsters i.e. curiosity, love for knowledge and courage to deal with the opposite forces. The commencement of positive psychology as a core subject will also enable the youngsters to learn effective stress management. University teachers can prepare the students to indulge in proactive coping. The proactive coping enables the individual to strive for life improvements and build up resources that ensure progress and quality of functioning. It can urge them to build up resources that facilitate promotion towards challenging goals and personal growth. This would help the students to view the circumstances with a positive perceptive and become positive thinkers in their life. Positive thinkers seek risk and opportunities in the distant future and do not appraise them as a potential harm. On the contrary, they perceive demanding situations as personal challenges.
To make the people productive, positive interventions can be initiated at workplace.
Administrators can make the work environment safe and caring by identifying the needs of the employees, solving their problems and instilling hope and pride in their employees. Special attention should be paid to the needs of female workers such as flexible working hours, establishment of day care centers, financial support and transport facilities to make work environment accommodating.
By exploring the stressors of university teachers, the study can help the administration of the universities to meet the challenges while dealing with employees. The administration should increase commitment, will and inner motivation in the faculty members for work. They should 212
empower their faculty on the basis of performance. There should be clear rules for accountability so that the non-committed employees could be cut loose. University should broaden the vision of the faculty with respect to the HEC requirements and challenges. It should maintain balance between high targets and low resources. The university’s vision, mission and goals should be made clear so that the consistent policies could be executed to smoothly run the academic matters. University should have indicators for teacher’s assessment, devise tools to estimate their performance, have check and balance system to promote quality education.
The universities should establish counseling centers to cater for the psychological needs of the administrative staff, faculty and the students. Positive thinking techniques should be introduced as an important tool to deal with the workplace and job related stressors. Strategies related to problem focused coping should be taught and health promoting behavior should be enhanced by inducing positive thinking.
Emphasis should be laid on executing positive thinking as an essential tool for carrying out healthy activities. This can be done by identifying people’s altruistic attitudes and help them to serve community. Institutions can initiate programs for the students to serve at hospitals, orphan and old homes and in other welfare organizations. These practices will enable to achieve three basic goals of positive psychology; define and measure positive traits, promote positive emotions through exercises and produce more positive institutions e.g. family, community and nation for human flourishing.
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6.6 Limitations
Apart from study’s strengths, the limitations of the present study were due to the methodological constraints that are needed to be addressed. These were related with the selection of sample. The sample in present study was relatively small and restricted to university teachers only. The findings of the present study can not be generalized to diverse groups such as to non-professionals business people and housewives. However, this research can be extended on any diverse population to measure different dimensions of positive thinking and its impact on stress and health.
6.7 Future Research
All the study tools should be indigenous to meet the cultural demands of the society and make the study more authentic. Regarding instruments, along with self-report measures, dairy method can be used to measure study variables. For health reporting, sophisticated physiological tests i.e. blood pressure, heart rate, immune marker level and diabetes can be conducted to measure physiological health of the sample. Experimental studies are needed to find out the casual relationship among the study variables. Further research is recommended in different countries and in different contexts and settings to increase the external validity and generalizability of the findings.
6.8 Theoretical and Practical Implications
The findings so far have implications for clinical and counseling assessments and management of stress for the betterment of psychological health of people. Clinicians, 214
counselors and educators can change the perception of their patients, clients and students respectively by asking them to find out positive traits of their personality i.e. altruism to serve humanity and inculcate positive affect to increase their strengths and well being. Courage, hardiness, optimism and self-efficacy can be induced in the people that act as buffer against unfavorable circumstances.
The nation is in a position where extreme need is required from counselors, educationists and scholars to make people feel positive and utilize their personal resources at the time of adversity and terrorism.
The idea of positive thinking, optimism and hope has not been borrowed from the western culture but it is according to the teachings of Islam. It preaches peace and love among the people and places high emphasize on optimism, hope and thankfulness. Also at the time of adversity it encourages people to deal with the matters bravely and challengingly with maximum patience.
Confinement in one’s own shell due to the excessive use of internet has made people negative in their thinking and attitudes. This isolation has reduced their interaction with people.
They are getting insensitive towards others problems. Every one is focused on one’s own problems. There are no gratitude visits to friends and neighbors, no time to share feelings with relatives and no tolerance to listen to elders and others people. Mental problems and diseases are increasing due to these behaviors. Psychologists should enhance their efforts to design interventions to make people positive, resilient and optimistic to overcome the above mentioned problems so that they could reduce their stressors and lead to a productive life.
Media has played a significant role in making people negative in their thinking and attitudes. Media should understand the significance of positive affect midst of stress and help to 215
generate positive attitude under these circumstances. Media with the help of psychologists should learn about the psychological conditions that are necessary to generate and sustain positive affect. It can arrange discussion centers on the role of various coping reactions in the process of adjustment, the mechanisms by which dispositional optimism appears to operate.
Policy makers should introduce positive psychology as a core subject in each institution to increase the strengths of students. The educational institutions can introduce a module of positive psychology which focuses on the strengths of students i.e. optimism, resilience, courage, love for knowledge and curiosity.
Within institutions when things get too stressful, employees need a counseling service.
They need to feel that their employing authority is supportive in providing adequate resources, staffing and work conditions. Stress management techniques such as on-site physical fitness, exercise and meditation and time management programs can be initiated. Stress intervention initiatives may involve social support groups and employee assistance programs.
The findings of this study can be utilized by university teachers, students, parents and community. De Frank and Cooper (1987) suggest 3 focal points at which intervention can be offered to the teachers; individual, the individual-university interface and administration.
Teachers can teach problem focused coping through “looking forward approach”. It will reduce stressors of the students related with studies and examination through time management techniques, reappraisal of the situation and using personal strengths.
Parents can teach their children to see the brighter side of the picture using their potentials and resources to become successful in their lives. Community at the time of terrorism can utilize this model to make citizens more resourceful and courageous so that they could face the adversity with dynamic, efficient and creative ways. The institutions can become platform for 216
the students to provide social services to the people, hospitals, old homes and orphanage. They can identify the altruistic characteristics of students and train them to serve humanity. These results suggest that positive thinkers can help their friends and family members in stress management.
A common expression is that optimists are satisfied with status quo and are not motivated to achieve new goals or to “change the world”. The idea is not correct as many of the characteristics observed in optimistic people such as energy, likability, productivity, good health can help them improve the conditions of their and other’s lives. These strengths can develop a more resilient psychological immune system which increases health and wellbeing in the people.
6.9 Suggestions/Recommendations
Following are the recommendations:
In future research, many related concepts such as positive affect, resilience, hope and
happiness can be used as variables measuring positive thinking.
This study has been done on the faculty of UE. Future research can be extended to other
universities within and out side Pakistan. Comparison can be done with the faculty of
foreign universities.
In future, people from diverse populations such as literate, illiterate, business men,
professionals from different walks of life should be included in the sample to see the
effect of study variables with reference to different contexts and situations.
Comparative studies with multi-occupational samples will make it possible to analyze
the relationships within these variables. 217
More experimental, longitudinal and cross cultural research is needed to provide a
stronger test for the conceptual model of positive thinking and stress appraisal.
To measure the effects of stressors on health, longitudinal research should be
conducted in which baseline health might be controlled.
However, further correlational research will help in generating new hypothesis in this
area.
Regarding scales, indigenous research tools should be developed to make the research
more authentic and genuine.
Researchers should attempt to develop alternative techniques with which to assess study
variables. A 360-degree approach in which people report their own behavior as well as
that of their colleagues and friends would provide valuable additional information about
the validity of self-report measures of stress.
Researcher should use qualitative measures to find out the mechanism of positive
thinking, its effects on coping and health.
Different questions can be asked such as what type of stress is most reduced by positive
thinking? Are different outcomes likely for individuals at workplace who are prone to
experience different forms of positive affect such as joy, affection or contentment?
Positive intervention should be introduced to lessen individual’s stressors and prepare
them for proactive coping. Administration should facilitate their employees regarding
financial aids, professional growth and foreign trips if they want them to be positive and
productive.
Holding conferences and workshops on the topics of positive psychology. 218
Policy makers should introduce positive psychology as a core subject in educational
institution to increase the strengths of students.
It is necessary to develop other studies designed to contrast these results with those of
other positive and negative measures to see the authenticity of present study’s results.
New issues, such as the interaction of positive thinking with different types of coping
need future research.
The level of analysis of this study was focused on the individual and gender level and it
has provided interesting results. In future more research is needed at multiple levels.
Positive thinking and its relation with stressors like bereavement and natural catastrophe
e.g. earthquake, flood, hurricane and tsunami should make clear in the future research.
219
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Annexure A
Informed Consent
The information that is required by you in this study is part of Ph D research by the undersigned. The researcher seeks to investigate the “Relationship between positive thinking, coping with daily stressors and health outcomes”. The target population comprises university teachers. Being the university teachers you are requested to participate in this study. The participation will be voluntary and the information gathered through data will be kept confidential.
If you have any query please contact: [email protected]
Thank You,
Zarghuna Naseem
Ph D scholar
Dept. of Psychology and Applied Psychology
University of Punjab, Lahore
270
Annexure B
Focus Group
Dear Participants,
Facilitator: Zarghuna Naseem
Scribbler: Rida
I welcome you all in this discussion which has been arranged for exploring the stressors of university teachers countrywide. I work at University of Education as an assistant professor.
Being a PhD scholar at University of Punjab, I am researching on “Positive thinking, coping with daily stressor and health: A comparison of males and females at University of Education”.
I am going to develop an indigenous scale to measure the stressors of university teachers. In this session I will ask you about your daily stressors related with work, family and social life. My assistant will scribble down all the information of this session.
First of all the group members will introduce themselves to each other.
This is a sort of brainstorming session. Your answers will be recorded on the computer so please keep pace so that your answers could be jotted down.
Please answer the following question:
What are the major sources of stress in your daily life?
When are you stressed in your daily life?
What was the saddest moment of your life?
What types of stressors do you encounter related with family life?
271
What type of stressors do you face at work place?
Does politics affect your peace of mind?
Do you think that female’s stressors are different from the ones encountered by males?
What do you do during the stress period?
In what ways do you avoid these stressors?
Thank you for providing this information. As the stressors are related with your personal life so the information will be kept confidential. This information will be utilized to develop an indigenous scale on stressors of university teachers. A copy of the results will be provided to you as soon as the research is completed.
272
Annexure C
Departmental Permission
Respected Principle/Director,
Being a Ph D scholar, I want to get data for my research entitled “Positive thinking, coping with daily stressors and health” from university teachers. Your esteemed institution comes under the target population for this study. I request you to grant permission for data collection. I assure you that this activity will not disturb the schedule of your classes.
Thank you for your contribution.
If you have any query please contact: [email protected]
Zarghuna Naseem,
Ph D scholar,
Dept. of Psychology and
Applied Psychology
University of the Punjab
273
Annexure D-I
Questionnaire for Pilot Study 1(51 items)
The following statements ask you about your feelings and thoughts during the last month.
Please read them carefully and indicate whether they create stress for you.
Strongly agree SA= 5
Agree A = 4
Neutral N = 3
Disagree D = 2
Strongly Disagree SD = 1
Items SA A N D SD
1.My work load is more than I can handle.
2. Satisfying boss is difficult for me.
3. It is not easy for me to meet the deadlines.
4. I have to deal with work that is beyond my expertise.
5. I am not satisfied with my pay and benefits.
6. My job provides me opportunities to use skills & abilities.
7. I have adequate resources at work place. *
8. My working conditions are satisfying for me. *
9. I have total job security. *
10. I feel comfortable with technological advances. * 274
11. Over ambitious colleagues try to put me down.
12. There are more demands on my time than usual.
13. Inconsistent policies of my institution bother me.
14. There is a communication gap b/w administration and faculty members of the University.
15. There is discrimination by University of Education towards government and UE employs.
16. Teacher’s assessment by students is a stress for faculty members.
17. Down sizing at the institution is stressful for faculty members.
18. Daily traveling to the work place is not difficult for me.*
19. When ever children go out of home I become anxious about their safety.
20. Pollution is damaging my health.
21. Traffic chaos does not frustrate me. *
22. I cannot get sound sleep due to the fear of crimes.
23. I fear suicidal attacks at public places.
24. Geopolitical conditions in the country are stressful for me.
25. I can easily tackle the problems of my family.*
26. Whenever I am at work, I remain anxious about my family responsibilities.
27. I have concerns for family members.
28. I get upset about the safety of my family members when they venture out.
29. It is a great stress for me that I could not serve my parents.
30. I have concerns about my education.. 275
31. I have concerns about my children’s educations.
32. I am not able to fulfill my religious duties.
33. I feel easy to work on computer
34. I do not bother when things do not happen according to my plans. *
35. I get panic by the injustices of society.
36. I do not take care of my health.
37. I am anxious about my physical appearance.
38. I feel that problems are piling up so high that I am unable to solve them.
39. I am feeling well satisfied with life.*
40. I become angry when things are out of my control.
41. I am able to control important things in life.*
42. I am able to tackle my daily problems.*
43. Disciplinary problems at home are un-bearable for me.
44. It is difficult for me to cope up with the demands of the relatives.
45. My income does not meet my expenses.
46. Load shedding does not disturb my performance.*
47. I become stressed when people misunderstand me.
48. My job creates hurdle in my social life.
49. I do not care when people cheat/deceive me.*
50. I worry about my future more than present circumstances.
51. Health of my parents is a major concern for me.
If you have any other stressors please mention it. 276
Name: ______Gender: Male_____ Female_____
Education:______Designation:______
Years in service:______
Employment: Govt.____UE____ Name of UE Campus:______
Marital Status: Unmarried_____Married_____Divorced______Widow______
If married, number of children:______
Income Group: Rs. <30,000____ 30,000-50,000____50,001-80,000____Above 80,000____
Age Group: <30____31-35____36-40____41-45_____46-50_____51-55_____Above 55
Address:______
Phone Number:______
E-mail Address:______
Note. Items having asterisks are negative and will be recoded during analysis
277
Annexure D-II
Questionnaire for Pilot Study 2 (43 items)
The following statements ask you about your feelings and thoughts during the last month. Please read them carefully and indicate whether they create stress for you.
Strongly Agree: SA=5, Agree: A= 4, Neutral: N = 3, Disagree: D = 2, Strongly
Disagree: SD = 1
Sr. Item SA A N D SD
1. Daily commute1 to my work place is stressful.
2. Lack1 of empowerment2 at work place is a source of tension.
3. I 1am stressed3 when I cannot find time for my further/higher education. 4. I remain anxious4 about my professional growth.
5. Trying to 5meet the HEC criteria is stressful.
6. Technological6 advances in education are difficult for me to keep up with.
7. Incompetency7 in the use of computer causes stress for me.
8. Publication8 requirements by HEC for promotion create stress for me.
9. My work load9 is more than I can handle.
10. Satisfying1 my boss is difficult for me.
11. It0 is not easy1 for me to meet the deadlines.
12. I 1am not satisfied1 with my pay and benefits.
13. My2 working1 conditions are not satisfying for me.
14. Over3 ambitious1 colleagues try to put me down.
15. There4 are 1more demands on my time than usual.
16. Inconsistent5 1 policies of my institution bother me.
17. Communication6 1 gap between administration and faculty of the University is a
18. stress.Teacher’s7 1assessment by students is a stress for faculty.
19. The8 law and1 order situation in the country is a great stress.
9 278
20. Facing corruption2 in my daily life frustrates me.
21. Traffic0 problems2 add stress in my daily life.
22. Trying1 to 2meet society’s expectations is stressful.
23. Pollution2 is2 adversely affecting my health.
24. I 3fear suicidal2 attacks at public places.
25. Geopolitical4 2 conditions in the country are stressful for me.
26. I 5get disturbed2 by the injustices in the society.
27. Display6 of2 violence, politics and social issues on media are a source of stress.
28. Rapid7 cultural2 changes bring tension to my life.
29. It8 is difficult2 for me to deal with family issues.
30. I 9feel guilty3 that I could not take care of my parents.
31. Whenever0 3 I am at work, I remain anxious about my family responsibilities.
32. Disciplinary1 3 problems at home are un-bearable for me.
33. I 2am manipulated3 by people close to me.
34. I 3become anxious3 when people interfere in my personal life.
35. Society4 has3 a negative attitude towards teachers.
36. I 5am not able3 to fulfill my moral responsibilities
37. I 6do not take3 care of my health.
38. I 7am anxious3 about my physical appearance.
39. Load8 shedding3 is not affecting my performance.
40. I 9become stressed4 when people misunderstand me.
41. My0 job creates4 hurdle in my social life.
42. I 1do not care4 when people cheat/deceive me.
43. I 2worry about4 my future more than my present.
If you have any3 other stressors please mention it.
Name: ______Gender: Male_____Female_____
Designation:______279
Education:______Years in service:_____EmploymentType:
Govt____University_____
Name of University:______
Marital Status: Unmarried_____Married_____Divorced____Widow____If married, number of children:____
Monthly Income: Rs. ______Age:______
E-mail Address:______Phone:______
280
Annexure D-III
Questionnaire For Factor Analysis (30 items)
Sr. Item SA A N D SD
1. Lack of empowerment1 at work place is a source of tension.
2. I am stressed2 when I cannot find time for my further/higher education.
3. I remain anxious3 about my professional growth.
4. Trying to 4meet the HEC criteria is stressful.
5. Technological5 advances in education are difficult for me to keep up with.
6. Publication6 requirements by HEC for promotion create stress for me.
7. My work load7 is more than I can handle.
8. Satisfying8 my boss is difficult for me.
9. It is not easy9 for me to meet the deadlines.
10. I am not satisfied with my pay and benefits.
11. Over ambitious1 colleagues try to put me down.
12. My0 working conditions are not satisfying for me.
13. There are 1more demands on my time than usual.
14. Inconsistent1 1 policies of my institution bother me.
15. Communication2 1 gap between administration and faculty of the University is a
16. stress.The3 law and1 order situation in the country is a great stress.
17. Facing4 corruption1 in my daily life frustrates me.
18. Traffic5 problems1 add stress in my daily life.
19. Pollution6 is1 adversely affecting my health.
20. I 7fear suicidal1 attacks at public places.
21. Geopolitical8 1 conditions in the country are stressful for me.
22. I 9get disturbed2 by the injustices in the society.
23. Rapid0 cultural2 changes bring tension to my life.
24. It1 is difficult2 for me to deal with family issues.
25. Whenever2 2 I am at work, I remain anxious about my family responsibilities.
3 281
26. Disciplinary2 problems at home are un-bearable for me.
27. I 4am not able2 to fulfill my moral responsibilities
28. I 5do not take2 care of my health.
29. Load6 shedding is not affecting my performance.
30. I become stressed2 when people misunderstand me.
7
If you have any other stressors please mention it.
Name: ______Gender: Male_____Female_____
Designation:______
Education:______Years in service:_____EmploymentType:
Govt____University_____
Name of University:______
Marital Status: Unmarried_____Married_____Divorced____Widow____If married, number of children:____
Monthly Income: Rs. ______Age:______
E-mail Address:______Phone:______
282
Annexure D-IV
Daily Stressors Scale (DSS) for University Teachers
The following statements ask you about your feelings and thoughts during the last month. Please read them carefully and indicate whether they create stress for you.
Strongly Agree: SA=5, Agree: A= 4, Neutral: N = 3, Disagree: D = 2, Strongly Disagree:
SD = 1
Sr. Item SA A N D SD
1. Lack of empowerment1 at work place is a source of tension.
2. I am stressed2 when I cannot find time for my further/higher education.
3. I remain anxious3 about my professional growth.
4. Trying to 4meet the HEC criteria is stressful.
5. Technological5 advances in education are difficult for me to keep up with.
6. Publication6 requirements by HEC for promotion create stress for me.
7. My work load7 is more than I can handle.
8. Satisfying8 my boss is difficult for me.
9. It is not easy9 for me to meet the deadlines.
10. Over ambitious1 colleagues try to put me down.
11. There0 are 1more demands on my time than usual.
12. Inconsistent1 1 policies of my institution bother me.
13. Communication2 1 gap between administration and faculty of the University is a
14. stress.The3 law and1 order situation in the country is a great stress.
15. Facing4 corruption1 in my daily life frustrates me.
16. Traffic5 problems1 add stress in my daily life.
6 283
17. Pollution is1 adversely affecting my health.
18. I 7fear suicidal1 attacks at public places.
19. Geopolitical8 1 conditions in the country are stressful for me.
20. I 9get disturbed2 by the injustices in the society.
21. Rapid0 cultural2 changes bring tension to my life.
22. It1 is difficult2 for me to deal with family issues.
23. Whenever2 2 I am at work, I remain anxious about my family responsibilities.
24. Disciplinary3 2 problems at home are un-bearable for me.
25. I 4am not able2 to fulfill my moral responsibilities
26. I 5do not take2 care of my health.
27. I 6become stressed2 when people misunderstand me.
7
If you have any other stressors please mention it.
Name: ______Gender: Male_____Female_____
Designation:______
Education:______Years in service:_____EmploymentType:
Govt____University_____
Name of University:______
Marital Status: Unmarried_____Married_____Divorced____Widow____If married, number of children:____
Monthly Income: Rs. ______Age:______
E-mail Address:______Phone:______
284
Annexure E
Study Questionnaires
Covering Letter
Dear University Teacher,
I am a Ph D scholar at University of the Punjab. My research topic is “positive thinking, coping with daily stressors and health”. My research participants are university teachers. The enclosed package contains some measures to assess positive thinking, its effect on coping with daily stress and health. Please fill up these questionnaires. I know that your time is precious but these questionnaires will help you to know your own stressors and the way you deal with these stressors and its impact on health. Your participation would be voluntarily and appreciated. I assure you that all the information will be kept confidential and anonymous.
I thank you for your contribution and valuable time.
If you have any query please contact: [email protected]
Zarghuna Naseem,
Ph D scholar,
Dept. of Psychology and
Applied Psychology
University of the Punjab, Lahore
285
Annexure E-1
Life Orientation Test-R
This scale is measuring your approach towards life. Please carefully tick the option.
SA=4, A=3, N=2, D=1, SD=0
Sr. Items Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
1. In uncertain times I usually expect the best
2. It is easy for me to relax.
3. If something bad happens, I can not avoid it. *
4. I am always optimistic about my future.
5. I enjoy my friends a lot.
6. It is important for me to keep busy.
7. I hardly ever expect things to go my way.*
8. I do not get upset too easily.
9. Overall, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad.
10. I rarely count on good things happening to me. *
Note: Asterisk show that the items need reverse scoring.
286
Annexure E-II
Daily Stressors Scale for University Teachers (DSS)
The following statements ask you about your feelings and thoughts during the last month. Please read them carefully and indicate whether they create stress for you.
Strongly Agree: SA=5, Agree: A= 4, Neutral: N = 3, Disagree: D = 2, Strongly Disagree:
SD = 1
Sr. Items SA A N D SD
1.Lack of empowerment1 at work place is a source of tension.
2.I am stressed2 when I cannot find time for my further/higher education.
3.I remain anxious3 about my professional growth.
4.Trying to meet4 the HEC criteria is stressful.
5.Technological5 advances in education are difficult for me to keep up with.
6.Publication requirements6 by HEC for promotion create stress for me.
7.My work load7 is more than I can handle.
8.Satisfying my8 boss is difficult for me.
9.It is not easy9 for me to meet the deadlines.
10.Over ambitious1 colleagues try to put me down.
11.There0 are more1 demands on my time than usual.
12.Inconsistent1 1 policies of my institution bother me.
13.Communication2 1 gap between administration and faculty of the University is a
stress.14.The3 law and1 order situation in the country is a great stress.
15.Facing4 corruption1 in my daily life frustrates me.
16.Traffic5 problems1 add stress in my daily life.
17.Pollution6 is1 adversely affecting my health.
18.I fear7 suicidal1 attacks at public places.
19.Geopolitical8 1 conditions in the country are stressful for me.
9 287
20.I get disturbed2 by the injustices in the society.
21.Rapid0 cultural2 changes bring tension to my life.
22.It is1 difficult2 for me to deal with family issues.
23.Whenever2 I2 am at work, I remain anxious about my family responsibilities.
24.Disciplinary3 2 problems at home are un-bearable for me.
25.I am4 not able2 to fulfill my moral responsibilities
26.I do5 not take2 care of my health.
27.I become6 stressed2 when people misunderstand me.
7
If you have any other stressors please mention it.
Name: ______Gender: Male_____Female_____
Designation:______
Education:______Years in service:_____EmploymentType:
Govt____University_____
Name of University:______
Marital Status: Unmarried_____Married_____Divorced____Widow____If married, number of children:____
Monthly Income: Rs. ______Age:______
E-mail Address:______Phone:______
288
Annexure E-III
Satisfaction With Life Scale
Strongly Disagree SD = 1, Disagree; D = 2, Slightly disagree SLD=3, Neutral; N = 4, Slightly agree SLA=5, Agree; A = 6, Strongly agree; SGA= 7.
Sr. No. Statements
1. In most ways my life is close to my ideal.
2. The conditions of my life are excellent.
3. I am satisfied with my life.
4. So far I have got the important things I want in my life.
5. If I could live my life over I would change almost nothing.
289
Annexure E-IV
Perceived Stress Scale
The questions in this scale ask you about your feelings and thoughts during the last month. In each case, please indicate with a check how often you felt or thought a certain way.
Strongly agree; SA= 5, Agree; A = 4, Neutral; N = 3, Disagree; D = 2, Strongly Disagree SD
= 1
Sr. No Statements
1. In the last month, how often have you been upset
because of something that happened unexpectedly?...... 0 1 2 3 4
2. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable
to control the important things in your life? ...... 0 1 2 3 4
3. In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and “stressed”? ...... 0 1 2 3 4
4. In the last month, how often have you felt confident about your ability to handle your personal problems? ...... 0 1 2 3 4
5. In the last month, how often have you felt that things
were going your way?...... 0 1 2 3 4
6. In the last month, how often have you found that you could not cope
with all the things that you had to do? ...... 0 1 2 3 4
7. In the last month, how often have you been able
to control irritations in your life?...... 0 1 2 3 4
8. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were on top of things?0 1 2 3 4
9. In the last month, how often have you been angered 290
because of things that were outside of your control?...... 0 1 2 3 4
10. In the last month, how often have you felt difficulties
were piling up so high that you could not overcome them? ...... 0 1 2 3 4
291
Annexure E-V
Brief Cope
Through these statements you will find out the ways you cope with your daily stressors.
1 = “I have not been doing this at all”
2 = “I have not been doing this a little”
3 = “I have been doing this a little amount”
4 = “I have been doing this a lot”
SR. Items 1 2 3 4
1. I have been turning to work or other activities to take my mind off things.
2. I have been concentrating my efforts on doing some thing about the situation I am in.
3. I have been saying to myself “this is not real”.
4. I have been using drugs to make myself feel better
5. I have been getting emotional support from others
6. I have been giving up trying to deal with it.
7. I have been taking action to try to make the situation better.
8. I have been refusing to believe that it has happen.
9. I've been saying things to let my unpleasant feelings escape.
10 I have been getting help & advice from other people. 292
11. I have been using tranquilizers to help me get through it.
12. I have been trying to see it in different light, to make it seem more positive.
13. I have been criticizing myself.
14. I have been trying to come up with a strategy about what to do.
15. I have been getting comfort & understanding from some one.
16. I have been giving up the attempt to cope.
17. I have been looking for something good in what is happening.
18. I have been making jokes about it
19. I have been doing something to think about it less, such as going to movies, watching
movies, day dreaming, sleeping or shopping
20. I have been accepting the reality of the fact that it has happened.
21. I have been expressing my feelings.
22. I have been trying to find comfort in my religion or spiritual beliefs.
23. I have been trying to get advice or help from other people about what to do.
24. I have been learning to live with it.
25. I have been thinking hard about what step to take.
26. I have been blaming myself for things that happened.
27. I have been praying or mediating.
28. I have been making fun of the situation.
293
Annexure E-VI
General Health Questionnaire
This questionnaire is about your general health and well being.
Have you recently
Sr. Items Better than usual Same as usual Worse than usual Much worsethan usual
A1 Been feeling perfectly well and in good health?
Not at all No more than usual Rather more than usual Much more than usual
A2 Been feeling in need of a good tonic?
A3 Been feeling exhausted and weak. *
A4 Felt that you are ill?
A5 Been getting any pain in your head?
A6 Been getting a feeling of tightness or pressure in your head
A7 Been having hot and cold spells.
More so than usual Same as usual Rather less than usual Much less than usual
B1 Lost much sleep over worry.
B2 Had difficulty in staying asleep once you are awake? *
B3 Felt constantly under strain? 294
B4 Been getting tense and bad tempered? *
B5 Being getting scared or panicky for no good reason?
B6 Found everything on top of you?
B7 Being feeling nervous all the time? *
C1 Been managing to keep your-self busy and occupied?
C2 Been taking longer over the things you do?
C3 Felt on the whole you are doing things well?
C4 Been satisfied with the way you have carried out your task?
C5 Felt that you are playing a useful part in things?
C6 Felt capable of making decisions about things?
C7 Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities?
Not at all No more than usual Rather more than usual Much more than usual
D1 Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person?
D2 Felt that life is entirely hopeless?
D3 Felt that life is not worth living?
D4 Thought of the possibility that you might make away with yourself?
D5 Found at times you could not do anything because your nerves were too bad?
D6 Found yourself wishing you were dead and away from it all?
D7 Found that the idea of taking your own life kept coming into your mind?
295
Annexure F-I
Permission from the author to use PSS
You can download the scale from our website: www.psy.cmu.edu/~scohen click on scales
Sheldon Cohen, PhD Robert E. Doherty Professor of Psychology Department of Psychology Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh, PA 15213 412-268-2336 (phone) 412-268-3294 (fax)
From: zarghuna naseem [mailto:[email protected]] Sent: Wednesday, October 31, 2007 1:01 PM To: [email protected] Subject: request for Perceived Stress Scale, 1988
Dear Madam, I am a PhD scholar, working at Punjab University, Lahore, Pakistan. My research topic is " positive thinking, coping with daily stressors and health: A comparison of male and female teaching faculty members, at University of Education, Lahore ". I want to develop an indigenous measure for daily stressors. Your scale will help me in the construction and validation of my measure. Please send me your “Perceived Stress Scale”. I will be obliged.
Thank you, Zarghuna Naseem Ph D scholar, Dept of Psychology and Applied Psychology, University of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan I'm away from the office until Monday, June 4 (and out of the country for most of
this time). Iwill respond as soon as possible once I return, assuming your message is not time
sensitive.If you need immediate assistance, please call my Administrative Assistant, Ginger
Placone,
412-268-3791. Sorry for any inconvenience. 296
Annexure F-II
Permission from the author to use LOT-R
Dear Zarghuna Naseem,
Below is the letter granting permission for you to use the LOT and/or the LOT-R in your
research, copies of both scales and I'm also attaching pdf's of each article.
If you need further assistance, please contact me.
Cordially, Ginger
Department of Psychology
Carnegie Mellon University
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213-3890
Phone: (412) 268-3791
FAX: (412) 268-7810
Internet: [email protected]
June 4, 2007
Zarghuna Naseem
PhD Scholar
Punjab University Pakistan
c/o email: [email protected]
Dear Zarghuna Naseem,
My permission to use the Life Orientation Test (LOT) for research purposes is hereby 297
granted. You should also know that the copyright for the scale is officially held by Lawrence
Erlbaum & Associates, who published Health Psychology, the journal in which the scale initially appeared. You might want to obtain permission from the publisher as well.
I should also tell you that we revised the original LOT. The revised scale carries the designation LOT-R, which stands for Life Orientation Test--Revised. We no longer use the original scale in our own research, but rely totally on the LOT-R. We recommend that others do the same, unless there is some compelling reason to do otherwise. In this regard, you also have my permission to use the revised scale instead of the original scale in your research if you so desire. The copyright for the revised scale is officially held by the
American Psychological Association, which publishes the Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, the journal in which the revised scale originally appeared. The revised scale is shorter, conceptually cleaner, and promises to replace the original scale as the instrument of choice in the future.
If you publish any research using either of the scales, I'd like eventually to receive a copy of the published work for my files. Thanks in advance for this courtesy.
Good luck with your project.
Sincerely,
Michael F. Scheier, Ph.D.
Professor & Head, Department of Psychology
Life Orientation Test (LOT)
Instructions: 298
Please answer the following questions about yourself by indicating the extent of your agreement using the following scale:
[0] = strongly disagree
[1] = disagree
[2] = neutral
[3] = agree
[4] = strongly agree
Be as honest as you can throughout, and try not to let your responses to one question influence your response to other questions. There are no right or wrong answers.
1. In uncertain times, I usually expect the best.
2. It's easy for me to relax.
3. If something can go wrong for me it will.
4. I always look on the bright side of things.
5. I'm always optimistic about my future.
6. I enjoy my friends a lot.
7. It's important for me to keep busy.
8. I hardly ever expect things to go my way.
9. Things never work out the way I want them to.
10. I don't get upset too easily.
11. I'm a believer in the idea that "every cloud has a silver lining."
12. I rarely count on good things happening to me.
Scoring:
1. Reverse code items 3, 8, 9, and 12 prior to scoring. 299
2. Sum items 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, and 12 to obtain an overall score.
Note: Items 2, 6, 7, and 10 are filler items only. They are not scored as part of the scale.
Reference:
Scheier, M.F. & Carver C.S. (1985). Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 5, 219-247.
Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R)
Instructions: Please answer the following questions about yourself by indicating the extent of your agreement using the following scale:
[0] = strongly disagree
[1] = disagree
[2] = neutral
[3] = agree
[4] = strongly agree
Be as honest as you can throughout, and try not to let your responses to one question influence your response to other questions. There are no right or wrong answers.
1. In uncertain times, I usually expect the best.
2. It's easy for me to relax.
3. If something can go wrong for me, it will.
4. I'm always optimistic about my future.
5. I enjoy my friends a lot. 300
6. It's important for me to keep busy.
7. I hardly ever expect things to go my way.
8. I don't get upset too easily.
9. I rarely count on good things happening to me.
10. Overall, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad.
Scoring:
1. Reverse code items 3, 7, and 9 prior to scoring (0=4) (1=3) (2=2) (3=1) (4=0).
2. Sum items 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, and 10 to obtain an overall score.
Note: Items 2, 5, 6, and 8 are filler items only. They are not scored as part of the revised scale.
The revised scale was constructed in order to eliminate two items from the original scale, which dealt more with coping style than with positive expectations for future outcomes. The correlation between the revised scale and the original scale is .95.
Reference:
Scheier, M.F., Carver C.S., and Bridges, M.W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A re-evaluation of the Life
Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063-1078.
Ginger Placone
Admin. Assistant to Michael F. Scheier, Head
Department of Psychology
346 Baker Hall
Carnegie Mellon University
Pittsburgh, PA 15213
Ph: 412-268-3151; Fax: 412-268-3464 301
Admin. Assistant, Pittsburgh Mind-Body Center
Ph: 412-268-4238; Fax: 412-268-7810
Dear Zarghuna,
I have attached my entire Master's thesis complete with all scales. I expect that you will be professional and ethical with its usage.
Best wishes,
Joshua
Quoting zarghuna naseem
Dear sir,
I, zarghuna Naseem, am doing my PhD from Punjab University Pakistan. The topic of my study is
"Positive thinking, coping with daily stressors and health. This research will be done on the faculty members of a public university. I need your daily hassles, and coping scales to use in my research. I request you to send these scales to me. I will be thankful.
Zarghuna Naseem
302
Annexure G
Sampling Frame of University of Education
Attock Campus
Sr# Name
1. Dr M Abid Zia PhD Chemistry Principal/Assistant Professor
2. Samra Bashir MA Education Lecturer
3. Asya Mushtaq MA Education Lecturer
4. Dr. Shafqat Ali Khan PhD Education Lecturer
5. Muhammad Arshad Javaid MA Education Lecturer
6. Rizwan Ahmad MA Education Lecturer
7. Umera Maqsoom MA Fine Arts Lecturer
8. Rabia Siddiqui MPhil Physics Lecturer
9. Asghar Ali MPhil Mathematics, BEd Lecturer
10. Saiqa Farhat MA English Lecturer
11. Ghulam Jillani Ansari MPhil Computer Science Lecturer
12. Tehmina Fazil MA Islamiyat, BEd Lecturer
13. Muhammad Amin
303
Bank Road Campus, Lahore
Sr# Name 1. Mrs. Farhat Saleem (Principal)
2. Mrs. Mariam Siddqiqua
3. Mrs. Saeeda Ajmal
4. Mrs. Azra Saeed
5. Mrs. Samina Shakir
6. Mrs. Tallat Rasheed
7. Mrs. Shah Bano
8. Mrs. Zarghoona Naseem
9. Mrs. Iffat Khalid
10. Mrs. Jawairia Wasif
11. Mrs. Abida Javaid
12. Mrs. Afshan Zubair
13. Mrs. Raheela Tanveer
14. Mrs. Abida Khalid
15. Mrs. Saima Ali
16. Dr. Shagufta Andleeb
17. Dr. Zohra Noreen
18. Ms. Rubina Shaheen
19. Mrs. Riffat Wasim
20. Mrs. Mirat ul Ain 304
21. Mrs. Noreen Mumtaz
22. Miss Arifa Zareen
23. Mrs. Tanveer Hafeez
24. Miss Naheed Akhtar
25. Mrs. Kiran Anwar
26. Mrs. Tayyaba Shafqat
27. Miss Tanzila Akram
28. Miss Sabahat Parveen
29. Miss Amina Shahzadi
30. Miss Asma Saleem
31. Miss Asima Razzaq
32. Mrs. Sobia Yaqoob
33. Mrs. Farah Fatima
34. Miss Asma Khanum
35. Mrs. Bushra Shahid
36. Miss Jawaria Asad
37. Miss Asma Habib
38. Miss Saima Imran
39. Miss Asma Khan
40. Miss Rabia Jehangir
41. Miss Samina Ali Asghar
42. Miss Imrana Safdar 305
43. Miss Sidra Bukhari
44. Syda Hira Kazmi
45. Miss Mariam Fayyaz
46. Miss Nasim Akhtar
47. Miss Saba Mirza
48. Mrs. Shehla Siddiqi
49. Mrs. Lubna Nisar
50. Miss Rukhshanda
51. Ms. Ansif Arooj
52. Ms. Fareeha Shafqat
53. Miss Samina Safdar
54. Miss Sabahat Haseeb
55. Miss Umbreen Iftikhar
56. Miss Um-e-Farwa
57. Miss Sana Murslin
58. Miss Sumaira Rashid
59. Miss Ghazal
60. Miss Sadaf
306
DG Khan Campus
1. Uzma SadiqMPhil EnglishLecturer
2. Abdul Ghaffar MSc ChemistryAssociate Professor
3. Saryia KarimMA Urdu, BedAssistant Professor
4. Rao Muhammad AfzalMA ArabicAssistant Professor
5. Itrat TamkeenMA Arabic Assistant Professor
6. Sajjad HussainMA Sociology, ME Assistant Professor
7. Liaqat AliMSc Physics, MedAssistant Professor
8. Azra Shafi , MSc Chemistry, Assistant Professor
9. Muhammad Arshed Khan MA Political Science, Bed Assistant Professor
10. Zwar Hussain Khosa MPhil Political Science, Bed Lecturer
11. Mumtaz Hussain Shah MA Urdu, MEd Lecturer
12. Ghulam Siddique MA Education, MEd Lecturer
13. Samina Shaheen Bukhari MA Education, BEd Lecturer
14. Fareeda Naheed MSc Chemistry, BEd Lecturer
15. Mamoona Karim MSc Mathematics, BEd Lecturer
16. Sajid Ali MPhil Computer Science Lecturer
307
FaisalabadCampus
1. Tauqeer Yasmin MA History Principal/Associate Professor
2. Gauhar Abdul Ghaffar MA Education Associate Professor
3. Muhamamd Arshad Bandesha MPhil Education Associate Professor
4. Muhammad Saeed Tahir MA Urdu Assistant Professor
5. Syed Ijaz Ahmad MA Urdu Assistant Professor
6. Amjad Hussain MSc Mathematics Assistant Professor
7. Naseer Ahmad MSc Mathematics Assistant Professor
8. Naseer Ahmad MSc Mathematics Assistant Professor
9. Shafaqat Zubair MSc Mathematics Assistant Professor
10. Tasnim Kausar Khan MA History Assistant Professor
11. Tasnim Kausar Khan MA History Assistant Professor
12. Yasmin Tahir MA Philosophy, BEd Assistant Professor
13. Ch Azam Mukhtar Msc Chemistry Lecturer
14. Nazia Anwar MSc Computer Science Lecturer
15. Hashim Yasin MSc Computer Science Lecturer
16. Tania Afzal MA English Lecturer
17. Dr. Muhammad Naeem Mohsin PhD,Education Lecturer
18. Hina Dildar MA Education Lecturer
19. Muhamamd Khalid MA Education Lecturer
20. Fauzia Akram MA Education Lecturer
21. Ismat Zaka MA Education Lecturer
22. Amina Mubarik Ma English Lecturer 308
23. Muhammad Afzal MA Art & Craft Lecturer
24. Abdul Sattar MSc Physics Lecturer
25. Gulnaz Mumtaz Msc Physics Lecturer
26. Ijaz Nasir MA History Lecturer
27. Anila Kaukab MA Persian Lecturer
28. Khadija Kausar MSc Botany Lecturer
29. Rabia Tabasum MSc Psychology Lecturer
30. Shakeel Tabasum MSc Psychology Lecturer
31. Muhammad Shafqat MA Physical Education Lecturer
Joharabad Campus
1. Mussarat Barjees MPhil,Urdu Principal
2. Abida Kaukab MA (Urdu, Physical Education), BEd DPE
3. Kalim ul Haq Tariq MSc Mathematics Lecturer
4. Syed Imran Abbas Kazmi MSc Computer Science Lecturer
5. Shamsa Iram MSc Chemistry Lecturer
6. Khansa Imam MA Education Lecturer
7. Javed Iqbal MCom Lecturer
8. Rana Yasir Hussain MCom Lecturer
9. Muhammad Arshad MBA Lecturer
10. Ambreen Mehmood MA English Lecturer
11. Samina Yasmin MA English Lecturer 309
12. Asifa Qasim MA English SS/Lecturer
13. Fatima Sughra MPhil Biology, BEd Lecturer
14. Kausar Parveen MSc Biology SSS
Lower Mall Campus
1. Tassadaq Hussain Khokhar MA Political Science, BEd Principal/Associate Professor
2. Dr Farhat Gulzar PhD Geography Eminent Educationist & Researcher
3. Mumtaz Ahmad MA Education Associate Professor
4. Dr Abdul Karim Khalid PhD Urdu Associate Professor
5. Dr Gulnaz Maqbool PhD Philosophy Associate Professor
6. Ismat Ullah Cheema MA Philosophy Associate Professor
7. Dr Bashir Ahmad PhD History Assistant Professor
8. M Javed Iqbal Nadeem MA Philosophy Assistant Professor
9. Ghulam Sarwar Saeed MSc Chemistry, BEd Assistant Professor
10. Shafqat Ali MA Education Assistant Professor
11. Javaid Iqbal Khan MA Education Assistant Professor
12. Fahim Iqbal Khan MA English, MEd Assistant Professor
13. Nadeem Aziz MA English, BEd Assistant Professor
14. Mehboob Aslam MA English Lecturer
15. Syed Tauqeer Mahmood MA Islamiyat Lecturer
16. Dr Hafiz Muhammad Irshad PhD Arabic Lecturer
17. Muhammad Aleem Ihsan MSc Psychology Lecturer
18. Azhar Majeed Qureshi MA Education Lecturer 310
19. Parveen Akhtar MA Education Lecturer
20. Sobia Rasheed MA Fine Arts Lecturer
21. Saima Khan MSc Mathematics Lecturer
22. Jahanzab Jahan MA English Lecturer
23. Sohail Mahmood Babur MCS Computer Science Lecturer
24. Nabeel Ahmed MA Urdu Lecturer
25. Malik Abdul Hameed Masters in Library Sciences Librarian
26. Asma Nawaz MA Psychology SSS
27. Rabia Tabasum MSc Psychology Lecturer
28. Shakeel Tabasum MSc Psychology Lecturer
29. Muhammad Shafqat MA Physical Education Lecturer
Division of art and science Campus (Lower Mall Campus)
1. Dr Muzaffar Abbas PhD Urdu, MEd(UK) Director
2. Mubasher Nadeem Phd Scholar, MA English, PGD TEFL, BEd, Cert. in Trg &
Evaluation(USA), Cert. in Pre & In-service Teacher Training (Malaysia), Pre & In-
service Teacher Training (Philpines) Associate Professor
3. Humeira Irfan Khan MA English (On study leave for PhD) Lecturer
4. Shaista Syeda MSc Home Economics Lecturer
5. Muhammad Zahid MBA Lecturer
Multan Campus 311
1. Dr Zahoor Ahmed Sheikh PhD Physics Principal/ Professor
2. Shaheen Taj MSc Zoology Associate Professor
3. Azra Perveen MA History Assistant Professor
4. Zahida Ishfaq MA History Assistant Professor
5. Muhammad Arshad Khan MSc Biology Assistant Professor
6. Farooq Ahmad Ansari MSc Psychology Assistant Professor
7. Rehmat Ali Chauhan MSc Geography Assistant Professor
8. Javaid Fareed Awan MA Economics Assistant Professor
9. Surayya Hafeez MA Economics Assistant Professor
10. Riffat Sattar MA Economics Assistant Professor
11. Eshrat Hussain Basri MA Islamiyat Assistant Professor
12. Shehnaz Altaf MA Islamiyat Assistant Professor
13. Nuzhat Amjad MA English Assistant Professor
14. Kousar Shaheen MA English Assistant Professor
15. Shehnaz Kausar MSc Botany Assistant Professor
16. Shamma Naheed Pasha MA Urdu Assistant Professor
17. Fareeda Rafique MSc Chemistry Assistant Professor
18. Zafar Iqbal Rao MA Education Lecturer
19. Gulzar Nasreen MA Education Lecturer
20. Rabia Kamran MA Education Lecturer
21. Farzana Yousaf MA Education Lecturer
22. Sajida Ghani MA Education Lecturer
23. Gulnaz Atta MSc Mathematics Lecturer 312
24. Shahbaz Ahmed MPhil Chemistry Lecturer
25. Fouzia Salman MSc Psychology Lecturer
26. Yousaf Rehman Zaidi MA Political Science Lecturer
27. Khair un Nisa MSc Physics Lecturer
28. Ishrat Shaheen MA Urdu Lecturer
29. Dr Farzana Jamshaid PhD Urdu Lecturer
30. Shabana Saif MA Physical Education Lecturer
Okara Campus
1. Dr Muhammad Shafiq Khan, Professor, PhD Chemistry
2. Ali Manan Mohsin, Assistant Professor, MPhil, Botany
3. Dr. Khalid Saleem, Assistant Professor, PhD Education
4. Dr Raja Adil Sarfraz, Assistant Professor, PhD Chemistry
5. Sumera Rashid, Lecturer, MA Education
6. Imrana Bukhari, Lecturer, MPhil Botany, BEd
7. Sarwat Naheed, Lecturer, MA Education
8. Muhammad Iqbal, Lecturer, MPhil Botany
9. Imrana Bukhari, Lecturer, MPhil Botany
10. Muhammad Akram, Lecturer, MCom
11. Imtiaz Hussain, Lecturer, MCom
12. Lubna Kanwal, Lecturer, MSc Zoology 313
13. Riffat Gill, Lecturer, MA Economics, MBA (IT)
14. Muhammad Saleem, Lecturer, MBA
15. Khalid Mehmood, Lecturer, MSc Computer Science
16. Muhammad Khurshid Asghar, Lecturer, MSc Computer Science
17. Inaam ul Haq, Lecturer, MSc Computer Science
18. Muhammad Ilyas Mahmood, Lecturer, MA English, MA Education, BEd
19. Ammara Farukh, Lecturer, MSc Applied Linguistics
20. Nusrat Sultana, Lecturer, MA English, BEd
21. Maria Sarwar, Lecturer, MA English
22. Muzamil Iftikhar, Lecturer, MPhil Mathematics, BEd
23. Sarfraz Ali, Lecturer, MSc Mathematics, BEd
24. Farhana Yasmin, Lecturer, MSc Mathematics
25. Amjad Ali, Lecturer, MPhil Physics
26. Riaz Hussain, Lecturer, MSc Chemistry
27. Abdul Hamid, Lecturer, MPhil Chemistry, BEd
28. Saima Muzaffar, Lecturer, MSc Chemistry, MEd, BEd
29. Muhammad Usman Alvi, Lecturer, MSc Chemistry
30. Sami Ullah, Lecturer, MPhil Arabic, ATTC
31. Farzana Iftikhar, Lecturer, MA Education
32. Muhammad Tahir Khan Farooqi, Lecturer, MA Education 33. Syed Abdul Waheed, Lecturer, MPhil Education, PGD (TEFL) 34. Tariq Saleem MSc Psychology Lecturer
314
Township Lahore Campus
1. Viqar un Nisa MSc Chemistry Principal/Associate Professor
2. Dr Ghulam Rabbani Khan PhD Chemistry Eminent Educationist & Researcher
3. Dr. Mazoor Ahmed PhD Physics Professor
4. Rubina Shaheen M Phil English Assistant Professor
5. Dr Waheed-ur-Rehman PhD Urdu Assistant Professor
6. Muhammad Arif MA Islamiyat Associate Professor
7. Dr Asad Gulzar PhD Chemistry Associate Professor
8. Dr Amina Zuberi PhD Zoology(On study leave ) Assistant Professor
9. Intzar Hussain Butt MPhil Education(On study leave) Assistant Professor
10. Manazra Tanveer MA Education Assistant Professor
11. Raufa Sikandar MSc Zoology Assistant Professor
12. Dr Muhammad Qadeer Butt PhD Botany Assistant Professor
13. Nayyar Bashir MSc Botany Assistant Professor
14. Fouzia Koukab MSc Botany Assistant Professor
15. Najma Irfan MPhil Physics Assistant Professor
16. Munazza Tariq MSc Psychology Assistant Professor
17. Dr Sabiha Rashid PhD Chemistry Assistant Professor
18. Mian Habib ur Rehman MPhil Chemistry Lecturer
19. Sadia Bashir MPhil Chemistry Lecturer
20. Aftab Akram MSc Computer Science Lecturer
21. Amina Naureen MPhil Physics(On study leave) Lecturer
22. Muhammad Idrees MPhil Mathematics Lecturer 315
23. Fatima Khan MSc Mathematics Lecturer
24. Abdul Majeed MPhil Mathematics Lecturer
25. Nasreen Akhtar MA Education(on study leave) Lecturer
26. Sadia Shaukat MA Education Lecturer
27. Nighat Mohsin Msc Biology Lecturer
28. Shumaila Mahmood MA English Lecturer
29. Sumaira Hussain MLIS Librarian
Division of Science & Technology Campus (Township campus)
1. Dr Muhammad Anwar-ur-Rehman Pasha PhD Compuer Science Director
2. Dr Izhar ul Haq Khan PhD Chemistry Professor
3. Sahar Kashif MA English Lecturer
4. Amina Asghar MPhil Chemistry Lecturer
5. Azam Bhatti MPhil Mathematics Lecturer
6. Mohammad Afzal MSc Mathematics Lecturer
7. Munawar Hussain MSc Computer Science Lecturer
Division of Education Campus (Township campus)
1. Dr Basharat Ali PhD Education Director
2. Dr Ibrahim Khalid PhD Education Professor
3. Dr Muhammad Iqbal PhD,Education Assistant Professor
4. Dr Muhammad Khalid Mahmood PhD Education Assistant Professor
5. Dr Shaheen Pasha PhD Special Education Assistant Professor
6. Ayaz Muhammad Khan MA Education Lecturer 316
Vehari Campus
1. Zubaida Chaudhary MA Political Science Principal
2. Razia Sultana MSc Chemistry, MEd SSS
3. Sajida Parveen MSc Chemistry, BEd, PGD in Computer Science SSS
4. Kalsoom Akhtar MSc Mathematics, BEd SSS
5. Samiah Anwar MA Urdu, BEd SSs
6. Zubaida Khanum MA Arabic, MEd SSS
7. Samina Riaz MA English SS
8. Zahida Tabassam MA Islamic Studies, MEd, PGD in Computer Science SS
9. Faqeer Hussain, Lecturer, MA English
10. Hafiz Ghulam Murtaza, Lecturer, MA English, MEd
11. Nagina Naveed, Lecturer, MSc Chemistry, MEd 12. Samina Naz, Librarian, MA Library Science 13. .Khalil Ahmad, Lecturer, MPhil Education 14. Asma Nawaz
317
Annexure H
Population Matrix
Table 4: Frequency and Percentage Distribution of faculty by Campuses and Designation
Quota Matrix
Campuses Designations
Lec Assist Prof Asso Prof Prof Total
Attock 13 - - - 13
Bank R 42 10 8 - 60
DGKhan 8 7 1 16
Faisalabad 14 9 2 25
Joharabad 13 1 14
Lower Mall 21 6 3 - 30
Multan 14 15 1 30
Okara 30 3 1 - 34
Town ship 14 9 3 2 28
Vehari 10 4 - - 14
Div. of Arts 2 1 1 4
Div. of Science 5 2 7
Div. of Education 1 3 2 6
Total 187 67 20 7 281
318
Note.Lec=Lecturer,Assist. Prof=Assistant Professor, Asso. Prof=Associate Professor, prof=
Professor
Div of Arts=Division of arts
319
Annexure I
Table 4: Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Participants by Campuses and
Designation
Campuses Designations
Lec. Asst. Prof. Asso. Prof. Prof. Total Selected
Attock 13(7) - - - (13) 8
Bank R 42 10 8 - (60) 32
DGK 8 7 1 (16) 14
Faisalabad 14 9 2 (25) 19
Joharabad 13 1 (14) 14
Lower Mall 23 6 4 1 (34) 11
Multan 14 15 1 (30) 27
Okara 30 3 1 - (34) 24
Town ship 20 12 3 6 (41) 19
Vehari 10 4 - - (14) 14
Total 187 67 20 7 281
Note. Lec=Lecturer,Assist. Prof=Assistant Professor, Asso. Prof=Associate Professor, prof=
Professor
Divisions have been merged into campuses