The Role of the Media in ICT Policy
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Globalization and Communications Policy: The Role of the Media in Communications Policy Development in Kenya between 2002 and 2009 Vanessa Malila Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Leeds Institute of Communications Studies January, 2012 ii The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his/her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. iii Acknowledgements I would first and foremost like to thank my husband for all his understanding and his dedication to getting me through this PhD. Without his help in proof reading, encouraging me and making me realise that I’m doing something worthwhile, I may have given up. I would also like to thank my son Joshua for his understanding when I had to work and could not always play with him as much as I would have liked. I am grateful to all my family who have been understanding and supportive during the four years I’ve spent on this project and who have always provided words of encouragement to help me get through times of doubt and difficulty. A big debt of gratitude goes to my supervisors, Dr Stephen Lax and Prof Katharine Sarikakis. Their comments, advice, support and encouragement at every step of the process have been invaluable, and without them and their guidance this thesis would not have been completed. I greatly appreciate the effort put in by Dr Lax during the last stages of my research when he took over as lead supervisor and was able to support me in what was a difficult writing up period. I must also extend my deepest gratitude to Prof Sarikakis for her recommendation which was vital in my receiving the Overseas Research Student Award Scholarship (ORSAS). I would like to thank the University of Leeds for awarding me both the ORSAS, and the Tetley and Lupton Scholarships without which I would not have had the funds to undertake my research. I am also extremely grateful to the Institute of Communications Studies at the University of Leeds for assisting me with funding my fieldwork, as well as assisting me in attending conferences to present my research, allowing me to gain confidence in the work I am doing and stretch my understanding of the field in which I work. I have thoroughly enjoyed my time in Leeds and especially working in the Institute of Communications Studies. I would like to thank all the staff who made me feel welcome and part of the research community. I would especially like to thank my fellow PhD students who understand the challenges and triumphs of undertaking a PhD, we have often talked about the high’s and the low’s and I appreciate them all for being an ear to complain to and good friends to celebrate with. Last, but not least, I would like to thank all those in Kenya who were part of this research in one way or another. Without you this research would not have been iv possible. I would especially like to thank Rose Nzioka and Joyce Lukwiya who were so helpful during the planning of my fieldwork. I would also like to thank all my interviewees for their time, their candid and honest responses, and their efforts to make my fieldwork as productive as possible. v Abstract This thesis is a case study analysis of the role of the media in communications policy development in Kenya. The aim of the research was to investigate whether the press in particular could play a role in policy-making as policy stakeholders, moving beyond the traditional role of the media in policy as agenda setting agents. This was done through a case study analysis of two policy-making processes, namely the process of developing the National ICT Policy and the process which resulted in the Kenya Communications Amendment Act. While traditional studies of the media’s role in policy have examined the manner in which media coverage has influenced policy-makers and the public, this thesis aims to investigate whether the media can play a more direct role in policy processes as stakeholders in policy discussions and debates. The media’s role in communications policy in Kenya was examined within the context of globalization and the potential of multi-stakeholder partnerships (MSPs) to create an enabling environment for the participation of diverse stakeholders, including the media, in the policy-making process. The findings have shed light on the political, social and economic context within which policy is made in Kenya and within which the press in Kenya operate and the obstacles that this has posed to their participation in policy-making processes. What has emerged from this thesis is that although there is some engagement by policy stakeholders other than the government, it is of a superficial nature and fails to ensure real diversity and participation by a range of different stakeholders from different sectors. Furthermore, the press failed to take advantage of avenues for debate and discussion to engage in policy discussions, and instead in the case of the KCAA used their agenda setting power to influence the policy negatively. Through biased, subjective and misleading reporting, the press were able to influence policy-makers to the point where the passed Act (KCAA) was returned to parliament for further amendments. vi Table of Contents Acknowledgements: ……………………………….………………….….……..…….iii Abstract: ………………………………..……………………………………………….v Table of Contents: ……………………………...……………………………….………..vi 1 Chapter 1: Introduction ..................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research context and significance ............................................................ 2 1.1.1 Definitions ........................................................................................... 5 1.2 Structure of the thesis ................................................................................ 7 2 Chapter 2: The Media and policy.................................................................... 10 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 10 2.2 The policy process and the media ........................................................... 12 2.3 The agenda setting role of the media ....................................................... 18 2.3.1 Attribute agenda setting .................................................................... 20 2.4 Media framing policy issues ..................................................................... 22 2.5 What is public opinion .............................................................................. 27 2.6 Influences on media content – How is the news agenda shaped? ........... 32 2.7 The Role of the media in policy ................................................................ 34 2.8 The role of the media in foreign policy ..................................................... 40 2.9 Role of the media in communications policy ............................................ 42 2.10 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 46 3 Chapter 3: Globalization and communications policy development ................ 48 3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 48 3.2 Globalization ............................................................................................ 49 3.2.1 Defining globalization........................................................................ 49 3.2.2 The effect of globalization on policy processes ................................. 52 3.3 Globalization and policy participation: Multi-stakeholder Partnerships (MSPs) ............................................................................................................... 56 3.3.1 MSPs at the global level ................................................................... 58 3.3.2 MSPs at the local level ..................................................................... 62 vii 3.4 Policy networks and MSPs in policy-making ............................................ 64 3.4.1 Media advocates for ICT policy: A case study of the media’s role at the WSIS 67 3.4.2 Media influence in policy questioned ................................................ 71 3.4.3 Media successes in influencing policy .............................................. 73 3.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 75 4 Chapter 4: Political and historical context of the current Kenyan environment 76 4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 76 4.2 Roots of tribalism in Kenya ...................................................................... 77 4.3 The Kenyatta and Moi presidencies ......................................................... 81 4.4 Democracy in Kenya................................................................................ 83 4.4.1 A slow transition: Media-government relations in the transition to democracy ..................................................................................................... 86 4.5 2007 general elections ............................................................................. 89 4.5.1 Election consequences: a strainted relationship between the media and government ............................................................................................