Mental chronometry definition

Continue MENTAL CHRONOMETRY, , AND LANGUAGE PERFORMANCE Some historical themes Of distraction during the emergence of stimulus are always punished by the procrastination process-Donders (1868) The term mental chronometry refers to an experimental approach that examines the time it takes for mental surgeries to gain an understanding of human attention, perception, cognition and action. , 1978, Chronometric Research of the Mind, Earlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey, p. 7). Common methods are response time measurements (RT) associated with events of the brain's electrical capabilities and eye movements. The measurement of the RIT (i.e. the time between the beginning of the stimulus and the beginning of the reaction to this stimulus) began with the work of the Dutchman F.K. Donders in the 1860s. Until that time, it was thought that mental processes, following Johannes Mueller, were too fast to be measurable. The exact measurement of RTs was made possible by a number of inventions in the 1840s, including the Englishman Charles Wheatstone and the Swiss watchmaker Mathias Hipp (Hipp chronoscope Chrono). Since the 1870s, has been involved in the development of a research program aimed at understanding human mental processes by measuring RTs. James McKin Cattell, a Wundt student in Leipzig, estimated about half of the experiments in the Wundt laboratory involved RT measurements. Wundt's laboratory in Leipzig has become a model for laboratories of scientific around the world. Wundt's perseverance in precision measurements has influenced the development of psychological experiments to date. Titchener's photo album: Photos and handwritten descriptions of instruments that were specially made for psychological research (some of the instruments were from Cattell) can be found in the album of photographs by Titchener, also a student of Wundt in Leipzig. Some of the tools were developed for RT research. Since his time in Leipzig, Titchener has been collecting trade catalogues, which he has linked to more than 40 volumes. These catalogues were sold to Rice University shortly after Titchener's death in 1927. Unfortunately, the collection of catalogues was thrown out in the 1970s, but three volumes survived. One of the three surviving volumes was an album of photographs. Titchener put the album together sometime between 1894 and 1899. The Museum of Reaction Time History documents many aspects of the history of mental chronometry. It provides many downloadable descriptions and photographs of a wide range of tools used by psychologists in the early days of experimental psychology. The Max Planck Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin is dedicated to the history of experiments in life It provides detailed information about Helmholtz's physiological experiments on frogs and humans in the 1850s, which inspired F.K. Donders to conduct his founding research with RT fifteen years later. In addition to measuring RTs, chronometric studies can study eye movements. Donders was not only the first person to measure the name RTs, but he also developed models for eye movements. Wundt took the sights to be a window into the work of the attention system. As Wundt (1897) reasoned in its outlines of psychology, visual acuity is best at the center of eye fixation (at 5 degrees from the center, the sharpness decreased by about 50 percent). Therefore, to draw attention to aspects of the visual world, eye fixation is directed at those visual aspects that are of interest. This makes the shift of gaze between the two visual stimuli an open sign of attention orientation, although attention and eye movements can sometimes be disconnected in the simple tasks of signal detection and identification. F. K. Donders Franciscus Cornelis (France) Donders was born on May 27, 1818, in Tilburg, North Brabent, the Netherlands (the same area where Vincent van Gogh was born 35 years later). The Donders went to the seminary in Tilburg and Boxmeer (about 35 km south of Nijmegen) and to the medical school in Utrecht. For the rest of his academic career (from the age of 29), he was a professor of physiology at the University of Utrecht. The house where Donders was born, Nieuwlandstraat 44 in Tilburg. The plate above the door of the Dutch poet Nikolaas Betts says: Op den 27sten van bloeimaand des jaar O.H. MDCCC-XVIII werd Franciscus Cornelis Donders in deze won geboren (27th flowering month of the year O.H. MDCCC-XVIII, Franciscus Cornelis Donders was born in this house). Donders was one of the pioneers of ophthalmology. In 1858, Donders founded the first eye hospital in the Netherlands. In 1864, his influential 635-page book On The Anomalies of Placement and Refraction of the Eye with a preliminary essay on physiological dioptria was published in English. It describes employment and prescription corrective glasses. Ophthalmicroscope Donderov (left), isoscope to identify visible vertical and horizontal meridians in downward gaze and convergence (middle), as well as a demonstration model of eye movement (right). The interests of the Donders included not only eye physiology, eye movements (he discovered what became known as the Donder Act), color vision and color blindness, but also general physiology, evolution and mental processes. His views are often strikingly modern. For example, he researched cerebral circulation in 1849 and was excited by the discovery of brain metabolism: As in all organs, blood changes as a result of brain nuys (Donders, 1868). One discovers in comparison incoming and outflow of blood that oxygen is consumed (Donders, 1868). This understanding, together with the subtraction method developed by Donders, forms the basis of two widely used modern functional methods of neuroimaging, PET and MRI. Donders was also interested in speech. In 1864, he published an article about his conclusion that vowels are characterized by their fixed subtext (now called foryants), regardless of the fundamental tone of the voice (i.e. the fundamental frequency). In his monograph De physiologie der spraakklanken, in het bijzonder van die der Nederlandsche taal (Physiology of speech sounds, in particular, Dutch) (Donders, 1870), he detailed the acoustic and phonetic properties of (Dutch) speech sounds and how they are formulated. Clockwise from top to bottom: Donders during his inauguration in Utrecht, one of his mechanical models of eye movements, his lab outside, and from the inside. A photo of a room in Donders' lab was taken shortly after his death. In the back corner on the left is a kimographer, which Donders used for his phonetic research; a modified version of the cymograph was used in his chronometric work (i.e. to measure speech production). Donders realized that the mind is not the brain, but what the brain does. As for mental phenomena, the connection between these phenomena and the action of the brain should be investigated, trying to find as much as possible different mental abilities (Donders, 1868). However, full knowledge of the functioning of the brain with which each mental process is associated does not take us one step further in understanding the nature of their relationship (Donders, 1868). Donders lacked the theoretical apparatus to accurately flesh out mental processes (computational theory of the mind and its modeling tools, which he would have needed in the first half of the 20th century for development), but he found another pen to mental processes, response time: But will there be no question of quantitative treatment of mental processes? No way! An important factor seemed to be receptive to measurement: I mean the time it takes for simple mental processes (Donders, 1868). Tools developed by F.K. Donders to determine the duration of mind action (upper figure: noematachograph and phonoutograph as he called them) and determine as soon as possible the time for simple thought (bottom left: the initial version of the noematachometer, which controlled the presentation of stimuli; middle: the final version of the Noematachometer; on the right). To measure the speed of mental processes, Donders developed a number of tools (above), some of which were made in a special section of his lab by a mechanic (see photo below), a student and a friend of the Donders. The work of the tools is described in Twee werktuigen tot bepaling van den tijd, voor psychische processen benoodigd (Two tools for determining the time needed for mental processes) that appeared in Onderzoekigen gedaan in het Physiologisch Laboratorium Utrecht, 1867-1868, 2, 21-25. Donders was the first person to measure the time it takes to call stimuli conversational responses. One way to achieve this was to use the nomatachograph and phosautographer as follows. Two participants A and B were sitting in front of the mouth of the photonautographer. While the cylinder was spinning, A pronounced syllable and B had to repeat it as quickly as possible without making mistakes. The onset of oscillations caused by two sounds was observed on paper (illustrated below) by points A and B on the line (P). The time interval between the two points was derived from vibrations (261 per second) of the tuning fork recorded simultaneously (S). RT was detected by counting the number of oscillations recorded between a and b, regardless of their length (i.e. a constant rotational speed of the cyclinder is required). I came up with the idea to interfere in the process of physiological time with some new components of mental action. If I had researched how much it would lengthen the physiological time, this, I decided, would reveal the time it takes for the term to intervene (Donders, 1868). Prior to work, Donders was generally thought to have mental operations associated with responding to the stimulus occurred too quickly to be measurable. Donder developed a subtraction method to measure the duration of the different mental processes through which the brain performs various tasks. Together with his students, Donders conducted experiments using RT's tasks in 1865. He used three methods: a method: simple RT. For example, when you hear a syllable of ki, you have to repeat it by saying ki. Method b: RT Choice. For example, you can hear a syllable of ki, ka, ko, ke or ku, and you have to give an appropriate answer (for example, when you hear ka, say, ka). Method C: Go/no-go RT. For example, you can hear a syllable of ki, ka, ko, ke or ku, and you only have to answer one of the syllables by producing an appropriate response (for example, when you hear ki, say ki, but when you hear one of the other syllables, you say nothing). Donders argued that simple RT (method a) requires perception and propulsion stages, go/no-go RT (method c) requires the same plus stage of discrimination, and the choice of RT (method b) requires all these stages plus stage selection. The critical observation of the Donders was that the simple RTs (method a) were the shortest, and then go/go RTs (method c), and the selection of RTs (method b) that were long. The Donders calculated the duration of the stages of discrimination and selection The duration of the discrimination phase is equal to RT go/no-go (method c) minus RT simple tasks (method a). The duration of the selection phase is equal to RT's choice task (method b) minus RT go/no-go (method c). Through these subtractions, Donders presented evidence of an important principle: the time it takes to complete a task depends on the number and types of mental stages involved. Through this principle, he laid the groundwork for a research programme that is still extremely productive: analysing the work of component processing of human tasks. The Donders used a wide variety of tasks. Stimuli can be pronounced syllables (as in the example above), colors, or written syllables, and answers can be uttered by answers (as in the example above) or manual key answers. Along the way, he made a number of other fundamental remarks. We forced the test subjects to respond with the right hand to the stimulus on the right side, and with the left hand to the stimulus on the left side. When the movement of the right hand was required with stimulation on the left side or vice versa, the length of time was longer and errors were common (Donders, 1868). Donders first reported his findings at a meeting of dutch Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen (Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences), June 14, 1865, in Amsterdam. The meeting was chaired by Donders himself. For 17 years he was the chairman of one of the branches of the Academy. The meeting report can be found in Proces Verbaal van de Gewone vergadering der Koninlijke Academy van Wetenschappen. Afdeeling Natuurkunde op saturdag 24 Junij 1865. Above left: A portrait of the Donders, painted by his second wife, Bramin Hubrecht, in honor of his 70th birthday in 1888, the year before his death (March 24, 1889). Bottom left: Portrait of him in the Senate Chamber of the University of Utrecht; Bottom right: a sculpture of the Donders of Paul de Suaaf at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen. At the end of his seminal article on the measurement of mental processing time, Donders reports that distraction during the emergence of stimulus is always punished by delaying the process (1868). This observation is interesting in light of the later research developments exploited by distraction, particularly the work of J. Ridley Stroop in the 1930s, described below. F. C. Donders on the Dutch brand, 1935, the year in which J. Ridley Stroop published his classic article on color-word interference. Donders, F.K. (1868). Nad de snelheid van psychische processen. Onderzoekingen gedaan in het Physiologisch Laboratorium der Utrechtsche Hoogeschool, 1868-1869, Tweede reeks, II, 92-120. Donders, F.K. (1868). Die Schnelligkeit psychischer Prozesse. Archive fuer Anatomie und Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medizin, 657-681. Donders, F.K. (1868). La acts of lunatics. Neerlandaises Archives, III, 269-317. Donders's founding report in Dutch, German and French, respectively, was translated into English and republished as About the Speed of Mental Processes in Acta Psychologica (1969) and in Volume Attention and Performance II (W. G. Koster, Ed.) in 1969. Donders conducted his first timekeeping experiments in 1865 with Johann Jacob de Jaager, who wrote a thesis on this work: Jaager, JJ de. de. (1865). De physiologische tijd bij psychische processen. Utrecht:. V. van de Weier. A large set of photographs of the Donders Physiological Laboratory in Utrecht can be found in the photo album, which was compiled in honor of the 40th anniversary of Kagenaar's work as a laboratory technician in the physiological laboratory in 1900: Kagenaar, D. B. (1900). Ter Herinering van de Veertig jarige amtsvervulling van D. B. Cagenaar Sr., 1860-1 Mei-1900 (photo album). Utrecht. The description of the laboratory can be obtained at the University of Utrecht Physiological Laboratory, 1872. A picture of the Donders in the town of Tilburg, his birthplace (left) and his grave in Ud Kuylen (right). The text on the stone reads: F.K. Donders, Huglerar te Utrecht 1848-1888. A description of the historical context of the Donders' work can be found in: Dreisma, D. (2002). The Age of Precision: F. C. Donders and The Dimension of the Mind. This essay was written and published on the occasion of the opening of the F.K. Donder Center for Cognitive Neuroimaging (now called the Center for Cognitive Neuroimaging of the Donder Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior) at Radbud University in Niymegen in 2002. The booklet was reissued during the celebration of the 200th anniversary of the birth of the Donders in 2018. Classics of mental chronometry - Posner, M.I. (1978). Timekeeping studies of the mind. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum. Another classic (describing the donder's work, problems with it and the most important subsequent developments in the field of mental chronometry) is Luce, R.D. (1986). Response time: Their role in the withdrawal of elementary mental organization. New York: Oxford University Press. The classic instrument (i.e. noematachographer and photonautographer) that Donders used to measure, for the first time in history, was exhibited at the Radbud University's Anatomical Museum, on temporary loan (April to June 2018) from the University museum of Utrecht. Vox magazine made a video clip (3 min) on this instrument and communication with modern neuroimaging, in which I made an explanation. The video also shows how we replicated the classic Donders experiment on repeating the Ki-ki speech, which was tested by my daughter Sterre and I while I was in a magnetic resonance imaging scanner. We used the original Donder incentive lists. Click here for an article and video in Vox magazine (in Dutch) and here for a video on Donders' on YouTube (in Dutch, but with English subtitles). Errata for video: The Donders tool is called noematachograph (not noemotachograph) and the counting of wave tuning forks is done from the speech beginning of the face to the speech start of the face B (rather than from bias to start as the animation suggests). For a modern replication of the classic study by RT Donders see Roelofs, A. (2018). One hundred and fifty years after Donders: Research from unpublished data, replication and modeling of his reactions once again. Acta Psychology, 191, 228-233. Article (PDF 666K) by James McKeen Cattell Inspired by the work of Donders in the 1860s, Wilhelm Wundt is involved in the development of a research program that aims to understand human mental processes by measuring RTs. James McKin Cattell, one of the first graduate students of Wundt in Leipzig and his first student assistant, is estimated to have about half the experiments in Wudta's laboratory involved RT measurements. A report on the activities of the Wundt Laboratory in Leipzig in the 1880s by Cattell can be found in Cattell, J. M. (1888). Psychological Laboratory in Leipzig, Mind, 13, 37-51. The second section of this article, Cattell(The Duration of Psychic Processes), focuses on RT measurements in Wundt's lab. Wundt was also a pioneer of psycholinguistics, a topic that takes up the first two books entitled Die Sprache of his ten-volume V'lkerpsychologie (in which he used bucket charts for syntax, now widely used in linguistics). As for RTs, Wundt has seen all his experiments as will studies: acts of will, decision and choice. Wundt's influence has been enormous and still lasts, both in terms of his ideas and his disciples. Among them are 180 doctoral students Wundt, Cattell, Titchener and Spearman, as well as their students, such as Woodworth and Thorndyk, formed psychological studies and theorists on his example. The descendants of Wundt not only performed important experimental and theoretical work (Cattell, Titchener, Thorndike), but also initiated clinical psychology (Witter) and intelligence tests (Cattell, Spearman). Most modern psychologists are only a few handshakes from Wundt. For example, three academic steps or handshakes separate me from Wundt: I was a graduate student at Willem M. The Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, who was a research fellow at Albert E. Michotte van den Burke (Catholic University of Louvena, Belgium), who was Wundt's postdoctoral fellow at the University of Leipzig. Cattell (above) and Wundt are surrounded by staff and students in Leipzig (see below), the site of the first experimental laboratory dedicated to psychological research. Cattell was born on May 25, 1860, in Easton, Pennsylvania. In 1883 he went to Leipzig to become Wundt's assistant. Under Wundta, Cattell became the first American to publish a thesis in psychology Returning from Germany with his doctoral thesis, Cattell began his career in America. Cattell died on January 20, 1944. In Leipzig, Cattell used chronometric techniques for simple psycholinguistic tasks such as naming objects, naming colors, and reading. He was the first to report that reading was faster than naming objects and colors. In 1885, Cattell discovered that naming 100 linear drawings of objects took about twice as long as naming a list of relevant printed object names. Drawings of tools used by Cattell to measure speech speech produced by latencies. In an article published in 1890 in the journal Mind, called Psychic Tests and Measurements, Cattell came up with the term psychic test, and he suggested using the color of RT's naming as one of the tests to measure intelligence. Now it has become clear that the color name RT says little about human intelligence, except when RT distributions are studied. In particular, tail distribution can reflect individual differences in intelligence (known as the worst performance rule). Cattell is one of the first American psychologists to emphasize quantitative evaluation, ranking and ratings. In later years, Cattell Psychological Corporation published the Wechsler Intelligence Test. Shortly after Cattell developed the first psychic tests, another Wundt student in Leipzig, Charles E. Spearman, became a leader in a psychometric approach to intelligence, publishing an article called General Intelligence, objectively defined and measured (1904). Cattell's lab at the University of Pennsylvania shows a Hipp chronoscope and a gravitational chronometer. Cattell was one of the first people in the world to be officially called Professor of Psychology, at the University of Pennsylvania (1888-91), where he was appointed shortly after he received his doctorate from Wundt in Leipzig. Cattell was one of the founders of the American Psychological Association (APA), and he was its fourth president. Together with James Mark Baldwin, Cattell founded Psychological Review in 1897, and in 1894 he founded the journal, which became one of the world's leading scientific journals Science. Cattell was editor and owner of science for half a century (from 1894 to 1944). He was the first psychologist to be admitted to the National Academy of Sciences (1901). Cattell, J. M. (1886). The time it takes to see and name objects. Um, 11, 63-65. Cattell, J. M. (1886). Time, overshadowed by cerebral operations, Parts 1 and 2. Um, 11, 220-242. Cattell, J. M. (1886). Time, snousized by cerebral operations, part 3. Um, 11, 377-392. Cattell, J. M. (1887). Time, overshadowed by cerebral operations, part 4. Um, 11, 524-538. Observation of J. Ridley Stroop Cattell on the difference in naming colors and reading their names is the starting point for the work of J. Ridley Stroop (1897-1973) (1897-1973) early 1930s. To study the basis of this difference, Stroop developed a new chronometric color task as part of her thesis work. This task of color words has become one of the most widely used tasks in academic and applied psychology. Stroop's 1935 article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology, in which the task was first presented and presented the main find, is one of the most cited publications, if not the most cited, in the history of experimental psychology. The conclusion that Stroop reported seems to be discussed in every introductory textbook, and this is known to many non-experts, bridging the gap between specialized research and what everyone should know. Stroop's challenge has become one of the golden standards of attention. John Ridley Stroop was born in Halls Hill, an agricultural community near Murfreesboro in Rutherford County, Tennessee, USA, in 1897. He received a bachelor's, master's and PhD from George Peabody College for Teachers in Nashville, Tennessee, from 1924 to 1933 (Peabody College is now part of ). Most of this time he taught in Lipscomb, and he returned to teach there from 1936 until his retirement in 1967. As a student, Stroop designed and built a house next to the Lipscomb campus. One of his sons, Fred, still lives in this house. Stroop loved to preach every Sunday and taught Bible classes throughout his years at Lipscomb. In fact, he seemed more interested in teaching the Bible than in psychology. Stroop died in 1973. In the basic version of the color word Stroop challenge, the speaker is represented by color words written in colored ink. The challenge is to name the color of the ink and try to ignore the word. For example, speakers should say red word green ink, mismatch the condition to say red on the red ink words red, congruent state, or say red on red ink series Xs, state control. In another basic version of the task, speakers are asked to read aloud words and ignore the colors of the ink. J. Ridley Stroop, circa the time of his dissertation at George Peabody College, circa 1933. The original 1935 Stroop experiments measured the time it took to complete the 10 x 10 stimuli maps. The presentation of Stroop stimuli on maps is still typical of the psychometric application of a task (when it is used as a diagnostic to identify attention problems, such as ADHD). In the original form, the speakers are presented with four maps. One card has colored words on it printed in black ink, with words to be read aloud. The second card has colored words on it, now each printed in conflicting ink colors, again the words must be read aloud. The third card has colored Xs on it and ink colors should be named. Finally, the fourth card has colored words on it each printed in conflicting ink colors, and The colors of the ink must be named. Note that the initial Stroop study did not have a congruent state (i.e. there was no map where the colors of the ink and the color words were aligned). A critical indicator is the time it takes to complete each card. The use of stimuli cards usually gives the same pattern of results as those derived from measuring time to name or read individual Stroop stimuli, which is the standard in modern experimental studies. J. Ridley Stroop when he was Chair of the Faculty of Psychology at College in 1948. Classical article Stroop: Stroop, J. R. (1935). Research into the intervention in serial verbal reactions. Diary of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-662. It was republished in 1992 in the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Common, 121, 15-23. The classic review of Stroop literature, covering more than 400 articles, is: McLeod, C. M. (1991). Half a century of Research on the : an integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 163-203. Colin McLeod's website has a biography and photos of JR Stroop. The American Psychological Association's website also contains a brief description of the Stroop task. Stop reading about the task? Test yourself in the next interactive demo! An interactive demonstration of the Stroop challenge as stated, the color word Stroop challenge has become one of the golden standards of attention measures. This interactive demo is designed to help you experience the Stroop phenomenon with a computerized, smaller version of the original Stroop study (i.e. his experiments 1 and 2; Stroop's Experiment 3 studied the effect of practice and is not included in the demo). In two demo experiments, you are presented with 5 x 5 incentive cards. Stroop used colors red, green, blue, brown, purple, and matching color words (he initially considered using yellow instead of brown, but found that yellow did not have a sufficient contrast with the white background card). The demo uses the same colors and color words. Stroop provided incentives on white cards in Franklin's 14-point lower class. This is also done in the demo. In the first experiment, you should read colored words printed in black ink (Card #1) or colored words printed in conflicting ink (Card #2). For example, for green or green, you have to say green. In the second experiment, you should call the color of the Xs line ink (Card #3) or the color of the ink of conflicting color words (Card #4). For example, to xxxxx or green, you have to say red. Once a 5 x 5 stimuli card appears on the screen, read the words (cards #1 and #2) or name the colors of the ink (Cards #3 and #4), out loud or silently, as fast as you can, trying not to make a mistake. The colors are red, green, blue, brown and purple. When you're done with the map, click on the button The time when it's You to name or read all the items on the map will be shown. If you want to try the same card, click on your browser's reboot button (no problem, the Stroop phenomenon persists even after thousands of reps). If you want to continue the experiment, click on the Continue Experiment button. 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