US Space Radioisotope Power Systems and Applications
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SATELLITES at WORK Space in the Seventies
SaLf ILMITRATBONS REPROMhdONkp N BLACK ANd WHiT? SATELLITES AT WORK Space in the Seventies 4 (SPACE IN N72-13 8 6 6 (NASA-EP-8 ) SATELLITES AT WORK THE SEVENTIES) W.R. Corliss (NASA) Jun. 1971 29 p CSCL 22B Unclas Reproduced by G3/31 11470 NATIONAL TECHNICAL u. INFORMATION SERVICE U S Department of Commerce Springfield VA 22151 J National Aeronautics and Space Administration SPACE IN THE SEVENTIES Man has walked on the Moon, made scientific observations there, and brought back to Earth samples of the lunar surface. Unmanned scientific spacecraft have probed for facts about matter, radiation and magnetism in space, and have collected data relating to the Moon, Venus, Mars, the Sun and some of the stars, and reported their findings to ground stations on Earth. Spacecraft have been put into orbit around the Earth as weather observation stations, as communications relay stations for a world-wide telephone and television network, and as aids to navigation. In addition, the space program has accelerated the advance of technology for science and industry, contributing many new ideas, processes and materials. All this took place in the decade of the Sixties. What next? What may be expected of space exploration in the Seventies? NASA has prepared a series of publications and motion pictures to provide a look forward to SPACE IN THE SEVENTIES. The topics covered in this series include: Earth orbital science; planetary exploration; practical applications of satellites; technology utilization; man in space; and aeronautics. SPACE IN THE SEVENTIES presents the planned programs of NASA for the coming decade. -
Information Summaries
TIROS 8 12/21/63 Delta-22 TIROS-H (A-53) 17B S National Aeronautics and TIROS 9 1/22/65 Delta-28 TIROS-I (A-54) 17A S Space Administration TIROS Operational 2TIROS 10 7/1/65 Delta-32 OT-1 17B S John F. Kennedy Space Center 2ESSA 1 2/3/66 Delta-36 OT-3 (TOS) 17A S Information Summaries 2 2 ESSA 2 2/28/66 Delta-37 OT-2 (TOS) 17B S 2ESSA 3 10/2/66 2Delta-41 TOS-A 1SLC-2E S PMS 031 (KSC) OSO (Orbiting Solar Observatories) Lunar and Planetary 2ESSA 4 1/26/67 2Delta-45 TOS-B 1SLC-2E S June 1999 OSO 1 3/7/62 Delta-8 OSO-A (S-16) 17A S 2ESSA 5 4/20/67 2Delta-48 TOS-C 1SLC-2E S OSO 2 2/3/65 Delta-29 OSO-B2 (S-17) 17B S Mission Launch Launch Payload Launch 2ESSA 6 11/10/67 2Delta-54 TOS-D 1SLC-2E S OSO 8/25/65 Delta-33 OSO-C 17B U Name Date Vehicle Code Pad Results 2ESSA 7 8/16/68 2Delta-58 TOS-E 1SLC-2E S OSO 3 3/8/67 Delta-46 OSO-E1 17A S 2ESSA 8 12/15/68 2Delta-62 TOS-F 1SLC-2E S OSO 4 10/18/67 Delta-53 OSO-D 17B S PIONEER (Lunar) 2ESSA 9 2/26/69 2Delta-67 TOS-G 17B S OSO 5 1/22/69 Delta-64 OSO-F 17B S Pioneer 1 10/11/58 Thor-Able-1 –– 17A U Major NASA 2 1 OSO 6/PAC 8/9/69 Delta-72 OSO-G/PAC 17A S Pioneer 2 11/8/58 Thor-Able-2 –– 17A U IMPROVED TIROS OPERATIONAL 2 1 OSO 7/TETR 3 9/29/71 Delta-85 OSO-H/TETR-D 17A S Pioneer 3 12/6/58 Juno II AM-11 –– 5 U 3ITOS 1/OSCAR 5 1/23/70 2Delta-76 1TIROS-M/OSCAR 1SLC-2W S 2 OSO 8 6/21/75 Delta-112 OSO-1 17B S Pioneer 4 3/3/59 Juno II AM-14 –– 5 S 3NOAA 1 12/11/70 2Delta-81 ITOS-A 1SLC-2W S Launches Pioneer 11/26/59 Atlas-Able-1 –– 14 U 3ITOS 10/21/71 2Delta-86 ITOS-B 1SLC-2E U OGO (Orbiting Geophysical -
Re-Examining the Role of Nuclear Fusion in a Renewables-Based Energy Mix
Re-examining the Role of Nuclear Fusion in a Renewables-Based Energy Mix T. E. G. Nicholasa,∗, T. P. Davisb, F. Federicia, J. E. Lelandc, B. S. Patela, C. Vincentd, S. H. Warda a York Plasma Institute, Department of Physics, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK b Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PH c Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3GJ, UK d Centre for Advanced Instrumentation, Department of Physics, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LS, UK Abstract Fusion energy is often regarded as a long-term solution to the world's energy needs. However, even after solving the critical research challenges, engineer- ing and materials science will still impose significant constraints on the char- acteristics of a fusion power plant. Meanwhile, the global energy grid must transition to low-carbon sources by 2050 to prevent the worst effects of climate change. We review three factors affecting fusion's future trajectory: (1) the sig- nificant drop in the price of renewable energy, (2) the intermittency of renewable sources and implications for future energy grids, and (3) the recent proposition of intermediate-level nuclear waste as a product of fusion. Within the scenario assumed by our premises, we find that while there remains a clear motivation to develop fusion power plants, this motivation is likely weakened by the time they become available. We also conclude that most current fusion reactor designs do not take these factors into account and, to increase market penetration, fu- sion research should consider relaxed nuclear waste design criteria, raw material availability constraints and load-following designs with pulsed operation. -
Compilation and Evaluation of Fission Yield Nuclear Data Iaea, Vienna, 2000 Iaea-Tecdoc-1168 Issn 1011–4289
IAEA-TECDOC-1168 Compilation and evaluation of fission yield nuclear data Final report of a co-ordinated research project 1991–1996 December 2000 The originating Section of this publication in the IAEA was: Nuclear Data Section International Atomic Energy Agency Wagramer Strasse 5 P.O. Box 100 A-1400 Vienna, Austria COMPILATION AND EVALUATION OF FISSION YIELD NUCLEAR DATA IAEA, VIENNA, 2000 IAEA-TECDOC-1168 ISSN 1011–4289 © IAEA, 2000 Printed by the IAEA in Austria December 2000 FOREWORD Fission product yields are required at several stages of the nuclear fuel cycle and are therefore included in all large international data files for reactor calculations and related applications. Such files are maintained and disseminated by the Nuclear Data Section of the IAEA as a member of an international data centres network. Users of these data are from the fields of reactor design and operation, waste management and nuclear materials safeguards, all of which are essential parts of the IAEA programme. In the 1980s, the number of measured fission yields increased so drastically that the manpower available for evaluating them to meet specific user needs was insufficient. To cope with this task, it was concluded in several meetings on fission product nuclear data, some of them convened by the IAEA, that international co-operation was required, and an IAEA co-ordinated research project (CRP) was recommended. This recommendation was endorsed by the International Nuclear Data Committee, an advisory body for the nuclear data programme of the IAEA. As a consequence, the CRP on the Compilation and Evaluation of Fission Yield Nuclear Data was initiated in 1991, after its scope, objectives and tasks had been defined by a preparatory meeting. -
Uranium (Nuclear)
Uranium (Nuclear) Uranium at a Glance, 2016 Classification: Major Uses: What Is Uranium? nonrenewable electricity Uranium is a naturally occurring radioactive element, that is very hard U.S. Energy Consumption: U.S. Energy Production: and heavy and is classified as a metal. It is also one of the few elements 8.427 Q 8.427 Q that is easily fissioned. It is the fuel used by nuclear power plants. 8.65% 10.01% Uranium was formed when the Earth was created and is found in rocks all over the world. Rocks that contain a lot of uranium are called uranium Lighter Atom Splits Element ore, or pitch-blende. Uranium, although abundant, is a nonrenewable energy source. Neutron Uranium Three isotopes of uranium are found in nature, uranium-234, 235 + Energy FISSION Neutron uranium-235, and uranium-238. These numbers refer to the number of Neutron neutrons and protons in each atom. Uranium-235 is the form commonly Lighter used for energy production because, unlike the other isotopes, the Element nucleus splits easily when bombarded by a neutron. During fission, the uranium-235 atom absorbs a bombarding neutron, causing its nucleus to split apart into two atoms of lighter mass. The first nuclear power plant came online in Shippingport, PA in 1957. At the same time, the fission reaction releases thermal and radiant Since then, the industry has experienced dramatic shifts in fortune. energy, as well as releasing more neutrons. The newly released neutrons Through the mid 1960s, government and industry experimented with go on to bombard other uranium atoms, and the process repeats itself demonstration and small commercial plants. -
Radioactive Decay
North Berwick High School Department of Physics Higher Physics Unit 2 Particles and Waves Section 3 Fission and Fusion Section 3 Fission and Fusion Note Making Make a dictionary with the meanings of any new words. Einstein and nuclear energy 1. Write down Einstein’s famous equation along with units. 2. Explain the importance of this equation and its relevance to nuclear power. A basic model of the atom 1. Copy the components of the atom diagram and state the meanings of A and Z. 2. Copy the table on page 5 and state the difference between elements and isotopes. Radioactive decay 1. Explain what is meant by radioactive decay and copy the summary table for the three types of nuclear radiation. 2. Describe an alpha particle, including the reason for its short range and copy the panel showing Plutonium decay. 3. Describe a beta particle, including its range and copy the panel showing Tritium decay. 4. Describe a gamma ray, including its range. Fission: spontaneous decay and nuclear bombardment 1. Describe the differences between the two methods of decay and copy the equation on page 10. Nuclear fission and E = mc2 1. Explain what is meant by the terms ‘mass difference’ and ‘chain reaction’. 2. Copy the example showing the energy released during a fission reaction. 3. Briefly describe controlled fission in a nuclear reactor. Nuclear fusion: energy of the future? 1. Explain why nuclear fusion might be a preferred source of energy in the future. 2. Describe some of the difficulties associated with maintaining a controlled fusion reaction. -
Nuclear Reactors Fuelled with Uranium Inevitably Produce Plutonium As a By-Product
The Secretary Joint Standing Committee on Treaties Inquiry into Nuclear Non-proliferation and Disarmament Dear Sir/Madam, I would like to submit the following submission to the Parliamentary Committee Inquiry into Nuclear Non- proliferation and Disarmament. Yours sincerely, Frank Barnaby. A submission to the Parliamentary Committee Inquiry into Nuclear Non- proliferation and Disarmament. Frank Barnaby Nuclear reactors fuelled with uranium inevitably produce plutonium as a by-product. This plutonium can be used by countries and by nuclear terrorists to fabricate nuclear weapons. The operation of nuclear-power reactors, therefore, has consequences for national, regional and global security. The more nuclear reactors there are the greater the security risks. Australia should recognise that these security risks outweigh the befits of producing electricity by nuclear power especially because the use of renewable sources of energy, combined with improvements in energy efficiency and the conservation of energy make the use of nuclear power unnecessary. As the world’s second largest exporter of uranium, Australia has a major responsibility to adopt policies to minimise the risks to security from nuclear proliferation and terrorism. To this end, Australia should use its influence to bring the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) into effect. It should not supply uranium to countries, like the USA and China, which have not yet ratified the CTBT. Moreover, Australia should promote the negotiation of a Comprehensive Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty to prohibit the further production of fissile material usable for the production of nuclear weapons, prohibit the reprocessing of spent nuclear-power reactor fuel that has been produced by Australian uranium and should not support or encourage the use of Mixed Oxide (MOX) nuclear fuel or the use of Generation IV reactors, particularly fast breeder reactors. -
Highly Enriched Uranium: Striking a Balance
OFFICIAL USE ONLY - DRAFT GLOSSARY OF TERMS APPENDIX F GLOSSARY OF TERMS Accountability: That part of the safeguards and security program that encompasses the measurement and inventory verification systems, records, and reports to account for nuclear materials. Assay: Measurement that establishes the total quantity of the isotope of an element and the total quantity of that element. Atom: The basic component of all matter. Atoms are the smallest part of an element that have all of the chemical properties of that element. Atoms consist of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons. Atomic energy: All forms of energy released in the course of nuclear fission or nuclear transformation. Atomic weapon: Any device utilizing atomic energy, exclusive of the means for transportation or propelling the device (where such means is a separable and divisible part of the device), the principal purpose of which is for use as, or for development of, a weapon, a weapon prototype, or a weapon test device. Blending: The intentional mixing of two different assays of the same material in order to achieve a desired third assay. Book inventory: The quantity of nuclear material present at a given time as reflected by accounting records. Burnup: A measure of consumption of fissionable material in reactor fuel. Burnup can be expressed as (a) the percentage of fissionable atoms that have undergone fission or capture, or (b) the amount of energy produced per unit weight of fuel in the reactor. Chain reaction: A self-sustaining series of nuclear fission reactions. Neutrons produced by fission cause more fission. Chain reactions are essential to the functioning of nuclear reactors and weapons. -
X-Ray and Neutron Sources
Chapter 1: Radioactivity Radioactivity from Direct Excitation X‐ray Emission 147 NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection An Overview of Radiation Exposure to US Population 148 NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection Chapter 1: Radioactivity Clinical X‐ray CT System The Siemens SOMATOM X clinical CT system 149 Chapter 1: Radioactivity X‐ray Imaging Examples 150 NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection Chapter 1: Radioactivity X‐ray Generation –X‐ray Tube Andrew Webb, Introduction to Biomedical Imaging, 2003, Wiley‐ Interscience. Motor, Why? Filament Rotating target Electron beam? How are electrons generated? 151 NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection Chapter 1: Radioactivity X‐ray Generation – Bremsstrahlung • Target nucleus positive charge (Z∙p+) attracts incident e‐ • Deceleration of an incident e‐ occurs in the proximity of the target atom nucleus • Energylostbye‐ is gained by the EM photon (x‐ray) generated • The impact parameter distance, the closest approach to the nucleus by the e‐ determines the amount of E loss • The Coulomb force of attraction varies strongly with distance ( 1/r2); ↓ distance →↑deceleration and E loss →↑photon E • Direct impact on the nucleus determines the maximum x‐ray E (Emax) 152 NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection Chapter 1: Radioactivity X‐ray Generation – Bremsstrahlung Interestingly, this process creates a relatively uniform spectrum. Intensity = nh 0 Photon energy spectrum 153 NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection Chapter 1: Radioactivity The Unfiltered Bremsstrahlung Spectrum Thick Target X‐ray Formation We can model target as a series of thin targets. Electrons successively loses energy as they moves deeper into the target. Electrons X‐rays Relative Intensity 0 Each layer produces a flat energy spectrum with decreasing peak energy level. -
The Actinide Research Quarterly Highlights Recent Achievements and Ongoing Programs of the Nuclear Materials Technology (NMT) Division
1st quarter 2001 TheLos Actinide Alamos National Research Laboratory N u c l e a r M Quarterlya t e r i a l s R e s e a r c h a n d T e c h n o l o g y Researcher Provides a Historical Perspective for Plutonium Heat Sources In This Issue We begin the seventh year of Actinide Research Quarterly For more than 30 years, by focusing on Los Alamos has designed, major programs in 4 developed, manufactured, NMT Division. The Pit Manufacturing and tested heat sources for publication team Project Presents Many radioisotope thermoelectric also welcomes its Challenges generators (RTGs). These new editor, Meredith powerful little “nuclear “Suki” Coonley, who is 6 batteries” produce heat assuming the position Can Los Alamos from the decay of radioac- while Ann Mauzy Meet Its Future Nuclear tive isotopes—usually takes on acting Challenges? plutonium-238—and can management provide electrical power duties in IM-1. 9 and heat for years in Detecting and satellites, instruments, K.C. Kim Predicting Plutonium and computers. Aging are Crucial to continued on page 2 Stockpile Stewardship 12 Pit Disassembly and Conversion Address a ‘Clear and Present Danger’ 14 Publications and Invited Talks Newsmakers 15 Energy Secretary Spencer Abraham Addresses Employees artist rendering of Rover Pathfinder on Mars from NASA/JPL Nuclear Materials Technology/Los Alamos National Laboratory 1 Actinide Research Quarterly This article was contributed by Gary Rinehart (NMT-9) Early development efforts from the Each Multihundred Watt RTG provided about 157 mid-1960s through the early 1970s focused watts of power at the beginning of the mission. -
The Best of Nimbus
9G45-80 3i -T1-;s |jj , b- G THE BEST OF NIMBUS MARCH 1971 CONTRACT NO. NAS 5-10343 0vI^EX:1.e -ThUt·a.S ; /f l 0 rGim,,,'ll? FTINSim aX,< ,,,,,. ., \N /, prepared for NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER GREENBELT, MARYLAND COLOR ILLUSTRATIONS REPRODUCED IN BLACK AND WHITE ALLIED RESEARCH ASSOCIATES, INC. _______VIRGINIA ROAD CONCORD, MA S S'ACH U SE TT S _ Nimbus 9G45-80 THE BEST OF NIMBUS MARCH 1971 CONTRACT NO. NAS 5-10343 prepared for NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER GREENBELT, MARYLAND Details of ilhsba!h ., this dowme may be btd A.ttdW an ntmfthe ____ALLIED RESEARCH ASSOCIATES, INC. VI R GINIA ROAD CON C ORD, MASSACHU S ETTS Preceding page blank- FOREWORD The past decade has seen the opening of a new era in meteorology. The use of satellites as remote sensing platforms to observe the earth' s weather has significantly increased our understanding of our atmospheric environment and its mechanisms. The TIROS satellites which were first launched in April of 1960 were primarily intended to serve the operational needs of the meteorologists in the detection and tracking of storms, frontal systems and similar phenomena by means of their associated cloud patterns. Nimbus, NASA' s "second-generation" meteorological satellite, has further advanced the application of such observations to meteorological research and to other fields of geophysics. In the past six years, four Nimbus satellites have been successfully launched, carrying increasingly complex scientific instruments. From their sun-synchronous near-polar orbits these earth-oriented satellites have returned to earth a wealth of new data appli- cable to meteorology, as well as significant data of interest for oceanography, geology, geography and hydrology. -
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•• Stockholm International Slprl Peace Research Institute Bergshamra fact SPACE S-l71 73 Solna Sweden 1983:1 Telephone 08-55 97 00 Cable: Peaceresearch January 1983 sheet NUCLEAR POWER SOURCES ON SATELLITES IN OUTER SPACE The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) has since 1973 closely followed the developments in military space technology. An average of about 120 spacecraft are launched each year, and about 75 per cent of them are used for military pur poses. Most of the spacecraft are launched either by the Soviet Union or the United States. The satellites are of several types: for military reconnaissance, communications, navigation, meteoro logical, geodetic and mapping missions. They continue to enhance the land-, sea- and air-based military forces of these countries. Satellites are used for gaining accurate targeting information. They are used for accurately guiding, for example, missiles, air craft and naval ships carrying nuclear warheads to their targets. They are used for communications between military forces, over both short and long distances. This Fact Sheet presents background information on one of these types of military satellite--one which is destined to crash into the earth's environment and which carries a nuclear reactor. Questions about the information in the Fact Sheet should be ad dressed to Dr. Bhupendra Jasani, at SIPRI. This material may be freely quoted, \vith attribution t~~~PRI. ~--si ri Cosmos 1402 Once again attention has been focused on the use of outer space for military purposes. On 28 December 1982 a Soviet military ocean surveillance satellite, Cosmos 1402, was split up during its 1926th orbit, into three components - the rocket, the main satellite, and the nuclear reactor (see figure 1).