EVA Minerva Rockets 1 1 Vanessa Latini ,​ Barbara Neumann ,​ Igor Monsuetto¹, Naiane Negri¹, Fabrícia Feijó¹, Jonas Degrave¹, Nina Senna², ​ ​ Willian Costa³ 1 U​ niversidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro 2 U​ niversity of Exeter ³Instituto Internacional de Neurociências Edmond e Lily Safra 1 m​ [email protected]

Abstract

Extravehicular activities consist of any activities developed by humans outside the space vehicule, be it in open space or on the surface of a planet or moon. This type of activity started early in the flights space. Here, we describe every part and component necessary for a useful spacesuit. Our focus was in Microgravity and Mars EVA. We show all that has been developed and what would we implement in our own spacesuit. Also, we show for the first time our design for the spacesuit.

Keywords: EVA, Microgravity, Mars, Space devices, Space Engineer. ​

September 30th, 2018

MINERVA ROCKETS Cobruf EVA Beta – Final Technical Report

Summary

1. Introduction 6 2. Methodology 8 2.1. Literature Analysis 8 2.2. Spacesuit Design 8 2.3. Spacesuit Development 8 3. Results and Discussion 9 3.1. Soft Suit 9 3.2. Hard Upper Torso (HUT) 12 3.3 Shoulder Design 17 3.4 Gloves Design 18 3.5 Waist Joint 20 3.6 Brief Shell 20 3.7 Boots Design 21 3.8 Couplers 22 3.9 Helmet 23 3.10 Mobility 27 3.11 Primary Life Support System 29 3.12 Control Module 33 3.13 Biomedics Equipments 33 3.14 Final Mass 42 4. Conclusions 44 5. Spacesuit Design 44 6. Future Work 46 7. References 47 8. Authoral Responsibility: 52

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List of Figures:

Fig. 1 - Alexei Leonov performs the first EVA mission in Voskhod 2 (NASA) 4 ​ Fig. 2 - Ed White working on the first American EVA (NASA) 5 ​ Fig. 3 - Bruce MacCandless flying free through space (NASA) 5 ​ Fig. 4 - Svetlana Savitskaya on EVA first woman mission.(ROSCOSMOS) 6 Fig. 5 - Timeline of Spacesuit design (UNKNOWN) 6 Fig. 6 - Soft Suit Layers (AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION) Fig. 7 - EDS models (JOHANSEN) 11 Fig. 8 - Backpack Side View (NASA) 11 ​ Fig. 9 - Astronaut entering in the suit (NASA) 12 ​ Fig. 10 - Rear Entry (NASA) 12 Fig. 11 - Hard Upper Torso (Air-Lock) 13 Fig. 12 - HUT sizes covering the entire anthropometric range (DAVID CLARK COMPANY Co.) 16 Fig. 13 - HUT geometry changes 2018 (NASA) 16 ​ Fig. 14 - Bearing Shoulder Joint (AIR-LOCK) 17 Fig. 15 - The Bearing shoulders attached to the composite Hard Upper Torso (AIR-LOCK) 17 Fig. 16 - Phase VI gloves (NASA) 18 Fig. 17 - Back of the Phase VII fingers with aerogel pads (MACLEOD) 18 Fig. 18 - Fingertip tactility testing to 0.1875” with similar in bulk TMG at 8 psid (MOISEEV) 19 Fig. 19 - Body Seal Closure (AIR-LOCK) 20 ​ Fig. 20 - Waist Joint (NASA) 20 Fig. 21 - Brief Shell Z-2 Suit (NASA) 20 ​ Fig. 22 - Soft boots with aluminum heels to connect with foot restraints on orbit (WORKBOOK) 25 ​ Fig. 23 - Complete spacesuit adjusting both boots with a Boa® system at the same (ROSS) 25 ® ® Fig. 24 - La Sportiva’s G2 SM boot with dual Boa ​ closure system (Boa ​ WEBSITE) 26 ​ ​ Fig. 25 - Ankle Bearings (AIR-LOCK) 27 Fig. 26 - Composite Glove Disconnect Bearing Assembly (AIR-LOCK) 27 Fig. 27 - Sun Visor (AIR-LOCK) 29 ​ Fig. 28 - Set of Visors (NASA) 29 Fig. 29 - Camera and Light System (NBC NEWS) 31 ​ Fig. 30 - Performance graph for dual spot without focus after 1 hour of battery usage (NASA) 31 Fig. 31 - Manufacture in 3D Printing (NASA) 32 ​ Fig. 32 - Communication System (NASA) Fig. 33 - Movements similar to “jumping jacks” (ILC DOVER) 26 ​ Fig. 34 - Movements of the arms and shoulders (ILC DOVER) 27 Fig. 35 - “Handrail Test” (ILC DOVER) 27 ​ Fig. 36 - Taking a swab sample (ILC DOVER) and Collecting rock sample (ILC DOVER) 28 Fig. 37 - Oxygen Saturation (NASA) 28 ​ Fig. 38 - Ventilation system, with rebreather (AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION) 29 Fig. 39 - Peristaltic Pump BT300-2J (LONGER PUMP WEBSITE) 29 Fig. 40 - Electrodes position (ECG LEARNING CENTER) 30 Fig. 41 - Position of precordial electrodes (ECG LEARNING CENTER) 30

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Fig. 42 - Pulse oximeter (AMAZON) 35 Fig. 43 - Thermistor (AMETHERM) 35 ​ Fig. 44 - Supporting electrodes for the reading of skin conductance (ZIYUN) 35 Fig. 45 - Functions presents in the VOC device (AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION) 40 ​ Fig. 46 - (a) Silicon Diode Detectors (NASA) and (b) Location of dosimeter (NASA) 41 Fig. 47 - Scheme of a Geiger-Müller Counter (ELEMENTAR SCIENCE) 42 ​ Fig. 48 - Location of Geiger-Muller Counter (AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION) 42 Fig. 49 - Final Design Concept (AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION) 45 Fig. 50 - Back view of spacesuit (AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION) 46 List of Tables:

Table 1 – Female Population Anthropometric Dimensions for Torso Sizing (David Clark Co.) 15 ​ Table 2 - Anthropometric measures for the chosen model (Adapted from David Clark Company) 17 ​ ​ Table 3 . Summary of desired adjustability for the HUT prototype (DAVID CLARK COMPANY) 16 Table 4 - Specifications of thermistor (AMETHERM, 2008) 44 ​ Table 5 - Density (areal and volumetric) and total mass of the suit components 54 ​

List of Symbols: ​ PMM Multi-Mission Platform EMU Extravehicular Mobility Unit psid pounds per square inch Kg Kilograms cm centimeters EVA Extravehicular Activity LTA Lower Torso Assembly CCA Communications Carrier Assembly lb pounds ITO Idium tin oxide WFM Work Function Matching Coating EDS Electrodynamic Dust Shield MMU Manned Maneuvering Unit atm Atmosphere HUT Hard Upper Torso TMG Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment LCVG Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment ≃ approximately equal to χ X- rays γ gamma radiation NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

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PLSS Primary Life Support System

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1. Introduction

Extravehicular activities consist of any activities developed by humans outside the space vehicle, be it in open space or on the surface of a planet or moon. This type of activity started early in the flights space. The first of these occurred on March 18, 1965. At the end of the first orbit, cosmonaut Alexei Leonov performed an EVA that began over the north of Africa, ended on the eastern region of Siberia and lasted 12 minutes. To the end of the activity, Leonov faced difficulties to return to the interior of the ship because his costume had grown in volume and he could not get through the hatch. The solution for this was a dangerous operation: Leonov had to reduce the internal pressure of his suit, so he could get back through the hatch (Fig 1).

Fig 1. Alexei Leonov performs the first EVA mission in Voskhod 2 (NASA).

The first North American extra-vehicular activity occurred less than three months after Leonov's. On June 3, 1965, astronaut Edward H. White II also conducted an EVA on the Gemini IV mission for 21 minutes (Fig 2). He was attached to the spaceship and his oxygen was supplied by the umbilical cord. It also had communication equipment and biomedical instrumentation. His mission was remarkable because he was the first to coordinate his movements in space. In addition, he was also caught in trouble by detecting a malfunction in the capsule locking mechanism, causing problems in opening and closing the hatch, and a delay at the beginning of the EVA, putting the crew at risk.

Fig 2. Ed White working on the first American EVA (NASA).

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The astronaut Bruce MacCandless II was the first one to do a spacewalk wich didn’t use any umbilical or restrictive tethers, on February 7, 1984. It was possible because he was using a Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) - a propulsion system unit. The MMU allowed the astronauts to go a few meters away from the space shuttle and it was controlled by astronaut’s hands. It was responsible for one of the most famous picture of an astronaut in space (Fig 3).

Fig 3. Bruce MacCandless flying free through space (NASA).

The first woman to perform EVA was a soviet named Svetlan Savitskaya, on July 25 of 1984, and it last 3 hours and 35 minutes (Fig. 4). She was in the space station Salyut 7.

Fig 4. Svetlana Savitskaya on EVA first woman mission.

In this way, space suits for EVA have been improving over time, aiming at ways to achieve mission success without much discomfort for the astronaut, and giving them more control over the system. EVA space suits are important for enabling technological advances during space operations. Over the years a variety of space suits have evolved with modular design and with increased functionality (Fig 5).

Fig 5. Timeline of Spacesuit design (UNKNOWN)

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EVA's control team are able to follow up and can provide insights into a member's ability to complete mission-critical tasks.

One of the greatest difficulties faced in the use of EVA is an increase of the parameters analyzed. For a long time, the focus was only on data such as heart rate, oxygen levels and cooling of the suit. However, nowadays it is sought to increase the biomedical parameters, using biosensors able to identify the health state of the astronaut and to pass the information in real time.

The biosensors are usually constituted by the bio-recognition element, a signal transducer and a detector. The elements for bio-recognition will be the volatile biomarkers, or volatile organic compounds, emitted under stress, already described in the literature. The use of biosensors allows to understand quickly in what physical situation the astronaut is, and to transmit information in real time to the base.

2. Methodology

Literature analysis This study is based on a review of the specialized literature, carried out between May 2018 and September 2018, during which there was consultation of books and periodicals in several databases. The search in the databases was performed using the terminologies used in spacesuit construction, and a lot of them were learned in the process.

The criteria for the search were spacesuits designed for Mars and microgravity environments, and we used as a main reference the NASA space suits for EVA. The models stand out are: Z-2 space suit, I-Suit and the line of generations of the Apollo garment, always looking to well-established methods as well as innovative approaches for the development of the space suits technologies with minimal operational costs and risks, in a low-cost manner. Spacesuit Design All drawings were hand made with HB Pencils, 2HB Pencils and fine line pens from UNIPIN 0.3/0.6/0.8. Then, they were scanned and vectorized in Illustrator. Spacesuit development A spacesuit was used as reference - Z2 from NASA - and research for improvement and detailing of every individual part was made. Some new technologies were used and others were adapted to create a functional garment for both Microgravity and Mars environments.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Soft suit

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Composed of multi-layered fabric and located under the Hard Upper Torso (HUT), the soft space suit is a system designed to keep the astronaut alive and safe under conditions of extreme temperatures, low pressure and in the presence of high rates of ionizing radiation, offering protection against the harsh space environment. It consists of the liquid cooling and ventilation garment (LCVG), a pressure restraint, a pressure bladder and a thermal micrometeoroid garment (TMG). Also made of fabric is the dust cover, the outermost layer that goes over the whole spacesuit and protects it from regolith (Figure x.).

Fig 6. Soft suit layers (AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION). From the bottom up: LCVG, nylon pressure bladder, ® ® ® Dacron ​ pressure restraint, nylon-Primaloft -​ nylon thermal insulator, ortho-fabric protection, Vectran ​ dust cover. ​ ​ ​

3.1.1 Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment (LCVG)

During an EVA, the astronaut’s body generates heat, which builds-up inside the impermeable and thermally insulated suit, creating the need to artificially cool the body. The LCVG is the inner layer of the suit and acts as a thermal regulator to maintain the body’s homeostasis. It is a multifilament nylon and spandex knit bodysuit that covers the entire body except for the face, lower legs and palms with water filled ethylene vinyl acetate tubing sewn onto the internal surface of the fabric (S. Ghose et al., 2007). The tubes have internal diameter of 2.4 mm and external diameter of 4 mm, with 60 m in length and a flow rate of 570 ml/min. They cover, according to S. Koscheyev et al. (2004, p. 2), “respectively, the crown of the head, torso except for abdomen and renal area of the back, inner thigh, forearm, and hand with fingers exposed”. The water is cooled by a refrigerator located on the backpack, which also circulates the water with a flow rate of 570 ml/min.

3.1.2 Pressure garment

Over the LCVG is the pressure suit, composed of a urethane coated nylon pressure bladder under a ® Dacron ​ pressure restraint. These layers allow the suit to inflate and maintain a livable internal atmosphere ​ (G. Vogt, 1998).

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3.1.3 Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment (TMG)

The outer layer of the soft suit, right below the HUT and connected to it, is the TMG, which provides thermal insulation and protection from abrasion, especially from micrometeoroids. Although traditionally the thermal insulation is a composition of five to seven intertwined layers of aluminized Mylar and Dacron (J. W. Wilson, 2006), according to E. Orndoff et al. (2000, p. 2), “because of the presence of a gas atmosphere on Mars, convection and gas conduction cooling renders conventional multi-layer suit insulation almost useless in cold Martian environments.” As such, to avoid the effects of the presence of the interstitial gases there’s the need to use fewer layers with lower thermal conductivity. In H. L. Paul et al. ® (2003), the use of a 25.4 mm thick non woven Primaloft ​ Sport sandwiched between two layers of nylon ​ ripstop fabric is proposed, with 4DG™ fibers for maximum surface area and silica aerogel (with opacifier particles and carbon fibers (T. Xie, 2013)) interstitial void medium, with a high interstitial void fraction and heat flux perpendicular to the fibers.

® Since H. L. Paul’s article, Primaloft ​ introduced PrimaLoft Gold Insulation Aerogel, which already has ​ encapsulated aerogel particles in it, is non-breathable, waterproof, durable and lightweight, and could potentially be a better alternative then the Sport model used in the research.

The outer layer of the soft space suit, and also part of the TMG, protects the suit against puncture, abrasion and tear damage, and is made out of ortho-fabric, a blend of Kevlar and Nomex synthetic fibers, coated with teflon, that should be white for radiation protection. The TMG has excess fabric on the elbows and knees to reduce torque and allow freer movement of the arms and legs (Wilson, J. W et al., 2006).

The thermal insulation and reflective cover guarantee a low heat exchange with the environment, keeping the body in a relatively stable state of warmth when the outside is too cold or too hot, while the LCVG controls the temperature inside the suit to prevent overheating generated by the body itself. According to H. L. Paul et al. (2003, p. 8), “the apparent thermal conductivity for a 4DG™ fiber batting with a web density of 6 oz/yd2 is found to be 0.01624 W/m-K”, which means that the inside and outside of the suit have a very low heat exchange and, as such, the inside temperature varies mainly because of the astronaut’s own body warmth. The LCVG is able to cool down the body, thus controlling the temperature inside the suit. To further insulate the garment it is possible to apply a sealant to the seams, and position them in a way so that they are not stacked on top of each other, reducing heat loss through them.

No spacesuit is completely gas impermeable; since it’s a pressured system in a vacuum environment, there’s bound to be leakage. However, there is a maximum leak rate of 300 sccm established by NASA when the suit is pressurized to 4.8 psid (H. L. Paul et al., 2010). Since the suit described is similar to NASA’s own working suits (and the pressure layers are the same), the gas permeability and leakage are within the standards and won’t affect the astronaut’s health and well being for the duration of the activity.

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According to N. Moiseev et al. (2017), NASA requires that, for a spacesuit to operate safely, it should be able to withstand at least 14.4 psid (three times it’s operating pressure of 4.8 psid). Since the nylon pressure bladder and Dacron restraint described are lifted directly from NASA’s in-use spacesuits, it’s safe to assume that they meet the requirements and are in fact able to support about 1 atm. Therefore, the garment is capable of maintaining its own atmosphere with the pressure provided by umbilical cord feeding.

Besides being able to withstand way under 0ºC temperatures, the Primaloft layer is waterproof, and all the seams can be sealed with a silicone coating. The hut and all the couplers are completely sealed. According to Graziosi, D. (2016), the Z-2 spacesuit (our reference for this article) is designed for chlorinated water, so it can be assumed that the suit is waterproof. Thus, it can also be assumed that our spacesuit is waterproof.

3.1.4 Protection against regolith

® The suit has a dust cover made of a lightweight, high strength Vectran ,​ coated with silicone filled with ​ a small percentage of titanium dioxide to make it white for protection against radiation thermal control (Cadogan, D. et al., 2007). It has pockets on the legs and fabric loops on the legs and near the gloves to tether tools so that they don’t float away in space (D. P. Gon et al., 2011). It can be covered with an ​ Electrodynamic Dust Shield (EDS) to avoid regolith deposition and adhesion, which could cause an accelerated degradation of the fabric, hinder the astronaut’s vision and lead to overheating because the layer of dust covers the reflective surfaces of the garment. The EDS consists of a series of embedded electrodes in a high dielectric strength substrate, using a low power, low frequency signal that produces a non-uniform electric field wave that travels across the surface capable of moving dust off of them.

A carbon nanotube/fabric EDS configuration was developed for space suits (Fig. xa), and a transparent indium tin oxide (ITO)/glass configuration was developed to protect visors and other optical equipments (Fig. xb). The EDS coating can be integrated with the helmet material, as well as with the visor, using transparent electrodes. The main placement of these electrodes on the suit are on the boots and legs, where the dust is most likely to adhere (Johansen, M. R., 2015).

The suit may also/instead be covered with a ∼100 nm thick Work Function Matching Coating (WFM), which, according to K. K. Manyapu et al. (2017, p. 2), “works by altering the chemistry of the dust exposed surface and is particularly designed to minimize electrostatic forces of adhesion”. Other means of getting rid of the remaining dust should also be adopted, like installing air showers and grated porches for the astronaut to ‘stomp’ on before re-entering the spaceship (Wagner, S., 2014).

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Fig 7. EDS models (Johansen, M. R., 2015) (a) CNT/fabric EDS (b) ITO/glass EDS

3.2 Hard Upper Torso (HUT)

3.2.1 Introduction

Fig 8. Backpack Side View (NASA) ​

Using as a reference the Nasa suit model Z-2, our space suit presents a differential in the way of ease of entry. The inner cover and the portable life support system (PLSS) are removed from the back to make access to the suit, and the astronaut can get in as if it were a spaceship, through its rear hatch. The suit allows an astronaut already dressed in the LCVG and the pressure layers to slide into his "soft spacecraft", composed of the TMG coupled with the HUT and topped by the dust cover, that can be fit to a Rover (Figure 8). This mechanism presents less expected time for the suit to be completely dressed / undressed than the old suit models, and the don / doff process doesn’t require the help of third parties.

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Fig 9. Astronaut entering in the suit (NASA)

Fig 10. Rear Entry (NASA)

3.2.2 Description

The HUT is the top pressure garment that can be interconnected with 4 rings: waist ring, helmet ring and two syce bearings. Its dimensions can be reconfigured to match the user's anthropometry, as well as having lightweight potential, ease of entry/exit, accurate nesting in a wide range of astronauts sizes, and mitigation of possible crew injuries. As the company Air-Lock makes available, the superior light composite HUT was developed and manufactured for NASA in graphite carbon fiber, weighing about 17 lb ≃ 7 .7 Kg, and has the ​ ​ rigid Life Support System (PLSS) assembly of the space suit coupled in its rear. Designed for the following exposure limits:

● Maximum Operating Pressure: 10.6 psid ≃ 0.72 atm ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ● Structural Pressure: 13.2 psid ≃ 0.90 atm ​ ​

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● Maximum Mobility: 8.3 psid ≃ 0 .56 atm ​ ​

Fig 11. Hard Upper Torso (Air-Lock)

3.2.3 Measurement

Syce bearings are the equipments that provide shoulder rotation, so if the center of rotation is not exactly placed with the center of rotation of the shoulder, the mobility of the astronaut's arm is severely limited. The distance between the helmet and the waist is another critical measure for the dimensioning, because if it is too short it becomes extremely uncomfortable, and if it is too long it impairs the mobility of the waist and the field of vision. In order to determine the average of upper body sizes, and the amount of resizing and adjustments required in each plane, there was a study of the anthropometric band and torso sizing. We used as a parameter the 50th female percentile for the creation of our HUT project. The table ​ ​ below contains the main measures we will use, adapted to cm.

Anthropometric dimension Measurement in cm

Stature 163,04

Chest Breadth 28,58

Hip Breadth 35,18

Chest Depth 24,64

Intersyce 35,69

Biacromial Breadth 36,30

Bideltoid Breadth 43,74

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Syce Circumference 37,72

Waist Front 39,62 Table 2. Anthropometric measures for the chosen model (Adapted from David Clark Company, 2018) ​ ​ ​

3.2.4 Adaptation to different anthropometrics

Adjustable Angles - Given the long journey, the body shape of each crew member will certainly change over time. During exposure to microgravity, elongation of the spine can be expected, as well as swelling of the upper limbs. The system used should be able to adjust accurately according to the position of these four rings, ensuring that critical dimensions can adapt to match these changes, without the need to customize for each crew member. The first focus is on a system that can be adjusted quickly and easily with the non-pressurized suit and in the future extend the system so that it allows size changes while pressurized.

For each upper body element (helmet, shoulder, waist), all Degrees of Freedom (DOFs) were examined by the David Clark Company to determine which were crucial, and the amount of re-dimensionability and reconfigurability for those were considered necessary. The angles ranges available are generally accepted to work well in most applications, and providing the adjustment of these angles allows experimentation to determine the optimal ones as it will be adaptable to various anthropometrics. (Jacobs, S.E., 2014).

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Table 3 . Summary of desired adjustability for the HUT prototype (DAVID CLARK COMPANY, 2014) ​

3.2.5 Logistics Practicality ​

In the question of a multiple sizing architecture to meet the entire anthropometric range, using the HSIR anthropometric database, the limitations of sizing in the trunk prevent a single HUT from accommodating the entire anthropometric range, thus, a preliminary analysis (Fig. 12) that Jacobs, SE (2014, p.14) did, ​ suggests that two reconfigurable HUT torsos sizes could accommodate the full range.

a) The small one, that fits women from the 1st to the 95th percentile and the 1st to the 20th male percentile;

b) The big one, that fits from 80th to 99th female percentile and from 20th to 99th male percentile.

With the adjustment of the connections and angles as described above, the choice of these two torso sizes means a step forward in the question of the feasibility of a suit with a greater logistic practicality of transport in large quantities.

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Fig 12. Two HUT sizes covering the entire anthropometric range (David Clark Company)

3.2.6 Current Geometry

NASA recently released Space Suit Z-2's most up-to-date geometry. Refers to the article by Ross. A (2018, p.4) “The hatch is angled 9.5 degrees from vertical, whereas the EMU PLSS is oriented vertically. The rear-entry hatch angle results from connecting the waist bearing to the helmet ring, the orientations of which were selected to allow walking mobility and visibility, respectively.” Based on this design model, we also adhere to the rear hatch inclination of 9.5º with the vertical, resulting from the interface of the bearing from the waist to the helmet ring (Figure 13).

Fig 13. HUT geometry changes 2018 (NASA)

3.3 Shoulder Design

In the shoulder joint the structural polyurethane will be used in order to maintain a constant volume, allowing maximum rotation of the astronaut's shoulder (90 degrees) with minimum stress in the pressurized mode. The Air-Lock company, responsible for developing this structural shoulder joint, fabricates it with four radially spaced sealed bearings from shoulder height to arm biceps, as shown in Figures 14 and 15.

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Fig 14. Bearing Shoulder Joint (Air-Lock)

Fig 15. The Bearing shoulders attached to the composite Hard Upper Torso (Air-Lock)

3.4 Gloves Design

Being far from the astronauts’ core, the hands are at a bigger risk of freezing, so the gloves have to have a better thermal insulation while also allowing comfortable movement of the fingers and wrists to avoid hand injuries, the most common type of injury astronauts face. The reference used was the Phase VI glove (Graziosi, D. et al., 2001) (Figure 16). It has a pleated, lightweight polyester fabric restraint, closely fitted to the hand to increase thumb and finger mobility, and a stainless steel palmbar placed in the crease of the hand to prevent ballooning of the palm during pressurized use and improving grip. The pressure bladder goes over the restraint, mimicking its close fitted shape, and is made out of a one-piece urethane bladder that exhibits little to no wrinkling when integrated into the glove. To reduce finger torque by providing additional material run length for flexion, convolute ridges are incorporated. The bladder also includes a fabric liner in the wrist to serve as a buffer between the crewmember’s arm or LCVG and the urethane bladder and a one-piece fabric reinforced flange to prevent bolt hole tearout during installation and removal of the glove disconnect. Lastly, the glove’s TMG is sized to provide a very conformal fit, its shape defined by the restraint layer of the glove and oversized only to prevent pressure load transfer from the restraint to the TMG. The fabric used in the palm of the TMG is a one-piece specially woven knit fabric, that allows stretch of the garment at

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the flex points on the palm of the hand, molded to the shape of the subject’s hand. Room temperature vulcanized rubber (RTV) pads are used on the palm of the TMG, providing thermal insulation and a high grip surface. In addition, selectively placed breaklines on the fingers, wrists and palm provide local areas of reduced torque and minimize the degradation in glove performance. Felt insulation is placed in areas of prime surface contact, including selective areas of the palm and the fingertips.

Fig 16. Phase VI gloves (NASA)

Inspired by the Phase VIId EVA Glove’s TMG, it would also be possible to incorporate aerogel pads to the back of the fingers and the back of the hand, limiting conductive heat transfer and serving as a spacer, absorber and smasher layer (Macleod, S. L. et al., 2014) (Figure x).

Fig 17. Back of the Phase VII fingers with aerogel pads (MACLEOD)

According to Korona, F., McFarland, S., & Walsh, S. (2018), subjects are able to identify small gaps with both Phase VI and Phase VII gloves. In Moiseev, N., & Southern, T. (2017), subjects wearing a glove with similar bulk to our glove were able to blindly identify the minimum gap of 0.125” in a tactility bar (Fig. 19). Therefore, considering that the gap between keys in a laptop keyboard is not smaller than that, if a narrow piece of rubber is added to the finger caps’ tips, it would be possible to identify the keys and type in a keyboard while wearing the gloves. It would also work on a resistive touch screen. For the gloves to be

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compatible with a conductive touchscreen however the RTV used on the fingertips must be electrically conductive, and conductive threads or fibers (such as silver or stainless steel) must be woven into the fabric layers.

Fig 18. Fingertip tactility testing to 0.1875” with similar in bulk TMG at 8 psid (MOISEEV)

3.5 Waist Joint

The Body Seal Closure (BSC) maintains a connection between the Lower Torso Assembly (LTA) and the Hard Upper Torso (HUT) of the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) spacesuit. It also contains a belt-like surface, serving as a tool holder for crew members during extravehicular activities. It consists of a large ring of aluminum waist, and uses the top of the briefing to for a two-ring rolling joint. According to Graziosi et al. (2016, p.5) “the aluminum RC ring attaches to the brief via a large stainless steel pivot pin riding in a roller bearing. The RC waist ring range is limited by rubber coated stops built into the front and back of the brief.”. It is designed for a range of 40 degrees. The waist joint is composed of a polyester containment in addition to the same layers described in this study.

​ Fig 19. Body Seal Closure (Air-Lock) Fig 20. Waist Joint (NASA) ​ ​

3.6 Brief Shell

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Graziosi et al (2014, July) released a new material approach, providing a balance between strength and mass. It is a hybrid composite with outer layers of pre-impregnated glass resin compound with S2 epoxy, and in the core a much thicker IM10 epoxy resin prepreg (pre-impregnated) compound. The result weights 5.5lb ≃ 2.5Kg . However, when evaluating parameters such as low cost, ease of access and manufacturing, we chose to apply the same material for the HUT designed by the Air-Lock company, graphite carbon fiber, which obtained a reasonable weight, great resistance, and completely acceptable factors for the conditions described in this study. The selected geometry remains identical to the Z-2 space suit, to ensure mobility, described specifically in the topic "3.10 Mobility" of this material. ​ ​

Fig 21. Brief Shell Z-2 Suit (NASA)

3.7 Boots Design

When the suit is used for extraplanetary extravehicular activities in a vacuum, as in, there is no contact with the ground, the feet are not used to support the astronaut’s weight, so there is no need to use complete footwear. Soft boots are enough, used mostly to maintain internal pressure and connect the astronauts to foot restraints so they don't drift away from the spaceship while using their hands. These boots have aluminum heels to connect to the restraints, and are connected to the TMG legs with ankle bearings (Fig. x).

Fig 22. Soft boots with aluminum heels to connect with foot restraints on orbit (JSC-19450 Rev. B Extravehicular Mobility Unit Systems Training Workbook).

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For planetary exploration, however, it’s necessary to have hard-soled boots with more structure on the feet and ankles to support the astronauts. The boots can be commercial boots with a Boa® closure system ​ that permits a precise fit adjustment to the feet, even when the user is wearing gloves, guaranteeing more comfort and preventing feet and ankle injuries during the activity (Fig. 23).

Fig 23. Subject in a complete spacesuit adjusting both boots with a Boa® system at the same (ROSS)

The suggested model is an adapted La Sportiva’s G2 SM, without the inner boot and with white or silver coating on the gaiter. The boots’ material layup would be kept the same (Fig. 25) (La Sportiva’s online store).

® ® Fig 24. La Sportiva’s G2 SM boot with dual Boa ​ closure system (Boa ​ WEBSITE) ​ ​

3.8 Couplers

This is a mode that, if well designed and manufactured, allows a better mobility, fit and sealing, and is therefore essential for the operation of the space suit. They also have the ability to reduce the time for the modules to be disengaged and engaged, mainly without the help of third parties, optimizing the time spent. As a manufacturing option, in addition to the HUT, helmet, shoulders and couplers can also be manufactured in 3D printer, facilitating much of the process. (3DR Holding, 2015)

3.8.1 Ankle Bearings

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In order to increase the mobility of astronauts during EVA missions, the Ankle Bearings feature a low-torque bearing design, allowing the shoulders to be rotated in both pressurized and non-pressurized states. Made of lightweight carbon composites, they reduce stress and fatigue of the crew. Created by the ​ company Air-Lock.

Fig 25. Ankle Bearings (Air-Lock)

3.8.2 Composite Glove Disconnect Bearing Assembly ​

The full-pressure Glove Disconnect Bearing assembly is the device created by the company Air-Lock so that the crew member can easily connect or disconnect the gloves without the aid of third parties. Its design features a positive locking ring coupled to a sealed low torque bearing, which allows for effortless rotational mobility, minimizing crew members' stress and fatigue. It is possible to use it in both pressurized and non-pressurized modes. This is manufactured from lightweight carbon fiber.

Fig 26. Composite Glove Disconnect Bearing Assembly (Air-Lock)

3.9 Helmet

Our project is based on the new I-Suit helmet model from NASA, in order to obtain the best possible results, in which there is no modularity problem and the greatest possible anthropometry is applicable. According to D.Graziosi (2003,p.3) “ The helmet design passed spaceflight helmet carbon dioxide washout

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tests performed at NASA JSC. Test engineers and astronauts at NASA JSC found the new advanced I-Suit helmet to be a significant improvement over the existing Shuttle helmet.”

3.9.1 Application in various anthropometrics

Essential for modularity of a space suit is the shape of the helmet. Originally, NASA validated the 13" prototype as the ideal for a wide variety of head anthropometries. However, it has been observed that the neck ring interferes with the mobility of the shoulder, which problematizes any mission of modularity; in a worst case scenario, this interference can become a risk for shoulder damage. In addition to the design it has a minimal internal volume that limits the astronaut's top and bottom visibility. The lack of space would also not allow the possibility of a greater communication system nor the presence of the non-invasive electroencephalogram that we will use to record the electrical activity of the astronaut's brain in order to guarantee his health and diagnose possible injuries, convulsions, amongst others.

The proposed solution was the change to a 13" elliptical hemispherical dome and a minor axis of 1". According to Amy Ross et al (2014, p.5) ”There is some indication that the Z-2 helmet geometry will be acceptable across the full range of head anthropometries and use scenarios; however, this acceptability is not yet verified.” In addition, the new helmet design includes the composite wedge element that has an architecture suitable for attaching the backpack and the PLSS. (D.Graziosi, 2003).

3.9.2 Protective Layers

Air-Lock's business operations developed the Sun Visor, along with the ASCC (Advanced Solar Controlled Coating), to meet NASA's challenging optical requirements for extravehicular activities. Its manufacture uses polysulfone substrate, in addition to an abrasion resistance coating. It also has a coating of Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) ASCC which provides a more robust visor with higher performance. The whole outside, formed by the dome, is produced with polycarbonate. The set of visors serves as a heat and light attenuation device, consisting of visors and eyeshades attached laterally to the helmet. To use them, the astronaut simply rotates the pins on the side, so the visor covers the helmet (Fig. 28), offering micrometeoroid protection, protection for solar radiation and from accidental impacts. In addition, the use of the gilded visor, which is reflective and blocks the visible light and the infrared, is indispensable. (Ross.A, 2018).

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Fig 27. Sun Visor (Air-Lock)

Fig 28. Set of Visors (NASA)

3.9.3 Camera and Light System

Designated as EVA Helmet Interchangeable Portable (EHIP) lights, the EVA contains a battery - powered lighting system, plus cameras on its helmet. The lights are composed of halogen charged by the central battery coupled in the PLSS in order to simplify and obtain an estimate of the total energy and power required. The PLSS will be specifically addressed in Topic 3.5 of this article. In terms of economy, halogen lamps offer more light with power less than or equal to that of ordinary incandescents, and have a longer shelf life. In order to obtain the best possible configuration of lighting systems and cameras, according to J.Maida (2004, p.3), “There are two spot lights and two flood lights and are mounted such that the spots and floods are operated in left and right pairs or one at a time. A maximum of two lights, one on each side, can be on at the same time. The lights can be manually articulated or focused. There are three cameras mounted next to the left and right lights and on the top of the helmet. Camera parameters such F-stop and focus are set up prior to operations.”

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Fig 29. Camera and Light System (NBC NEWS)

An array of distances and radius was generated from the minimum illumination provided in the model (4.5 lux or .42 foot-candles, for the camera f-stop). Figure 30 shows the field of view according to the ​ ​ distance and the propagation of the beam that is illuminated, using double points in the unfocused mode on the helmet cameras. In the example below, this is a nickel metal hydride battery with one hour of use. (Maida .J, 2004).

Fig 30. Camera performance graph for dual spot without focus after 1 hour of battery usage (NASA)

3.9.4 Manufacture in 3D Printing

To allow the integration of elements such as the air in plenum, head back pad, speaker housings, and microphone mounting blocks, scientists defined the basic geometry of the system, creating a complete 3D model using Pro Engineering software. The prototype was used to evaluate ventilation flow and its performance in the elimination of carbon dioxide. In full scale, the helmet was fabricated using stereolithography. It is a common technology for manufacturing and rapid prototyping for the production of high precision parts, as well as finishing surfaces. In this manufacturing a laser is used to solidify parts of a

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special resin. Where the laser strikes, a chemical reaction occurs (the polymerization) that makes the resin originally liquid into a solid.

Fig 31. Manufacture in 3D Printing (NASA) ​ ​

3.9.5 Neck Ring

For the neck ring we will use the same NASA I-Suit style design, which consists of a central locking pressure ring design, including two independent spring-loaded locking knobs. In addition, four pins allow the connection, by means of lateral holes in the protection visor, with the neck ring so that it is possible to engage and disengage.

In Structure and Mass Test Results from NASA, Requirement SM67, which requires that the shield visor is removable and replaceable in less than 10 minutes without tools, according to D.Graziosi et al (2016, p.14) “This was verified by demonstration and shown to be replaceable in 20 seconds.”

3.9.7 Communication System

Communications Carrier Assembly (CCA) it's a lightweight cover with built-in headphones and a ​ microphone for use with the EMU radio to get in touch with a space station and the rest of the crew. The integration of communication systems and their operation will be addressed throughout this study.

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Fig 32. Communication System (NASA)

3.10 Mobility It is already clear that our project is based on the new design of NASA Z-2 and I-Suit. In order to prove its mobility capacity and to allow maximum possible astronaut movement, to bring greater comfort within his own spacesuit, the article by Graziosi D. et all (2003) proves, through a series of practical physical tests, the comparison of movements between the design of an old Shuttle EMU model with the small size of the I-Suit.

We have that in Figure 33 both present movements of half squat, with a certain inclination, and later lifting of the hands to the head, in addition to the distant legs, a similar movement to "jumping jacks", in which the I-Suit suit on the right is able to perform more efficiently than the old EMU on the left. Figure 34 demonstrates the possibility of forearm fold movement, which, in a mission in space, would allow the astronaut to pull over and use the Control Module, located in the middle of the HUT, which in fact is essential for survival.

Fig 33. Movements similar to “jumping jacks” (ILC DOVER)

Fig 34. Movements of the arms and shoulders (ILC DOVER)

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Fig 35. “Handrail Test” (ILC DOVER) ​ ​

The small I-Suit and the large EMU were also compared for horizontal and vertical range. Called "Handrail test", it simulates movements performed regularly during EVA activities. According to Graziosi (2014, p.5). “The subjects were tasked with rotating the circular handrail section in a horizontal and vertical plane to compare reach” (Fig. 35). This test allows us to ensure that the suit is able to pick up an object 90 ​ ​ degrees from its front plane. Figure 36 (a), presented on Graziosi D. (2006, p. 4) shows that the waist joint ​ ​ maintained stability and allowed the astronaut to lower himself to perform the tasks, in this case to collect a sample on the ground. Figure 36 (b) also presents the crewman using a hammer to collect rock samples, ​ ​ representing the same movement of hammering a nail into wood, for example.

Ratcheting activity is an activity that aims to compare the mobility and reach of the suit. The subjects were restrained with restraint on their feet, the same distance from the workplace, and used a proprietary EVA tool to install and remove screws. Even with the big difference in height and reach advantage, Graziosi ensures that “the small I-Suit subject was able to perform the ratcheting task with equal or greater ease”, as well as reduced effort and fatigue in the test of the new I-Suit model.

Fig 36. (a) Taking a swab sample (ILC Dover) and (b) Collecting rock sample (ILC Dover)

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Based on Figure 36 (a) we can also confirm that the subject is proficient with a swab while using a full spacesuit, with gloves, which indicates that they could handle an item of similar shape and size, like a needle for instance. Although the thread is smaller, the rubber pads at the ends of the fingers would allow it to be held in place long and safely enough to allow it to go into the needle hole and then to be pulled through.

3.11 Primary Life Support System

3.11.1 - Introduction to Primary life support system

To keep the astronaut alive and safe, even in the extreme conditions of outer space, a series of systems is needed: the PLSS - primary life support system. The PLSS is, usually, in the backpack attached to the back of suit. It has basically a chiller, a powersource, and containers for water and oxygen.

3.11.2 Oxygenation proportion

One person consumes about 8 liters of air per minute at ambient pressure. The internal pressure of a spacesuit however is about 4.8 psid, lower than ambient pressure, so it does not take 480 liters of air for a person to breathe inside a suit for an hour. This allows (and requires) the use of increasing proportions of oxygen to inflate the suit. If pure oxygen is used, about 25 liters of it are needed per hour.

Fig 37. Oxygen Saturation (NASA)

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3.11.3 Rebreather

Similar to a diving suit, the rebreather technology ensures longer usage by recycling the atmosphere, and prevents poisoning due to air metabolized. The system makes the air pass several times through a filter (usually lithium hydroxide canisters) capturing carbon dioxide, and, when indicated that oxygen levels are below the reference value (i.e. within a safe range for the astronaut), the system supplies the garment with the supply of O2 indicated for the set pressure. ​ ​

There are two oxygen tanks on the backpack, one main and one reserve. It is also possible to replace the reserve for a mixture of diluent gases (usually nitrogen) in order to always ensure a more secure concentration of oxygen (ideal for a higher pressure environment) .There is also a motor / fan that keeps air circulating (between 35 000 and 70 000 rpm) so that it does not accumulate, and it passes repeatedly by the canister.

Finally, there is the possibility of disconnecting the oxygenation system, to connect via a tube to the spaceship - umbilical cord - that maintains the atmospheric supply from an external source, replacing the tanks as feeders of the cycle.

Fig 38. Ventilation system, with rebreather (AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION)

3.11.4 Duration

Based on how much oxygen a person consumes per minute using in a 100% oxygen atmosphere, if we want a duration of two hours, whereas for each breath only about 5% of the oxygen is converted, about 50 liters of oxygen, at ambient pressure, would be required for the tanks.

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We can estimate the supply by tank pressure and a gaseous oxygen model with constant volume and temperature. Knowing the amount available, we can estimate the duration with the astronaut’s demand.

3.11.5 Power force

The model is a lithium-ion battery, because it has advantage of being the most used by the market, and has a longer life. Based on the models used (Apollo), it would be something similar to a battery of 16-20 V, and about 400 Wh of energy. Adopting this model as a first battery, there are some corresponding models in the market.

The battery is connected to the central computer as well as all systems with their energy demands, and can estimate the remaining power duration in time through a simple software. For this it would be necessary to install some ammeters to measure the current demand of consumers, and compare with the current energy.

Based on the specifications of other PLSS models, we have adopted as standard the "L1600A 16V 20Ah Racing Battery" battery, with specifications of 20 Ah and 16 V. It is also possible to design a battery, given the general demands of the systems.

3.11.6 Water and chilling

Fig 39. Peristaltic Pump BT300-2J (LONGER PUMP WEBSITE)

A flow-based cooling with microtubes is used through the LCVG layer of the suit. Based on the costume specifications, we need a peristaltic pump, which maintains a flow of about 600 ml / min through the costume tubes.

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There are commercial models that meet this demand, or it is possible to manufacture on demand. Using as a design reference the "BT300-2J - Medium Flow Rate Peristaltic Pump", we have a pump of about 3.5 kg, and consumption of 48 Watts.

Finally, to cool the water in the loop, we use condensers exposed to the vacuum of the cooling space, which functions as a cooler, without the need to remove heat from the cold source to a hot one. In the ground, however, it’s not possible use that system, so we need a normal chiller. There isn’t a small model in the market, but it’s possible make a project of one.

3.11.7 Communications

Finally, a system is needed that sends signals to a command platform, maintaining communication with the sensors and with the astronaut. It uses radio waves, because they can propagate in almost any environment, and move quickly. A receiver and sender is added to the PLSS, thus allowing communication.

3.12 Control Module

The control module on-board computer is based on the Multi-Mission-Platform (PMM) architecture developed by Minerva Rockets. It consists of a microcontroller operating in 180 MHz with enough processing power for multiple sensor reading and fusion, with 64 GB of internal storage. It communicates with the internal IMU 10-DOF sensor (accelerometer, gyroscope, 3-axis magnetometer, barometer and thermometer) and a UHF transmitter in 915 MHz band, capable of sending health data from internal systems and the cobrufnaut's health to the base. Depending on the mission, transmission rate can be adjusted to change up to 300 kbps or reach up to 80 km, with a high gain directional antenna on the ground station, addressing both mission that require intensive communication, as well as communication over long distances.

Interface between PMM with biometric sensors, health systems and life support of the space suit is made through its expansion bus, connecting with up to 256 sensors via I2C, 16 modules via SPI and 6 channels of TTL serial communication. Audio and video transmission is provided by an S-band transmitter, which operates at 2200-2300 MHz and transmits up to 1 MBit/s, sufficient to maintain continuous communication and video streaming at 360p resolution using H.264 compression protocol. In this way, it is possible to track mission progress by a ground support team, transmitting voice, health information from systems and health information in real time. Likewise, system health and operator health data, as well as information received from the ground station, will be displayed on the suit embedded computer screen display and read by the cobrufnaut in real time.

3.13 Biomedics Equipments

1. Heart Rate and Electrocardiogram

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Electrocardiography measures the electrical activity of the heart. They are involved with cardiac electrical conductivity: ● Sinus or sinoatrial node: responsible for controlling heart rate and heart rate. ● Atrioventricular node: responsible for the physiological pause that allows the injection of blood into the ventricular chambers. ● His bundle: carries specific stimuli for each ventricle ● Purkinje fibers: a conduction point that comes in contact with the myocardial cell. ● Activation of a heartbeat begins at the sinoatrial node, thus producing the heart rate at about 70 cycles per minute. This activation is propagated to the right and left atrium. In the atrioventricular node, there is a delay to allow the ventricles to fill with blood from the atrial contraction. The depolarization then propagates through the ventricles through the His fibers and spreads along the Purkinje fibers. This activates the ventricles to contract and pump blood to the aorta and the rest of the body. Finally repolarization occurs and this cycle repeats. Heart rate is the number of cycles that occurs every minute. As the cycle takes place, the transmembrane potential, which is the difference between the inner and outer spaces of the cell membrane, changes. These voltage changes can be measured with surface, non-invasive electrodes. The electrode used is a circular self-adhesive consisting of a conductive gel and a silver / silver chloride conductor. The gel usually contains potassium chloride to allow the conduction of electrons from the skin to the wire and thus to the electrocardiogram. To perform an electrocardiogram, it is necessary 10 electrodes, divided into two groups: peripheral electrodes and precordial electrodes (Fig. 40, 41). From these data we obtain the 12 ECG leads, which are the electrical potential differences between two points. In the bipolar leads the difference between two electrodes, and in the monopoles the difference between a virtual point and an electrode.

Fig 40. Electrodes position (ECG LEARNING CENTER)

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Fig 41. Position of precordial electrodes (ECG LEARNING CENTER)

To obtain these 12 ECG leads it is possible to use only one pair of electrodes (positive and negative) on the body surface (TROBEC, 2011). If the electric current of the heart is directed to the positive pole of each derivation, the wave in the tracing is positive; if it goes away, it will be negative. For our study, we defined the acquisition of ECG data through the ECG Lead II and V5 configuration, which will also be used to detect respiratory rate (MONTGOMERY, 2004). All data will be stored in a wearable device.

2. Respiratory Rate Breathing is one of the most obvious signs of vitality; however it can also show the status of a patient and the progression of a disease. The entire process of inhalation and expiration is called the respiratory cycle (RC). Respiratory rate indicates the time between two consecutive CRs. Any change in respiratory rate may help predict clinical events, such as cardiac arrest, for example. The ECG-derived breathing techniques are the most relevant to our study because they are based on the positions of the ECG electrodes on the surface of the thorax, thus reducing the use of extra equipment for this detection. The number of sensors should be as small as possible because fewer sensors are less harmful to users. Thus, it’s already possible to extract several indicators from a single monitored bio-signal. Body surface potentials are typically used to monitor heart, brain, muscle contraction, or respiration activity. Thus, the same device used to detect heart rate will be used to detect respiratory rate.

3. Oximeter and Blood Saturation Blood oxygenation (SpO2) will be measured through a pulse oximeter (Fig. 42). The device is able to send the data through bluetooth to the main device, used to gather all the astronaut data.

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Pulse oximetry is a noninvasive, continuous method capable of measuring oxygen saturation through optical analysis. The levels of oxygen saturation refer to the amount of hemoglobin that are carrying O2, being 100% when all available hemoglobins are already occupied with O2.

Fig 42. Pulse oximeter (AMAZON)

4. Blood pressure Blood pressure refers to the force that the blood exerts against the wall of the arteries. This force is necessary so that the blood can circulate throughout the body. Blood pressure (BP) varies due to the interaction of factors neurohumoral, behavioral and environmental. According to the individual's activities, and in hypertensive individuals variability has a higher amplitude than normotensive. During the waking period, these values are higher than those obtained during sleep. However, the pressure in the arteries is not ​​ constant, varying contraction (systole) or relaxation (diastole) of the left ventricle, presenting its maximum value during systolic (systolic pressure) and minimum during diastole (diastolic pressure).

For the measure of blood pressure we will use a common dispositive adapted to the pulse. All data will be send to the multi mission platform.

5. Temperature For temperature measure, we will use a thermistor (Fig. 43). It has a range between -50 °C to +150°C (Table 4). The thermistor works changing the resistance accordingly to minimal changes in body temperature. It’s very accurate. Data is easily sent to the main device.

Table 4. Specifications of thermistor (AMETHERM, 2008) Max. Voltage Rating 680 V

Max. Inrush Current 20 A

Thermal Constant 62 s

Dissipation Constant 55 mW/°C

Heat Capacity 5.45 J/°C

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Resistance at 25°C 50 Ω

Tolerance 20 %

Diameter 19 mm

Operating Temperature Range -50 °C to +150°C

Fig 43. Thermistor (AMETHERM)

6. Signs of Sleepiness The use of only a single source of information does not appear to be an efficient way of accurately assessing the astronaut's state of drowsiness. Different sources of data are to be used as information derived from the physiological, behavioral and psychological data of the driver, as well as information on the speed of accomplishment of the activities. Through previously mentioned indicators such as heart rate, respiratory rate, head, eye movement and electroencephalogram data, it is possible to have an estimate of the astronaut's sleepiness. All of these data can be processed by a neural network, such as the study by de Naurois, C. J. (2017).

7. Dehydration signs To determine if the astronaut is dehydrated, it is necessary to monitor the evaporation of sweat on the skin and the humidity and temperature of the environment. The calculation is based on the equation (ZAK, 2012):

where:

is the evaporation rate

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is a constant

is the vapor pressure gradient

According to the research developed by ZAK (2012), if we already know the evaporation rate of sweat, it is possible to interpolate to the total water evaporated in the skin as an integral over time. With the other output parameter (amount of urine) or input (the amount of water ingested) it becomes possible to monitor the astronaut's water metabolism in the long term.

9. Electroencephalogram With a electroencephalogram it’s possible to verify physiological states for health maintenance and emotional control of the astronaut by biofeedback of telemetry. The helmet will be coupled with an open source EEG (OpenBCI). The suit will contain electrodes of the same amplifier for capturing electrocardiogram (ECG) and galvanic response. The EEG will have channels in limbic, motor, frontal regions to capture the heart rate, for intentional movement, choice and extreme emotional states (eg, anxiety, aversion and nervousness) using spectral power techniques, hemispheric asymmetry and frequencies with Basenian classifiers and analyzes of linear discrimination. The ECG and the galvanic response will be signals to support the EEG and facilitate the processing of the data for a rapid final evaluation with a quality degree.

10. Stress Detector The astronaut is constantly under the tension of his life risk. During an extravehicular activity there’s a constantly need for attention of the astronaut. Therefore, tracking the astronauts' stress level is extremely important to ensure mission success in certain situations. One way to measure the stress levels of the astronaut's is through the pupil diameter (PD), the evaluation of the galvanic response on the skin (GRS) and self-evaluation of the subject. Using the methodology of Ren, P. et al. (2014) it is possible to reach up to 87.20% accuracy. The methodology proposed uses the monitoring of signals DP and GRS to a detect all kinds of emotional feelings. Because there’s other factors that may interfere with the increase or decrease of pupillary restriction, such as exposure to light, there’s also a measure of ambient light. In addition, the group implemented a way to obtain the original PD data - after eye blink removal by linear interpolation - with noise removal and use of Kalman filters. After the remove of the noises, the signal may still be damaged by some abruptly changes, which makes it necessary to apply the Kalman filter as a second step. Through a set of physiological sensors it is also possible to identify the emergency situations that the astronaut may be subjected to. Four types of sensors can be used for this detection, electrocardiogram, electromyogram, electrical conductance in the skin and breathing. All that data can be integrated in the multi-mission platform (PMM). Some of these sensors have already been described as part of the spacesuit. The electrocardiogram electrodes are configured as a lead II configuration, which is used to maximize the

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amplitude of the R wave, used by algorithms for analysis. The electromyogram reading electrode will be placed on the shoulder, which has also been used to detect emotional stress (CACIOPPO, 1990). The galvanic response is a measure of skin resistance. Increased conductivity in the skin is proportional to the increase of sweat, allowing a characterization of a situation of mental stress because in this moment occurs the activation of the sweat glands. The activation of the sweat glands occurs through the Central Nervous System (CNS), in that way the conductance of the skin serves as a sign of sympathetic activation due to stress. The electrodes for skin conductance reading are positioned in regions where the concentration of sweat glands is highest - hands and feet (Figure 44). For the reading of the galvanic skin response (GSR) signal, two components are used: the skin conduction response (SCR) and the skin conductance levels (SCL) response. The final value of the GSR is accounted through the amplitude and latency of the SCR and the average SCL value (SUN et al., 2010).

Fig 44. Supporting electrodes for the reading of skin conductance (ZIYUN).

Because a good part of these sensors are also affected when the individual is performing more vigorous physical activity, it is necessary to take into account changes in the physical activity. For this, it’s necessary to use an accelerometer capable of assessing whether the individual is performing some more tiring activity or if he is at rest. Through the characterization of the responses obtained from the accelerometer, it is possible to compensate the effects of physical activity, which, together with the data of electrocardiogram, electromyogram and the galvanic response of the skin, can provide a characterization of the astronaut's level of stress very close to reality.

11. Disease Detection Noninvasive disease detection is the ideal way to detect problems in the health of an astronaut. This is [1], [2], [3], [4] possible through the analysis of organic volatile compounds present in individual breath .​ These ​ volatile organic compounds are generated primarily in the blood so they allow monitoring of different locations in the organism.The study by Miekisch (2004) characterized some of these compounds and showed their correlation with disorders in the body. For example, when we have high concentrations of ethane and pentane being exhaled, one may have an inflammatory disease in process. Acetone is associated

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with the metabolism of dextrose and with lipid degradation (lipolysis). When we have isoprene being exhaled there’s a correlation with the route of cholesterol biosynthesis. When we have the presence of sulfur containing compounds this is associated with hepatic insufficiency. It’s possible to analyze more than 500 different volatile organic compounds by breath. This set of parameters, together, can give a potential diagnosis of complex diseases (MIESKISCH, 2004). The ability to sense the odors present in the environment is what allows the localization of food as well as toxic environments allowing the competitive advantages of many animals. In addition, each organism is capable of emitting odors that act as signals on its metabolic and psychological state. Many odors emitted by the human body are part of the volatile organic compounds (COGs), but also have non-odorous compounds that make up the COGs. Each individual has his own set of COGs, functioning as a "fingerprint" of each person. Depending on the ongoing pathological process, this COG pattern can be altered, allowing the identification of metabolic disorder (SHIRASU, 2011). To measure these compounds, a device based on the work developed by DENG et al. (2016) will be used. The group used a low-cost technology, miniaturized and easy to use. It is based on quartz tuning forks (QTFs), which are highly mass-sensitive piezoelectronic resonators commonly used in clocks for timing purposes and as biosensors for sensing applications (Deng et al., 2016). These QTFs can be used as gas sensors by applying a thin layer of a molecularly printed polymer (MIP) on its surface. When adsorption of COGs occurs in the polymer there is a change in the resonance frequency that is detected. The steps involved in dispositive analysis is four: collection and delivery, sensing and detection, signal conversion and data transfer for PMM and signal processing (Fig. 45).

Fig 45. Functions presents in the VOC device (AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION).

The mechanism for detecting VOCs consists of collecting the breath then in the dispositive the air passes through a channel activated by a valve mechanism that has a dehumidification channel. Then the air enters a delivery channel that has the layer for adsorption. There’s also a channel for natural air so it’s possible to identify naturally occurring compounds in the environment. The principal step is the passage of the sample into the MIP-modified QTF sensor, and then the generated signal from both sample - ambient air and sample of interest - are compared and analyzed. The next step involves changing the resonant frequency of the MIP-modified QTF sensor which will be the output, allowing the detection of the concentration of the analyte's gas phase due to the mass adsorbed on the MIP. The fourth and last step involves the transmission of data that will be done via PMM and its processing.

12. Measuring Space Radiation

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Space radiation has the potential to damage atoms in human cells, leading to future health problems such as cataracts, cancer and damage to the central nervous system. This is due in large part to the increase in ionization that this space radiation takes through a material. According to Lyndon B. Johnson, in the article Center, L. B. J. S. (2002) space radiation is composed of three types of ionizing radiation:

● Particles trapped in Earth's magnetic field; ● Solar Energy Particles (SEP) - fragments thrown into space during solar explosions, formed by high energy photons. ● Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR) - 85% Hydrogen (protons), 14% helium and about 1% HZE.

HZE is a heavy ion with a higher atomic number than helium and with high kinetic energy, can be nuclei of carbon, iron or nickel. Although the HZE particles are less abundant, they have a significantly higher ionizing power, greater penetration power, and greater damage potential. According to Hassler et al. (2014) the mean equivalent dose rate of GCR at the surface of Mars is 0.64 ± 0.12 mSv / day.

According to NASA, the EVARM-Study of Radiation Doses Experienced by EVA Astronauts in 2002 was used. We will use the same method to determine the radiation levels that spacewalkers receive on their skin, eyes and internal organs. The chosen sensors are Silicon Diode Detectors [Figure X1], because, according to Tauhata et al. (2013) these are the main type used for heavy charged particles, such as protons, alphas and fission fragments, present in space radiation. The main advantages of silicon diode detectors are exceptional resolution, good stability, excellent charge collection time, the possibility of extremely thin windows and the simplicity of operation. These are three badges per suit, where each contains a silicon chip that continuously measures the total dosage of radiation and a connector that plugs into the badge reader. The dosimeters will be read before and after the spacewalk and positioned at specific locations because of the risk of radiation in sensitive tissues. One of the sensors will be located in a pocket at the bottom left of the astronaut's liquid cooling garment (Figure 46). The other two will be placed in the front torso pocket and at the top of the communication cover of each space suit. Soon after the spacewalk, the crew will connect each badge on its own reader. The next step is to transfer the data to a computer suitable for reading, and it will transmit the information to the team on a solo basis every week.

Fig 46. (a) Silicon Diode Detectors (NASA) and (b) Location of dosimeter (NASA)

We will use Geiger-Muller Detectors to detect the presence and measure the intensity of the radiation (number of particles detected in a time interval), although it is not able to measure the energy of the

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radiation. It was chosen due to its simplicity, low cost, ease of operation and maintenance. For the counting of charged particles, the greatest difficulty is their absorption in the walls of the detector. For this reason, light and thin material windows will be made, allowing electrons and α particles to penetrate the sensitive volume of the detector, as explained in the Radioprotection and Dosimetry Manual. According to Ribeiro, D. (2014) the accountant consists of: A Geiger-Müller tube; A signal amplification system; A signal recording system.

Fig 47 Scheme of a Geiger-Müller Counter (ELEMENTAR SCIENCE)

Fig 48. Location of Geiger-Muller Counter (AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION). ​

3.14 Final mass ​

The calculations of the suit’s total mass were made based on the material’s densities (both volumetric and areal, depending on the use) or directly lifted from articles describing similar items.

For almost every layer of the soft suit it was estimated that 2 m² were used, based on an average adult human’s surface area of 1.6 - 1.9 m² (Mosteller, R. D., 1987) and considering excess fabric. Since the LCVG layer is skintight and doesn’t include the lower legs, it was used the average body surface area for adult women of 1.6 m². To calculate the total mass of each layer it was used the equation:

m = d * a

In which m is the mass, d is the aereal density of the layer and a is the layer’s total area. The densities ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ were found on Gon, D. P., & Paul, P. (2011) and Wilson, J. W et al. (2006) and are described in Table 4.

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The insulation layer presented is taken from Trevino, L. A., & Orndoff, E. S. (2000). For a layer 2 m² wide and 0,0254 mm thick, we calculated the mass using the equation:

m = d * V

In which m is the mass, d is the volumetric density of the layer and V is the layer’s total volume. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

The masses of the bearings, as well as of the gloves, were taken from Wilson, J. W et al. (2006). The boot’s mass was taken from La Sportiva’s G2 SM’s product information. To calculate the helmet ​ mass, we create two massive spheres, 13" and 12" respectively and subtract their volumes, obtaining the spherical shell, its half is used as the helmet, with a thickness of 1 ". The structural part composed of polycarbonate represents ⅓ of the total volume, the rest belongs to the protection screen of polysulfone. To ​ calculate the shoulder mass, we used the same logic, however we used for the first sphere the circumference of the shoulder of an average woman of 0.3772 m, and for the second sphere a radius of 0.1632 m. All densities are in the table below.

To calculate the total mass of the suit’s shoulder and helmet we used the equations:

4 3 V = 3 * Π * R m = d * V

in which V is the volume, R is the radius, m is the mass and d is the volumetric density. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Table 4. Density (areal and volumetric) and total mass of the suit components Item (quantity) Density Total weight (g)

LCVG (1) 1540 g/m² 2464

Urethane coated nylon ripstop (3) 140 g/m² 840

Dacron® Polyester (1) 210 g/m² 420

Primaloft insulation (1) 40000 g/m³ 2032

Orthofabric (1) 490 g/m² 980

Vectran® dust cover (1) 115 g/m² 230

HUT (1) --- 7700

Brief shell (1) --- 3000

Shoulders (2) 150000 g/m³ 1485

Helmet Structure 1200000 g/m³ 805

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Protective Helmet Visor 1230000 g/m³ 1650

Gloves (2) --- 732

Ankle and wrist bearings (4) --- 1600

Boots (2) --- 1000

Total --- 24938

Therefore, considering only the main suit of the astronaut, we obtain a mass of 24,398 Kg, which is ​ ​ within the parameters requested for this project.

4. Conclusions

We developed a suit that is able to go through the next phase of planning, testing and technical analysis with the appropriate softwares, basing our data collecting on reliable references. Our project meets the main requirements such as maximum height of 1,90 cm, is compatible with the use of an umbilical cord for air feeding and has a functional communication system with the ground which can be used in a 1000 m distance. It catches and transmits informations about the astronaut’s health, and is functional in microgravity and Mars environments. The helmet has a disengagement time of 20 seconds, the suit has a special protection against regolith contamination, and it is able to measure inside and outside radiation. As stated in the study, all hard components can be produced by a 3D printer, including the helmet, shoulders, the HUT and all the couplers. We designed the suit respecting the essential need for light radiation reflection with a careful use of colour. We also included a belt that allows the tools to be tethered at all times, as well as fabric loops and pockets for extra safety and comfort. The biomedic innovation based on an (electronic nose?) is able to analyse, in a non-invasive way, chemical components of the body that can help detect and/or identify health problems that the astronaut may have during the operation. With this study we are optimistic about the possible physical assemble of the suit in order to test the model created.

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5. Spacesuit Design

The final design concept was developed in a way so that we could maintain the functionalities for its use in microgravity/Mars, and also to make a reference to the movie “Ghostbusters”, that inspired us in this design called “Spacebuster”, which advances to the peaceful exploration of Mars, using the tool belt to measure space radiation and collect samples for research. (Fig. 49).

Fig 49. Final design concept (AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION).

For the Right to Fly Higher 45 MINERVA ROCKETS Cobruf EVA Beta – Final Technical Report

Fig 50. Back view of spacesuit (AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION).

6. Future Work

This project will continue to promote lightweight, compact, low cost and low energy EVA technologies, with a new focus on plan and simulation in reliable softwares for the whole main suit and thus to make an adjustment to optimize the mechanical qualities of the equipment. We’ll aim to advance the technologies of the Primary Life Support System, lower the power of the cameras, progress in radios and sensors development, and have more accurate biomedical. For now, the expectation for all these areas of EVA is to report demonstrating the general concept, requirements and design, and in the future we plan an analysis of the technical feasibility to obtain a fully functional device.

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8. Authoral Responsibility:

The authors are solely responsible for the content of this work. This work has educational and peaceful purposes. The COBRUF Association and the authors are not responsible for the use of this work and/or its information by third parties. The authors authorize the public disclosure of this work by the COBRUF Association.

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