Contents

List of figures ...... xi List of tables ...... xvii List of contributors ...... xix Preface ...... xxiii Foreword...... xxv Acknowledgments ...... xxvii Editorial notes ...... xxix Acronyms and abbreviations...... xxxi

1 Introduction ...... 1

2 Reaching upward and outward ...... 3

3 The basics of spacesuits ...... 11 3.1 Types of spacesuits ...... 11 Crew escape/rescue/launch/entry IVA suits ...... 11 Extravehicular activity spacesuits ...... 13 Intra/extravehicular activity dual-purpose spacesuits ...... 14 3.2 Challenges to spacesuit development ...... 15 Space vacuum vs. the human need for surrounding pressure . . . 15 The dynamics of a pressure enclosure and effects on joint mobility 15 Pressure selection and decompression ...... 16 Human-friendly spacesuit environments ...... 17 Thermal and radiation protection and control ...... 20 Protection from direct sunlight in space ...... 22

v vi Contents

Spacedebris...... 23 The cost of space hardware ...... 24

4 Launch/entry spacesuits: Past, present, and possibly future ...... 25 4.1 The NACA/NASA X-15 Program (1954–1968) ...... 26 4.2 Mercury program (1959–1963) ...... 32 4.3 Dual-purpose suits for Gemini, Apollo, and the U.S. Air Force . 34 4.4 Shuttle crew escape systems research and development (1971– 1979) ...... 35 4.5 Shuttle ejection escape suits (1981–1982) ...... 38 4.6 Shuttle launch/entry suit (1987–1995)...... 40 4.7 Shuttle advanced crew escape suit (1990–present) ...... 44 Helmet assembly ...... 46 Communications carrier assembly (CCA) ...... 47 Coverall assembly ...... 47 Glove assemblies ...... 49 Anti-g suit (AGS) assembly ...... 49 Automatic safety features ...... 49 4.8 Shuttle crew escape system overview ...... 50 4.9 Answering the call for future intravehicular space safety ...... 52

5 Gemini: The first approaches to exploring and working in space ...... 61 5.1 Early safety warnings ...... 62 5.2 Gemini pressure suit evaluation and development ...... 63 5.3 The development of extravehicular systems for Gemini IV..... 67 5.4 Gemini IV: The first U.S. spacewalk ...... 72 5.5 Gemini V through VII goals and suit systems (19651966) .... 73 The Gemini V mission ...... 73 Gemini VII/VIA mission: Objectives and results ...... 73 5.6 Systems and experiences from Gemini missions VIII to XII (1966) 76 Gemini VIII mission goals and system introductions ...... 76 Gemini IXA systems revisions and objectives ...... 81 Gemini X mission changes and objectives...... 86 Gemini XI mission hardware revisions and objectives ...... 89 Gemini XII mission changes and objectives ...... 90 5.7 Lessons learned from Gemini...... 93

6 Apollo: Mankind starts the exploration of the Moon ...... 97 6.1 Before the Apollo suit program (1960–1962) ...... 98 6.2 The original Apollo spacesuit assembly program (1962–1964) . . . 102 6.3 The possibility of flying the ‘‘Lunar Leaper’’ (1963–1965) ..... 115 6.4 The Lunar Roving Vehicle (1963–1972) ...... 117 6.5 Suit system recovery through replan and invention (1963–1965) . 119 Developing the lunar ‘‘backpack’’ (1963–1965) ...... 119 Contents vii

Parallel efforts to develop the ‘‘Moon suit’’ (1964–1965) ..... 126 The 1965 EVA Pressure Suit Competition ...... 147 6.6 Apollo Block I suits, almost (1965–1967) ...... 148 6.7 Completing the Apollo journey (1965–1972) ...... 150 Pushing to orbit (1965–1967) ...... 150 Apollo 7–10: Extravehicular mobility unit and use (1968) ..... 152 Apollo 11–13: EMU experience (1969–1970) ...... 159 Apollo 14: EMU configuration (1970) ...... 167 Apollo 15–17: EMU—improving existing systems and use (1968– 1972) ...... 168 6.8 Apollo suit system review ...... 177

7 Advanced development for canceled Apollo missions ...... 179 7.1 Early advanced suits (1962–1965) ...... 180 7.2 Competition for Block III Apollo spacesuits (1966–1971)...... 185 Litton Corporation ...... 185 NASA’s Ames Research Center...... 191 International Latex ...... 191 Hamilton Standard ...... 193 David Clark Company ...... 195 AiResearch Division of Garrett Corporation...... 198 Webb Associates ...... 201 NASA’s Manned Spacecraft Center...... 203 7.3 Late Apollo summary ...... 205

8 U.S. Air Force spacesuits ...... 207 8.1 The U.S. Air Force X-20 program (1958–1963) ...... 207 8.2 Early USAF spacesuit developments (1959–1964) ...... 209 8.3 Manned Orbiting Laboratory IEVA suit program ...... 212 MOL IEVA developments (1963–1966) ...... 213 The MOL IEVA suit production contract (1967–1969) ...... 223 8.4 The ‘‘other’’ MOL suit systems ...... 230 The MOL ‘‘exclusively EVA’’ suit development (1967–1969) . . . 231 MOL-related primate suits (1964–1969) ...... 234 8.5 Continuing USAF support of EVA spacesuit development (1970– present) ...... 238

9 Skylab and the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project suit systems (1969–1975) ... 239 9.1 Planning for a space station ...... 239 9.2 Pressure suits: ‘‘Piggybacking’’ on Apollo...... 241 9.3 EVA life support system development: The umbilical makes a comeback...... 243 ALSA hardware and operations description ...... 245 Pressure control unit description...... 245 Secondary oxygen package description...... 251 viii Contents

Life support umbilical description ...... 254 Instrumentation system, and caution and warning system ..... 257 9.4 Skylab EVA and IVA experience ...... 257 9.5 Skylab review ...... 266 9.6 Apollo Soyuz Test Project...... 267

10 The Space Shuttle program: Orbital EVA comes of age ...... 271 10.1 Development of the Shuttle extravehicular mobility unit (1971– 1979) ...... 272 Development of requirements and technologies ...... 272 The Shuttle EMU contract competition (1976–1977)...... 276 Changes in requirements and further EMU development (1977– 1983) ...... 282 Manned maneuvering unit development ...... 289 EVA lights and helmet TV camera ...... 290 10.2 Shuttle EMU: Baseline configuration (1979–2002) ...... 292 Life support system contract end items ...... 296 Spacesuit assembly contract end items ...... 298 Support and ancillary items ...... 300 Incremental improvements to the Shuttle EMU before 1990.... 301 Baseline flight service ...... 303 Baseline EMU summary ...... 316 10.3 The enhanced EMU for the International Space Station (1990– present) ...... 316 System level enhancements ...... 318 Pressure suit enhancements ...... 322 Life support enhancements ...... 327 Sizes considered and incorporated ...... 330 Japan’s purchase of a U.S. EMU ...... 332 Enhanced EMU flight experience ...... 333 10.4 Shuttle EMU summary...... 340

11 The quest for future extravehicular activity and planetary exploration . . 341 11.1 Zero-gravity developments that continue to influence ...... 342 Zero pre-breathe suit (ZPS) efforts (1982–1985) ...... 344 The Ames AX-5 hard suit (1983–1989) ...... 352 Space Station Freedom (SSF) AEMU (1985–1990) ...... 354 Continued advanced pressure glove efforts (1991–1999) ...... 366 Oceaneering Space Systems (OSS), a new competitor (1988).... 368 11.2 International cooperation and cross-influences ...... 369 11.3 Back-to-the-Moon and on-to-Mars ideas other than Project Constellation ...... 374 Entrepreneurial EVA spacesuit efforts (1989–present) ...... 376 NASA-funded efforts leading to Project Constellation (1994–2007) 381 Proactive contractor efforts (1996–present) ...... 395 Contents ix

11.4 Constellation Spacesuit System (2007–2010) ...... 405 Development studies leading up to the CSSS competition ..... 405 The CSSS competition, contract, and cancelation...... 407

12 Epilogue ...... 413

Appendix A: U.S. spaceflight suit system overview ...... 415 Appendix B: U.S. EVA information...... 447 Bibliography ...... 461 Index ...... 467