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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with with permission permission of the of copyright the copyright owner. owner.Further reproduction Further reproduction prohibited without prohibited permission. without permission. IN FILMS

by

Lori Clark

submitted to the

Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences

of American University

in Partial Fulfillment of

the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

in

Performing Arts

Chair: Naima Prevots

Valerie Morris

ActingJDean of the College (i -XOcA-rru M?- Date • 1997

American University

Washington, D.C. 20016

f g | iHBBICiJI UVHXBSITY LIBRAS?

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 1387019

Copyright 1998 by Clark, Lori All rights reserved.

UMI Microform 1387019 Copyright 1997, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, Code.

UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. KATHAK IN HINDI FILMS

BY

Lori Clark

ABSTRACT

This thesis describes the use and importance of Kathak, North Indian classical

, in commercial Hindi films.

There is little information available on or analysis of dance in Hindi films,

although it is an integral part of every commercial film. No other thesis has been written

on the topic. This thesis establishes dance-related film and supplies relevant

historical data.

The influence of dance on women’s role in film is also discussed. An appendix

including film synopses, song and dance descriptions, and other relevant details is

included as an aid to the reader.

The research is based on primary source materials, particularly the author’s

interviews of film personalities and film viewing.

ii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Francine Berkowitz of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington

D.C., and Pradeep Mahendiratta of the American Institute of Indian studies, New ,

for the generous grant that allowed Cristel Stevens and me to successfully complete our

respective research projects. Cristel and I have been working on these subjects both

together and independently for a very long time, and I would like to thank her for being

my Didi. I want to thank all the people from the who were so generous,

accommodating, and respectful during my stay in this past summer (1996),

especially Shashi , Moon Moon , , and .

I would also like to thank my professor, Naima Prevots, for her support, patience,

and advice with not only this project, but with all of them over the years.

I want to thank my husband Abdulrahman(S), a true hero, for bravely watching Hindi

films with me. He said it was torture, but I know that he really loved it and will continue

to enjoy many Hindi films with me in the future. After all, they never end.

I would like to thank Anju for faithfully keeping me abreast of happenings in India

and for her undying friendship. I want to thank another friend, Veronique, for checking

on me every morning and every night, and for always being there. Thank you Maria for

suffering through several Hindi films for me. I am also indebted to my , Bansi Lai,

iii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. for teaching me Kathak dance for so many years.

I owe a great debt of gratitude to my friend Shahnaz for her patience during grueling

hours of editing. Without her help and encouragement, this thesis might not have been

completed. Thank you!

Most importantly, I must thank my parents for bringing me into this incarnation so

that I could complete this work. I could not have done it alone and neither could they.

My father accompanied me to watch my first Hindi film, Milan, (incidentally, a film with

a theme), when I was a teenager and valiantly sat through all three hours

worth -- no subtitles -- and even re-enacted portions of the film at home. He

accompanied me to a concert of Hindi film stars and brought me to Hindu temples so that

I could dance Kathak — all this from a man who worked for J. Edgar Hoover. For this, I

am sure that I owe some sort of karmic debt that I will repay in my next life.

iv

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This thesis explores the way in which Kathak, North , is used

and how it influences dance in commercial Hindi films. India's film industry is the

largest in the world, producing over 800 films a year in various Indian languages. The

number of films made in Hindi surpasses the number of films made in any other single

Indian language, and these films are popular worldwide.

Hindi films are the main form of popular entertainment throughout India, and film

culture pervades important aspects of everyday life. Major cities are littered with

colorful, larger-than-life film billboards that promise the populace a temporary escape

from life's tribulations. The three-hour-long Hindi film extravaganzas are full o f

, fantasy, comedy, tragedy, romance, and, most importantly, song and dance.

These films are often unduly criticized by intellectuals for their shallowness and for

promoting denigrating images of women, especially through their suggestive song and

dance numbers.

This thesis is the only study devoted exclusively to the subject of Kathak in Hindi

films. Because of the lack of written material on film dance, the author has drawn

extensively from primary source material, including films and interviews conducted

1

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during the summer o f 1996 through a grant horn the Smithsonian Institution and

American Institute for Indian studies. The author has also drawn on her own

observations and experiences from living in India as a student o f Kathak dance and Hindi

language, as well as from many years of avid Hindi film viewing. The recent literature

published on Indian cinema has been useful and informative.

The second chapter discusses India's ancient theatrical tradition, the importance of

music and dance to that tradition, and how Indian classical dance is related to and perhaps

bom of Indian classical and folk . There is also analysis o f Hindi film, as a logical

extension of India's long-standing theatrical conventions that include music and dance as

part of .

The third chapter describes the phenomenon of the Hindi film and its importance in

Indian society, highlighting some of the debates that surround it. The fourth chapter

describes the linguistic development of the subcontinent, the dominance of North Indian

culture and the conflict that has arisen from this in the context of film and dance.

Chapter five defines Hindi film genres as analyzed by the author for this study and

the relationship of dance and music to these genres. Chapter six explores the role of

women and dance in Hindi films. The history of women's participation in film, the

actress as , and the roles they play on screen and real-life are discussed with

regard to Indian society's complex perception of women. An analysis of Kathak dance's

history and technique is given in chapter seven to aid the reader in understanding its use

in film. Chapter eight discusses the influence of Kathak on the various styles of dance

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commonly employed in Hindi films. Chapter nine discusses the use o f Kathak dance in

Hindi films.

An appendix of individual film analyses is provided as a reference to the reader and

as a guide for further study. The films in the appendix were selected based upon

popularity, dance content, and availability. The selection is meant to give a cross-section

o f genres, stars, directors, and other artists. However, given the vast numbers of Hindi

films made, it was necessary to limit the list and the author regrets any omissions. Not

every film cited in the text is included in the appendix.

Transliteration from Hindi to English is a complicated task, and no single author has

adequately been able to fully convey the exact essence of the original language. The

author's approach focuses on ease o f pronunciation for native and non-native Hindi

speakers, and consistency and simplicity in spelling. Translations are given where

appropriate, with the most commonly seen spellings. No diacritical marks are included to

provide greater ease in reading.

The author has also attempted to choose the least awkward spelling, e.g. “zindagi”

over “zindagee.” Film titles, proper names, and individual words can be found with

widely varying spellings in Indian English-language publications. The variations are

daunting. For example, the word "Moghul" can be found spelled "Mughal," "Mogul," and

"Moghal." An actor's name is often seen spelled a certain way in one film's credits and a

different way in another. Fortunately, because Hindi films are so well-known and the

examples in this thesis are sufficiently famous, the Hindi speaker should have no trouble

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recognizing the names of films, songs, actors, or the few lines from films included in this

text. The examples will also enable the non-native speaker to get a flavor of Hindi film's

dramatic language.

In reference to the people who make dance for films, the terms "dance director" and

"choreographer" are used interchangeably. The word "," in this text, refers to

Indian dance Ballet rather than classical Ballet unless otherwise stated. Many

film directors are also producers and therefore in control of a film’s content. Some

producers have more say about the making of a film than the director, especially if the

producer is the financial backer. The word "filmmaker" is often used to describe the

person or people in control of a film's content. "Western" (or variants of this word) is

used in this thesis to refer to any of the cultural elements, trends, or concepts that derives

from or America unless otherwise specified. This broad term is commonly used

in India.

It should be noted that certain facts and terms cited in the text are often transmitted

orally and rarely seen in print. Terms and concepts like, "good family," "suitable girl,"

and "" are all commonly known in India. They are explained where they appear in

the text. Some of the common criticisms about Hindi films cited in the text are also most

frequently orally communicated, but the author backs these up with specific references

where possible. Most of the descriptions of the personal problems faced by film actresses

are well-known from books and film magazines. In some cases this information has

come from personal interviews, but in the case of personal information about living

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actresses, the author has selectively chosen not to cite some sources' names where this

might cause considerable conflict.

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THE CONCEPT OF THEATRE IN INDIAN TRADITION

From ancient Vedic times through the present, theatre has been an essential part of

the Indian tradition.1 The concept of theatre in India, as in much of Asia, necessarily

includes ail of the performing arts: acting, music (vocal and instrumental), and dance.

This is true of both classical and folk forms. Theatre occupies a place of such importance

that it is said the Gods themselves created it for their own entertainment as both players

and viewers.

the famous treatise on "The Science of Dramaturgy,"

describes the myth o f the creation of theatre.2 Written by the sage Bharat Muni (dated

somewhere between the fourth century B.C. and second century A.D.), this treatise

codifies the conventions of theatre in its classical presentation as well as those of dance,

The term “Vedic” refers to that period of time in Indian history from c. 1500 B.C. to c. 500 B.C. “Vedic” also refers to the culture of the Aryans who first invaded the Sub-continent c. 1500 B.C. and continued to invade from c. 1000 B.C. to c. 500 B.C. The Aryans compiled their religious philosophy in the writings known as the Vedas that consist of four parts and are written in Sanskrit, the language of the Aryans. This philosophy is the basis for modern-day . (See The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia, third ed., 917, under the heading “Veda” for a brief explanation.) “Vedic” is also a general term commonly used to describe any ancient time in India’s history prior to the invasion of the Muslims when the Vedas were followed.

For a description of the myth of the creation of theatre see Enakshi Bhavnani, The . 6-7.

6

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. including specific gestures, expressions, and moods as they relate to drama.3

Dance and music have historically had such an intimate relationship with classical

and folk theatre in India that the line between what is strictly dance or drama is almost

impossible to draw. Many o f the classical dance forms seen today have evolved from or

been influenced by theatre and some are still as much theatre as dance. The three basic

divisions within a given classical dance form are: (expressional dance),

Natya-(drama), and Nritta-(pure dance).

A renewed interest in reviving traditional art forms was bom of Indian Nationalist

sentiment engendered during the campaign to expel the British Colonialists. Because the

British viewed Indian as vulgar, partly because of their association with

, many artists had ceased to practise them. The temple dances in particular

were near extinction since many of the leading gums, or teachers, had passed away. This

was less true in the North where the dance survived among albeit in a

degraded form. In order to revive some of these dying dance forms, several women from

the upper classes, along with surviving practitioners, turned to the Natya Sastra for

inspiration. They looked up to it as an authentic source and it therefore played an

3 Classical theatre in India is theatre that is written in the Sanskrit language and follows the conventions codified in the sage Bharata Muni’s Natva Sastra. c. 4th century B.C. - 2nd century A.D., depending on the source. Enakshi Bhavnani puts the writing of the Natva Sastra from the 4th to 1st century B.C. in The Dance in India, page 2. Peter Manuel in : In Historical and Stylistic Perspectives, page 39, puts the writing of the treatise at the second century A.D. The Natva Sastra is considered the fifth Veda. This theatre tradition is generally an urban tradition. “Sastra” means “treatise,” and “Sastriya” means “classical.” For a description of the use of expression and how it relates to the Natva Sastra and other treatises, see , Kathak: Indian Classical Dance Art. chapter seven.

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important role in the revival of these dance forms. Even today it is common for many

scholars to associate particularly the expressional aspects of classical dance with the

to consult the text — showing again the close

relationship of dance to the dramatic tradition. Perhaps this is the most vital legacy of the

NatyaJSastta.4

Indian dance has always drawn freely from the devotional and, at the same time,

romantic stu ff of poetry and mythology. Most of classical dance and many folk forms

bring to vibrant life the tales of the two ancient Sanskrit epics, the Ramavana and the

Mahabharata. both central to Hindu mythology and philosophy.5 Folk theatre/dance

forms are often social or political commentary, performed in a raucous comic style.

4 In recent years, it has been a matter of debate among dance scholars whether all these dances actually evolved from In fact, no one knows exactly where Bharata Muni was when he wrote the treatise to know which region(s) he was describing. Supposedly he was codifying what he observed, not inventing. We know this text because it survived, but there must have been many which did not. Other important texts on dance and theatre have survived, such as the Abhinava Darpana. but they are relatively few in number. These are also used as references by dancers, but the Natva Sastra is still treated as the Bible of them all. Mandakranta Bose discuses extensively in her dissertation whether classical Indian dances sprang from a single source or whether they developed independently in their respective regions (Mandakranta Bose, “The Evolution of Classical Indian Dance Literature: A Study of the Sanskritic Tradition,” PhD dissertation, University of Oxford, 1989).

5 The Ramavana tells the story of Lord , his banishment from his kingdom, the kidnaping of his wife by the demon king of Ceylon (now ), her rescue and Rama’s triumphant return to his kingdom, Ayodhya. Often performed in classical dance are “The Marriage of Sita” and “The Kidnaping of Sita.” The tells the history of the creation of India through the war fought by two great clans. It contains various tales including many of Lord . The central philosophy of Hinduism, contained in the Bhagavad Gita, is also part of this epic. Important stories often acted out in classical dance include “The Dice Game” and “The Humiliation of Queen .” Both of these epics were passed down orally and later written in Sanskrit.

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Classical dance in India follows an established academic tradition. It has theory and

specific rules that must be learned. Most of the classical dances are traditionally

performed solo, but their ballet or group form is increasingly popular.

Folk dance/theatre does not necessarily share classical theory, but there are often

areas where the classical and folk traditions meet, as in the Krishna Leela dances of the

Braj region in .6 Many are performed only by professional

castes of a given region.7 There is also the implication of a certain sophistication of the

classical forms over the folk due to the folk forms' inherent simplicity:

The difference between folk dancing and classical dancing, of which the former is the mainspring, is largely one of attitude. There is no deliberate attempt at artistry in the folk dance...No audience, in the usual sense of the term, is implied, and those who gather round to watch are as much a part of the collective self-expression as the dancers themselves (Folk Dances of India. 3).

There are numerous examples of folk dance/drama traditions performed by

6 Braj is the region of North India where Lord Krishna was bom. The region has a language, Braj Bhasha, in which many poems and songs are written. Its most important cities are Vrindavan and . and Krishna are famous lovers of Indian Mythology. Krishna himself is a God, and Radha, as his lover, symbolizes man’s search for union with the divine. Stories of Krishna also show India’s reverence for the divine innocence of children.

7 These performers belong to hereditary castes. Caste is the complex social system set up by the Aryans defining each person’s status within society. This status depends on the relative ritual purity of a group’s profession and the amount of pollution to which they are exposed. are the educated, priestly caste. Kshatriyas are the warrior and land-owning caste. There is a traditional rivalry between the two groups. Baniyas are the merchant caste. Shudras are the lowest caste (considered almost casteless) referred to as “untouchables.” They traditionally performed jobs that entailed contact with polluting elements such as sweeping and leather working. Within every caste there are further divisions. These castes are further divided by regional specification. So ingrained is the system that there is still little if any mixing among the castes today, although outlawed the institution. See Antonio Monrov. India. 169-175.

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professional and semi-professional performers from regions all over the Subcontinent that

show the widespread between dance and theatre. Some examples include:

Bacha and Bhands(Bhagats) o f , Bhawai o f and ,

Nautanki o f , Ras Leela of Braj Bhoomi, Baul and Jatra of , of

Karnataka, Kuravanji and Teru of , and Tamasha of .

Dance encapsulates the essence of Indian drama. In fact, each classical dance form

can be seen as a perfect miniature of the sense fulfilling, total experience of Indian

theatre, yet each separate classical dance form clearly expresses, through its unique

vocabulary, the inspiration of the region that gave it life. The major regional classical

dance forms of India are outlined below.8

Kathakali. the South Indian dance/drama of , is a larger-than-life, colorful

spectacular form which recreates tales from the Mahabharata. It is traditionally

performed by men and is famous for its all night, sometimes twelve hours or more,

performances. It requires a lifetime of rigorous training, where the dancers limbs are

literally molded to accommodate the peculiarities of the dance style. Make-up alone is an

exhausting process. Layers upon layers of colors symbolizing aspects of the characters'

personalities need to be applied. In recent times some Katakali dancers have taken to

8 There is some debate over which dances are considered classical and which are considered folk. Enakshi Bhavnani in The Dance of India lists , Kuravanji, Krishna Attain, Bhagavata Dance Drama, and Yakshagana as classical. , Indian Classical Dance, does not consider the dances listed above to be classical. The author has listed the dances that are most commonly accepted as classical and those most pertinent to the text.

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performing solo, without the full, often cumbersome costume and theatre spectacle. This

is done partly to show off the dance elements and because the cost o f the full production

is prohibitive, especially when touring. These solos are smaller scale interpretations of

stories and characters from mythology.

Kuchipudi evolved largely from the folk theatre tradition o f in south

east India, called Nataka. The movements of the arms and feet are softer

than those of . Its costume and jewelry are also similar to that of

Bharatanatyam, often distinguished by the fan-like apron between the legs. As in

Kathakali, men originally performed both male and female roles. Women are now this

dance's premiere performers.

Bharatanatyam from Tamil Nadu in , one of the most well-known of

India's classical dances that was performed in courts and temples, has a vast gestural

vocabulary similar to that of sign language. The gestures are used to interpret the many

expressional and story-telling portions of its repertoire. Facial and gestural expression is

emphasised in at least five out of the eight or nine dances in a traditional Bharatanatyam

performance. Each movement is distinct and stylized. A distinct characteristic of the

dance is the side-to-side neck and eye movement. Bharatanatyam was influenced by a

male dance/drama tradition as well as Kuruvanji, a folk dance performed by women.

Today most performers are women. Many choreographers are experimenting with new

dance/drama works that take these dances away from their usual solo performances.

Orissi. from Orissa, located on the east coast of India, below Bengal, is another

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former court and , which combines the vigor of Bharatanatyam and the sheer

lyrical grace of Manipuri dance. It can be described as a flowing panorama of

sculpturesque poses. It often interprets segments from the well-known poem "Gita

Govinda” by Jayadeva. Orissi is performed mainly by women, although it influenced and

was influenced by the male dance/drama of the , who were males dressed as

women. Its costume is distinguished by the peculiar floral headdress and the short front

apron.

Manipuri dance, from eastern India, is known for its gently swaying, fluid

movements and spectacular costumes studded with mirrors. Manipuri most frequently

tells tales of the love of Radha and Krishna, but also has its own regional influences

exemplified by the animistic, communal Maibi tradition. During the spring festival,

entire villages spill onto the open greens to dance. Both men and women participate in

depicting scenes from local life and legend.

Mohini Attam is a female dance from Kerala in south west India. It is slow-paced,

sensual, and flowing in its simple white costume. Some of its theory and repertoire has

been borrowed from Bharatanatyam, but it is best-known for recounting tales of the

seductress Mohini.9

Kathak. the classical dance o f North India, concentrates on the virtuosic, pure dance

9 Evidence of an ancient Andhran dance form termed has recently been discovered and is being researched by renowned dancer, . It is an important discovery that may connect this form with some of the South Indian dances described here.

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elements of the style, but also has a long history of expressional dances particularly on

the Radha-Krishna theme. In fact, the word Kathak means storyteller. Although Kathak

has long been performed in courts and temples, the Kathakas which gave Kathak its name

were a wandering tribe of minstrels that recited tales from the ancient epics. The

Radha-Krishna theme in Kathak evolved from the Krishna Leela folk tradition o f the Braj

region in North India.10 Kathak's pure dance developed side by side with its expressional

incarnation. The Krishna Leelas have many pure dance sequences meant to show

Krishna as the divine dancer. Lately Kathak have become a popular form of

expression, perhaps looking back to its related dance/drama tradition.11

Film as Extension of Theatre

Theatre in India has undergone changes and absorbed new influences since Vedic

times, but the use and interrelation of dance, music, and acting is still apparent. The best

example of this ancient practice can be seen in the modem Hindi film, a logical extension

of a long theatrical tradition.

The Lumiere brothers' cinematography show came to Bombay in 1896, and it did

not take long for the new medium of film to catch on in India. Within a year, Indians had

10 See footnote 6. n The classical dance forms of India have always had female exponents; however, the majority of dance have traditionally been male, and this trend continues. An aspect that these classical dances share is their intent The most brilliant of these dancers are able to transport the viewers from the purely physical plane to a spiritual plane. The ideal of Indian classical dance has always been to unite the individual soul with the universal in religious ecstasy. This ideal is an integral part of the Indian concept of theatre.

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produced their first short documentary films. The first silent Indian ,

Dadasaheb Phalke's Raia . was made in 1913. Most of Phalke's films were

based on mythological and historical themes. During the silent period, although imported

films were extremely popular, Indian films continued to be made. The silent films were

often part of a variety show including song and dance. Live musicians accompanied the

silent films.

The first Indian-made , by Ardeshir , was released in 1931

in Hindi. This gave Indians the possibility of cinema in a native language and marked the

decline of the popularity of foreign films. Although sound films were made in various

regional languages, Hindi (Hindustani) came to dominate due partly to the fact that it

reached a larger number of people than any other specific regional language. The format

and songs for early sound films were taken mainly from the Parsi, Hindi, and Marati

theatre.12 The first talkies were basically filmed versions of these dramas since many of

the first film artists had migrated from the theatre. This grew into what is known today as

12 are Zoroastrians who migrated from Persia to the west coast of Gujarat in India in the 8th century A.D. Many Parsis migrated to Bombay and developed a theatre tradition with Perso- Arabic and many Western European conventions, although the language of their theatre was generally or Hindi. The sets were extravagant, and the plays were full of spectacle. Of the three theatre traditions listed here, this was the most influential. refers to the theatre tradition of Maharashtra, the state in which Bombay is located. refers to the general North Indian theatre tradition performed in the Hindi language. For more information on language, refer to Chapter 4. All three of these theatre traditions used light classical, classical, foreign, and folk songs. “Light classical” music is also commonly called “semi-classical.” The term “light” or “semi-classical” refers to dance or music performed in the classical repertoire that has strong folk roots such as Thumri, , and Dadra. The performers of “semi- classical” forms are generally urban, which is partly what separates them from folk forms.

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the commercial Hindi film industry, the largest film industry in India and the most

popular form of entertainment

Filmmakers drew liberally from popular mythology and history making the

characters, good and evil, larger than life. They also drew, and continue to draw, from

specific literary sources. An example of the direct influence of ancient Sanskrit theatre

on commercial Hindi cinema are the numerous adaptations to film of two sister Sanskrit

plays, Charudatta and The Little Clay Cart. Both plays are similar in plot and characters.

The Little Clav Cart is said to be an extension of Charudatta.13 The film (1985),

produced by , is the most recent, while a , Vasantasena. based on

the same story was the earliest, made as far back as 1929 by Dadasaheb Phalke. A

popular story, at least seven film adaptations in Hindi and other regional languages exist.

That two plays written over 1500 years ago were readily adapted to film in this century,

and as recently as 1985, shows the consistency and the resilience of the tradition.

Sanskrit drama recognizes two major classifications of drama. One is the Heroic

Drama, in which the story is taken from history or mythology. Because the Heroic

Drama is based on history, it does not always closely follow the rules of Sanskrit theatre.

Many Hindi films are Heroic Dramas. The other category is the Drama of Invention,

13 Attributed to King Shudraka, translated by Arthur William Ryder, The Little Clav Cart: A Hindu Drama (New York: Theatre Arts, Inc., 1934), 2. This source places the play’s writing between the 5th and 10th centuries A.D. The credits of the film Utsav. Girish Kamad, director, (India: Film Valas) put the date for the play The Little Clay Cart, by Shudraka, at 400 A.D. and Bhasa’s play Charudatta at 300 A.D.

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which adheres to Sanskrit theatre's strict conventions.14 Some Hindi films fall under this

category.

Hindi films consistently follow many of the dramaturgic rules of Sanskrit theatre.

They also make some innovations on these rules. One convention states: "The title o f the

play must be formed of compounding the names o f hero and heroine." Many, but not all,

film titles follow this practice. Some examples are Radha Krishna (1954), Radha

Mohan/Nand Ke Lala (1934). Mainu ( 1922. 1931,1945, 1953,1962, 1976, 1982),

Krishna Sudama (1933), and Shankar (1943). As a common variation on this

theme, many film titles combine the names of two heroes such as Ram Lakshman (1957)

or Gurudev (1993). In partial fulfillment of this rule, many film titles contain only the

hero's or heroine's name.

Another convention states: "The scene must be laid in India." This is almost

universally true. Foreign equals bad in Hindi films. There is an occasional film that is

set outside India and it has become popular to film song/dance sequences in Switzerland.

"The hero shall appear in every act He may be a , minister, or merchant."

While the second half of this statement is not often true in films today, the first half

certainly holds true.

"The heroine may be a lady of good family or a courtezan. Or the two may share the

14 Attributed to King Shudraka, translated by Arthur William Ryder, The Little Clav Cart: A Hindu Drama. 1. Although considered a Drama of Invention, King Shudraka did not follow all of the classical rules in his play.

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honors providing they do not meet" This is a very closely followed tenet, but the two

heroines do sometimes meet. It is also stated: "It is advised that the drama be 'foil of

rascals."' This is seen throughout Hindi films with its preponderance of villains. "The

erotic sentiment should dominate." This is perhaps the most closely observed rule,

evidenced by the overwhelming number of sensual song/dance interludes in film.

Finally, "The ending must be happy; tragedy is forbidden." Films with a tragic ending

are comparatively rare; tragedies were most popular in the 1940s and 1950s. The sad

ending is seen occasionally in a courtesan film, but is not generally popular (Ryder, 1).

The scholar once observed:

I see every Hindi film that is made-good ones, bad ones. To me our Hindi film is a unique formula, a structure that doesn't exist anywhere else in the world. It has its own set scheme that has perhaps developed from Sanskrit drama. In place of 'padas' in Sanskrit plays, we have songs in Hindi films. So, the Hindi film is, in a way, a very traditional performance — or else it wouldn't have struck such deep roots. It affects everybody in India, irrespective of language, religion or social status." Sangeet Natak15

The power of theatre to influence the public has always been recognized by the ruling

classes in India. In Vedic times theatre was "...the mass medium by which the illiterate

Shudras were initiated into and brought under the influence of the written

Vedic/Brahminical works" (Pranjali Bandhu, Cinema in Focus: Black and White of

IS (B. D. Garga, So Many Cinemas: TheMotion Picture in India. 156.) It is often argued that Hollywood has been the greatest influence on Hindi Films. There is undoubtedly influence, but as can be seem from the comments of Mr. Bhatia, it might be more accurate to say that Hollywood cinema has complemented the existing Indian concept of theatre and acted as a catalyst.

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Cinema in India. 15). It can also be subversive. Many folk dance/dramas are

socio-political satires on the ruling class.

Theatre was used to express anti-colonial sentiment, as were films, because o f then-

potential impact on wide spread audiences, leading the British colonialists to create a

censor board for Indian films. The Indian Cinematograph Act of 1918 was created to

counter the Nationalist movement. In turn, this censor board was used after

Independence by the newly formed Central to weed out potentially

subversive material and promote the ideal of "National Integration."16

The Government sees the Hindi cinema as entertainment for the masses and a way to

unite castes, religions, and regions in a diverse country, but the government's extreme

taxation of the industry has not always promoted positive feelings between them. The

extreme opponents of the Central Government and Hindi cinema feel that,"Cinema in

India, particularly the Hindi cinema, is a major conduit for making the people into

consenting and passive objects of neocolonial exploitation and plunder" (Pranjali

Bandhu. Cinema in Focus: Black and White of Cinema in India, iifl. For example, the

film (1977) was banned in India for criticizing Prime Minister Indira

Gandhi's Government. It was apparently destroyed and later remade. The filmmaker,

after joining 's Congress Party, disowned the film.

Theatre has always been a popular and influential form of entertainment throughout

16 rPranjali Bandhu. Cinema in Focus: Black and White of Cinema in India. 15.) For an explanation o f“National Integration,” see chapter 3.

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India reaching people from all social classes, literate and illiterate. It necessarily includes

all the performing arts: music, dance, and drama under its auspices.17 Even when

performed alone, the arts of music and dance are strongly influenced by India's theatre

tradition. India, throughout its history, has successfully absorbed numerous foreign

influences and has made the art of film one of its own. Film, containing as it does, music,

dance, and drama, can now be said to belong to the Indian concept of theatre and has

spawned its own brand of modem mythology in India. Film has an advantage over

traditional theatre because of its ability to reach greater numbers of people with a

recorded performance that can be repeated at will. In this way, film has proven to be a

profitable medium for entrepreneurs, a powerful tool for government, and an accessible

form of entertainment for the people.

17 It is interesting to compare the concept of film to the traditional fine and plastic arts in India as well, including sculpture and painting. Works of art from numerous schools and styles of both arts are frequently seen depicting a series of events or movements with the continuity of film frames. In the 19th century A.D., various “Art Schools,” including the “Company School,” also had their influence on the development of the film aesthetic. See Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen, Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema. 45 and 77.

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THE PHENOMENON OF THE HINDI FILM

India's film industry is the largest in the world, producing over 800 films every

year.1 O f all of the regional language films, Hindi commercial cinema is the largest and

most influential. Bombay(also ) is the center of the Hindi film industry and often

referred to as ".”2 Commercial Hindi films are the most popular form of

entertainment in India and cross ail class boundaries as a pervasive social phenomenon,

although they are generally frowned upon by the intellectual elite.

Each film lasts a minimum of three hours and must contain large segments o f music,

song, and dance along with a complicated plot and several sub-plots in which coincidence

and fate reign supreme. They are larger-than-life, melodramatic, escapist films with a

fairly predictable formula, allowing the average working citizen some relief from the

harsh realities of daily life. Films are more than a hobby for fans; some would say they

This number is an approximation since the number of films released fluctuates every year. However, the number of yearly film releases has consistently remained in the range of 800 since 1979. The year 1990 saw the release o f948 films, 200 of them in Hindi. See: Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen, Encyclopaedia of India Cinema. 31-33.

2 The city of Bombay’s name was recently officially changed to Mumbai, the traditional Maharashtrian name for the city. The name Bombay was given by the British. Some people object to the term “Bollywood” because of the obvious comparison to Hollywood and some because it is patronizing.

20

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are a national obsession.

The lives of the film stars are closely followed; some are practically deified, and film

songs are heard, sung and danced to everywhere. Allusions to films are made in many

aspects of daily life from commercials to political campaigns. During 's last

election, lines from the film Sholav (1975, one of the top three grossing films ever) were

recited by the opposition party over loud speakers rigged on trucks driven around Delhi.

Hindi films are exported abroad and are extremely popular with expatriate Indian

communities in parts of the , , Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. They are

also popular in the Arabic-speaking countries o f the , as well as ,

Afghanistan, and .

At the outset, the film industry was established by independent pioneers who were

brave enough to experiment with this new medium. Their enterprises eventually grew

into a Hollywood-like studio system that supported and sometimes even offered

education to workers. The economic demise o f the studio system saw the establishment

of a star-based system with lead actors and actresses signing lucrative contracts. Out of

the star system grew the formula or Masala ("masala" means a mixture of spices) film for

which India is now recognized.

The is considered a sure-fire formula for success from which the

director/producer can expect huge profits. It contains all the requisite elements the

audience demands. This audience does not look for shocking new ideas; it looks for

escape and entertainment doled out in huge doses by its beloved stars, heroes, and villains

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alike. If all the elements of titillation, tears, spectacle, and romance are not there, the

audience feels cheated. They want all three hours worth of their ticket price. Any film

that does not fulfill the viewers' expectations will be a failure.

India has absorbed the influences o f invaders and colonists throughout its history,

and Hindi filmmakers continue the tradition by appropriating material from any and every

source. Musical themes from Bach or Beethoven, Reggae, Jazz, Arabic, and Spanish all

meld seamlessly with Indian themes to create a film's sound score. , the

internationally recognized Indian filmmaker and intellectual, once said of the penchant

for appropriation in commercial cinema: ‘Tt is perhaps the pressure of relentless output

which leads to an occasional 'appropriation.' But I feel less anger than admiration for the

composer who can lift the main theme of the finest movement of Mozart's finest

symphony, turn it into a 'filmi geet' and make it sound convincing."3

Dance movement from Indian classical and folk traditions, Spanish and Arabic

dances, Elvis, , and Hip Hop are all choreographed into an Indianized

whole in much the same way that the music is composed. Stories from Indian mythology

and Hollywood blockbusters are all adapted for the screen. There are Hindi versions of

Spaghetti Westerns, James Bond movies, many versions of Irma La Douce. Indecent

Proposal, and Sleeping With the Enemv. to name a few. The effect of these films is not

just that of a remake in another language. These plots have all been carefully Indianized

3 (Satyajit Ray, Our Films. Their Films, 75) “Filmi geet” is the common term for commercial film song. In fact, anything that pertains to commercial film star can be called “filmi.”

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to meet the expectations of the viewers and not shock their sensibilities. The coyness of

the heroine and the corresponding macho of the hero are dutifully maintained.

Sensuality is high, but overt sex scenes, as seen in the West, are not acceptable or

possible because of censorship. Nevertheless, some Indians complain that they are overt

and even vulgar. The first on-screen kiss passed the Censor Board and appeared in

Satvam Shivam Sunderam (1978). Kissing had occurred in the silent era, but was iater

frowned upon by the Censor Board (D. B. Garga, So Many Cinemas: The Motion Picture

in India. 42). The more risque "love-making" scenes appear only in song and dance

sequences. The usual scene is the hero trying to kiss the heroine. At the last second,

however, she turns her face and the kiss falls on her cheek or, more likely, in the air. If

anything more graphic is about to occur, the scene will cut to flowers blowing in the

wind. On the other hand, the climax of a rape scene will cut to a train rapidly passing by,

horns blowing.4

Hindi films, like many of India's arts, reflect the Indian, non-linear sense of time and

reality. Time in India is perceived as cyclical, rather than the Western concept of past,

present, and future. The simplicity of “one plus one equals two” does not apply. Many

films do not take place in a specific time period. The line between reality and fantasy is

constantly blurred. This is evident in the long dream and flashback sequences popular in

Hindi films. One is never certain if the dream sequence is real or fantasy, or exactly

The past decade has seen a steady increase in graphic portrayals of violence and sexuality.

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when the flashback occurred. A heroine might appear in ten different costumes in ten

different locations in the course o f one song. The hero may begin a scene by fantasizing

about the heroine, imagining her dancing for him; when the song ends, the heroine is

standing next to the hero and the viewer is left wondering for a moment if she is really

there or if the hero is still fantasizing.

Speaking about the commercial industry, its films, and its generally poor cinematic

quality, director has called commercial Hindi films "garbage."5

Another Art director has called the mainstream films "stupid" (Sai

Paranjpye, film director, interview by author, Bombay, 26 July 1996). Satyajit Ray back

in 1948 complained of the industry:

...starting a production without adequate planning, sometimes even without a shooting script; a penchant for convolutions of plot and counter-plot rather than the strong, simple unidirectional narrative; the practice of sandwiching musical numbers in the most unlyrical situations; the habit of shooting indoors in a country which is all landscape, and at a time when all other countries are turning to the documentary for inspiration — all these stand in the way of the evolution of a distinctive style (Satyajit Ray, Our Films. Their Films. 23).

What these directors have failed to accept is that, like it or not, the formula film, with

all of the traits described above, is the distinctive style of commercial Hindi cinema and it

obviously is what the mass audience craves to see. To them, cinematic quality is

(Rafique Baghdadi and Rajiv Rao, Talking Films. 34). “Art” refers to films from a movement started in the late 1960s and early that attempts to make non-formula movies. The movement is also commonly called “,” “Alternative Cinema,” or “New Wave” The filmmakers of this movement usually refer to it as “Good Cinema.” This is discussed in detail in Chapter 5.

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secondary to the other factors.

The legendary Hindi film director, , understood his audience best when

he said:

What is entertainment? To one it might be a beautiful song or dance, to one it might be the intellectual exercise of a play, a drama or something that gives him satisfaction; he identifies with the situation or with an actor. To one it might just be a vent to his pent-up emotions: he sees a fight and feels that as the hero he has knocked down about fifty people with one blow, he claps and shouts and yells and says: 'A lovely film...a lovely film.' That film might not have anything, but it gave him satisfaction, made him happy and made him forget about the daily problems that he confronts. For that brief moment he has forgotten everything else, he enjoys himself. Now that is entertainment (Ritu , Raj Kapoor. 145).

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INDIA, DIVIDED, YET ONE

India has long been divided into North and South not only by geography, but by

language and culture. The eastern region is also distinct, but less pertinent for the

purpose of this study. The Deccan Plateau is the geographic divide between North and

South. From 1900-1200 B.C., the Aryan pastoralists descended onto the fertile Gangetic

Plain and established their patrilineal Vedic civilization in the North. The indigenous

peoples, agriculturalists, were forced to adapt to the ways of the Aryan invaders. From

1200-600 B.C., the Aryans expanded their civilization to the South, over the land of the

Dravidians (Antonio Monroy, India. 285).

The Aryans formed the caste system, which allowed them to maintain religious,

social, and political power over the Subcontinent. Even today, the caste system remains

perhaps the strongest social structure in India. The Aryan expansion in the South was

never as thorough as it was in the North and, consequently, the South retained much of its

culture including its languages and in some areas, matrilineal heritage.

Language is the most important factor in the North-South divide. There are two

major language families in India: Dravidian and Indo-Iranian (sometimes called

Indo-Aryan). There are approximately seventeen major languages in the North that

26

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derive from Sanskrit, the ancient language of the Aryans, and these are referred to as

Indo-Iranian languages. Approximately sixteen major Dravidian languages exist in South

India. These are totally unrelated to the languages with the exception of

loan-words from Sanskrit found in languages in the South (Mario Pei, The Story of

Language. 378). Both branches have innumerable dialects. Because Sanskrit was the

ritual language of the Aryans, the Aryans dwelling in the South also used Sanskrit as their

ritual language. Of all these languages, Hindustani, from the Indo-Iranian branch and

commonly referred to as Hindi or Urdu, claims the greatest number of speakers.1

Hindustani was also the lingua-franca for official and non-official communication with

the native population for the British Empire and for North Indians.

This divide in language is today a source of conflict in India. Partly due to its larger

population and geographical area, the North has been politically and culturally dominant.

Even the seat of government, , is located in the North. The Central

Government has tried to impose Hindi as the national language and made it a required

subject in schools. The South, in particular Tamil speakers, has resented this imposition.

Tamil speakers will often refuse to speak Hindi and prefer English as the national

i (Mario Pei, The Story of Language, 378-381) The major difference between Urdu and Hindi is that Urdu uses Arabic script and Hindi uses Devanagari script. In its formal, religious and literary usage, Urdu draws on words derived from Arabic and Persian. Hindi draws on Sanskrit- based words. The grammar is the same, and they can be viewed as regional variations. Hindustani is the common form of spoken language in (their official national language is Urdu), North India and certain pockets of the Subcontinent Hindustani is used to refer to both Hindi and Urdu. In this thesis, the author uses the term Hindi because it is the word most commonly used to describe the language used in these films. The language of some films, like Cl971). however, is sometimes termed Urdu.

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language. Bengal, in eastern India, also resents Hindi domination, although Bengali is

related to Hindi as an Indo-Iranian language. Bengal still has strong separatist feelings.

Nevertheless, Hindi, Urdu, Hindustani, or its variants remain the dominant form of

communication in India.

In India, as in the rest of the world, various ethnic and religious groups are

factionalising, each demanding their own country. Religious fundamentalism is also on

the rise. Regions of dispute throughout India are numerous: Kashmir (Hindu/Muslim

conflict), Punjab (Sikh/Hindu conflict), (militant's uprisings against the Central

Government), Manipur (factions resisting Central rule), and Maharashtra (

fomenting communal violence). A militant Hindu group represented by the "Bharatiya

Janta Party," the "'s Party," in government, hoping for a return to Vedic,

that is, purely Hindu times, is inciting the public through its Hindutva movement. They

are clashing with the Islamic fundamentalists, as recently seen in the "Ram Janma

Bhoomi Babri Masjid Conflict," where each group laid claim to the same sacred site in

the city of Ayodhya. The 1993 riots in Bombay were a tragic consequence of this

polarization. The tensions between and Muslim communities were never

adequately resolved before or after Partition in 1947.

The Central Government has long tried to reduce the conflicts among these diverse

regions and religions with the concept of "National Unity," also termed as "National

Integration," first formed around 1855 when the National Indian Congress was created.

After independence in 1947, the Government encouraged any o f the arts that expressed

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National Unity, including the composition of the national theme song and other patriotic

anthems. An ever-popular, all-encompassing song to unite the Indian peoples, "Ragupati

Raghava Raja Ram" refers to God as both Ishwara and Allah (the Hindu and Muslim

names for God). The Government wanted to glorify the Indian identity and break from

colonialism. Film offered a powerful medium, and it was exploited. Some propaganda

was released through short documentaries that the Government required cinema halls to

show before feature films. The Censor Board was used to control the content of

commercial films.

Many popular Hindi films have a side theme of National Unity, showing and

Muslims as well as people from other communities as friends, and in rare instances,

marrying. Other times, songs from films express nationalism. The most famous example

of a song promoting National Unity is from the film (1955), "Mera juta hai

japani, mera pantloon englishstani, meri topi russi, phir bhi ..." ("My

shoes are Japanese, my pants are English, my red hat is Russian, yet even so, my heart is

Indian..."). Ironically, critics of the Hindi film industry accuse it of supporting a

neo-colonial ideal also supported by the Central Government: “Part of the neocolonial

economic set-up commercial Hindi cinema plays a strong role in upholding the

neocolonial system and its values. It does this by creating an essentially unreal world.

Commercial cinema has a manipulative approach towards the people, whom it wishes to

attract in their masses” (Pranjali Bandhu, Cinema in Focus: Black and White of Cinema

in India. 32).

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Since the Hindi film industry is the largest in India, it dominates all over the

country. South Indians watch Hindi films. North Indians usually do not watch South

Indian films, although the Tamil and Telegu film industries have grown considerably in

the past decade and, for profitability, even produce some Hindi films. The Tamil film

industry is the largest in the South. These three industries are also known to remake each

other's successful films in their own regional languages.

Traditionally, the have tried to fight against the sway of the North.

"Originating in the nineteen forties, has turned itself into a popular

propaganda tool and means of self-determination for southern culture, a form of Tamil

'nationalism', opposing the cultural, linguistic, and political pressures of the north"

(Antonio Monroy, India. 243). However, it remains true that if a Tamil artist wants to

"make it big" he will go to Bombay and enter the world o f "Bollywood." Many of the

most famous Hindi film actresses like , , , and

are Tamil. (Rekha and Sridevi are also both half Andhran, half Telegu speaking).2

Recently two South Indian choreographers have migrated from South Indian to Hindi

films: and .

One South Indian author, Pranjali Bandhu, in her book Cinema in Focus: Black and

White of Cinema in India, had this to say about the dominance of Hindi films and North

(Somi Roy, film curator, interviewed by author, Washington, D.C., 13 October 1993) Mr. Roy’s theory on the preponderance of Southern actresses in Hindi films is that since the North dominates the South, North Indian men also dominate Southern women. Few, if any, male actors from the South find success in Hindi films.

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Indian culture:

One of the most well recognised and lauded functions of the Hindi film is to spread a uniform all-India culture, important for 'national integration,' something crucial to the all-India big and bureaucrat bourgeoisies. The Hindi film does this by not locating itself in any specific national region o f the country. Names, without surnames usually, are either North Indian or from the epics. For male characters it is the western dress that is the norm. The Hindi cinema has helped to spread the North Indian way of wearing the and the North Indian dress of'sal war kameeze.’ The theme of national integration is also bombastically emphasised in almost every Hindi film through the propagation of communal harmony — the harmony of the main religious communities -- Hindu, Muslim, Christian, and nowadays the also. India is not shown as a multinational country with each national formation having its own special history, culture, and identity, but the is perceived primarily as that of various religious communities (33).3

The author goes on to cite the inequality these Hindi films project showing the

benevolent dominance of the Hindus over the other communities. She further states:

"The hero is never a darkskinned Dravidian from the South, but is generally 'fair1 or rather

brownskinned, so as to typify the so called 'Aryan' (quite a number of Muslims from

the North have had a successful career in Hindi films). We find this same practice in

Delhi based programmes and serials" (34)4

Despite the above statements, one has to wonder what sort o f state India would be in

today without these National Integration efforts. Hindi films have certainly played a role

in keeping peace among India's diverse communities. Analyzing the positive and

Analyzing the positive and negative aspects of this are beyond the scope of the present

It could even be argued that many non-native Hindi speakers understand and speak Hindi because of exposure to Hindi films.

4 “Doordarshan” is the govemment-run television broadcasting service.

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study. However, it seems to the author that the positive effects o f Hindi films have by far

outweighed the negative points raised in the above quoted statements.

The important point is that although Hindi films might not portray the "real" India

according to these criticisms, this is the India with which multitudes o f viewers from all

parts of India identify. The North's cultural and aesthetic dominance are evident in Hindi

commercial cinema reaching as it does the largest audience. Song and dance, as

previously discussed, are integral elements in any commercial Hindi film, and here

Kathak, of any single classical form, has a prominent position. Because Kathak is rooted

in the psyche of North Indian filmmakers, it and its derivatives are the obvious dance

form of choice in film. The lyrics used during Kathak performances are sung in Urdu,

Hindi, Sanskrit, and Brij Bhasha -- all North Indian languages. This factor, plus the fact

that Hindi films are disseminated and viewed all over India, reinforces the North's

cultural dominance.

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FILM GENRES

"...the 'musical' is not just one film among many. It is the genre” (Pranjali Bandhu, Cinema in Focus: black and White of Cinema in India. 21)

It is extremely difficult to divide Hindi films into distinct genres. The inherent

complexity is that every film has some, if not all, of the elements in each category listed:

Historical (Semi-Historical), Mythological, Romantic, Dancer/Courtesan (Dancing Girl),

Action/Hero, Social/Political, and the fact that they are musicals is a given. Because of

this all-inclusiveness, many authors do not attempt to delineate individual films by genre

and those that do, do not always agree on the "categories."

Putting the film genres into a loose historical context will aid the reader.

Mythological films were most prevalent in the silent period and continued to be important

into the early sound era. Social/Political films were also popular during this time and into

the 1940s and 1950s. These films relied heavily upon folk music and dance. The 1950s

and 1960s saw a flourishing of Historical (Semi-Historical) films, as well as Romantic

genre films. There was an emphasis on classical and semi-classical music and dance

forms.

Romantic films continued their popularity into the 1970s when the more violent

Action/Hero genre and formula film took a firm hold. Westernized heroines became

33

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popular. This genre continued into the 1980s and 1990s with increasingly graphic

depictions o f violence and sexuality.

This genre often relies on Western-based songs and dances, including and Hip

Hop, although traditional forms have also been present There has been some return to

traditional values during this period. It should be noted that this is a rough outline. All

genres existed in all times to some extent and there was always some westernization

present.

Social/Political

Social/Political and Mythological films (discussed later) were prevalent in the 1930s

and the 1940s when Indian nationalism was finding powerful expression in cinema.

Social films dealt with morality, village life, corruption, status of women, and national

unity (disunity). At that time, the distinction between commercial and social or art

cinema had not been clearly drawn. The formula or "Masala" film was in its infant

stages. Because these early Social films were about the injustices inherent in Indian

society and those perpetuated on the common folk, they relied heavily upon folk dance

and music to reach audiences. Remnants of these early Social films are found in today's

commercial cinema.

Because most modem audiences crave escape and entertainment, films with an

overtly social, moralistic message, or those lacking the requisite song and dance quota,

have not been successful at the box office. This is perhaps why this is the smallest

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category of films made today.1

Mother India (1957), one of three all time box-office earners, is a brilliant example of

a Social/Political film which succeeded in the commercial context. With plenty of song

and dance, (Bharat Mata) is represented by a poor village woman who

suffers innumerable trials, tribulations, and occasionally joys throughout her life. The

shocking finale comes when the mother shoots her rebellious son, something unheard of

in Indian society. Mother India succeeded because every viewer identified with the

heroine as a supreme mother figure. Men and women alike recognize in her unflinching

integrity, an ideal to which they would aspire. The mother figure is a perennially central

figure of Hindi cinema whether represented as divine or earthly.

"Art" films, also variously termed "New Wave," "Alternative," or "Parallel" cinema,

break away from the commercial formula and often fall into this genre because of their

heavy treatment of social and political themes.2 These "Art" films omit the long song and

Although many films with an Action/Hero or Romance plot have a social message in some form, the entertainment portion is dominant. Courtesan (Dancing Girl) films are sometimes described as Social. This characterization is made probably because of these films’ exploration of the dancer’s social status. is often described as Social because it explores the tragedy of a young wife during the downfall of the feudal “zamindar” or landowner system. Many of Raj Kapoor’s films are considered Socials. 2 (Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen, Encyclopaedia of India Cinema. 154) This movement first gained momentum in the early 1970s, but film makers (ike Satyajit Ray, the renowned Bengali film maker, laid the foundation for the Alternative movement. His films deal with social problems in a realistic, serious, in-depth manner. His best known films include fl956~> and Shatranf Ke (19781. “Art” cinema was most prevalent during the 1970s and 1980s, but due to financial constraints, fewer of these films are being produced. Many people in the commercial film industry commented to the author during recent interviews in India (June - July 1996) that they thought that the “Art” cinema movement was finished.

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dance sequences of commercial cinema and only use song or dance to make a statement

or when it relates specifically to the theme at hand.

Mirch Masala (1985) by Ketan Mehta, which portrays the cruel injustices o f a feudal

landlord in Rajasthan, is considered an "Art" film, but makes some crossovers into

commercial cinema technique, perhaps with the hope of appealing to the masses. Mirch

Masala attempts this by using folk song and dance to show local color, a famous

commercial and "Art" film actress, , and a satisfying, dramatic ending where

the women of the village, under siege, fight back by throwing vast quantities o f red chili

powder in the villainous landowner's face. Another film that almost crosses over from

"Art" cinema to commercial is Mandi (1983), by . It is a humorous attack

on the hypocrisy of Indian society toward the institution of the courtesan. This film uses

Mujra, a Kathak-styled dance, among other songs in the film, but in a mocking style, not

for pure entertainment's sake. The singer and dancer are so bad that their true profession

is obvious.3

Mythological

Mythological films are based on Hindu mythology, especially stories from the epics,

the Ramavana and the Mahabharata. These films, extremely popular in the silent era,

“Art” cinema has never been popular with the masses in part because of its pretentiousness and in part because of its Western approach to film making and the problems of Indian society.

3 A biting political satire. Kissa Kursi Kan9771 used India’s classical dances, innovatively choreographed, to represent each region’s people in a long musical interlude.

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continue to be a prominent genre. One of the most famous silent Mythologicals was

BhaktaVidur (1921); VggLBabntwahaD (1934) and Gonal Krishna (1938) were popular

Mythological sound films. It is more common, especially in recent decades, to see films

with recurring mythological imagery and not necessarily a whole film devoted to the

theme.

In earlier days, mythological parallels were drawn to symbolize the evils of colonial

domination. For example, the character of Rama, representing in the eyes of the masses,

the holy land of India, would be shown conquering the demon Ravana, a thinly disguised

symbol for the enemy. Mythologicals are sometimes referred to as Devotional films, and

these films express pride in Indian nationality and heritage. In the early days of film, they

helped to instill a sense of identity, especially through dance and music sequences, which

are still important to this . In recent decades, mythological comparisons have

been drawn to show political corruption within India's independent government.

Myth has also frequently been employed to compare the love of the modem hero and

heroine to the love of mythological lovers like Radha and Krishna as in Sangam n964).

In (1985), a parallel is drawn between myth and the character,

Ganga. Ganga is the name of the heroine who lives in Gangotri, the source of the all-

important holy river Ganga (Ganges) named for the Goddess Ganga whose spirit inhabits

the river. Ganga's (the heroine's) purity is compared with that of the sacred river. As she

travels down the river to search for her "lost" husband, she encounters the evils of city life

and risks becoming polluted, as the river itself does, on its course from the high

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mountains to the sea. The river is purest at its source and, with the industrial waste of

cities, becomes increasingly polluted on its course. Another source of its pollution comes

from sinners washing away their sins in the purifying waters.

The title song, sung by Ganga, describes this, implying that she and the river cannot

tolerate the amount of sin that must be washed away in this age of sin. "Ram (God) your

Ganga has become dirty from the sinners washing away their sins." Nonetheless, Ganga

retains her purity of spirit as does the river, in spite of this exposure. It is believed by

Hindus that this sacred river cannot become polluted. This is a powerful use of myth in

film that hits home not only in the love story of the movie, but in the message of political

corruption, concern for the environment, and the poor treatment of women.

Even though this is not a strictly Mythological film, it is included here because it is

full of mythological symbolism and draws heavily upon the well-known mythological

tale of . Ram Ten Ganga Maili is supremely a love story and will, therefore,

be mentioned again under that category.

Mythology and history are concepts that are difficult to separate in Indian thought.

Some "mythological" characters probably existed, such as Lord Rama and Lord Krishna.

The difference is that the Mythological category in film implies religious belief and an

ancient Vedic, possibly earlier, time period. The Historical does not necessarily imply

faith.

Historical (Semi-Historical)

Historical films, unlike most, take place in certain time periods. The characters and

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at least some of the events are factual. These films might be better labeled

Semi-Historical since they usually do not strictly follow the facts. Because they are not

documentaries but part of commercial cinema and meant to entertain, historical films

have a content. Some Historical films are: Sikandar (1941, black and white)

and SikanHar-e-Azam (1965, color, a later version of the above story),

(1961), andJ a iM a M (1963).

Music and dance of Historical films strive to be accurate to the time period as in

Utsav (1985), where the proper (melodies) for each scene were set down in the

original plays upon which it is based. Music and dance are essential in period films

because they often take place in historic courts o f India where the arts flourished through

the centuries. In these films Kathak is prominent.

Taj Mahal (1963) tells the story behind the famous mausoleum of the emperor Shah

Jehan and his queen Mahal. Sikander (1941 and 1965) is the story of Alexander

the Great's invasion of India in 326 B.C. Razia Sultana tells the tale of Razia, who

became queen of Delhi in the 1200s. Many other Historical films are on the lives of

various saints and poets, Hindu and Muslim.

Hiaorical/gpMtesan

This genre includes films in which the characters, and possibly the plot, are drawn

from history, but in which the main character is a courtesan. The focus of the plot should

be the courtesan's experiences. Moghul-e-Azam (1960) takes place in the court of the

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greatest Moghul emperor, (1556-1605), but it is also a love story between Akbar’s

only son and a dancing hand maiden/slave of the court The film depicts many historical

figures, but the main character, the heroine, is a courtesan. The earlier film

(1953) tells the same story in a more tragic light. Largely biographical, Umrao Jan

(1981) falls into this genre. It is said to be the true story o f the life of a courtesan in

Lucknow in the 1800s whose memoirs and poetry were recorded when she was an old

lady by an acquaintance (Mirza Mohammed Hadi Ruswa, translated by

and M. A. Husaini, Umrao Jan Ada: Courtesan of ). Her poetry, life, and the

period in which she lived are all depicted in this film. The dances in these three films are

all derived from Kathak.

Utsav (1985) has been included in this category because the film takes place in Vedic

times and an effort was made to correctly portray the costumes and life of that time. The

story is not based on historical events, but the literature itself is historical. The side story

in the film o f the writing of the well-known erotic manual, the Kamasutra. is also

historical. The heroine, Vasantasena, is a courtesan.

Romantic

All Hindi films have elements of romance, but for this paper films that center around

the plot o f the love interest between the hero and the heroine are classified as Romantic.

Some Romantic genre films are: Guide (1965), Milan 1967), (1991), Chandini

(1989) Lekin (1990), Kabhi-Kabhi (1976), Silsila (1981), Ram Ten Ganga Maili (1985),

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and Maine Pvar Kiva (1990). Dance is essential to Romantic films, but songs are the

mainstay. The song and dance of these films create an atmosphere of romance,

sometimes to the point of eroticism. In fact they are often a substitute for love-making.

The song/dance sequence "Bhor Bhaye Panghat Pe" from Satvam Shivam Sunderam

(1978) is an example where the voluptuous heroine, played by , goes

bathing in the river observed by her admirer. Other stock sights in the song and dance

interludes o f Romantic films are the lovers playing in a field or running around trees,

rain-drenched, sari-clad heroines and gawking-cum-singing/dancing heroes. There are

unbelievably frequent costume and scenery changes in these musical portions. Love gone

awry or the sadness of separation is also expressed through song.4

The conflict in these dramas usually arises from one or both of the lovers' families

opposed to the relationship or the typical villain playing out his evil desires. Some

obstacle must be overcome before the happy ending. If the obstacle cannot be overcome

by the first generation of lovers, their children will resolve it. Kabhi-Kabhi (1976) is a

good example of this. In other cases, such as in Milan (1967), the characters,

reincarnated in their next life, resolve the conflict.

AgtiQn/HsiQ

These adventure films involve numerous hoodlums, goondas, dakoits, gangsters,

4 This lovelom-ness is, in fact, an integral part of this genre and Hindi films in general. A scene with the lovelorn hero or heroine singing against a gloomy background, or the heroine in shackles in some forsaken dungeon, is a mandatory part of almost every Hindi film.

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thugs, and other such unsavory characters who are the villains who engage in fight scenes

with the heroes. There are also corrupt businessmen, politicians, and cruel feudal

landowners. These villains are almost as great a box-office draw as the heroes. The most

beloved film villain is Sholav's (1975) Gabar Singh, played by Amjad .5 Amrish

Puri is also an actor well-known for portraying villains.

Villain characters often have a catch phrase that makes them popular with audiences.

These can be ridiculous, rhyming phrases or whole monologues. For example, the villain

Mogambo() in Mr. India (1987) after each act of consumate evil gloats,

"Mogambo khush hua" ("Mogambo is pleased"), followed by a sinister laugh.

Other villain catch phrases, like "'t be silly my Lilly" and "Mona darling" (in English)

are classics deeply rooted in the collective conscious of the viewing public. "Liquid

nitrogen tujhe jeene naheen dega aur mai tujhe mame naheen dunga" ("Liquid nitrogen

won't let you live, but I won't let you die"), sneers the villain as he continues to torture the

hero. This undoubtedly is the all-time favorite villain line. Although the public repeats

these stock phrases with great glee, it realizes the deadly intent behind these innocuous

lines.

Vamps are also popular with the audience. Recently the villainess character has

come into vogue, especially Madame Maya played by Rekha in Khiladiyon Ka Khiladi

(1996).

Amjad Khan had since taken to playing comedic roles.

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Villainesses are more independent than vamps, running their own crime

organizations, but still share some commonalities with vamps. In Madame Maya's death

scene, she explains the unfortunate circumstances that turned her into a villainess in much

the same way that a vamp would. Villains are just plain evil.

The hero is all important to the . The actor, Ambitabh Bachchan, a sort of

singing/dancing Clint Eastwood for India, has been the most popular star o f this genre of

films for decades. The hero in this genre, is more often than not, on a mission to rescue a

village from the clutches of an oppressive landowner who has kidnaped his love interest

She is a symbol for the whole village in this sense. The action sequences in the form of

fights, chases, and confrontations are the focus of this genre. Most often the villain is

destroyed in a dramatic scene of fire, chaos, and general mayhem. The inevitable result is

that good conquers evil.

The anti-hero figure has grown out of the traditional hero character and has become

influential in this genre, as evidenced by the success of the film Khalnavak (T9931 (The

title means "anti-hero.") The anti-heroine has yet to be fully developed.

Although ever-present, song and dance tend to take a secondary role to the action.

Earthy heroines and their friends dance and sing in the villages, and sequin-clad vamps

gyrate for the villains in cabarets. Although these dances are hardly classical, they

incorporate the unmistakable stamp of Kathak gestures and postures. Some popular

action films are: Sholav (1975), Shahenshah (1988), Toofan (1989), Khalnavak (1993),

Khuda Gawah (1992), and Mr. India (1987).

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Dancer/Courtesan (Dancing Girn

Here the dual title Dancer/Courtesan (Dancing Girl) is required because the plots in

both types o f films are about dancers and their lives. The distinction is that Dancer films

are about dancers who are not courtesans, but are simply professional dancers as in

Jhanak Jhanak Paval Baie <'1955') and Jal Bin Machli Nritva Bina Biili f 197D. Dancer

films are rarer than Courtesan (Dancing Girl) films. The term "Dancer” may be separated

from "Courtesan (Dancing Girl)" where appropriate.

Films about dancing girls or courtesans are very popular. The courtesan or dancing

girl is often a tragic heroine who is admired for her artistic talent, but rejected by decent

society because of her profession. In all cases, the heroine's pure heart and nobility of

character become apparent as the story unfolds. Many, but not all, of these films take

place in the Moghul period, 1526-1707, when courtesans flourished under their rulers'

patronage. In most films the heroine will not continue dancing if she gets married. This

reflects the prevailing societal norm.

In some films, a heroine temporarily becomes a dancing girl, usually due to economic

hardship as in Ram Teri Ganga Maili (1985). In other films like Kohinoor (1960), the

dancer is an important side character, but her status as a courtesan is not discussed in-

depth, and it is never clear whether she is a courtesan in the true sense. In Courtesan

(Dancing Girl) films, the courtesan is the star character. The film Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam

(1962) has dancing courtesans, but they are not the lead characters, so this film cannot be

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listed under this genre.

In Courtesan (Dancing Girl) movies, such as Ghunghroo (1983) and Salma ( 1985T

the heroine will usually not end up marrying her lover. In fact, the heroine Salma dies in

the end. In Ghunghroo (1983), the daughter of the courtesan is the one to right the

injustice done to her mother and fulfill her destiny. However, the daughter is able to do

this only because her father is of noble heritage. The daughter accomplishes this during

the lifetime of her mother. As discussed under Romantic film, the children of the

characters or a reincarnated character often resolve the conflict. This is true in Pakeezah

(1971). The heroine reincarnated as her own daughter in the film finds justice. In this

case, the mother was also the lover of a nobleman.

Yasmin (1955) is unique because the hero battles his father and wins the right to

marry the dancing girl. This film also supposedly takes place not in Indian, but in Arab

society. There is a similar situation in Mnghnl-e-Azam (1960), but here the father wins

the battle and the dancing girl is sent away, with the hero made to believe that she is dead.

It is the Courtesan (Dancing Girl) genre where the tear-jerking, tragic end is most often

seen. Anarkali, in the film AnarkaliY1953). is buried alive.

The Courtesan (Dancing Girl) genre is the most significant for this paper. Although

all the genres discussed above include dance sequences, many of which showcase

Kathak, the dancing girls portrayed in most of the films discussed are creatures of the

North Indian dance environment that is the birthplace of Kathak.

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THE ROLE OF WOMEN AND DANCE

AS SEEN THROUGH HINDI CINEMA

India is a complex, diverse land full of extremes and contradictions: rich-poor,

urban-rural, intellectual-illiterate, eroticism-puritanism, order-anarchy. It is only natural

that the position, and equally important, the perception of women in Indian society is

characterized by such complex duality. Throughout Indian mythology, there are the

strikingly contrasting images of Sita, the virtuous wife, and Mohini, the dancing

temptress. Historically, there are examples of sainted women such as the chaste Mira

Bai, whose life was one passionately devotional song to her god Krishna, and her

opposite, the courtesan, catering to more earthly lords. There have been enormously

powerful women like Razia Sultana and Indira Gandhi in contrast to the unsung,

anonymous, impotent victims of bride burning.1 The phenomenon of the film actress is a

reflection of these complexities and contradictions in both life and film. The actress's

role as dancer and the importance of dance to her art are vital to understanding her

evolution in the face of these complexities.

Razia Sultana was Queen of Delhi in 1200 A.D.

46

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These stars of the world's largest film industry are simultaneously loved and hated by

a society that has long held a dichotomous view of women and their sexuality. They are

among the richest women in India and some of the most independent Money and

glamour are their instruments of power in this male-dominated society. The success of

these women is itself a great achievement. However, while society celebrates this

achievement it casts a dubious eye on the journey to fame and what it costs. The strong

feminist movement in India today, a backlash to the history of male domination,

frequently includes sharp tirades and sometimes unreasonable criticisms of the

commercial film industry and its depictions o f women. Other intellectuals and critics

also see Hindi films as having a negative influence on and exploiting of women.

The successful actress/female entertainer, however rich or independent, still must

endure for the sake of the medium, the dubious distinction of using her body to express

herself publicly on screen. This alluring yet intimidating figure, embodies the spirit of

female sexuality that India's patriarchal society has feared and felt the need to control

since the misogynist Laws of Manu were first written.2

India has retained, in its consciousness, remnants of its age-old court and feudal

systems. When those systems died out during British colonization, ingrained aspects of

the old life adapted themselves to the changing times. The arts, so much a part o f Indian

identity, once attached to the grand courts, petty rulers, and temples, survived tenaciously

2 Louis Renou, editor, Hinduism. 116. This source puts the date of the writing of the Laws of Manu between the first and second centuries B.C.

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in various forms. Such is the case o f the institution of the courtesan in North India.

Traditionally the preserver of the glamorous arts of singing, dancing, and poetry, the

courtesan eventually found patronage in the theatre and later in film. The lives of these

entertainment women changed and adapted with their nation's struggle for independence

and identity, giving them an opportunity to define themselves within a broader context of

the emerging society. More options became available to them. Although not confined to

the parameters of the traditional definition of "courtesan," the film actress serves the same

purpose in modem Indian society that the courtesan once served. This is not so much a

reflection o f her personal sexuality as it is of her art and lifestyle.

To understand this comparison, one must understand the historical role of the

courtesan in Indian society. A courtesan is defined as "a prostitute or kept woman,

especially one associating with men o f rank or wealth” (The American Heritage

Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary). This definition needs to be extended when

discussing the term courtesan as it applies to India. "A courtesan is not a plain and

simple prostitute; she is one who combines the practice of'the oldest profession' with

more sophisticated forms of entertainment” (Peter Manuel, Thurmi in Historical and

Stylistic Perspectives. 46).

It is impossible to separate the courtesan from the world of music and dance in India.

Various classes of courtesans have existed in India at least since Vedic times and have

always had a specific place in the structure of that society. There was a dramatic decline

of the status o f women during the Mauryan period (268-231 B.C.) that helped to cause

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the proliferation o f the trade (Manuel, 46). The government o f the Mauryan Empire

actually founded a ministry o f prostitution in order to tax and control them. Yet, despite

their wealth and education, they maintained a dubious place in society. During this

period, women were married off at younger ages and consequently not educated. The

dowry system was an added burden. Apparently the perception of wives was even worse

than that of courtesans. "Wives, meanwhile, were described as mere 'leather bags,' i.e.,

for holding the seed (Sinha 1976: 1447)” (Manuel, 46).

It appears that cavorting with courtesans was acceptable at this time. "Though

because of their profession they were not considered a part o f respectable society...it was

not considered wrong or reprehensible even for respectable men to enjoy the company of

courtesans (Mujeeb 1967: 227)."3 Their establishments functioned as charm schools for

young men. For companionship, men looked to the courtesans who were highly

educated, trained in the arts of music, dance, painting, poetry, and conversation. They

were also experts in the art of amassing wealth from their patrons. Although rare, it

occasionally happened that a courtesan married. Courtesans were called on to perform

for various entertainments in temples, courts, and homes and on auspicious occasions like

weddings and the birth of a son.

There were various types of courtesans (baijis), including those who were attached

(Peter Manuel, Thumri in Historical and Stylistic Perspectives. 47) The claim is frequently made that visiting courtesans was an acceptable pastime and that courtesans were respected during this period. This could be true, but it is doubtful that all of society felt this way and may be a glorification of the past.

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to a specific temple or court and those who operated independently. Within a court there

were also distinctions: Some courtesans sang and danced for the king and ladies of the

royal , others performed in court for the king and courtiers and at royal processions.

Some o f these women, like Jadonji, a temple dancer and favorite of Maharaja Ram Singh,

attained great political power. Rasakapoor, a courtesan in the court of Maharaja Jagat

Singh, even had a say in the affairs of state (Sunil Kothari. Kathak: Indian Classical

Dance Art. 41). A courtesan's status in the court often depended on her artistic merit.

Some courtesans were highly accomplished artists, while for others the arts were a guise

to ply their trade. These women usually came from courtesan castes or communities like

the Kanchanis (still active), Dhadhis, Chunawalis, Nagamt, and Dominis ( girls)

(Kothari, 2, 7, and 32). The Tawaifs, another class of courtesans, were famous for their

Mujra (Kothari, 50). Mujra is a lighthearted flirtatious adaptation of the Kathak form.

Throughout the years that were inhospitable to the arts, especially the reign of

Emperor Aurangzeb (1658-1707) and the takeover of the British Colonialists beginning

in 1757, courtesans continued to be the preservers of Kathak, albeit in a somewhat

degraded form (Antonio Monroy, India. 285).

The Christian British did not believe in expressing religious feeling through dance.

With their Victorian morals, the British looked down upon dance as a profession suitable

only for women of low status. There can be no doubt that to maintain control, the

colonists suppressed the Indian arts in order to devalue their host's cultural identity.

The British, western, narrow concept of prostitution clashed with that of the Indian.

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In the late 1700s and 1800s, the British began to make laws regulating prostitution that

required the women to have medical exams. This was also to prevent the spread of

venereal disease, which was on the rise among British troops. Police checks and

harassment were common. They reserved the right to detain the women as well. Some

British "back home" complained that instituting these laws came too close to legalizing

the trade. In 1864 Indians also began to oppose the laws. One argument was that the

British laws did not distinguish between lowly prostitutes and courtesans or mistresses.

Seen from the Indian viewpoint, this lack of discrimination devalued both the high class

courtesans and, more importantly, the men who had been their patrons, now in the

position of clients. Because courtesanship traditionally ran along hierarchal caste and

social lines, a high caste man would patronize a courtesan appropriate to his social level,

never a low-caste prostitute. At the same time, a talented courtesan would never want to

be grouped with common prostitutes in any way. The British laws ignored social status

and insulted all involved.4

Film, with its wide public exposure, was a shocking medium when it was first

introduced. It was so shocking that even prostitutes refused to act in movies, and men

had to play the female roles. In fact it was not always acceptable for men to enter films.

Respectable families did not want their men folk, let alone their women, to be associated

(Sumita S. Chakravarty, National Identity in Indian Popular Cinema. 1947-1987. 278-280). Santosh Mukheiji in also offers some interesting insights on the subject.

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with the perceived immorality of the film lifestyle. The financial insecurity of the

industry was another reason for disapproval. People loved watching films, but actually

being in them was another matter.5 Later, as the medium became more familiar and its

associated professions more accepted, women began to enter the industry. The first film

actresses were mostly Anglo-Indian girls whose background, with its western influence,

allowed them this freedom. However, with the advent of sound, these actresses, with a

few exceptions, did not have the Hindi language skills to be successful and faded away.

By this time other women, especially from theatre backgrounds, had begun to enter

the industry. The profession of the actress gained some credibility when a few brave

society ladies joined films, most notably and Khote.6

Gradually the number of women participating in various types of roles increased.

Many of these actresses were Muslims or from mixed religious backgrounds as well as

singing and dancing families. Two of Hindi cinema's greatest actresses, and

Meena Kumari, were the daughters of Muslim singing/dancing women and a Hindu

Brahman and a Parsi father, respectively.7 These inter-communal mixes were unusual in

5 The attitude of society toward the film profession was similar to its attitude toward professional classical dance at the time. Initially, it was also believed that exposure to the camera was unhealthy.

6 (Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen, Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema. 118 and 178; T. J. S. George, The Life and Times of Nargis. chapter one.) This source further explains the importance of Devika Rani and others who helped to make the profession acceptable.

7 ( and Jitendra Kothari, The Hundred Luminaries of Hindi Cinema. 42; Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen, Encyclopaedia of India Cinema. 126) The first source states

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India, but were always fairly common within the film world. This is still true if one

examines the background o f many of today's stars. A mixed background suggests a

broader outlook that may have allowed women to go into films at a time when more

conservative elements of society thought the profession unsuitable for their children.8

Today, because of the money and glamour involved, conservative attitudes toward the

profession of acting have softened, but some stigma still remains. One frequently hears

the refrain, "Girls from good families don't enter films."9 A girl from a good family who

does enter films, attempts to carefully guard her reputation by having family members

present on the set, particularly when shooting on location where over-night stay is

that Kumari had a Hindu father, while the second source says he was a actor. The author sides with the second source because his name, Ali Bux, is given, while no name is given in the first. The second source also supplies other significant details. (T. J. S. George, The Life and Times of Nargis. chapter two) The story of Nargis’ parents is well-known. Her father, a Hindu Brahmin, gave up medical school in England and his family to marry a singing courtesan, Jaddan Bai. Jaddan Bai continued to perform and support the family. It is interesting to note that some early actresses entered the profession by dancing in the side shows of silent cinema. An exploration of why so many Muslim women joined the industry would be interesting.

8 It appears from research conducted by the author that there are a number of actors and actresses who come from families where parents were journalists. Perhaps being involved in a communications field also gave them an open outlook. This research was carried out in Delhi, Bombay, and from May to August, 1996.

9 “Good Family” generally refers to families of the upper castes and classes. Many of these attitudes, as well as criticisms about film are transmitted orally. They are heard frequently and are familiar enough that they will be easily recognized by anyone acquainted with Indian society. Many negative attitudes about the film industry still exist One film journalist (also an assistant editor), Pammi Somal from magazine, whom the author interviewed in Hyderabad, 29 and 30 July 1996, stated that one reason that she and her husband divorced was because he objected to her close association with film people. Other people seemed wary about selling or renting apartments to film people, particularly single men from the industry. They feared that the tenants would have loud parties and be involved in unscrupulous activities.

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required.

There is a distinction here. A girl from a good family will not take a background

role. She will be the heroine, or perhaps take a supporting role o f a sister, friend, or some

family member. She might even take the role of a vamp or other character role, but she

will not be a "junior artiste." The background people, called junior artistes, are usually

dancers in the corps or have other incidental roles, like that of a servant, with a few lines

at most. These women, very often from the lower strata of society, are certainly the

unlucky guardians of the stigma attached to acting, enjoying none of the benefits of

stardom.10 Just as there were high and low status singing and dancing girls so there are

high and low levels among actresses. In this chapter, "actress" refers to the higher end of

the scale.

The modem film actress shares many commonalities with her courtesan ancestor, not

the least of which is economic independence. Whether the actress supports her family or

they in fact control her money, she is most likely the principal bread earner. Few women

in India have the potential to earn the amount of money a film actress can earn.

10 (Pranjali Bandhu, Cinema in Focus: Black and White of Cinema in India. 31) Pranjali Bandhu speaks about the difficulties faced by junior artistes: “The plight of the women junior artistes is bad. It is difficult for them to get work for the day unless they ‘giggle with the agents, make friends with them, touch them’ (Sunday Observor. 21 June 1987, page 19). Sheer economic necessity has driven a large number of young girls into the ranks of the extras. Only rarely are they able to realise their wish to make it to the heroine grade, most often the path leads to prostitution.” Further studies into the lives of junior artistes would be interesting.

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The film actress, like the courtesan once was, is a public woman.11 Her life is the

subject for gossip, tabloid, and film magazines. She is the object of fantasy for her

public, for girls who emulate her and boys who idealize her in their romantic imaginings.

Her affairs, real or concocted rumors, and career choices are topics of keen interest She

sets fashion and social trends as her fans imitate her or the roles she plays. In this

capacity, she is also the object of jealousy. She is an outlet for the pent up emotions of a

repressed society; a cinema through which the fans can live vicariously. The most

beloved of actresses are sometimes referred to as "ghar ke rishte," or members of the

family. was one such adored actress, although she is widely reputed to have

had numerous affairs, a behavior not widely accepted by Indian society, but expected of

actresses.

Actresses are, like courtesans were, primarily entertainers. They are famed for

beauty, talent, and dance ability. Most actresses do not sing for themselves, but lip sing

to playback singers. Salma is an exception. Actresses enter the profession by

several routes, the most common of which is family. They are bom into an inherent

infrastructure for stardom with the advantage of family contacts. The population of the

Hindi film world is studded with Kapoors, one of the largest and most successful film

families, although it is known that Raj Kapoor, the brilliant and controversial film

ii It should be noted that courtesans no longer exist in the professional singing/dancing capacity that they once did, as described in this text. However, courtesan communities and prostitutes still exist. They sometimes perform , but their entertainments are in such a degraded form that they can hardly be compared to those of the bygone courtesan tradition.

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director, did not want women from his family entering films.12 Directors and producers

eagerly wait for these industry children to grow up and join the film world so that they

will have an immediately saleable star name in the cast Some even start their careers as

child artists. Some examples of stars from famous film families are: Karishma Kapoor,

Pooja Bhatt, daughter of director , , daughter of actress , and

Moon Moon Sen, daughter of renowned actress .13

Another means of entering the film world is through modeling and beauty pageants.

Many Miss , Miss Worlds, etc...start their careers in this way. Examples are: Zeenat

Aman, , Meenakshi Sheshadri, Aishwarya Rai, and .

Some actresses have received training from respected teachers and institutions like the

Pune Film Institute or the , Delhi. Among graduates are

Shabana Azmi, and . Private and public acting institutions are few since

this is a relatively recent phenomenon and acting has not been seen as a serious area of

study. Some acting schools in Bombay are merely money-making enterprises. The Pune

Film Institute no longer has an acting program, but one of its former teachers,

Taneja, offers classes and also teaches for the ABCL Corporation. This corporation, set

12 (T. J. S. George, The Life and Times of Nargis. 38) George notes the irony that many film families, including the Kapoors, have tried to keep their daughters away from the evils of the industry. Raj Kapoor’s younger brother, actor Shashi Kapoor, denied this in an interview with the author in Bombay, 2 July 1996. However, it has been widely commented on that Raj Kapoor’s granddaughter, Karishma, did not begin acting until after his death.

13 Kajol is also the niece of actress and granddaughter of actress Samarth.

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up by the phenomenally famous actor, turned politician, turned business man, Amitabh

Bachchan, is now sponsoring the training of about twenty male and female acting

students for entry into films. This is the first time such a sponsorship has taken place and

its results have yet to be seen. However, this seems to be a promising, safe, and reputable

way of entering the industry.14

There are also beautiful girls like and from

privileged backgrounds that have had the good fortune to be offered major roles from

family friends in the business. These actresses do not have the same pressure to succeed

that hopefuls, attempting to enter the industry from the outside, rightfully feel. The

actress who enters with the protection of her film family does not need to worry about

being taken advantage of by unscrupulous directors/producers. The outsider actress

inevitably faces this problem.15

14 The author interviewed Roshan Taneja in Bombay (23 July 1996) and surveyed all of his students on several occasions during July, 1996, in Bombay. The author also interviewed Amitabh Bachchan on several occasions during this time, first in Bombay (3 July 1996) and in Madras (4, S and 6 July 1996).

15 It is widely believed among those involved with this industry that even actresses from film families and big stars have chosen to compromise themselves for success, but of course these stories are impossible to authenticate. Many directors commented that actresses these days are more business-like than those of previous generations. They said that they socialize little with people working on a given film and leave the studio as soon as their work is completed. However, it is true that, although they may have advantageous backgrounds, these actresses are extremely competitive with one another, their status fluctuating with each film’s success or failure. One can also wonder whether this fluctuating status is reality or media-created. Pranjali Bandhu, Cinema in Focus: Black and White of Cinema in India (31). adds: “Prostitution is not a phenomenon confined to the female junior artistes, who are most often compelled into it by sheer economic necessity. It is an organised racket within the film industry involving stars and starlets. The commodifiction and degradation of women on the screen are a reflection of the same in real life by financiers, businessmen, directors and producers. Many a young woman resorts to selling her body to advance in her career and to lead a more physically comfortable and luxurious life.”

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One director/producer, Savan Kumar, stated in an interview with the author that if a

girl/actress made an arrangement to "befriend" him for the sake of a role, this was

morally "OK" because compromising herself was her choice. When the author replied

that this was a form o f prostitution, the director, who has a reputation for casting

unknowns, agreed. Incidentally, he is proud of making "women's films" and feels he is

sensitive to their plight.16 At the time, this director had in his charge a young muse that

he recruited in a talent search in Delhi and with whom he had made such an arrangement.

Interestingly, her manner was described by some others in the industry as "-ish" or

courtesan-like (various interviews conducted by author in Bombay, June to July 1996).

The industry is rife with such casting couch tales. It is difficult to say how many of these

girls go on to great stardom, but if they do, it is certain they will never admit that it was

not talent alone that made them successful. All actresses say they know other actresses

that have slept around for parts by choice or coercion, but that they themselves have not

been confronted with this situation. Some actresses say their careers have been

negatively affected because they did not give in to casting couch pressures (various

interviews conducted by author in Bombay, June to July 1996).

The dual nature of the profession of the actress is best summed up by the responses

of actresses to the question posed to them by the author in recent interviews. When asked

16 Savan Tak Kumar, film director/producer, interview by author in Bombay, 12 July 1996. The author tends to agree with the director on his statements regarding his films. It seems that the exploitation here goes on off-screen.

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if they thought Indian society at large accepted and respected them, many responded that

they felt society had changed significantly and that they were respected. One actress

candidly responded, "They think we're all whores” (various interviews conducted by

author in Bombay, June to July 1996, and , film actress, interviewed by

author in Bombay, 25 June 1996).

Beauty is a primary asset for an actress, but noticeably from the time of the dancing

actress Vyjayanthimala's debut in 1954, dance ability is crucial. The most popular

actresses have either classical dance training or are known as good dancers. Classical

dance, especially Kathak, is most useful for films. Vyjayanthimala, , Hema

Malini, Meenakshi Sheshadri, and Madhuri Dixit, who is currently the top actress, all

have extensive classical dance training.17 Madhuri and Meenakshi, both accomplished

Kathak dancers, intend to return to the world of classical dance in the future. Their

screen fame will undoubtedly draw attention to their classical endeavors (Meenakshi

Sheshadri, actress, interviewed by author, Bombay, 21 and 24 July 1996, and Madhuri

Dixit, actress, interviewed by author, Bombay, 26 July 1996). Sitara was a

well-known Kathak dancer from a family of court musicians who starred in many films.

Madhubala, , Waheeda , Rekha, and Sridevi are all known for

17 Sandhya was a Kathak dancer. Vyjayanthimala and Hema Malini are both highly accomplished Bharatanatyam dancers, but are seen performing mostly Kathak-based dances in Hindi films. Actress was also extensively trained in Bharatanatyam. Director/producer Sushma Shiromanee trained in Kathak throughout her childhood and began by dancing in films as a young girl. Actress, television-serial producer, director and writer, Joglekar, is a highly accomplished Kathak dancer. She still performs. However, neither has used this ability extensively in films.

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their dance ability and largely remembered for their famous dance sequences.18 Very few

actors are noted for this talent alone.19 Many well-known vamps are primarily dancers

such as , , and Kalpana Iyer. They have been greatly influenced by

western popular dance.

An actress' status as a star allows her freedoms unknown to other women. When it is

rumored that an actress is having an affair, it is expected and often explained away as it is

for other artists (creative people) with the common phrase, "artists have these needs,"

alluding to their sexual behavior. In fact, an actress may behave in the traditional

virtuous fashion, but rumors abound when life is on view for public consumption. Of

course, some actresses want rumors spread for the sake of publicity and some, like Neena

Gupta, want to appear "liberated" from the traditional restrictions of Indian society.

Neena Gupta recently became India's first public single mother.20

There are other results of fame. Many actresses have at some point entered politics

18 (Rekha Ganeshan, actress, interviewed by author, Bombay, 20 July 1996). Rekha’s uncle was a dancer who trained her when she was young, although she says that she hated the training but loves dancing in films. Rekha has performed many Kathak-based dances in Hindi films, most notably in Umrao Jan fl9811. studied Bharatanatyam.

19 , known for his dance skill, is an exception, as is . Ashiq Hussain was also an actor from the 1950s who was a highly accomplished Kathak dancer.

20 , in a phone conversation with the author (Bombay, 10 July 1996), refused to give an interview saying that the state of affairs in commercial cinema was “too depressing,” especially for women, and that nothing ever changed. Ironically, a week later she appeared in a glossy film magazine photo spread with an interview stating that she did not mind doing typical commercial film roles. Lacking the glamour of the typical film actress, she has been more successful in Art films.

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like Nargis, Vyjayanthimala, , and Jaya Lalita. Others have had temples

erected in their names such as Khushboo and Rekha, although this practice has been most

prevalent in South India.2'

The roles actresses play and their real lives are somehow mingled both in the

collective mind of the audience and in reality.22 Part of this stems from the fact that many

films deal with a woman's role in society and injustices committed against her, most

notably seen in the Courtesan (Dancing Girl) genre. These films reveal the conflict

Indian society feels about women in the performing arts.

Meena Kumari, film's "Queen of Tragedy," lived a tragic life, died an alcoholic and

emotionally weakened woman, like the character she portrayed in Sahib Bibi Aur

Ghulam (1962) many years before her demise. It is said that she died as a result of

complications from an infection she received while filming the famous dancing-on-glass

wedding scene of Pakeezah (1971). Madhubala, whose beauty was legendary, after the

pain of many failed personal relationships, died at age 36 from a congenital heart

21 Actors have also used their film fame to break into politics, and some have also had temples built for them. It is said that Amitabh Bachchan has to make an appearance on his balcony every morning to appease adoring fans. If he does not appear, they have been known to become angry and throw stones.

22 These similarities are not necessarily intended by the filmmaker. Many of the events in these actresses’ lives mentioned below occurred after the film cited. Some cases where the actor’s/actress’s life is similar to a film story might be intentional, as in the case of actor in Khalnavak (19931. Raj Kapoor used many scenes from his life in film, including his first meeting with Nargis and his communication with Vyjayanthimala, asking her to perform in his film Sangam (19641. which became the song “Bol Radha Bol.” Ram Teri Ganga Maili (19851 was also inspired by his encounter with a Hindu ascetic.

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condition that she had suffered with for years. Nargis's well-known love affair with the

married Raj Kapoor ended when she married actor . She later died o f

pancreatic cancer.23 The young actress Smita Patil, died at age 31 after giving birth to a

son from her lover, the already married actor . There is a rumor that she had

become his second wife by the time of her delivery. Rekha's businessman husband

committed suicide, creating a scandal some ten years ago. She has never remarried, but

her rumored long-time affair with married actor, Amitabh Bachchan, is said to continue.

Many of these stars have unsuccessful relationships, become, like Hema Malini, the

second wife (for Hindus this is not customary), or, like , remain unmarried. The

sexy Asha Sachdev's well-to-do fiancee is rumored to have broken off their engagement

because of her questionable behavior and reputation. The wife of producer Boney

Kapoor, who refuses to divorce him although he has remarried to actress Sridevi (she

recently delivered their child as well), asked in a film magazine, "'Why do these actresses

go for married men?"'24 No one asks why the married men go for film actresses.

23 Nargis was also troubled by her son Sanjay Dutt’s drug problems and his rumored connection to gangsters. Her long-time director and lover, Raj Kapoor, was known to say, "My wife is not to be my actress, and my actress is not to be my wife.” (, Rai Kapoor. 51)

24 “Sridevi Stalked” Stardust 56-57, and the Whispers Column “Enter the Baby,” . 12. The second column highlights how seriously the audience takes these real-life situations and mingles them with the film story. It reports that during the screening of Sridevi’s most recent film, Judaai <'19961 the audience “heckled whenever Sridevi and got romantic on screen.” Anil Kapoor is the brother of Boney Kapoor, the film’s producer. It seems the audience could not accept her on-screen romances with the brother of her real-life husband/lover Boney Kapoor.

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On the other hand, not all actresses have unhappy or tragic lives, but it seems that

many of those who have portrayed happier heroines and who come from non-traditional

acting backgrounds, have correspondingly happier lives. , the

granddaughter of the illustrious poet , is happily married to the

Prince of Pataudi. She was famous for wearing a swimsuit on screen in 1968, shocking

in her day. Zeenat Aman, who was one of the first to portray a westernized, rich girl

heroine, and Poonam Dhillon are both married to film producers and work behind the

camera along with their husbands. Kolapure, also married to a producer, has

opened an acting school in , but is not pursuing her film career. Many actresses

of the younger generation are marrying rich businessmen, yet few continue acting after

marriage or act in a limited capacity. Jaya Badhuri, top star of the early 1970s, at the

height of her career gave up acting, with the exception of a few Art films, after her

marriage to Amitabh Bachchan.

Film actresses suffer many of the same tragedies as their courtesan ancestors, but

also experience their benefits. They are beautiful, wealthy, glamorous, independent,

well-spoken, and trained in the arts. They have privileges largely unknown to other

women in their society. The modem actress is fortunate, however, to live in a time where

she can experience greater freedom and acceptance than could either courtesans or early

actresses.

Courtesans in films must justify their existence. The courtesan rarely marries her

lover unless, like Sahib Jan in Pakeezah (1971), she has noble blood. The courtesan will,

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in any case, suffer greatly to reach the point where marriage is even possible. If she does

not marry her lover, she must do the right thing and sacrifice her feelings to aid him in

overcoming some obstacle, as seen in the last scene of Kohinoor (1960), so that he may

marry a suitable girl. Very often, she removes herself from the scene, quite literally, by

dying. The courtesan is frequently humiliated by her lover even to the extent of his hiring

her to dance at his wedding. She makes a desperate statement against the injustice by

dramatically shattering a glass chandelier, then dancing on the broken shards. The

courtesan in Pakeezah survives this macabre dance while Salma, from the film Salma

(1985), dies.25 Sumita Chakravarty states that in these scenes, "Female masochism

becomes the means for a symbolic cleansing of the body...” (Sumita S. Chakravarty,

National Identity in Indian Popular Cinema 1947-1987.295).

The vamp, a modem westernized courtesan, usually is the villain's consort, especially

in films from the Action/Hero genre. She, like the traditional courtesan, must redeem

herself, which often means she has to die. Her death also conveniently ties up any loose

ends in the plot. At other times, she can turn on the villain unexpectedly in the end, to aid

the hero.

At some point in the film story, dancing girls/courtesans and vamps will recount their

25 In the film Salma, the heroine chooses to sing and dance herself to death after being given poison that affects her vocal chords. It is interesting to note that the film’s lead actress, lead character, and title are all named “Salma.” This happens frequently, as in the film Khiladivon Ka Khiladi (1996). The hero’s name is Akshay, and the actor portraying him is also named Akshay. When the heroine, the hero’s real-life girlfriend, sings “Mere Pyare Akshay” (“My Dear Akshay”) to him, there is an added meaning for the audience, which is aware of their relationship off-screen.

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lives of hardship and abuse. The audience realizes that these girls have been forced into a

disreputable life style by fate and circumstance and are, therefore, essentially innocent

victims. The vamp is at once blamed and blameless. However, villains rarely have such

redeeming features. Perhaps this explains why the public has such sympathy for the

real-life tragedies of their heroines, as victims of circumstance. It also helps to explain

the public's fascination with films' dancing girls and courtesans. They are romanticised

characters with whom decent women in society can identify in their suffering. Social

taboos are tantalizing. Women fantasize about being a courtesan, and men fantasize

about being with one.

In discussing society's dichotomous perception of the courtesan, it is interesting to

note the overwhelming use of mirrors and mirror imagery in these films. Sumita

Chakravarty, in her book National Identity in Indian Popular Cinema 1947-1987.

discusses how the courtesan uses mirrors to question her own identity. She also

comments on how the courtesan character is used to represent all women: "Indeed mirror

imagery is abundant in courtesan films, giving added dimension to the metaphor of

woman as essentially 'split' (virgin/whore, for example) and as the looking-glass held up

to man” (Sumita S. Chakravarty, 271).

In addition she states: "...prostitution denotes a masquerading social and moral

universe. Men must enter the prostitute's quarters shamefacedly or in some form of

disguise. She herself is no more real than her reflection in a mirror” (Sumita S.

Chakravarty, 270-271). She also discusses how films portray the world of the courtesan

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as a type of matriarchal utopia. This, no doubt, accounts for some of the Courtesan

(Dancing Girl) films' popularity with women and their fascination for the public at large.

Virtuous heroines, in non-courtesan films, are seen dancing, but not as professionals.

They can, for example, perform at a school cultural program or a family wedding, but are

mostly seen frolicking with the hero in a fantasy-styled love song. A modem,

westernized heroine is modem only until she falls in love with the hero; marriage is

imminent. Once this happens, she will now be seen in traditional Indian clothes, coyly

peeking through her or nervously biting the edge of her sari, although she has

previously been wearing western garb. It is an ironic turn o f events reflecting changes in

society that in older films, although totally covered in traditional dress, just being a

dancing girl was enough to make the dancer and her lover suffer through several lifetimes

of hardship to earn happiness, if happiness came at all. In modem day films, however,

the heroine finds it necessary to adopt the costume and dance of older times, which she

knows will make her a worthy wife and mother in the eyes o f society. Western dress is

acceptable only until she takes on a "mature" station in life.

The past decade has seen a gradual change, perhaps because of the influence of

and changing attitudes in the younger generation so eager to imitate

the West. The vamp figure has begun to fade and merge with that of the heroine. It is

now the heroine who performs the traditional and romantic as well as the sexy,

westernized numbers. There is a heavy reliance on Indian-styled western popular dance.

The modem heroine dons revealing clothing that few vamps and no courtesans have ever

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worn. This trend is recent, and time will tell if it will last. Many in the industry

speculate that there will be a backlash where Indian customs will prevail, while others

believe this "progress" cannot be stopped. It remains true, however, that family films like

Hum Aapke Hai Kaun (1994) and Duniva Dulhaniva Le Javenge (1995), with traditional

story, costuming, music and dance, are the biggest money earners and are considered

modem classics.

Among the harshest critics of Hindi films are intellectuals, Art or Alternative

filmmakers, and feminists. They frequently claim that Indian women are demeaned and

limited by the portrayal of women in popular cinema, that they are merely sexual objects

there to adom the hero with song and dance. Film scholar Pranjali Bandhu's negative

opinions sum up the most typically seen and heard criticisms of Hindi cinema:

If the status of women is any index of the cultural level of a society then the extreme degradation of womankind on the screen pierces through all rhetoric of the dignity of Indian womanhood and the mother concept Over time there has been a steady deterioration in this portrayal till today she is reduced to a sex kitten, a doll with no personality, no character. Her main role is to look glamourous, wear modishly western and ethnic clothes, and pose with a vacuous look alone or with the male hero as for a photograph. Many a screen heroine of today is a former modelling girl and is as look a like as the next. She is never independently active and is an appendage to the active hero, himself a dehumanised monkey like figure, who freely slaps her around, all as part of the expression of his 'love' and affection (Pranjali Bandhu, Cinema in Focus: Black and White of Indian Cinema. 38).

This view is limited given the long history and vast variety of commercial cinema.

Hindi commercial cinema must be examined in the context of the audience that

patronizes it. Only then can one appreciate its role in the lives of the viewers, especially

women, its effects upon them, and its progression through time.

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The critics complain that women's roles in films are two-dimensional and superficial.

A woman has the option of either mother, sister, daughter, and wife on the decent side, or

vamp (recently villainess also), courtesan/dancer, and mother-in-law on the infamous

side. In fact, these are common stereotypes, but there is more variety in these characters

than the critics assume or want to give credit for. Even the negative characters are not

without their redeeming qualities. Films are a reflection of society, and the roles

mentioned are those that have traditionally been available to women. If female characters

appear limited, the male characters in Hindi films are equally limited. These are father,

brother, son, husband, or villain. The villain is usually pure evil.

Feminists imply that there is something wrong with a traditional woman who wants

to marry and have children. They also imply that the coy femininity portrayed in films is

detestable. Film director Sai Paranjpye has called the female characters in Hindi films

"stupid and ridiculous” (Sai Paranjpye, film director, interview by author, Bombay, 26

July 1996). They overlook the fact that it is perhaps a strength that these characters can

be feminine and openly express their love and sensual feelings through song and dance.

The average female viewer cannot. Critics complain that women are victims in

commercial cinema, but in reality women are often victims of outrageous crimes in India.

It is sometimes only in commercial cinema that they get revenge. In commercial films,

whenever a woman receives unjust treatment it is inevitable that she will be avenged. For

example, a rapist or murderer will always suffer a suitably gruesome end. Even the hero

who mistreats his wife will publicly apologize or atone for his actions. There are also

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many heroine-based films such as Piafighat (1987), Zakhmi Aurat (1988), and Army

(1996), where the heroine exacts her own bloody revenge.

Judging by the audience's response, they do not agree with the critics' opinions of

Hindi films. The audience responds by buying tickets and deciding in rupees which films

are hits and which ones are failures. Women are the deciding factor in big ticket sales. It

is widely recognized that the commercial film industry is male dominated and makes

films with young men in mind, although more women are participating as producers and

directors. However it is also recognized, as stated previously, that traditional family

films like Maine Pvar Kiva (1990), Hum Aapke Hai Kaun. and Duniva Dulhaniya Le

Javenge that stress Indian values are by far the biggest box office earners, are considered

modem classics, and have achieved that status because of the female audience.

Women do not go to the cinema hall alone. They attend with their children and their

husbands or with other female relatives, meaning more tickets are sold. It is common to

see a well-liked film several times. If a film is considered a men's film, ticket sales are

perhaps adequate, but limited. Men's films, usually Action/Hero films, are often not as

well-made as women's films, which require more elaborate costuming, sets, songs and

dances. If women found the characters in commercial films "ridiculous and stupid," they

would not watch them, and they would be watching Art films which claim to have a more

progressive view of women's problems in society, or they would not patronize films at

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all.26

Art films are not necessarily progressive in their portrayals of women. In fact

commercial film has a history o f strong female characters and concern for women's

issues. In particular, early films, and the films of the 1950s and 1960s were supportive of

women's causes. Mother India is the strongest example. This trend in cinema was

probably due to the participation of women in the decolonization and Independence

movements when India's new identity was forming. Since then, a climate was created so

that actresses like Zeenat Aman, with the required physical attributes, could flaunt a

new-found liberation. Zeenat Aman became the archtypical westernized Indian

girl/heroine who opened the way in the 1970s for actresses to have the choice to assume

less traditional roles. Now, some modem actresses, notably Sridevi, choose unique roles

within the commercial context where the woman is not necessarily seen in the context of

her family, sometimes throughout a film. Recently, women's roles in film are expanding

as filmmakers tackle sensitive issues such as divorce and infidelity in a modem light.

26 Pranjali Bandhu, Cinema in Focus: Black and White of Indian Cinema: “The manner in which the New Wave directors handle the issue of women’s emancipation is also symptomatic of their lack of a real break with the traditions of mainstream cinema...Apama Sen remains in the cliches of colonial nostalgia and narrow sexual Iiberationist ideas of women’s emancipation” (76). Pranjali Bandhu goes on to question the motives of Art filmmakers: “US based film director ’s films, like many of those of her male counterparts, are aimed at selling India’s poverty and backwardness to international audiences at the International Film Festivals.” Raj Kumar Kohli, Hindi film director and producer, and Girish Karaad, Hindi film actor and director, both commented on many Art filmmakers’ pretentiousness and Western outlook (approach) which make their films inaccessible to the mass Indian audience. (Raj Kumar Kohli, Hindi film director and producer, interview by author, Bombay, 25 July 1996; Girish Karaad, Hindi film actor and director, interview by author, Bombay, 25 July 1996).

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There is a circular relationship between film and society. The impact o f cinema on

India is immense, but trends in society also influence film. Commercial films do not

shock the audience with a new idea or a serious, graphic study of the problems in society

as do many Art films, but gradually include new points of view and concepts.

Consistently, commercial films in their unique way, have always backed the cause of

women and revealed society’s injustices toward them. These films may not have done

this in a manner that feminists and other critics approve of, but have done it in a way to

which their audience could relate. These films do not necessarily attempt to be profound;

they attempt to be entertaining, but their effect is undoubtedly felt. They provide a

needed catharsis and show women goals that are possible to achieve within the realm of

their society. The female audience draws strength from female film characters.27 Female

film characters may seem dependent on their hero counterparts, but are considerably more

liberated than many of their female viewers, and film actresses are perhaps the most

liberated women of all.

Despite the fact that inherent in the word "commercial" is the concept o f making

money, the commercial filmmakers and actors believe in what they produce and do not

feel that they have harmed the cause of women in India. In the final analysis, commercial

films may have done more for women in India than any other medium.

27 This is partly evidenced by the positive fan mail received by actresses. Many actresses say they feel gratified that they can have a positive effect on their female audience and respond personally to fan letters. (Various interviews conducted by the author in Bombay, June to July 1996).

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KATHAK: HISTORY AND ANALYSIS

Kathak is the North Indian classical dance form known for its technical virtuosity as

expressed in dazzling footwork. It reached its highest point of technical development

during the reign of the great Moghul emperors who ruled India from A.D. 1526-1707 and

who generously patronized the dance form in their courts (Antonio Monroy, India. 285).

Kathak is noted for rapid footwork and spins executed to intricate rhythms and

cross-rhythms, all woven together to end on the "sum" or final beat of the rhythmic cycle.

Kathak is also known for its rich repertoire of expressional dance that includes themes of

love, religious devotion, and stories or segments of stories from the vast storehouse of

Indian mythological lore.

The word Kathak derives from "Kathaka" or storyteller and refers to the professional

wandering bards who recited various tales and mythology, especially from the epics,

incorporating song, gesture, and dance similar to the troubadours of Medieval Europe

(Sunil Kothari, Kathak: Indian Classical Dance Art. 1). Their descendants are still

carrying on the tradition. Today there are two main schools of Kathak: the

Gharana ( means school or style) is noted for pure dance virtuosity and religious

expressional pieces; Lucknow Gharana is known for its grace and lyrical expressional

72

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works on love. Another school of Kathak is the Benares Gharana, often referred to as the

Janakiprasad Gharana, and is considered an offshoot o f the Jaipur Gharana. The

differences among the are gradually disappearing as many artists attempt to

combine the best elements of all the various styles. Kathak is also practiced in Pakistan,

but not to the extent that it is in India because of the Islamic state's restrictions on dance.

Kathak has one of the longest unbroken traditions o f India's classical dances. Its

development is multifaceted, evolving from court dances practiced from ancient times in

the North, from temples, from wandering bards, and from the North's regional folk

dance/drama traditions. Kathak's relationship to the classical Natya Sastra tradition has

not been formally established, but it follows many of its conventions (Sunil Kothari, 107

and 108). The standard explanation of Kathak's evolution, as well as the evolution of

other classical dances, commonly offered by the literature on Indian classical dance, is

that it was originally a temple dance which later moved into the courts and from there, to

the modem stage. The stress is always on the temple tradition. This is a convenient

oversimplification of its history.

In fact, the dance tradition in Hindu courts is much older than the temple dance

tradition. It was the courtesans along with other professional performers of the courts

who were largely responsible for the preservation of the form until its advent on the

modem stage. Dating back to Mohenjo Daro, one of the great cities of the pre-Aryan

Indus river valley civilization (3000-1900 B.C.), there is evidence of the existence of

court dancers (Peter Manuel, Thumri in Historical and Stylistic Perspectives. 46). The

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existence of court dancers in Ayodhya is documented in the epic the Ramavana. in which

mention is made of court dancers in the court of Lord Rama (Sunil Kothari, Kathak:

rndian Classical Dance A rt 1). Courtesans and eunuchs were often recruited to instruct

the ladies of the royal houses in dance. The word Kathak, or storyteller, is also

mentioned in the epic the Mahabharata and in the Brahmamahapurana.1 "Oh king, the

Kathaka-s and also the forest dwellers ascetics and brahmins recite the divine stories.”2

As this reference implies, the ancient arts, even those performed in the courts, had both a

religious, devotional purpose as well as entertainment value.

The claim that Kathak has an ancient association with temples in the North is

undermined by the fact that temples were not yet built in Vedic times and no images of

gods were made. In fact, temples were not built before the fourth century B.C. (Antonio

Monroy, India. 131-132). The proliferation of temples and temple dancers in the North

occurred during the Gupta period (fourth through sixth centuries A.D.) and reached its

peak in the Indian middle ages (A.D. 650-1000). The tradition continued through the

Moghul period (Peter Manuel, Thumri in Historical and Stylistic Perspectives. 47; Sunil

Kothari, Kathak: Indian Classical Dance Art. 1 and 2). That is not to say that sacred

dances were not performed in ancient times, but they could not have been performed in

1 (Peter Manuel, Thumri in Historical and Stylistic Perspectives. 41) It appears, however, that the term “Kathak” as applied to the classical dance form, began to be used in courts in the A.D. See: Sunil Kothari, Kathak: Indian Classical Dance Art), 49 - 51. 2 (Sunil Kothari, Kathak: Indian Classical Dance Art Introduction to Chapter I) This quote is from the Mahabharata: Adiparva.

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temples. Outside o f courts, they were most probably performed in a specified area of a

village designated for the purpose of entertaining and enlightening the people. The

tradition o f the temple dancers is important for an understanding of the history and

evolution o f Kathak, but the tradition o f the court dancers is every bit as ancient and vital.

Dance scholars writing about all dance styles in India tend to over-stress the importance

of the temple dance tradition and ignore almost entirely the influence the courts had on

the development and refinement of the dance.3

After temples were built and dance was included as a religious ritual, court and

temple dancers existed side-by-side. Some court dancers migrated to the temples, but

more commonly, temples acquired dancers from parents who wanted to dedicate a

daughter to the service of God. Temple dancing probably began around the time of the

Gupta dynasty (A.D. 320-415), the golden age of Hindu civilization, which saw a

flowering o f the arts and literature. It reached its height during medieval times with the

proliferation o f regional dialects and the rise of the Bhakti (devotional) movement and

was patronized by temple priests and devotees (Sunil Kothari, Kathak: Indian Classical

Dance Art. 2). Rulers were also patrons of the temples. Given that courts existed long

before temples, it can be surmised that temple dancers were initially trained by dancers of

3 This stress on the devotional aspect of dance appears to be due in part to conservatism, embarrassment and fear that the art of dance will be lowered somehow in the public’s estimation by its association with sex. Fortunately, the most recent research appears to have improved in this regard. Sunil Kothari’s book, cited in this text, is an excellent, well-researched reference, as are his books on other classical dance styles.

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the court; with succeeding generations, the repertoire was replenished and enriched with

dances dedicated to the Gods. There was constant exchange among both court and

temple dancers and dancers from the professional castes o f performers, including the

Kathakas (Peter Manuel, Thumri in Historical and Stylistic Perspectives. 41).

Temples were not merely religious institutions. They were, and still are in many

instances, the social and economic centers of life for the Indian village or town. They

were constructed with large courtyards where people gathered for various activities

including performances by bards and dancers.

By the time waves of Muslim invaders entered North India, however, dance was

being performed in temples in varying degrees (Antonio Monroy, India. 285). The

Muslims did not consider dance a proper form of worship — to them it was sacrilegious.

Some Muslim chieftains and petty rulers destroyed temples and attempted to eradicate

their associated arts except in areas less affected by the Muslim rule such as Rajasthan,

where the tradition was able to continue undisturbed (Sunil Kothari, Kathak: Indian

Classical Dance A rt 2 and 40). Later when Moghul rule was firmly established in India,

other less extreme rulers like Emperor Akbar (1556-1605) actually patronized the arts

(Antonio Monroy, India. 285). Dancers were absorbed by the Moghul courts. The

temple dancer tradition all but disappeared from North India.

The Kathakas and other wandering dance/drama groups also performed in the courts

and traded ideas with the resident court dancers and also with temple dancers. These

professional castes were among those performing in the courtyards of the temples that

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. related mythological and religious tales and genealogies. The caste of the Kathakas or

Kathaks who danced was centered in the areas o f Ayodhya and Benares, although they

travelled throughout the North. By the thirteenth century, their dance had taken on a

distinct form (Sunil Kothari, Kathak: Indian Classical Dance A rt 11 and IS). Although

they were Brahmins and their women were not allowed to dance, their association with

courtesans, and other activities seen as ritually polluting, gave them a lesser status than

that accorded to other Brahmins (Kothari, 137).

The folk dance/drama tradition of the Braj region of North India, the Rasalila, came

into being as a distinct form in the sixteenth century, but its precursors date back at least

to A.D. 200 (Kothari, 137). Rasalila and Kathak are intimately connected in theme and

technique. Rasalila, like Kathak, recounts tales from the life and loves of Lord Krishna.

The Rasalila uses mnemonic syllables, "bols," like those used in Kathak. Technically, the

footwork, spins, and poses are similar to Kathak's, but simplified and less stylized. The

traditional Rasalila is performed only by boys in the cities of Brindaban, Lord Krishna's

boyhood home, and Mathura, his birth place. The boys play both the male and female

roles. Kathak, on the other hand, is performed by men as well as women. There was

great exchange between dancers of both traditions and their mutual influence continues

today.

Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856), the last Nawab (ruler) of the kingdom of Oud (Avad

from the ancient capital Ayodhya), was obsessed with the Rasalila form and based his

famous choreographic creation, "Rahas" on it, using Kathak technique (Kothari, 22). He

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is credited with starting the modem tradition of Kathak Ballet, full length dance/drama

based on Kathak technique (Kothari, 151).

Among other folk performers who contributed to the development of Kathak are the

Bhands of Kashmir, the Dhadis o f Punjab, the Natwas who also were employed to teach

dance to slave girls, and the Brahmins who sang Dhrupad (a type of classical music). In

these groups the men played the female roles, and recited and danced Krishna lore similar

to the Rasalila tradition (Kothari, 2 and 7).

Hijiras (eunuchs) throughout the North perform dances similar to Kathak as well as

folk dances on festive occasions. Historically, Hijiras were well-known as gate keepers

to the women in the zenanas (harem), or women's quarters. This is because these eunuchs

put on a feminine facade and were, therefore, not threatening figures in the eyes of the

men of the court. Many eunuchs were skilled dancers, teaching and performing for the

women of the court.4 Their descendants today continue to dress and dance as women, but

are now reduced to virtually extorting money by giving "forced” performances at

weddings and other auspicious occasions.5

Numerous folk dance forms in North India have similarities with Kathak. The Bacha

The French film director Peter Brook’s well-known version of the Mahabharata has a scene where Aijun, disguised as a eunuch, teaches Kathak to ladies of the court. 5 A humorous song/dance in the popular Hindi film Hum Aapke Hai Kaun (1994) shows the happy family, celebrating the birth of a son, merrily dancing with Hijiras and paying them money. In actuality, most people are afraid of them because they increase their numbers, in part by kidnaping children.

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Nagma of Kashmir is a striking example. The dance of the Kahars in has

spinning that increases in speed throughout the performance. Like Kathak, they use a

specific rhythm, Kaharawa, as does much of North Indian folk music. Kathak and folk

dance share thematic commonalties, particularly the stories o f Krishna. They also share

peacock and serpent images which are especially powerful icons in the Indian

consciousness and appear throughout Indian arts and mythology.

Spinning is not confined to the Kahars. The similarity with the whirling of the Sufi

dervishes comes immediately to mind. The tradition of Qawwali, a semi-classical form

of music where verses are sung aloud to a participatory audience, is also one that Sufis

share with Kathak. Sufis, however, perform Qawwali for spiritual reasons, using gestures

while seated. Qawwali as seen in Kathak uses more elaborate gestures and expressions

while seated, and full-blown dance during the musical interludes. The lead dancer sings

the verse, while the other members of the ensemble provide the chorus. In this case it is

only for entertainment purposes. Today, Sufi music, including Qawwali, is widely

performed commercially.6 Qawwali, as used in Kathak today, is only seen in Hindi films.

Spinning is popular in many folk dances of the North, such as the of

Rajasthan. A spinning movement especially prevalent in the North is variously called

Qawwalis have long been popular in Hindi films. Recently some Qawwali singers like have gained popularity. of Pakistan is perhaps the most famous Qawwali singer. He enjoys wide-spread popularity in India, and he has recently won enormous recognition in the West with his singing on the sound track of the Hollywood film Dead Man Walking.

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Kikli, Hikat, and Phungadi. Two women hold each other's wrists and turn as fast as they

can. Whirling is also seen in the folk theatre o f and the Muslim

Ghazi dance of .

Talented folk dancers were sometimes trained as classical dancers as in the court of

Raja Bhupdeo Singh and his son, Chakradhar Singh (1905-1947) of the Raigarh district

of Madhya Pradesh (Sunil Kothari, Kathak: Indian Classical Dance Art. 67 and 68). The

most famous of these dancers were Kartikram, Kalyan, and Barman, from the Nacha class

of folk dancers. They were trained by court dancers (men in this case) in Kathak, but also

brought in elements of their folk: tradition (Kothari, 67 and 68).

It is widely recognized that classical dance derives its impetus and inspiration from

folk dance. The richness and diversity of Indian classical dance reflects the richness of

the mother lode — the multiplicity of Indian folk dance/drama. Classical dance, in turn,

can influence folk as Kathak has done since it has become popular to present folk dance

on the urban modem stage. Kathak, in its present day form, has developed a unique

structure, yet its folk roots are apparent, so much so that the line between classical and

folk is often blurred.

Over time, this has given rise to a category of music and dance known as

semi-classical which includes forms such as: Thumri, Dadra, Bhajan, Qawwali, and

Ghazal. Semi-classical dance and music are urban adaptations of folk forms commonly

used in classical presentations. These forms, which have been widely used in Hindi

films, are discussed again in chapter seven.

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One of the most significant factors that gave us Kathak, as it is seen today, was the

patronage provided by rulers during the Moghul period. Second only to the Aryans, no

other group has influenced India more. The Moghuls attracted dancers, musicians, and

other artists to their courts with generous patronage. Artists had the time and incentive to

develop their various fields as witnessed, for example, in the famous Moghul miniature

paintings. These wealthy courts lavishly rewarded creative efforts that increased the

glory of the Moghul Empire and, at the same time, added another chapter to the history of

Kathak.

The Kathak dress was modified to suit Moghul tastes, from the long and short

with a long veil (ghagra, lehnga, , and duputta — the precursor to the sari) to a

fully covered, long dress with small fitted jacket and tight pajamas worn underneath.

Arms and legs were covered in keeping with Islamic custom. Topis or small hats, often

with plumes, were also in style. Necklaces, bracelets, rings, earrings with elaborate

supports, and other adornments were an integral part of the costume. Moghuls added

some jewelry pieces, particularly the fan shaped ornament draped over one side of the

head. Today, both the original and modified costumes are used by dancers (Jamila Brij

Bhushan, The Costumes and Textiles of India. 27 - 41).

In the Moghul courts, the dance became more virtuosic, more concerned with

technique, the speed of turns and footwork, than previously. A great deal of storytelling

was eliminated or modified because of its Hindu content. Many o f the Radha-Krishna

dances became thinly disguised dances about lovers (Sunil Kothari. Kathak: Indian

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Classical Pangg Aft, 7, and Peter Manuel, Thumri in Historical and Stylistic Perspectives.

49 - 50). Romantic poems were also sung and danced. The demi-plie position, used in

other Indian dances and perhaps early Kathak, was considered crude by the Muslims, so

Kathak stressed a straight-legged stance. Dancing girls from Persia and

were also imported and mixed with the dancers of the courts.7

Emperor Akbar (1556-1605) was a great patron of the arts and his reign saw peace

between Hindus and Muslims. Although he was an enlightened monarch who generously

patronized the dance, the religion he created, Din-e-Ilahi, which included elements of

Hinduism and , prohibited dancing in temples (Sunil Kothari, Kathak: Indian

Classical Dance A rt 2). Unfortunately some other Moghul emperors, especially

Aurangzeb (1658-1707), the last of the great Moghuls, were not as open minded with the

result that dance, under their rule, received no royal support (Kothari, 7, and Peter

Manuel, Thumri in Historical and Stylistic Perspectives. 49 - 50).

Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Oud, was an avid patron of Kathak. In fact so

much time was spent on dance and related arts that he neglected the affairs of state and

was eventually bought out by the British Colonial power and retired to Calcutta.

Ironically, he loved Hindu religious themes as much as Islamic themes in art (Sunil

Kothari, Kathak: Indian Classical Dance Art. 10).

Dancers now frequently perform Radha-Krishna dances again. In fact, it is a mainstay of the Kathak repertoire. The tradition was never totally lost, as dancers in the regions less affected by Muslim rule continued to practice these dances, and not all Muslim rulers objected.

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The kings o f Rajasthan, whose kingdoms were annexed to those o f the

Moghuls, also gave generously to the arts and established many institutions for dance.

Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh, who ruled Rajasthan from 1699-1743, established the

Gunijankhana, an institution for the creation of the arts for the court (Kothari, 41 - 45).

Other non-Muslim rulers, such as the kings of Raigarh mentioned earlier, were inclined to

become obsessed with Kathak. The last Raigarh king, Chakradhar Singh, met a similar

fate to that of Wajid Ali. His kingdom, which became bankrupt due to mismanagement

and lavish spending on the arts, was annexed to the British rule (Kothari, 74). Both

Wajid Ali and Raja Chakradhar Singh's contribution to Kathak was significant. As

patrons and avid practitioners, they devoted their lives to the development of dance and

the arts. They choreographed major works and wrote detailed treatises on the arts. They

also cultivated and supported some of the greatest lineages of Kathak gurus in existence

today.

The Islamic imprint has been forever stamped on Kathak. It is the only Indian

classical dance with an Islamic influence. Although the Moghuls gave Kathak its highest

point of development technically, they are often blamed for ignoring the devotional

element, highlighting the entertainment aspect, and encouraging the seductive, erotic side

of the dance. The end of the Moghul empire saw a decline in the vitality of Kathak

because of the absence of patronage and court life. Kathak was dealt a mortal blow by

the British colonialists who frowned upon the Indian arts that offended their Victorian

morals. This environment stifled artistic creativity. In the case of the courtesan as a

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Kathak exponent, the technical aspects of her singing and dancing suffered. Of necessity,

the courtesan felt compelled to pander to the vulgar impulses of new clients. It must be

noted that there were some colonists who took favorably to Indian art and who wrote

detailed accounts and drawings of them, leaving behind a valuable historical record.

Kathak's revival began in the late 1920s and early 1930s when women like Madame

Menaka, an educated Bengali Brahmin girl, made it acceptable for women of higher

classes to study and perform classical dance.8 She was responsible for popularising and

making many innovations in Kathak. This trend was aided by the Nationalist movement

which encouraged the revival and growth of the Indian arts, especially by the upper

classes. Among the upper classes, although it was not acceptable to become a

professional performer, studying the arts was becoming more accepted.

Today Kathak, as a classical , is popular throughout the urban North

and is taught throughout the country. There is still a stigma attached to becoming a

professional dancer—to earning one's livelihood solely through dance. Teaching is the

major source of income for practitioners and earnings are very modest. Some dancers

have found richer rewards by choreographing for films and occasionally appearing in

them. One major Guru who choreographed for film was Lacchu Maharaj. , a

professional from a music and dance family, performed and choreographed for many

s (Sunil Kothari, Kathak: Indian Classical Dance Art. 151 and 152) It was also around this time period that female performers from traditional music and dance families in which the women were traditionally forbidden began to perform to appear publicly.

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films. , a brilliant exponent of Kathak, choreographed some 800 films

during his renowned career.9 Other Kathak dancers continue to not only practice the

traditional form, but choreograph new dances applying ancient mythology to modem

circumstances. Kathak remains one of the most vital of India's classical dances.

North India is less homogeneous than the rest of the country. It has had to maintain

its ancient traditions in the face of numerous foreign invaders, from the Aryans, to the

Mongols, to the Moghuls, to the Portuguese, French, and British, and now to satellite

television. To cope with these outside influences, the arts of this region have undergone

varying degrees of change so that they would not die out.

Kathak has mirrored this history, absorbing and adapting to diverse influences.

Kathak's adaptability, both thematic and technical, has allowed it to easily expand in

traditional and modem directions that other Indian dance forms do not lend themselves to

easily. For one, Kathak’s gestural system is unique. Stories in Kathak are told through

rhythmic movement of the entire body, not just the hands. The hand movements in

Kathak appear less isolated than those used in some other dance forms. The expression in

Kathak necessarily involves the whole body because the hand gestures are simpler than

those used in the other classical forms. An example is the basic hand position or "mudra"

of Kathak where the forefinger and the thumb touch lightly with the other fingers held

(Letter from Allison Arnold to author, dated 22 March 1996) She states that in the book Frames of Mind: Reflections of Indian Cinema, edited by Arana Vasudev, 1995?, there is an article by Partha Chatterjee entitled, “A Bit of Song and Dance,” 213, that states Gopi Krishna choreographed 800 films and “tried valiantly to stick to his classical roots.”

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straight. This mudra can be used in varied ways to express an idea or an image. The same

mudra can symbolize a peacock, a peacock feather, a veil, a flute, or part of any number

of pure dance poses depending on its combination with the rest of the body. One or two

hands are used according to the meaning with the arms deployed in various ways.

Although rarely seen now, some dancers are such experts at expression that they sit and

interpret poetry or song through gesture alone. Yet even this form of expression involves

the torso and free movement of the head. The eyes of the dancer direct the viewers

attention and add meaning to the expression. The expression is fairly abstract, but the

"bhav" or emotion is distinct.

The abstraction of Kathak gestures also lends itself well to the double entendre

common in many of Kathak's song lyrics. Added to this is the fact that one dancer often

portrays several characters in one dance. The use of the body in combination with

gestures and expression in Kathak is unique because of its natural quality. The natural

quality of Kathak's expression reflects its close ties with, not only North Indian folk

culture, but also body language. Much of Kathak's expression is in imitation of everyday

chores and experiences.

Bharatanatyam, on the other hand, can tell a story with hand gesture alone. Its

vocabulary of gesture is so highly developed that it has its own grammar including verb

conjugations. Not many dancers are so well versed in these gestural intricacies these

days, but they exist. It is a type of dance sign language where, for example, a certain

hand gesture with fingers arranged in a particular position might mean "is." During story

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telling, the Bharatanatyam dancer may or may not involve the whole body in movement,

but the gestures are more complex and concrete than the gestures in Kathak which tend to

be more abstract, conveying an image, not necessarily a linear story.

Kathak is a dance form that does not have a strict order of performance, unlike

Bharatanatyam, which begins with Allaripu and ends with Thillana. Kathak dances can

be performed in any sequence, although for stage there is a more-or-less preferred order

of events: Rangmach Pravesh or Amad, Vandana, Thore, Paran, Tatkar, Gat,

Tarana.

This list does not include expressional pieces usually done in the second half of the

program. The expressional pieces vary depending on the tastes and talents of the dancer.

The order of discrete dances within a dance performance is flexible. Some

dancers/writers, such as Enakshi Bhavnani in her book, The Dance in India, try to draw

rough comparisons with the ordered sequence of Bharatanatyam (40 - 42). These types of

comparisons, although well-intentioned, are unconvincing; they may be helpful however,

to one with a superficial knowledge of dance in India.

Another technical element that gives Kathak great freedom and adaptability is its

basic stance. This is a straight-legged pose with the feet slightly turned out, both hands

held at chest level, fore fingers touching thumbs, with the other fingers held straight,

creating a straight line from the fingers to the elbows. Because the palms face the floor,

the arms are also parallel to the floor in front of the chest This is a typical starting pose

for slow movements and a position continually returned to throughout any pure dance

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sequence.

From this position the dancer is in perfect balance and prepared to move in any

direction. It is also the most economical stance considering Kathak's speed. The

performer is not only prepared to move, but to move quickly and can easily recover to

this position or one of its close variants (often the right or left leg is crossed in a

forced-arch behind the other). Another advantage of this basic position is that the dancer

can cover a great deal of space on the stage with ease, moving from a balanced position in

any desired direction.

Most other classical Indian dance forms are mainly executed from a sitting position

(especially Bharatanatyam) similar to a demi-plie, but with the chest arched forward.

From this position, it is less convenient to cover space and to move rapidly, so generally

these dances do not attempt either action to the extent that Kathak does. This freedom of

movement and naturalness give Kathak a clear advantage over the other forms in a

modem context. It has quickly adapted itself to modem experiments with dance/drama

and various Indian dance ballets without losing its classicism or integrity. Because of its

open-ended form, Kathak also translates well on screen.

Kathak offers exciting cinematic possibilities. The swirling of the dancers in

various formations can be dramatically filmed from above. The rapidly pounding feet

can be a metaphor for building excitement. The spinning of a dancer might reflect the

drunken or confused state of mind of another character. Kathak expression is effective in

highlighting the double meaning behind many film song lyrics and Kathak's abstract

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expression with its multiple characters played by one dancer complement the fantasy

element in Hindi film. Film offers possibilities to Kathak as well. On film, Kathak is not

restricted to the stage. It can be filmed on a mountain, field, terrace, etc. Intimate

close-ups of rapid footwork and the interaction with musicians show the audience details

that might be missed in a modern-day live performance in a large auditorium. In fact,

capturing subtleties in expression such as eye and eyebrow movement lost on a large

stage might keep them from becoming extinct.

Kathak, like film, has sheer entertainment value. Technically speaking, the

excitement of Kathak's speed and virtuosity is attention getting. It does not have to get

bogged down in heavy expressional pieces, although they exist in the repertoire. Much of

the expression is lively, simple, and rhythmic as in the "Kavita" or poetry. Kavita is part

of pure dance because of the dominance of rhythm, but it relates short stories from

mythology. In Bharatanatyam, a Varnam (a mixed expressional and pure dance piece;

test of the dancers ability) can be forty minutes long and Padams (expressional pieces) are

normally slow in tempo. Kathak's expressional pieces are generally shorter in length.

Kathak reaches out in an immediate way that other forms do not. Kathak dancers are

allowed to develop a one-on-one relationship with the audience by speaking directly to

them during a performance. The dancer must be an all-around performer. The dancer

recites the rhythmic syllables before performing them, speaks to the musicians, explains

the dances, tells jokes between sequences, tells stories from his/her life, and competes

with the drummer. The dancer is running the show. This way, a special communication

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is set up between dancer and audience that allows them to know each other and makes the

whole experience personal. The audience is free to respond with applause and cries of

approval for spectacular technical feats or especially well communicated expressional

passages. The dancer, encouraged by this interaction, is inspired to give more of

himselfrherself.

There is an exciting improvisational aspect in Kathak as well. A key example is the

"Sawal-Jawab” or Question-Answer competition that occurs between dancer and

drummer. This has been such a successful concept that Bharatanatyam and Orissi

dancers have adopted it to add variety to their programs. Improvisation is unique to

Kathak, unlike India's other classical dances, where the structure is usually set.

Kathak has many advantages for growth within its traditional and modem contexts.

It has a devotional aspect, similar to India's other classical dances, yet it is immediate and

entertaining. It unites elements of both Hindu and Islamic culture. It also originates

from the North, a large, politically powerful geographic and linguistic region of diverse

cultural elements.

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KATHAK’S INFLUENCE ON FOLK, ROMANTIC,

AND WESTERNIZED DANCE IN HINDI FILMS

Dance, in all its varied forms, is an integral part of the celebration of Indian life and

culture. Dance is ever present, whether it be a vigorous village folk dance welcoming the

harvest, a boisterous, drunken wedding barat (procession), a sophisticated concert of any

of India's classical dances, an illicit Mujra performed by a courtesan, a crowded disco in a

five-star hotel, or a gyrating, bump-and-grind extravaganza performed by cinema .

Even the everyday gestures and body language of the people are replete with rhythm and

dance. Dance forms in India, both folk and classical, are as numerous and varied as the

Indian languages.

Because o f dance's importance as a physical means to express emotion and identity,

no commercial film would be complete without it. Film songs are replete with dance

imagery of ghunghroo (ankle bells), payal (the smaller version), solah sringar (the 16

ways a woman adorns herself for her lover), Radha and Krishna, and Nataraj or Shiva —

Lord of the dance. Hindi commercial cinema lives on in the minds of its viewers because

of the enticing dance/music interludes, which prolong the viewers vicarious sensory

enjoyment and heighten a scene's emotion. Dance and song serve several purposes in a

91

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given film. They can provide emotional continuity between scenes as well as a substitute

for love-making.1 Sometimes they exist for sheer fantasy and divertissement or may help

move the plot along and explain certain events.

The dance created for Hindi films, like the stories and music, draws unabashedly

from any and every imaginable source, yet it is cleverly molded into an essentially Indian

whole with which the audience can readily identify. Over the years, film dance has

become an identifiable idiom that, like the cinema it is part of, crosses all social

boundaries. It embraces a wide range of styles and qualify. Although often criticized by

purists, film dance is an undeniable phenomenon—a distinct tradition of dance in modem

life and culture.

To many viewers with limited exposure to "high culture," the dance, particularly as

seen in older films is, in their minds, classical dance. In some respects, they are not so far

off the mark. Classically based dance from Kathak was frequently used in early films and

it is still strikingly present. Kathak, although not always seen in its purely classical

manifestation, is the single most influential dance form of commercial Hindi films. It is

not surprising, given the North Indian bias of Hindi films, that it heavily influenced and

(Somi Roy, film curator, interview by author, Washington, D.C., 13 October 1993) Mr. Roy often comments on how dances and songs in film provide emotional continuity, referring to the way they prolong a scene’s emotion and to the way they connect different scenes. There certainly are, however, examples where a song/dance seems to occur abruptly. However, in many films the music is constructed in such a way that a common musical theme or tone is repeated in songs throughout the film, which brings unity to the music and, therefore, to much of the film’s emotion. Dance movement is also often constructed in this manner. In addition, the distinctive style of a composer or choreographer can account for some of this unity.

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continues to influence choreographers/dance directors, despite the craze for "western"

styled dances today.2 Part o f its dominance is due not only to North Indian tastes, but

also to the technical adaptability of the form. Kathak is obviously the dominant form of

Courtesan (Dancing Girl) films, but its movements and imagery are easily detected in

dances of other film genres. Its gestures and expressions are evident even in romantic

songs that have minimal dance content Kathak and its related forms are so subtly

ingrained in the North Indian psyche that they consciously or unconsciously reveal

themselves in varying motifs that are not so subtly repeated by film choreographers, to

the extent that these motifs are part of what "Indianizes" even the so-called "western"

dance in films.

Film choreographers do use movement from classical styles other than Kathak. In

most cases a fleeting glimpse of Bharatanatyam, Kathakali, or Manipuri is inserted; but

these dances are rarely used to the extent to which Kathak is employed. At times,

movement from other classical styles is adapted to a Kathak-based . In this

case, the choreographers often mold them to their own aesthetic by, for example,

somewhat straightening out the demi-plie position common in Bharatanatyam.

The Kathak aesthetic is often imposed or overlaid on these forms in film to suit filmi

tastes as can be seen in film choreographies of tribal dances. A choreographer must also

consider the abilities of the actresses, many of whom have at least some Kathak training.

The terms “dance director” and “choreographer” are used interchangeably.

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Film choreographers are trained to various degrees in various styles, but generally agree

that Kathak has a dominant influence. This view is bom out by both P. L. Raj and Saroj

Khan, who stated as much in recent interviews with the author.3 also stated

that when Kathak dance is called for in a certain sequence, but the actress' ability is

limited, she creates the image of Kathak with simpler movements and other devices.

Many early choreographers of film were trained professional classical Kathak

dancers, including Gopi Krishna, best remembered for the Kathak movie Jhanak Jhanak

Paval Baje (1955). Sitara Devi, the flamboyant daughter of court musician Sukhdev

Maharaj, is an accomplished Kathak dancer who starred, choreographed, and danced in

numerous films. Lacchu Maharaj, the illustrious gum from one of Kathak's longest

lineages, choreographed many films including Mahal (1949) and Moghul-e-Azam (1960).

Kathak legend also danced and choreographed for films, most recently

Lekin (1990). These artists also trained hundreds of stars in dance movement. Although

many classical artists are reluctant to work in films for fear of tarnishing their reputations,

some are drawn by the money offered.4 However, the contributions of these great

3 [P. L. (Peter Louis) Raj, dance director, interview by author, Bombay, 12 July 1996, and Saroj Khan, dance director, interview by author, Bombay, 24 July 1996] Both are award-winning film choreographers who have worked in the industry for many years.

4 Many classical dancers fear that participation in commercial films will make them appear as less serious artists and that this will affect their classical concert careers. In the film industry, this is taken as a form of snobbery. Classical dancers are also concerned for their personal reputations. Appearing in an Art film, as Kathak dancer Saswati Sen did in Satyajit Ray’s Shatrani Ke Khiladi (1978), is not considered disreputable. Choreographing for films was not such an issue for firmly established artists like Lacchu Maharaj or Sitara Devi. Undoubtedly, the time period

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dancers, who took their work in Hindi films as an artistic challenge to provide quality

dance in Hindi film, is immeasurable.5 Unfortunately, film choreographers have often not

received credit for their work, although in recent times the situation appears to be

improving.6

in which they choreographed and quality of the film had something to do with the acceptability of their participation. Still, film choreography is not an accomplishment for which these artists wanted or want to be remembered. s Other Kathak dance directors of film include: Sadhona Bose (also an actress; acted from 1937 - 1954), Ashiq Hussain (also an actor of the 1950s), , Shirin Vajifdar, and Krishna Kumar. Other dance directors whose names are often seen in films with Kathak-based dance, but about whom the author could find no information are Satyanarayan (sometimes Satya Narayan), Gauri Shanker, Shanker, Chiman Seth, Yogen Desai, Surya Kumar, and . The author believes that Hiralal was from the Jaipur Gharana of Kathak and resided in Bombay from evidence found in Sunil Kothari’s book Kathak: fndian Classical Dance Art. The famous Indian dancer, , made a unique film in 1948, Kalpana, which used India’s classical dances in ballet form to represent independent India. This film was popular with the critics, but did not do well with mainstream audiences. It is not considered a commercial film.

6 Little biographical information is available on dance directors, and little is actually written about dance in general or about particular dances in Hindi cinema, although it is overwhelmingly present in every commercial film. When there is mention made about film dance, it is often incomplete. There is much more written about music in films and about music directors and playback singers. This, no doubt, has to do with the stigma attached to dance as an art performed with the body and the history of its practitioners. It is a contradiction that dance is important enough that it must be included in every film, yet it is paid no significant attention by film journalists and scholars. It seems the actress in most cases receives credit for the dance she is executing and that is the only thing the audience sees. The viewers do not care about the behind- the-scenes training. The audience is unaware of stand-ins used for actresses who may not be able to execute a difficult dance sequence themselves because of lack of training, as when Sitara Devi reputedly stood in for the Madhubala in a spinning dance sequence in Moghul-e-Azam (1960). In the case of playback singers, the audience recognizes and even expects to hear their voices and realizes that the actors are not actually singing. In recent times, choreographers, like Saroj Khan, through longevity in the profession and strength of personality, have created respect for the profession. Consequently, two choreographers of the younger generation who are popular for creating “westem-style” dances, Chinni Prakash and Prabhu Deva, have not suffered the anonymity of previous generations. They are trained in Bharatanatyam, according to Saroj Khan, but probably also have training in other forms.

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Listed below and briefly described are the technical elements of classical Kathak

frequently seen in Hindi film dances:

• Tatkar: vigorous footwork performed standing in place; in film, it is often performed

on the toes.

• Chakkar: various types of spinning.

• Tora, Tukra. Paran: pure dance sequences in varying speeds, combining Tatkar and

Chakkar, with ornamental arm movements, usually ending in a sculpturesque pose.

• Pardhant: a recitation of dance "bols" or mnemonic syllables.

• Sargam: The Indian system of Solfege, the syllables of musical scales often used in

Kathak.

• Gat: a semi-expressional passage o f dance marked by lilting steps. It sometimes

depicts animal gaits.

• Sawal/Jawab: an exciting question/answer competition between the drummer and

dancer. It can also be between a dancer and any type of musician.

• Kavita: semi-expressional, rhythmic movement performed to highly rhythmic poetry.

• Abhinaya: expression including mimetic gestures, facial and eye movements, and the

slight, sliding neck movement of Kathak.

Semi-classical dances from the classical Kathak repertoire are also common in Hindi

films. These are all based on semi-classical songs from the North Indian musical

tradition which include Thumri, Ghazal, Dadra, Bhajan, and Kirtan. These are forms of

sung lyric poetry mainly distinguished from each other by rhythm. These semi-classical

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dances are expressional, employing mimed gestures interspersed with pure dance

elements. The lyrics of , Dadras, and are generally romantic, while

Bhajans and Kirtans are devotional. This category can also include a number of other

semi-classical songs/dances, such as the Hori and Dhamar, originating from the North

Indian folk tradition.

Two other important types of song/dance in films are Mujra and Qawwali. These are

the most commonly seen derivations o f Kathak in Hindi cinema. They are provocative

dances involving hip and chest movements. Mujras are usually performed as solos, while

Qawwalis are often competitive duets in which each performer attempts to outwit the

other with verse and illustrative gestures aided by a clapping chorus of supporters.

The categories of film dance listed below are broad divisions made for the

convenience of analysis. There is some crossover in all of the categories.

FQlkBassd Paows

To more closely examine Kathak's role in Hindi film dance, it is necessary to begin

with its two-fold influence on folk-based dances: the direct use of Kathak movement in

these dances and the changes that occur when a folk dance is transplanted from its native

setting to stage or screen. Kathak and North Indian folk dance are closely related and

have a circular relationship, each drawing inspiration from the other. The most

recognizable clue to a folk tune in film is its lively rhythm, strong and earthy, often in a

2/4 or 4/4 beat. The Kaharwa and rhythms are two of the most commonly heard.

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The dance is equally strong and rhythmic, accompanied by bold hip and jumping

movements. The costumes are usually fanciful ghagra or Iehenga, choli, and duputta, but

are not limited to this.7

These dances have a wide appeal because of their traditional roots that are equally

recognizable by all Indians and because o f this are among the most popular film songs

and dances. Folk elements are present in many of the other film dances and music styles.

One recent folk-based song and dance hit, controversial because o f its suggestive lyrics,

is "Choli Ke Piche Kyaa Hai?” from the film Khalnayak (1993). The gypsy-styled song

asks, "What is behind the blouse?" The innocent answer is "Dil hai mera" ("My heart.")

The comic answer to this song/dance in the film is the subsequent version performed

gleefully by men dressed as ladies.

Folk-based dance, like Kathak, is not often seen in its pure, "authentic" form in Hindi

film. "Authentic” means the way folk dance would be performed in a native village

without any urban or film influence. As stated in chapter two, folk dance presumes no

audience, except for the participatory viewers as in the Rasalila or other religious folk

celebrations. Generally these dances are not choreographed, although there are

exceptions, again, like the Rasalila. Presenting folk dance on the modem stage or in film,

as is now commonly done, necessarily changes the form. Stage and film presentations

Ghagras and are wide skirts. are short, fitted , and duputtas (also chunnis) are long . These all can be found decorated with various embroideries, mirrors, and .

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must be appropriately choreographed and costumed for the proscenium theatre or the

camera lens. The presentations become self-conscious because the dancers are keenly

aware of observers. Also choreographers are mostly urban and may have no particular

connection to the area from which the dance hails. The choreographer may take liberties

with the dance, expanding its vocabulary to suit the tastes of a modem urban audience. In

the case of film where the dance must appeal to a large section of society, even more

liberties are taken. Most regional folk dances are relatively simple and fairly repetitive,

so the logical source of enrichment for choreographers to turn to is classical dance, and in

Hindi films that is Kathak.

Elements of Kathak enrich the presentation of folk dance programs both on stage and

in films. In fact, a good deal of the folk dance that is seen on stage today and even in

village performances, is heavily influenced by Hindi film folk-based dances in

presentation, music, costuming, and movement. Perhaps this is an unconscious influence

derived from the pervasiveness of film culture. Most stage choreographers would be

loathe to admit this influence, but nonetheless, it is quite apparent in the spectacle seen in

these folk presentations and the use of electronic instruments or actual film song

recordings. Popular films have greatly changed the character of, for example, the

Bhangra, a Punjabi folk dance, and the Maharashtrian Tamasha.8 They have also

8 After taking inspiration from various folk forms, Hindi film song and dance have, in turn, infiltrated Nautanki and Tamasha dance dramas, among others. It has also been said that women began performing Nautanki when and because film music was introduced. (Farley Richmond, Darius Swann, and Phillip B. Zarilli, eds., Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. 272 - 273,

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influenced the music with the use of non-traditional electronic instruments and western-

styled orchestration.

Some critics complain of the vulgarity and "jhatka-matkas," especially refering to the

exaggerated chest and hip thrusts, o f film dances. However, this bawdy element has

always, to some degree, been present in various forms of folk dance, particularly in some

"" (spring festival), and wedding dances. The pronounced hip and chest movements

are undoubtedly there to titillate the audience and most likely have their basis in the

Mujra form derived from Kathak. These movements have also been influenced by

popular western, Persian, and Arabic dance, although the peculiar punctuation of the hip

and chest more closely resembles that o f the Mujra.9

Presenting folk dance in films involves other considerations. It must be specially

choreographed and costumed for a scene, but expression becomes an immensely

important element. Conscious facial expression is, for the most part, absent in "authentic"

folk dance where the dancers' faces might even be covered, as is the case in some

and 293).

9 The Mujra itself has elements of Persian dance — the influence of early courtesans. The Persian and Arabic dance movements seen in Hindi film are generally Indian stereotypes of what these dances look like, not authentic replications. The Indian stereotypes of these dances do not differ significantly from the Western stereotypes. Some scholars claim that this is because many Indian filmmakers imitate Western “Orientalist” ideals of exoticism, first propagated by French and British colonists and frequently seen in early Hollywood movies.

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Rajasthani dances.10 In films, facial expression is necessary since there are close-ups of

the face and because the lyrics of film music are mimed. Song and dance expressions

help provide the emotional continuity o f the film and in some cases further the plot line,

telling a story. The steps and expression must be embellished to take all these aspects

into consideration. Kathak's expressional vocabulary is a rich source for dance directors.

A film folk dance will follow or mime the song's lyrics, telling its story, and Kathak

is often integrated. Kathak expression can be seen in the eye movements, gestures that

indicate, for example, the heart — hands over the chest, the emphatic rhythmic

punctuation of the head on the beat, and the more nuanced sliding neck movement, which

are all typical. Many o f these folk-based dances illustrate the love between the hero and

heroine, so comparisons are frequently made, through the lyrics, with Radha and Krishna,

a typical Kathak theme.

One such example of a folk-based dance with a strong Kathak content, from the film

Chand Ka Tukra (19941. is the song "Aaj Radha Ko Shyam Yaad Agaya" or "Today

Radha Remembered Krishna." The heroine, in an opulent ghagra/choli outfit, dances

with her friends (recalling the Sakhis, Radha's friends), clad in (pant-like) outfits.

The Heroine plays a flute, in imitation of Krishna, in Kathak style, as the corps, also

wearing ghunghroo, perform a Rajasthani-type of folk dance in which they hit cymbals

on their hands on other cymbals attached to the arms and legs. This dance is punctuated

10 Although North Indian folk dance can be expressive, it has no set theory or system of expression, as does classical Kathak.

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with Kathak footwork, small pure dance sequences, and statuesque poses. The finale of

the dance shows an aerial view of the dancers spinning, veils glowing with the

illumination of a black light. The impact of the dance comes from the earthy folk

movements of the corps contrasted with the sophisticated and delicate movements of the

heroine dancing in Kathak style, making her the focus of attention as the fair Radha

among her Sakhis.11

Other fine examples of folk dance with a heavy reliance on Kathak movement and

expression are the "Churiya" dance in Lamhe (1990 and the Punjabi-styled dance

performed by Rekha in Silsila (1981). One of the most memorable classic examples of a

film folk dance is the humorous "Mere Angane Me," a folk song from Uttar Pradesh, in

the film Laawaris.fi 98 Tl. danced by the ultimate hero, Amitabh Bachchan, dressed as the

women he describes. His quick costume changes show the many types of women a man

can marry and the ways in which she can be useful: a fat woman makes a good mattress;

a tall woman, a ladder, a fair woman serves as lighting; a short woman, a baby; all

appropriately mimed. The dark wife is useful as kohl for the eyes, and this is mimed with

the gesture o f the pinky finger, adding eye liner to the eye — a ubiquitous gesture in

classical dance.

Film folk dances reveal the many stereotypes that filmmakers have of various

ii In this example, the corps is not excluded from the Kathak movement and even performs the Kathak footwork, but the corps’ movement is overwhelmingly that of folk and the heroine’s, that of Kathak.

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communities. The "tribal" dances of Satvam Shivam Sunderam ( 1978), which show us

half-naked, man/sex starved tribal girls, betray blatant bias. The choreographer uses a

few devices that are perceived as tribal including jumping movements, circle formations,

and costuming, but in fact, dominantly employs North Indian movement, to which the

audience can relate.

The film Nagin (1954) contains tamer, but similar examples. Another film, Khuda

Gawah (1992), shows stereotypical chest slapping Pathans or Northwest frontier

tribesmen, dancing with swords, smoking hookahs, and wearing black. The caricature is

carried to an extreme with the hero constantly slapping his chest, scattering clouds of

dust, declaring, "Mai Pathan Hu" ("I am a Pathan"). Much of the dance movement,

however, is North Indian, especially Punjabi. The dances of both films often conclude

with spinning, the signature of Kathak.12 In Ram Ten Ganga Maili (1985), the music is

reminiscent of the Kashmiri and Himalayan mountain areas' folk tunes. In the wedding

song "Sun Sahiba Sun," the stereotypical mountain girl heroine dances with lilting steps,

like the gat of Kathak, while she describes how she has chosen her husband and now

wants him to choose her.

Often an entire folk image is brought to life. A situation that would be mimed in a

classical Kathak dance is often shown literallyin film with expressions and gestures

12 Spinning is used in folk dances, but the form in which it is used in film folk dance is clearly influenced by Kathak. In addition, the close relationship between Kathak and folk has already been established.

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derived from Kathak. The "Tera Man1' song from Lamhe (1991) shows girls playing in

the rain on swings at the start of the monsoon, taking turns pushing one another, singing

and dancing. In both Satvam Shivam Sunderam's "Bhor Bhaye Pangat Pe" and Ram Ten

Ganga Maili's "Tujhe Bulaye Yeh Meri Bahen," the heroine has gone to bathe under a

waterfall while the hero looks on furtively. Not actually danced, the lyrics o f "Bor Bhaye

Pangat Pe" are typical of Kathak, although the dance sequence of mime has been

concretely picturized on screen in a highly stylized manner. Even the sound o f

ghunghroo in the music score highlight the connection to classical dance.

A classic example of a typical dance story brought to life on screen is Sangam's

(1964) "Bol Radha Bol," where the hero, emulating Krishna, watches his Radha bathing

in the river and steals her clothes. He is not dancing per se, but as he sings, makes

gestures of Krishna placing his peacock feather in his crown. The heroine wards off the

splashes of water using her hands in a typical dance gesture. Other significant yet

ordinary events from everyday life, often mimed in dance, are glorified on screen. The

offering of prayer in a temple, for example, with its flowers, fire, and bell ringing, is

milked for all the audience impact that can be extracted from it.

These examples show the close relationship between Kathak and folk dance in North

India with their common ancestry and imagery. They also show how these folk-based

dances have been enhanced with gestures, expressions, and other devices from classical

Kathak to adapt to the camera lens and appeal to the audience.

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Romantic Songs and Dances

Romantic songs and dances normally show us the flirtings of the hero and heroine

alone, traipsing across a field, peering longingly through a window at one another,

holding each other, or most commonly, running around and hiding behind trees. In these

songs/dances, expression is of the utmost importance to hold the viewers attention. Eyes

are crucial. The heroine looks demurely at the hero; becoming shy, she quickly turns her

head, sometimes hiding it in her hands or veil, and giggles. The hero may grab the

heroine's wrist and cause her to recoil in giddy embarrassment, as is seen in many

classical dances where Krishna grabs Radha's hand. This is an example of "Sharam" or

shame, an important expressional element in classical dance.13

The head movement on the "sum" or last beat of a musical phrase is common, as is

the slight sliding neck movement. Also common are gestures such as the hand over the

heart meaning, "love," "heart,” "my," or pointing at the lover in a stylized way to signify

"you" or the upturned hand for "Where?", "Where are you going?", "Why?", the arm

raised to the horizon imploring the heavens, God, or the arm sweeping in a circular

movement referring to the world.14 These gestures reflect the flowing, yet relatively

13 “Sharam” (shame) is also an important cultural concept that influences female behavior and the treatment of women. It is often contrasted with “Izat” (honor), another key cultural concept, especially where female honor is concerned. The importance of these concepts is apparent in the discussion of courtesans in this thesis.

14 The head and neck movements described are meaningful in a variety of ways in both pure dance and expression. The accompanying lyrics and gestures help define their significance as they are used in various film dances.

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natural, abhinaya or expression of Kathak and its abstract possibilities. They also reflect

the connection between every day body language and dance.15 The couple strikes poses

seen in traditional art and dance, gliding through these movements in such a

self-conscious, stylized way that it can hardly be separated from dance. Every

commercial film has some example o f this. The music is usually slow or moderate in

tempo and based on folk, semi-classical, and/or western melodies.

The sad songs of separation, reminding one of the Blues, have an expressive,

dance-like quality. The heroine, chained up in the darkest dungeon is unfettered in

displaying her emotions. An example is the heroine Anarkali, exiled to the dungeon in

Mnghal-e-Azam (1960), singing "Mohabat Ke Jhute, Kahani Pe Roe"('T cry for the

betrayal of love"). Her eyes tell the story, as her beshackled wrists are dramatically

raised to the heavens, imploring God for mercy. Her head rests on her hand in a forlorn,

weeping gesture. In fact she is held prisoner not once, but twice in this film. In the movie

Kohinoor (1960), there is a similar scene during the song "Yeh Kyaa Zindagi Hai"

("What a life this is”). In many films, the heroine who is flung to the ground, collapsing,

sings a heartrending melody evoking sympathy in the audience. Even heroes are

sometimes depicted in these situations. Their gestures and expressions are similar to

those described above. Sometimes in lighter songs, to achieve a burst of excitement

during a rhythmic interlude or a finale, a short Kathak sequence will be introduced.

IS The fact that Kathak expression is relatively natural does not mean that its presentation is not, at the same time, stylized in the North Indian aesthetic.

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Ulndianizgd" Western Style Danes

"Westem"-style dances in Hindi film are those that are mostly based on Jazz, Disco,

or the popular Hip Hop vocabularies of movement. However, western style dances in

film can include any movement that is of European or American extraction including

classical or Spanish. Lumping together the many and varied forms of western dance

under one term might appear presumptuous, but given Hindi film's eclectic approach to

choreography, this is necessary for analysis. Also, Indian audiences do not differentiate

between the various western forms. They are merely referred to as "western dance.” It

will be seen that western dance, as a whole, has certain characteristics and aesthetics that

are generally absent from Indian film dances. (They are also absent from traditional folk

and classical dances.)

Western dances in Hindi films are the domain of vamps, modem heroes, and

heroines. Costumes range from sequined gowns to jeans and mini-skirts to fanciful

Indo-Arabic conflagrations. As previously mentioned, these dances are basically Indian

in their essence. A Westerner viewing them would hardly relate to them as western

dance. The obvious elements that Indianize these dances are costuming (even the western

clothes worn are adapted to suit filmi tastes and are identifiably Indian), the language of

the song, and the treatment of the lyrics. Although these dances are less reliant on Indian

dance than the other dances discussed in this chapter, they still contain many Indian

movements and conventions. The music of these western style songs is in keeping with

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Hindi film tradition, mixing in Indian melodies and rhythms with those of the W est It

cannot be ignored that western dance does not have the same cultural resonnance in India

that it has in the West and that more than any other factor, may account for its distinct

look in Hindi films.

The steps o f these western style dances generally strive to be true to Elvis, Michael

Jackson, or whatever other popular source from which they derive. However, because

there is usually a narrative in the song, the expressions and gestures are Indian. Again,

many of the same typical eye movements and gestures occur as previously described.

The head turning to highlight the "sum" of a beat, or just as a rhythmic device, is often

seen, but here it can be seen in both the Indian fashion and the Michael Jackson, look

right-Iook left, manner. The hip movements are also both the Indian folk type and the

"western" pelvic thrust.

A technical feature that contributes to the "Indianization" of these dances is the lack

of stress put on the use of the feet. There is no definition in the form of a deliberately

pointed or flexed foot, overwhelmingly important in western dance. The hero dips the

heroine backward, but her foot will not point. Turns are also not spotted and the

characteristic lift of the body in western dance is absent. There is no sense of center and

control that emanates from the abdomen or the athleticism that is characteristic of western

dance.'6 Instead, an overall image, where rhythm and isolation are stressed, along with a

16 Obviously, not all western popular dance is perfect in form in the West, but while westernized Hindi film dance is slick and glossy in its presentation, it lacks both the polish and cultural

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stacatto quality, is achieved. Some of these qualities can also be observed in folk based

dances. These elements are consistent throughout western style dance in film and are part

of an aesthetic choice, not necessarily a lack of training or exposure to western forms

(although this is sometimes the case). This happens to be the area of dance where men

participate the most.

The film M&hCL(1994) contains an interesting example in the "Tu Cheez Badi Hai

Mast Mast” song. The hero, in sunglasses and bandanna, dances with the heroine,

dressed in a fanciful harem dress, in a bar/cabaret setting. The music has elements of

Punjabi folk, classical Indian vocal, Sufi, and Arabic, while the dance movement is

western- based. As they pulsate their peivises to the beat, every once in a while, a

traditionally dressed classical Indian singer appears. He bursts through the corps from the

background, with right hand cupped to his ear and left hand outstretched singing a line of

Sargam, or Indian Solfege syllables.

The film Khiladivon Ka Khiladif 1996) has many typical examples of the currently

popular western style dance as in the song "Mere Pyare Akshay," where, between the

typical westernized steps, the heroine addresses her hero with coy Indian looks and

gestures. An unusually daring number from this film is "In the Night,” the mud

bath/shower song/dance where the villainess, Madame Maya, played by Rekha, seduces

the hero, Akshay, played by , by rolling around in the mud with him. Sex

and nudity are plainly suggested and the villainess is uncharacteristically aggressive.

context that it has in the West.

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With faces covered in mud, eyes play a large part in the expression in this sequence. The

song and the movement are obviously a substitute for what would be a love-making scene

in a western movie. The English title of the song is indicative of the westernization

present in the theme and movement.

Western-styled dances have always been present in Hindi films (most noticeably

from the 1960s on). In the past, there were examples of western dance performed by

Helen, "Mera Nam Chin Chin Choo" in Howrah Bridge (1958), Kapoor's and

Mumtaz's numerous Elvis-like shaking and undulating dances, the scene

accompanied by the accordion wielding Raj Kapoor in Sangam (1964), Disco numbers

like "De De Pyar De," and the many dance numbers in the film Disco Dancer (1982). In

the film Yasmine (1955), the heroine performs "Indianised" Spanish gypsy dances.

These films and their dances have not been successful solely because of their

westemizations. The West has always been a novelty and something to be imitated, but it

is the coy glances and meaningful symbolic gestures that win over the audience. The

"Indianizations" are what allow the dances to communicate their message to the viewers

in a language with which they identify and relate.

Among the recurring devices used in westem-style dance that "Indianize" them is,

most notably, spinning. Spinning is frequently seen throughout film dances, but most

often at the end or finale of a sequence. It is not as if western dance does not use turns,

but its frequency and mode of presentation in Hindi film dance is unique. The way turns

are used in Hindi film dance highlights the large, circular skirts, flounced dresses, and

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diaphanous costumes typically worn, creating the sensuously flowing movement of

billowing cloth. The use of the arms while spinning in Hindi film western-styled dance is

reminiscent of arm use in classical Kathak with variations of arms to the side, palms

upturned, or arms that swoop down from the chest and back up in a circular movement

The arms are rarely seen hanging relaxed at the side of the body, or with fisted hands,

arms twisted in preparation for a turn as Michael Jackson might do. If these movements

are done it is usually by men. The arms are also not seen in the western classical fifth

position en avant or en haute. In Hindi films, the spinning is generally sustained longer

than it would be in a western choreography and it is performed with flat feet rather than

en demi-pointe. The technique is to step around one’s self in rhythm rather than to

pirouette on one leg.17 Spinning in Hindi film dances connotes a sense of freedom and a

sense of finality to a phrase of music or a whole dance. It is used, as in Kathak, to signal

a change of character, mood, or scene. Spinning can also signal the passage of time and

on a deeper level, as a recurring movement and aesthetic, reflects the non-linear Indian

concept of time as moving in a continuous cycle. Circular movement, as reflected in

dance and other arts, has a special meaning in the Indian aesthetic that cannot be wholly

analyzed.

17 Pirouetting on one leg is seen in Kathak, but it is not en pointe or demi-pointe. This movement in Kathak requires technical ability from the dancer and is not seen often in films. In Western popular dance, particularly jazz dance, a pirouette performed in parallel, in demi-plie, with the raised foot pointed and arms raised in classical fifth position, is common. This is also not seen in Hindi film.

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Just as the meaning of circular movement cannot be adequately defined with words,

neither can the significance o f certain gestures and expressions. Their power and essence

are embedded in the consciousness of the people. Top dance director Saroj Khan taps

into this body of gesture and meaning to create her film dances. She describes her clever

and successful choreographic technique: "I listen to the music and lyrics and choose a

gesture or movement that will stick in the minds of the audience. I repeat it and develop

the dance around this gesture” (Saroj Khan, dance director, interview by author, Bombay,

24 July 1996). She evokes an image the audience will relish and imitate even after they

leave the cinema hall. The costume and setting are all devised to enhance this image.

Any defects the performers have must be hidden and their strengths highlighted. The

gestures, steps, and expressions are a Gestalt To the audience, their combined meaning

goes beyond the sum o f each part. Although Saroj Khan does not care much for the

westernization popular in film dance these days, she employs it where necessary to fit

into the scheme of the whole.

Some dance directors take added steps to insure that their vision is realized. P. L.

Raj tediously edits his own dance and song sequences and even does his own camera

work when possible [P. L. (Peter Louis) Raj, dance director, interview by author,

Bombay, 12 July 1996]. Commercial film dance directors are criticized by purists for

their "kitcherie" or hodgepodge of dance, but in fact are clever craftsmen/women of their

dance genre who take a great deal of pride in their work and achievements. They deeply

respect the classical forms that they borrow from and maintain close ties with their

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classical gurus and other mentors. The film dance director's demeanor is like that of

classical gurus and they are often respectfully called "" by those with whom they

work. They are proud o f their knowledge of western dance forms since it is not native to

their culture. It seems India has once again absorbed a foreign influence and adapted it to

its own culture.

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KATHAK IN HINDI FILMS

So far the influence of Kathak on folk, romantic, and westem-style dances in Hindi

film has been examined. This chapter will examine how Kathak itself is seen in films.

The most important genre of film to Kathak is, of course, Dancer/Courtesan(Dancing

Girl).1 These films, along with Historical(Semi-Historical) films set in old courts, have

been responsible for bringing Kathak to the masses. These films are notable for their

lavish, ornate sets, rich costuming, and poetic language. Although the Kathak in these

films is generally not the Kathak seen in classical stage presentations (meaning it has

been adapted and glamorized for the screen), these are some of the most beautifully

choreographed, executed, and filmed dances in Indian cinema.

The dance and song of the Dancer/Courtesan (Dancing Girl) genre is not present only

for entertainment's sake. The courtesan's art allows her to express sentiments that would

be considered inappropriate expressed in mere speech. They have a more profound

meaning here than in films of other genres because dance and song are the courtesan's

The film genre, Dancer/Courtesan (Dancing Girl), is used as described in chapter 5. The terms may be separated where applicable. This grouping refers to professional dancers, but there are far fewer Dancer films than Courtesan (Dancing Girl) films, and in some cases a female character temporarily becomes a dancing girl in the course of a film.

114

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profession and way of life. The dance and song are intimately intertwined with the reality

of the story. The courtesan's actions sing louder than words.

The most important film in the category of the Dancer genre is undoubtedly Jhanak

Jhanak Paval Bqje (1955). India's first Technicolor film, it explores the Hindu,

non-Moghul world of Kathak. This film, whose onomatopoeic title means "Jhanak

Jhanak Sound the Ankle Bells," contains examples of almost every aspect of Kathak.

The film includes Kavita, various mythological dances and songs, as well as examples of

the and (male and female) styles of dance. This film shows both good

and bad Kathak as well as its training and the competitive aspect of the dance. It also

explores the time honored "Guru Shishya Parampara" or teacher/student traditional

relationship.

The dances are woven into the tale of a Kathak dancer played by legendary Kathak

exponent, Gopi Krishna, and his guru father who is training him for the big dance

competition to be held in Benares. They need a female partner, so the Guru accepts

Neela, played by Sandhya, who had previously been trained by a rival guru. Neela and

Giridhar, the son, fall in love during the course of their training. They realize their love

while dancing a Radha/Krishna Kavita, a poem about the two famous lovers. When the

Guru realizes this he is angry, and Neela leaves her Guru's house in shame. She takes on

the life of a wandering mendicant, singing to Krishna, as the Saint Mira Bai did centuries

before. She is finally reunited with her guru and lover at the dance competition where

she arrives at the last minute, exhausted and near death from exposure, to save Giridhar's

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title of "Nataraj," or King o f Dance, from being sabotaged by the dishonest pupil who had

become her substitute. The competition won and their duty to their guru completed, he

allows them to marry. In the final scene their ankle bells are symbolically tied together as

they joyously dance to the title song. The dance in this film allows the characters to cross

over from reality to myth as when they dance the Kavita or the Shiva/Parvati (the Lord of

dance and his wife) dance in the competition or the fanciful dance of the tempting of the

sage Vishwamitra by a heavenly nymph.

Another notable dance from the film is the dance of the seasons, which shows the

dancers vigorously training to a background of changing seasons. The ”” or melody

Line changes tone to match the mood of each season. The dance "Nain So Nain" shows

the two dancers dressed as mythological lovers dancing in a garden filled with fountains

that spew colored water while they gracefully form hieratic poses.

Gopi Krishna's acrobatic style and incredible speed are in keeping with the spirit of

film and classical dance. The highlight of this film is the dramatic dance competition

between Gopi Krishna and his rival.2 The dance is very fast and technical as the two

competitors try to out-do one another in footwork and spins, shouting the dance

bols(mnemonic dance syllables) in each other’s faces, goaded on by their respective teams

and the cheers of the audience. Gopi Krishna victoriously out-spins his rival, who dizzily

wobbles to the sidelines in defeat. This film is important not only for being the first

Gopi Krishna’s rival is played by another accomplished Kathak dancer, Chaube Maharaj, Sitara Devi’s brother.

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Technicolor film, but also for commercially presenting one of India's classical arts to the

masses. It shows the creative possibilities for filming Kathak.3

A spectacular film from the Historical/Courtesan genre with an outstanding use of

Kathak, set in the Moghul court o f the illustrious Emperor Akbar, is Mnghnl-e-Aram

(1960). One of the three all-time box office earners, it is the story of the legendary

forbidden love of Prince Salim and the low-bom slave girl, Anarkali. One o f the

memorable dances is to the song "Mohe Pangat Pe Nandalal" where Anarkali, played by

Madhubala, depicts Radha with her companions. She tells them how Krishna teased her

by grabbing her wrist by the river bank and how she reacted. In a sense, she is playing

both roles. Role reversal is an outstanding feature of Kathak expression. This is

Anarkali's first performance in the court and shows Emperor Akbar's acceptance of both

Hindu and Muslim religions as this dance is performed on the occasion of Lord Krishna’s

birthday especially for the benefit of his Hindu queen.

Anarkali secretly goes to meet Salim by the reflecting pool, walking hypnotized by

the sultry, romantically expressive tone of the Thumri. Although not dancing, their slow,

measured dance-like movements and glances accompanied by the haunting strains of the

music build the tension between the lovers. They communicate through movement and

their eyes rather than words.

This film also shows the art of painting with colored powders. It is said that some dancers are so accomplished that they can paint pictures with their dancing feet. The most accomplished can paint a peacock. The opening song of this film shows dancing feet painting the film’s credits with colored powders.

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Another song/dance, "Ham Bhi Dekhenge,” a Qawwali, is performed by Anarkali

and her rival Bahar from a sitting position. It is a question/answer style competition with

intricate illustrative gestures performed for Prince Salim, so that he may decide who is

more clever. Anarkali states in her song that love is painful and that she would gladly

give her life for her love. Bahar sings that love is beautiful. Prince Salim awards Bahar

rose petals, but to Anarkali he gives the award of true love, the thorns.

The most famous dance scene and one of the only two scenes shot in color in this

film is "Jab Pyar Kiya To Dama Kyaa" performed in the "Sheesh Mahal" or hall of

mirrors. It is a beautifully constructed dance of both pure and expressional elements

where Anarkali defies Emperor Akbar by expressing her love for Salim. The dance

shows Anarkali spinning around the mirrored hall, the reflection of her flaring skirt

captured by the multifaceted glass. She salutes the royal audience with the traditional

Amad, performs short pure dance sequences, and progresses to the song. The finale of

the song finds her form reflected in the mirrors again, her voice eerily echoing throughout

the chamber. Afier insulting the Emperor, she is led out by the guards. This sequence is a

fine representation of the Islamic influence on Kathak.

The second scene in color is also a Kathak dance danced by a corps in colorful

Moghul costumes and sung by the now repentant Bahar for Anarkali and the Prince.

Anarkali has been sentenced to death and has been granted her last wish to be queen for a

day. After the song/dance "Jab Rat Hai Aisi Matwali," Gopi Krishna makes a guest

appearance, wildly, dizzily spinning, mirroring the Prince's state of mind. The Prince has

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been drugged so Anar kali can be led out without his protest As Anarkali is led away, her

short reign over, awaiting her death, she casts off her jewelry to the strains of a sad song.

This casting off of jewelry is often mimed in Kathak dances where the heroine is upset

that she has adorned herself, but her lover has not appeared.

In these moving examples, the dance is so well integrated that it highlights in its

movement and lyrics the plight of these two doomed lovers at each stage of their

romance. In fact it highlights the sad real-life romance of Madhubala (Anarkali) and

Dilip Kumar (Prince Salim). During the filming Madhubala was weak from a heart

condition, which eventually led to her death. was angry with her and left

her for a perceived transgression on her part.

Pakeeyah (1971) is another legendary Courtesan film in which Kathak dance, woven

into the plot, helps to develop the character of Sahib Jan, Pakeezah (The Pure One). The

film opens with a Tarana (a pure dance set to melodic dance bols). Nargis, Sahib Jan's

mother, dances, waiting for her lover, the Nawab to come and take her away from her

disreputable life.4 He presents her to his family, who immediately reject her as unworthy.

Nargis runs away to a graveyard where she finally delivers her daughter, Sahib Jan,

before she dies. Nargis' sister raises the child. We first see Sahib Jan, carefree, dancing

for patrons to the Mujra "Inhe Logone Leliya Duputta Mera" (You people have

embarrassed me by taking away my veil). This is a lively dance with a few Persian

A “Nawab,” or ruler, is a member of the aristocracy.

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elements, such as the small back arch with hands waving in front. There are also

footwork passages and flirtatious expressions. Both Nargis and Sahib Jan are played by

the actress Meena Kumari.

When her father, the Nawab, realizes she exists and comes looking for her, Sahib

Jan's Aunt takes her away to another town. During this journey, a stranger (a forester),

enters her train cabin as she sleeps and noticing her beauty, leaves a note between her

toes. She discovers the note upon waking. It says, "Your feet are so beautiful, never let

them touch the ground lest they become soiled, signed your fellow traveller." This serves

to foreshadow her future problems. After all, a dancer's feet must touch the floor. From

this moment, she obsessively falls in love with him, not realizing that he is her cousin, the

Nawab's nephew. The fact that they are cousins is not a problem for marriage, as cousin

marriage among Muslims is common. It is more the irony of coincidence and the fact

that she is, unfortunately, a courtesan.

The next dance "Tarhe Rahi Ho" (Wait Lover) is a lovely expressional dance

describing a girl adorning herself with the "Solah Shringar" (16 adornments) before

sneaking out in the night to meet her lover. With each repetition of a line, the dancer

gives a new interpretation o f its meaning with different gestures. This dance also

contains Tatkar (footwork) and an example of Pardhant (recitation of the dance bols

before performing them). The whole ambiance of leisurely courtly life and manners is

represented from the patrons eagerly waiting for the courtesan to make her entrance, to

the serving of "Pan" (a special mixture of betel nut wrapped in a leaf), to the behavior of

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the patrons offering "Inam" or payment, reward. The Prince o f Panipat falls in love with

her in this scene. He is so outraged when a patron of low status dares to offer "Inam" that

he shoots the man's bag of money from his hand, ruining the evening. He sends a golden

carpet and other gifts in apology.

"Chalte Chalte" is performed for the Prince of Panipat and his entourage. In the song

and dance, Sahib Jan describes how she met her lover by chance as she was walking

along. During the song a train passes by and she runs to look, remembering her

encounter with the beloved stranger about whom she is singing. This is a classical dance

with some slight hip movements added. It is expressional, with the two girls dancing in

the background, performing ornamental pure dance movements.

In both "Tarhe Rahi Ho" and "Chalte Chalte," Sahib Jan has an outlet for her true

feelings. The film viewer can sympathize with her while the Prince of Panipat probably

thinks the songs are intended for him.

"Mausam Hai Ashiqana" and "Chalo Dildar Chalo" are romantic songs that express

Sahib Jan's and Salim's (the stranger’s) love once they have met again by chance. Sahib

Jan feigns amnesia so she will not have to reveal her shameful past and Salim renames

her "Pakeezah" (The Pure One). She eventually leaves him for fear that her status as a

dancing girl will make a life with him impossible. Salim, angered that Sahib Jan has

returned to her Aunt, invites her to dance at his wedding. Clad in a white dress symbolic

of her purity, she musters up the strength to perform the song/dance, "Tir Nazar

Dekhenge." She sings "Tonight you will see the open wound of love" before the gathered

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guests and in a dramatic finale breaks a glass chandelier. As she performs her footwork

and spins on the broken pieces, her blood sharply contrasts with the white o f the stage

and her dress. The guests are agape as she collapses in her Aunt's arms. Her Aunt

explains the injustice that has been committed, that the Nawab is Sahib Jan's father. A

fight ensues in which the Nawab is shot by the family patriarch. On his death bed he

blesses the marriage of Salim and Sahib Jan and the bittersweet ceremony takes place by

his coffin. The wrongs have been righted and Nargis' spirit may now rest in peace. This

climactic scene takes place because Sahib Jan eloquently danced and sang the things that

would have been inappropriate to say in plain speech.

Throughout this film we see Sahib Jan's character grow and develop through the

dances she performs. From the carefree young girl in "Inhe Logone,1' she becomes the

lovelorn woman in "Tarhe Rahi Ho" and "Chalte Chalte." Her brief happiness, albeit

tinged with melancholy, in "Mausam Hai Ashiqana" and "Chalo Dildar Chalo" is

shattered and she becomes bitter to the point of self-destruction in "Tir Nazar Dekhenge."

One of the most charming, humorous scenes from this film is when the girls

(courtesans) chide an old courtesan into performing Kathak from "the good old days.”

She is bespeckled, her shoulders hunched, and a little stiff, but makes a valiant effort to

show-off her style remembering when she was in her prime. As she hits the "sum" of the

beat, the Prince's golden carpet is rolled out at her feet and she covers her face with

embarrassment as the other girls giggle with delight.

The Kathak in Pakeezah shows the heavy influence of the Moghuls. The courtly

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atmosphere is also emphasized by the haunting Thumris played as background music and

the sophisticated Urdu speech of the dialogue. This legendary film, reputedly some

twenty years in the making, is probably the most important Courtesan movie.

A more recent Courtesan film is Umrao Jan (1981) starting Rekha. The dance in this

film is well choreographed and executed, but in keeping with the expectations of the

modem audience, more toward the Mujra side of Kathak rather than the classical or

technical dance seen in many earlier Courtesan movies. The opulence of this film

recreates the atmosphere of the courtesans' "Kotha" (house) of 19th century Lucknow

with the attendant madame, musicians, ustads (teachers) and royal patrons.5 The story is

based on the novel Umrao Jan Ada. Courtesan of Lucknow, which is said to be based on

the life of an actual courtesan, renown for her poetry, who was kidnaped from her family

in Faizabad, a neighboring city (Mirza Mohammed Hadi Ruswa, translated by

Khushwant Singh and M. A. Husaini, Umrao Jan Ada Courtesan of Lucknow). Umrao

Jan is sold to a hookah smoking madame who raises her in this matriarchal haven, a sort

of substitute family, where she is educated in music, dance, and poetry. She is also

schooled in the exaggerated, polite manners for which Lucknow was famed. The first

musical interlude shows the rigorous traditional method by which Kathak is taught to the

disciple by the ustad. The song shows Umrao Jan and her friend, the madame's daughter,

training from childhood until they are young women, ready to be presented to the public.

“Ustad” is the Muslim term for Guru.

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Umrao Jan sings and dances the Ghazal "Dil Cheez Kyaa Hai" for her first public

performance. The Nawab hearing her voice from his carriage below immediately falls in

love with her and arrives the next evening to see her in person performing "In Ankhon Ki

Masti Hai.” Both o f these very sensual dances are expressional with interludes of pure

dance sequences and footwork.

Umrao Jan's life is fraught with the same difficulties as other courtesan characters.

She knows that she will never be able to marry the Nawab, and he eventually marries

another. The girl he marries is, in fact, the girl that she was kidnaped with, but who had

the good fortune of being adopted by a good family. Umrao Jan sings at the birthday

celebration of their son.

In the most emotional song/dance of this film, " Yeh Kyaa Jage," Umrao Jan sings in

front of her childhood home. The Lucknow household has fled from the British to

Faizabad. She sings "What place is this? Who is calling?". The spare gestures and long

gazes contrast with short bursts of pure dance to reveal the pain and longing Umrao Jan

feels as she remembers her happy childhood. At the end of the song, she is reunited with

her mother again only to be thrown out by her brother who rejects her because of her

status. This sad tale ends with Umrao Jan, back in the deserted Lucknow Kotha, gazing

at her reflection in the mirror.

Ghunghroo (1983), as suggested by the title, "Ankle Bells," is another courtesan tale.

Dance is used to express the courtesan's feelings of love or bitterness to the hero. The

best examples of Kathak based dance in this film are the Mujra, "Tofah Qabul Hai

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Hame," and the Qawwali, "Turn Salamat Raho." They have many expressional elements,

but are limited technically, with noticeably strong rhythmic bases. The dance is,

however, somewhat more filmi in its presentation, that is flashy, in comparison to the

previously described dances. The technical aspects of the dance were probably played

down because o f the limited dance ability of Smita Patil, the heroine, who was best

known for her powerful acting ability. There is a lack of smoothness in her movements,

but her acting is enough to make the expressional portions convincing. There is a scene

where the heroine dances on lose ankle bells that cut her feet until she collapses,

reminiscent of the scene in Pakeezah where the heroine dances on glass. It is also

performed at a wedding. The shock of this dance scene, again, acts as a catalyst to bring

out the truth.

As a courtesan film, Salma (1985), is comparable in quality to Ghunghroo. They are

also both set in relatively recent times as evidenced by the existence of motor cars, but

the exact time period is undefined (this is true of most Hindi films). However, Salma

shows us, in addition to the life-style of the courtesan, the tradition o f "Mushaira" or

public poetry recitation, since one of the lead characters is a poet. "Mushaira" is a living

tradition that, like Kathak, was a favorite diversion of the Moghals.

The most memorable Kathak based song/dance of this film is the Qawwali," Jhuta

Wada Na Kijiye" performed by Salma and the poet during a competition. "Don't make

any false promises or one day you will have to fulfill them" they sing, foreshadowing

events. The hero, best friend of the poet, falls in love with Salma. The poet sacrifices his

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love for the sake o f his friend who cannot marry her, because he is from a respectable

family. Salma performs another Kathak style dance at the hero's wedding.

She willingly dances and sings until she dies (she has been poisoned and knows that

singing will kill her) and unlike the previously discussed heroines, gets her final revenge

by dying. The final tragic scene shows the hero holding Salma's limp corpse, weeping,

while the bewildered wedding guests look on.

It is notable in this film that , playing the part of Salma, sings her own

songs. There is no playback singer for her, which is highly unusual. This takes us back

to the time when courtesans were trained in both singing and dance.

There are too many examples o f courtesan films to list in one paper, but they all have

Kathak based dance in common. These films use Kathak or Kathak style dance in the

same fashion as the representative examples given above, weaving the dance into the

texture o f the plot. These films contain some of the finest dance seen in commercial

Hindi films because of their traditional foundation. They evoke the ambiance and

decadence of courtly life and the life of the courtesan in both ancient and modem times.

There are also many outstanding examples of Kathak style dance in films not strictly

of the Dancer/Courtesan (Dancing Girl) genre. In some of these films, such as Kohinoor

(1960), a film categorized under the Romantic genre, the dancing girl is a side character

and in others the heroine becomes, at least temporarily, a dancing girl because of

unfortunate circumstances. Such is the case of Ganga in Ram Ten Ganga Maili (1985).

Two Kathak-based dances are performed by the heroine of this film after she has

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become a singing/dancing girl. One is the stirring theme song, "Ram Teri Ganga Maili,"

in which Ganga accuses the "bad guys" of moral and political corruption and hypocrisy

through her words and gestures aided by two background dancers. There is little

technical dance, but the expression is from classical Kathak. Her costume is also that of a

classical dancer and adds to the transformation of the heroine from innocent girl to

courtesan. This urban dress contrasts with Ganga's previous simple mountain girl attire.

Later Ganga is hired to dance at her husband's wedding (he is initially unaware that

she is present). Their marriage and child are not recognized by the hero's family and they

are forcing him to marry a suitable girl. Ganga sings/dances "Ek Radha, Ek Mira," which

illustrates her situation to the would-be bride, Radha. This dance has both pure dance and

expressional elements. Ganga compares her love for the hero to that of Mira, the

poet-saint who spiritually loved Lord Krishna and killed herself to be united with him, to

that of Radha, Krishna's earthly love. Radha understands the situation and is moved by

Ganga's expressive dance. She helps the hero escape with his dancing wife in the midst

of a tumultuous scene.

The earlier film, Kohinoor. has a Kathak dancer as a side character. She falls in love

with the hero, a prince. She finally realizes that she can never marry him and nobly risks

all to help save his life, win back the throne, and marry Princess .

The dancer's first meeting with the prince, whose hobby is classical music, is at an art

competition where he accompanies her in the famous Kathak dance, "Madhuban Me

Radhika." This exuberant dance includes Gat, pure dance sequences, Tatkar,

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Sawal/Jawab, and expression. The Prince, played by Dilip Kumar, does a commendable

job imitating the playing of the and mouthing the complicated Sargam and dance

bols.

"Rang Lo," the opening dance, is another beautiful example of dance in Kathak style,

celebrating the spring festival, Holi, where participants throw colored powder and water.

" Jadugar" is another Kathak-based dance from this film expressing the dancer's love for

the Prince. The last dance of the film is performed at the supposed wedding of the

Princess and the Senapati, the film's villain. In this case, the dancer joyfully dances to the

musical accompaniment of the Prince as a stall tactic in order to give his loyal soldiers

time to reach the palace and save the day.

The film, Ra?ia Sultana (1961), contains many fine Kathak-based dances fancifully

set in a Muslim court of the 1200s. Choreographed by Satyanarayan, these dances are

mostly performed as divertissement. Lekin (1990) has a striking example of Kathak

dance performed by well-known Bharatanatyam dancer and actress, Hema Malini. Mahal

(1949) also includes a sensuous Kathak dance intended to seduce the hero and delay him

from returning to his haunted house. This dance is unusual because of the physical

proximity of the dancer to the hero, who even touches his face while dancing. Nagin

(19S4) uses Kathak technique to create dance specific to the tribal characters in this film

in a non-Kathak setting. Anarkali (T953) has many Kathak-based dances including a

well-known Kavita used in classical Kathak. The dance that Anarkali performs while

drunk is another example of Kathak with a Persian influence. Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam

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(1962) uses Kathak dance to highlight the corrupt behavior of the heroine's husband. He

is shown ignoring his wife, preferring the company of alcohol and dancing girls. This

sight is common to many films about uncaring, unfaithful husbands. Burning Train

(1980), a decidedly bad film, has as its highlight and most colorful character a seductive

Kathak dancer/singer performing a Qawwali with her musicians on a runaway train.6

They humorously speak to one another in Kathak dance bols.

These examples depict the dual moral character of Kathak as perceived in film and

society at large. Film shows Kathak's nobility as well as its potential corrupting influence

from association with alcohol and other vices of the flesh. Kathak as portrayed in film,

helps to explore the dual nature o f the courtesan's position in society and, in turn,

women's. The courtesan figure as dancer is a powerful representation of sexuality and

how it is perceived by Indian society; how sexuality is explored and exploited through

dance in film; how ultimately, female sexuality must be controlled by marriage or death.7

How ironic that one of India's best loved arts is also one regarded with suspicion and

its professional practitioners often despised. Hindi films have not been able to solve or

6 This film is also humorously known in the industry as “The Turning Brain.”

7 This death can be death of the spirit. In almost every Courtesan film, there is a scene in which the courtesan is cruelly derided for being a “whore” and must either defend herself, which she usually does not, or must be defended by her lover. He might decide to defend her or not. These scenes often reveal the weakness or strength of the male protagonist’s character in the face of society’s oppressive traditions as much as they reveal the courtesan’s character. The weakest male characters are from Salma. Ghunghroo. and Umrao Jan. The strongest are from Moghul-e- Azam and Pakeezah.

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reconcile the problems of the dancer or of women, but have significantly explored them,

each filmmaker offering his insight. It is little wonder that Kathak, with all of its

complex associations, has been the chosen vehicle of so many filmmakers for the most

complex emotions. Dance in films helps reveal the injustices committed against women,

the unfairness of the class structure, and the hypocrisies of Indian society. We see how

dance can be used to tell a story, how it is woven into the plot, or how it can be a

beautiful divertissement with profound cultural significance.

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CONCLUSION

Hindi films are a unique phenomenon in India and indeed, the world. They have

created a modem mythology in India, and their trademark song and dance numbers

provide a common cultural denominator for the nation. Film dance is a unique

expression, comprised of widely varying sources, that unites old and new; West and East.

Still, its essence remains Indian, and a large part of that Indian essence comes from the

influence Kathak has had on film dance's subject matter, movement vocabulary and

expression. This is important because it is often the songs and dances that make or break

a film.

The relationship between Kathak dance and North Indian theatre, both folk and

classical, has been well-established in scholarly studies as well as through oral tradition

throughout time. Its relationship to folk and ritual dances o f the North is evident. In this

thesis, Kathak's relation to folk-based dances in Hindi film has also been established.

Kathak's influence on both romantic and westernized dances in Hindi film is, in many

ways, an extension of that relationship. Folk rhythms and motifs intermingle with those

of Kathak to form an "Indianized" whole. Kathak's symbolic gestures and expressions

mix with Hindi film westemizations to keep that western exterior from becoming mere

131

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novelty. Together they form a new aesthetic for the Indian audience that keeps them in

touch with their classical roots which might otherwise be lost Kathak's adaptable and

open-ended form is a perfect vehicle for cinematic dance expression.

Kathak, as a cultural image, has also endured in numerous films depicting India's

heritage and complexity. Kathak dance has become a metaphor for both the charm and

suffering of the life of the courtesan and thus, the good and bad of every woman's life. It

reflects a woman's potential for independence in the matriarchal haven of the Kotha and

the dangers of dependence on men. It shows the strength of women in the face of

oppressive traditions and the impotence of the men who cannot or who do not want to

change the status quo.

Hindi film actresses' lives, in many ways, reflect not only the courtesan roles that

they play on screen, but also parallel the "real-life" courtesans that existed not so long

ago. Film reality and "real-life" are also mixed in the collective mind of the audience.

Perhaps it is mixed in the collective mind of the film industry as well.

Hindi cinema has seen many changes and developments in its long history from

silent films to sound, to the studio-based system, to the creation of the formula or

"Masala" film and the present-day star system. Hindi cinema developed along side the

growing nation, with its evolving social mores. Cinema was instrumental in India's

struggle to break the bonds of colonialism with its early Social and Mythological films.

It survived wars and Partition. It was present when India gained its independence and

began to develop its identity as a united nation. Cinema played a role in portraying an

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all-India culture with which every Indian, regardless of religion or region, could identify.

Indian society evolved and women were eventually accepted as professionals in the

fields of entertainment and art. Today, film actresses are some of the highest paid and

most glamorous women in India. However, India is still struggling with its inherent

diversity as well as with its complex perceptions of women and their role in society.

Hindi films have continually reflected society's views and treatment of women — this

mirror to society offers hope for change.

A greater number of women are entering the male dominated film industry as

directors and producers, and even greater numbers of women are participating on all

levels of television production. In television, they are active not only as actresses, but as

producers, directors, and script writers. It seems that television gives women more

freedom than film because its less demanding time constraints allows them to juggle

career and family. It appears that it offers them more opportunities than film as well

since it is still a developing medium in India. It is unknown how the greater involvement

of women in both television and film will effect their form and subject matter.

Strides are being made away from the traditional formula film, and women's roles

have been expanding as recently seen in Bandit Queen (1994). Perhaps audiences are

tiring of the formula, but whatever the future holds, it is unlikely that the much ingrained,

time honored, hallmarks of Hindi cinema, music and dance, will ever disappear.

The effects on women and the film industry of the recent Hindu fundamentalist

backlash against westernization, Muslims, and the open market that allows the import of

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foreign goods, have yet to be seen. The eclectic commercial film industry's ideology

generally runs contrary to that of the fundamentalists, and with the film industry's

incredible earning power, it is safe to say that the fundamentalists will not be able to

effect change significantly. Despite the fundamentalists, Hindi cinema, through its

communal harmony messages, songs and dances, continues to supply all of India with

nostalgic reminders of past glories and with a pride in its rich heritage.

Hindi film detractors from Art filmmakers to intellectuals, continue to criticize. They

frequently complain that typical low-income, uneducated audiences are passive,

undiscriminating, and do not know better than to watch formula films because they are at

the mercy of greedy filmmakers. They claim the masses are fed the same old formula and

need "good cinema." However, it is obvious that audiences use their own standards in

deciding which films are good and bad. It is also obvious that the masses are not entirely

made up of low-income or uneducated people. Even the most sure-fire, big-budget,

action packed formula film can be a “flop” if the masses do not like it. It appears that in

fact, the filmmakers are at the mercy of their audience. A recent example of this is

Mritvudaata (1997), a big budget extravaganza starring mega-star, Amitabh Bachchan.

Despite having all the "right" ingredients, it failed. One explanation for its failure was

that the music, with the exception of one song, was not good enough. It is still the music

and dance that make a film a success or a failure.

Traditionally, films have been the only form of popular entertainment available to the

masses, but recently alternative forms of entertainment have arisen. Most notably

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satellite television, introduced in the early 1990s, has become available. A number of

lower- and middle-class people have access to television, but programming is generally

geared toward the upper classes. Although there are some western, especially British and

American, programs, much o f its programming is still based on Hindi films: song and

dance videos from films shown in an MTV format, classic films, film commentary, game

shows that have to do with identifying film music, documentaries on films, and

biographies of film personalities.

Some claim that commercial Hindi cinema will be ruined economically by the new

popular entertainments, in particular satellite television. This was also the claim when

television came to India in the 1960s and that did not prove true. Satellite television

seems to have actually enhanced interest in films. With the industry's entrepreneurial,

survivalist attitude to carry it through, there is no doubt that it will thrive on the

competition provided by other forms of entertainment It has already done so by hiring

popular artists from other entertainment sources for films.

Homegrown television production is also on the rise with numerous soap-operas and

epic serials. There is also the development o f a non-film, popular music industry. It

includes Ghazal singers, Bhangra(from Punjab) singers and dancers, and various other

popular and experimental artists. Music videos from non-film artists have come on the

market. It is also noteworthy that the Tamil and Telegu film industries have become

quite powerful and prolific within their regions. More and more stars from the North are

crossing over and making films in southern regional languages. These three major

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language cinemas have also recently been liberally borrowing ideas from one another.

None of this poses a threat to the Hindi film industry. If anything, the crossover has

enriched all three cinemas and provided extra work for the performers.

Hindi films are finally being taken seriously as a subject worthy of academic study.

This is evidenced by the number of well-written books recently published on the subject

including: So Many Cinemas: The Motion Picture in India (1996) by B. D. Garga and

The Hundred Luminaries of Hindi Cinema (1996. bv Dinesh Raheja and Jitendra

Kothari, both written to commemorate the centenary of film in India; Encyclopaedia of

Indian Cinema (1995) by Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen; National Identity in

Indian Popular Cinema 1947-1987 (1996) by Sumita Chakravarty. Several insightful

biographies of film stars and directors have also been recently published, as well as

several studies of film music and music personalities. However, there unfortunately

remains a dearth of literature on the subject of dance and choreographers of Hindi films.

This apparent lack of interest in the behind-the-scenes creators of film dance reflects

society's continuing ambivalence towards dance and dancers, but there is hope for change

with personalities like Saroj Khan. The trend toward westernization is a real concern

because advances in technology have made western culture more accessible than ever, but

the demand for films with "Indian values," like Hum Aapke Hai Kaun. also means that

there is hope for traditional culture and dance forms to assert themselves over the trend of

westernization. Kathak, as the leader of these forms in the North Indian aesthetic, with its

adaptable form lending itself to modernization and its close connection to the folk roots

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future Hindi films.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX

This appendix is a list of films in alphabetical order that includes pertinent

bibliographical information such as the title, year, genre, period, director, producer, stars,

and dance director. The appendix includes a plot summary, list of songs and dances with

brief description in order of appearance, and author's comments on the film.

The year is generally the film's year of release or the year listed by the Censor Board.

Usually these coincide. The genres correspond to those listed and defined by the author

in chapter four. The period in which a given film takes place is generally either Modem,

Moghul, or Vedic unless a specific time period can be discerned. Most films do not take

place in any specific, discernible period, which contributes to their fantasy element. The

broad classification of "Modem" is designated simply by the existence in a film o f

automobiles and telephones. The stars listed are limited to the heros and heroines(the

heroine is most often the lead dancer) or other actors who warrant attention. The plot

summary is generally brief for films that are not of the Dancer/Courtesan (Dancing Girl)

genre. To avoid repetition, the plots are also shortened somewhat if they have been

elaborated in the text. Songs and dances are briefly described to show their relevance to

the plot. Comments include the authors observations as well as relevant facts about the

particular film.

138

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The appendix gives the reader an idea of the complexity of Hindi film plots and their

unique prevalence of song and dance. It is intended to aid the reader as a reference

complementing the text The appendix will be of use to anyone desiring to further

research dance in Hindi films. Researchers will find the titles and descriptions of songs

and dances and dance directors a useful reference tool, especially since choreographers

are not often listed in other sources.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Alphabetical List of Films

Anarkali Ghunghroo Gurudev Hum Aapke Hai Kaun Jal Bin Machli Nritva Bina Biili Jhanak Jhanak Paval Baie Khalnavak Kohinoor Laawaris Lekin Mahal Mnghnl-e-Azam Mother India Nagin PakeeTah Ram Ten Ganga Maili Ra^ia Sultana Salma Sholav Tai Mahal Umrao Jan Utsav Yasmin

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Film Overviews

Title: Anarkali Year: 1953 Genre: Historical/Courtesan Period: Moghul Director/Producer: Nandilal Jashwantlal Stars: , Dance Directors: Sachin Shankar, Satyanarayan

Plot Summary: This is an earlier telling of the same tale told in Moyhnl-e-Azam about

the love o f Prince Salim and the slave girl, Anarkali. The film begins at the shrine of

Anarkali and Salim, where a caretaker/storyteller is singing a verse that says "this is the

story of Salim and Anarkali"... (Anarkali) is singing to her lover, Prince Salim,

when his father, Emperor Akbar, hears her beautiful voice. Anarkali is unaware that

Salim is a prince and thinks that he is only a soldier. When Akbar arrives to investigate,

Salim, runs and hides. Akbar is so enchanted by her voice that he renames her Anarkali

(Pomegranate Blossom) and says that he will help her to marry the man for whom she is

singing.

Salim is sent off to fight in a war and Anarkali, pained by the separation, tries to

follow him. She ends up traveling in a caravan (apparently to Persia) while searching for

him, but the caravan is overtaken by bandits and she is kidnaped. Her captors sell her in

the market place, and she is bought for a huge sum of money by a mysterious man who

turns out to be Salim. Salim's maternal uncle, Mansingh (also his father's top advisor),

catches them together and is angered. He tells Salim that he must not associate with her

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and takes him away. Salim falls ill without Anarkali. His parents are distraught and try

every remedy. Finally, they ask Anarkali to sing for him and are elated when he

immediately recovers upon hearing her voice. Anarkali is asked to stay in the palace, but

she is upset, realizing that Salim is a prince. Both Mansingh and Gulnar, a jealous court

maiden, tell her to leave. She stays and dances at the celebration of Salim's recovery.

Salim and Anarkali continue to meet secretly, but the jealous Gulnar threatens to tell

the Emperor. Salim tries to kill Gulnar, but Anarkali begs him to spare her. Gulnar drugs

Anarkali before her next performance in the court, apparently by putting alcohol in her

bathing water. A drunk Anarkali dances before the court and is bold enough to sit in

Salim's lap. The Emperor finally realizes what is happening. She is arrested and Salim

goes to war with his father. Salim is unable to kill his own father in battle and is arrested

for treason. Both Anarkali and Salim are sentenced to death.

Akbar, at the last moment, is unable to execute his son, much to the relief of the court

and soldiers, who are ready to mutiny in support of Salim. Salim is released and rushes to

save Anarkali who is being buried alive in a brick tomb in some distant location. As he

leaves on horseback, Gulnar shoots him in the back with an arrow, but he continues his

search, following Anarkali's singing voice. He arrives too late. She has been buried and

he collapses on the tomb. The storyteller of the shrine reappears singing, "This is the end

of the story of Salim and Anarkali."

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Songs/Dances:

1) "Yeh Zindagi Usiki Hai": Anarkali sings to her lover that her life belongs to him.

She turns while holding her skirt and performs lilting steps.

2) " Ajare Wafa": Anarkali sings to prove to Akbar that her voice can make her lover

return. She dances around the garden with fast running steps and expressive gestures that

proclaim her love.

3) "Aja Ab To Aja": Anarkali is captive in the marketplace. The man selling her

whips her and tells her to sing so that the customers will hear her beautiful voice and pay

a higher price. She sings and dances with soft Persian-influenced movements. The seller

rolls her up in his whip and gives her a tambourine. She spins back out and continues to

the occasional crack of the whip. She Anally faints when she is sold.

4) "Ishq Me Kyaa": Anarkali sings to the stranger who has bought her to have mercy.

This is mainly expressional.

5) "Yeh Zindagi Usi Ki Hai”: Anarkali sings this short reprise on a street comer with

her mother by her side when soldiers from the palace request her to come to the court

6) "Khuda Se Dua Kar": Anarkali sings to revive Salim and is in shock to And out that

he is a prince.

7) "Kavita": A group of women is dancing Kathak in the court as part of a celebration

thrown for Salim's recovery. A solo dancer performs some pure dance sequences and a

famous Kavita.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8) "Jag Dard-e-Ishq Jag": Anarkali enters to sing and dance, but lies down on the

stage, love-sick. The court musician sings to her that she should wake. She gathers her

strength and performs a fanciful Kathak dance with many Persian overtones.

9) "Naheen Jati": Anarkali removes her jewelry while longing for her lover.

10) "Zindagi Pyar Ki Do Char": Anarkali and Salim have a secret rendezvous on a

boat as they sing this happily romantic duet.

11) "Pike Aye": Anarkali is drugged. She begins by dancing some delicate footwork

on her toes, but begins to stagger. The court laughs, assuming that this is all part of the

dance. She dances and spins falling to the ground, hiccuping, singing that "it will be

believed that I have been drinking." The audience thinks that this is very clever until she

sits on the prince's lap and passes out They realize that she is not pretending and Akbar

arrests her.

12) "Oh Asmanwale": Anarkali prays to God while locked in the palace's dungeon.

13) "Yeh Zindagi Usi Ki Hai": Anarkali sings as a tomb is built around her. She sings

"Ulvida" (final goodbye) and only her eyes are visible. The last stone is cemented in and

she dies.

Comments: There is a shrine to Anarkali in , Pakistan. Many people believe the

story is true. Akbar's son was actually named Jehangir, but it is said that he was in love

with a slave girl in the court. Some say that she was sent away, others say that she was

killed, and still others say that Jehangir married a suitable woman and continued to see

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Anarkali on the side. In this film, it appears that Salim dies, but we know that Akbar’s

son lived to rule. It appears that there might be some mixing of a popular folk tale with

the story of Akbar’s son. The dance in this film is Kathak-based, but has a strong Persian

influence seen especially in the soft, waving hand movements performed by Anarkali.

Title: Ghunghroo Year: 1983 Genre: Courtesan (Dancing Girl) Period: Modem Director: Producer: Unknown Stars: Smita Patil, Shashi Kapoor Dance Director: [ ] Kamal1

Plot Summary: A man, Suraj, attempts to buy a courtesan’s, Kesar’s, freedom, but is

framed for murder and sent to jail by the Divan (an aristocratic governor). The divan falls

in love with Kesar when he sees her dancing at the birthday celebration of his young half-

brother and buys her freedom. He wants to marry her, but his step-mother, Rani Ma,

thwarts his plans by arranging his marriage to Rajkumari Priya (a princess). She reminds

him of a promise he made to his father on his death bed which obligates him to obey her.

Kesar arrives at the wedding thinking it is for her, but when she realizes what has

happened, she dances in anguish. She tells the Divan, who wants to run away with her,

that she cannot steal happiness from his wife and runs away. Meanwhile, the Divan lives

lThe total names of this film’s dance directors were not visible in the credits.

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with his loveless marriage and Rani Ma's evil brother, Virat, plots the take-over of the

leadership. The Divan's wife becomes an alcoholic and dies in a car accident The

accident was originally intended by Virat to eliminate the Divan.

Suraj has been released from prison and finds Kesar who has a daughter, Renu, by the

Divan. Together, they raise the child. The Divan's half-brother has grown up and falls in

love with Renu who is his school-mate. (They are unaware of their true identities.) Rani

Ma objects to the relationship because Renu is a commoner and locks her son indoors.

Eventually the truth comes out The Divan finds Kesar and realizes that Renu is his

daughter. They all decide to go against Rani Ma and arrange the wedding. During the

wedding, Virat tries to take over the house. He locks Rani Ma in the dungeon and tries to

assassinate everybody. A fight ensues and Virat is killed, but Suraj also loses his life in

the battle. On his death, he blesses the young couple and Rani Ma, realizing her errors,

begs forgiveness from all.

Songs/Dances:

1) "Tere Daras Ke Pyasi": Kesar, singing and playing the sitar in front of a statue of

Lord Krishna, is scolded by her cruel maternal uncle and aunt for singing this devotional

song. They want her to perform Mujra for clients. Kesar is shown dancing Mujra and

pure dance as the film's credits roll.

2) "Turn Salamat Raho": This Qawwali is danced at the birthday celebration of the

Divan's half-brother. Kesar dances from both sitting and standing positions. She is

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accompanied by a chorus of clapping girls. The dance is Kalhak based, but hip

movements are added.

3) "Tofah Qabul Hai Hame": Kesar, dressed as a bride, dances at the Divan's

wedding. Her anguish is expressed in frenetic movement including small jumps and

dramatic gestures. She turns on her knees and performs such vigorous footwork that her

ankle bells break. She dances upon the fallen bells which cut her feet. She spins as she

collapses singing, "Ulvida" or "goodbye forever".

4) Kesar is briefly shown dancing pure dance at a celebration and receiving "Inam" or

payment She takes only enough to pay her daughter's hospital bill.

5) "Pyar Ke Dhage": Renu and the young hero sing a romantic duet as they flirt in

the forest and ride on a small boat Renu imitates Mira Bai's dancing and "puja" (worship

in a temple). They perform western dance steps in front of a fountain as well.

6) "Jo Safar Pyar Se": A close-up shot of Renu's hands waving in the air is shown as

she admires the bangles the young hero has given her. The young couple sing as they

drive through the countryside.

7) "Tere Daras Ke Pyase": This song is reprised as the Divan and Kesar meet after

many years.

Comments: All of Kesafs dances are Kathak based. The young couple performs

traditional movements and expression mixed with some western steps. It was not

possible to discern the names of the producer or dance director from the film's over-sized

credits.

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Title: Gurudev Year: 1993 Genre: Action/Hero Period: Modem Director/Producer: Stars: Anil Kapoor, , Sridevi Dance Director: Saroj Khan (assisted by Usha)

Plot Summary: The complicated story of two boys raised as brothers. 's father is a

driver for Gum's father, a smuggler. Dev's mother treats Guru, whose mother is dead, as

a son. Dev and his mother believe that their father/husband is dead. Gum's father

supplies them with education and other necessities. Gum and Dev both fall in love with

twin sisters who have been separated by adverse circumstances (both are played by

Sridevi). Dev falls in love with Rosy (her real name is Sunita) who runs a bar and

regularly extorts money from customers who believe that they can out-drink her. Her

trick is to drink tea from a liquor bottle while the customers drink real whiskey. Gum

falls in love with a college girl, Kavita, who is also a singing and dancing artist The girls

are finally reunited. They both readily give up their respective disreputable careers for

their men.

Unbeknownst to the boys, Gum's father has locked up Dev's honest father in prison for

smuggling with the help of unscrupulous policemen. The plot is complicated by a rival

gang of smugglers. Dev becomes a policeman and eventually discovers the truth.

Everyone is dangerously divided by their respective loyalties. Dev is almost taken in by

the villains, but his conscience takes over and he kills Gum's villainous father. Gum is

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upset, but finally realizes his father's wrongs and makes-up with Dev. All the bad guys

are conquered and they live happily ever after.

Songs/Dances:

1) "Meri SanamTumko KhushKardungi": This song begins with Rosy singing to

Dev in the bar. Her movements and dress are western. There are many slinky hip

movements and poses, as Rosy dances among a male corps. The scene changes to a stage

where Sunita is performing while Guru looks on in awe. She performs some

Bharatanatyam-like steps mixed with spins, Arabic hip movements, and other typical

Indian classical dance poses, accompanied by a female corps. She is wearing a beaded

costume vaguely reminiscent of a B haratanatyam dress. There are several flashbacks to

the bar. Sunita ends the dance with a Kathak style Tihai (three-part finale).

2) "Jaipur Se Nikli Gari": Rosy and Dev frolic in a park that contains a miniature city

and carnival rides. There are folk and western elements in the music and dance. They

skip and perform expressional gestures along with some Kathak arm movements. Rosy

sings some dance bolls, "dhin dhinaka din", as she dances. This sequence and the later

" Anare Anare" dance were probably filmed in Switzerland.

3) "Mai Jhut Na Bolunga": Guru sings a folk based number to Kavita and attempts to

charm her. She has locked him out of her house, so he dances outside of her window and

she responds. She goes to exercise and he follows her. She plays tennis with a group of

girls, and he keeps interrupting, a modem Krishna among the gopis (village girls).

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4) "Aja": This is Kavita's big show. Guru hears men in the audience talking about her

and is angered. Kavita is lowered onto the smoke-filled stage wearing a white gown that

makes her appear an angel. A group of men, dressed like demonic firebirds, are waiting

with their gold lame clad leader. They harass her with a series of intimidating

movements and chase her with turns and knee spins. The leader partners her with some

unsuccessful, clumsy western lifts. They tie her with ropes while a man in a cage calls to

her to rescue him (he calls, "Maria"). She transforms into a black clad, bird-like

super-woman and destroys the demons and frees the man. Most of the movement is

western-based.

5) "Anare Anare": Both couples dance in a park. Rosy and Dev perform a mixture of

folk and western skips and jumps, while Kavita and Gum perform more sophisticated

gestures mixed with folk movements.

Comments: This is a fairly common action plot The female characters are not central to

the plot They are quite unorthodox until they fall in love. Their families are never seen

which is unusual. The movement and dress is in keeping with the girls', and to some

extent the boys' respective education and social status. Sunita's dresses and dances are

more Indian and therefore more traditional than Rosy's. Although they are sisters, they

were raised separately. Kavita is educated and Rosy is not, just as Gum is rich and Dev is

poor.

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T itle: Hum Aapke Haj-Kann Year: 1994 Genre: Romantic Period: Modem Director: Sooraj R. Barjatiya Producer: Stars: Madhuri Dixit, Dance Director: Jay Borade

Plot Summary: This family film is a celebration of Indian traditions. A wealthy family

arranges for the marriage of their oldest son, Rajesh, to their friends' oldest daughter,

Puja. They eventually have a son and live happily. Rajesh's brother, Prem, and Puja’s

sister, Nisha, secretly fall in love and tell Puja. Puja is about to inform the families of the

happy news when she has an accident She tries to tell her husband on her death bed

about Nisha and Prem, but dies before she can. The families are distraught especially

since the baby is left motherless, so they arrange for Nisha to marry Rajesh. Nisha thinks

that they have engaged her to Prem and does not realize what has happened until the

wedding day. She decides to be dutiful, sacrifice her love, and go through with the

ceremony. Rajesh finds a note from Nisha to Prem and realizes that they are in love. He

tells the very understanding families that it is enough for Nisha to raise his son as his

aunt. Prem and Nisha are then married.

Songs/Dances:

1) "Wah Wah Ramji": After performing puja (worship), the families celebrate the

engagement of Puja and Rajesh. Nisha and Prem dance with the whole family. The steps

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are mainly folk-based. All of the dances o f this film are folk-based with expressional

gestures.

2) "Aj Hamare Dil Me": The men and women sit on opposite teams singing and

dancing about their happiness. The groom's father and the Bride's mother are the star

singers. Nisha performs some Kathak-style movements. The groom's family dances in a

traditional wedding Barat or procession.

3) "Jute Do Paise Lo": In this traditional wedding game, the girls of the bride's family

steal the groom's brother's shoes and he must give them money to have them returned.

4) "Sajan Ghar": This song is sung as the bride tearfully leaves her parent's house to

go live at her in-laws.

5) "Dig Tana": Rajesh's family dances and plays cricket Scenes from everyday life

are also shown during the song. This dance also has a few jumps and western

movements.

6) "Yeh Kaunsa Mor Hai": Nisha sings about growing up.

7) "YehMausamKa Jadu": Prem drives Nisha to visit her sister. On the way they

sing and dance about their love with some villagers.

8) "Hai Ram": This is Puja's first function in her new home. The ladies gather to

sing, dance, and make fun of the men, but the men spy on them. Prem interrupts the

gathering and is chased out

9) "PahilaPahilaPyar": Nisha and Prem sing and dance a romantic duet There are

many western style steps and some partnering.

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10) "Dig Tana": The families celebrate the birth of Puja and Rajesh's son with

firecrackers and dance. Hijiras (eunuchs) arrive, and the family pays them. The Hijiras

happily join in the festivities.

11) The families play a musical chair-like game in which the loser must perform.

They toss a pillow while a film song, "Dil Ruba" plays. When the music is stopped the

person left with the pillow must recite poetry or a film monologue. Both Sholav and

Moghul-e-Azam are quoted. Prem wins the game and Nisha has to sing a song. She

sings the folk song, " Jogan Hogayi Teri Dulare," and the whole family dances.

12) "Rok Chali Mai": Puja sings to Nisha and Prem, excited about their impending

engagement

13) "Jogan Hogayi Teri Dulari": Children dance and sing at one of Nisha's

engagement ceremonies.

14) "MaiFarzKiQatil": Nisha and Prem briefly sing about their respective familial

duties. Prem tries to hide his sadness as he dances in his brother's wedding procession.

15) "Radhe Krishna": This chanting is heard as the servant prays that Nisha and Prem

can somehow be united.

16) "Dig Tana": Everyone dances and sings as they celebrate Nisha and Prem's

marriage. The dance ends with couples holding hands and spinning.

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Comments: This film shows the importance of music and dance in all aspects of Indian

life. The men equally participate in all of the film’s dancing, which is unusual. Folk

dance and some western movements are used along with expressional gestures. Nisha’s

movement shows the most Kathak influence. This film has now become the highest

grossing movie. (Three others are listed in the text It is not certain whether this film

exceeds the others in total profits because the others are sold-out every time they are

re-released.)

Title: Jal Bin Machli Nritva BinaBiili Year: 1971 Genre: Dancer Period: Modem Director/Producer: V. Stars: Sandhya, Abhijeet Dance Director: Praveen Kumar

Plot Summary: A young girl, Alok Ananda, is inspired by her mother’s memory to

study and perform dance at a near-by palace and arts institution, although she has no

previous training and despite the fact that her father strongly disapproves. He had

prohibited her mother from dancing. The institution is led by a young, music-obsessed

prince and pianist, Raj Kumar, who prefers to be called Kailash. She is caught spying on

one of the rehearsals by Kailash. He tells her she has no experience and will not allow

her to join. He later sees her dancing in the garden and realizes her creative, artistic

talent. When she tells her father, a doctor, that she has joined, he is angry and tells her she

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is to meet a young man and his family that she is to marry. Alok Ananda refuses and

moves into the palace where Kailash's mother, servants, and other students live and is

disowned by her father.

She is a success at the school and she and the musician begin to fall in love when the

Princess his mother wants him to marry, arrives with her uncle to check out the prospects.

The Princess is very westernized and does not understand his art which includes hours of

practice. When the Princess and her uncle realize that Kailash loves Alok Ananda, she

and her uncle plot to destroy her and attempt to do so at the musician's dance and music

concert by weakening a tall ramp that Alok Ananda is dancing on so that she falls through

and almost dies. She is saved by an operation performed by her father and is told that she

will never walk again much less dance.

The Queen has asked Alok Ananda to tell Kailash that she does not love him and leave

because the Queen had promised the Princess' mother before her death that the two would

marry. The Queen says that she will commit suicide if she cannot keep her vow. Alok

Ananda agrees. When she leaves, Kailash learns of his mother's plot and searches for her,

but Alok Ananda, now on crutches, has been taken hostage by some bandits. The leader

of the bandits tries to rape her, but she escapes and tries to jump off a cliff. Kailash finds

and saves her.

Alok Ananda's father, happy that Kailash wants to marry her even though she is

crippled, reconciles with his daughter. He examines her and tells her that if she ever

dances, it will affect her nervous system and she will die. At the next big performance,

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the audience demands to see Alok Ananda dancing. She dances with her crutches and by

some medical miracle, is able to dance on both feet She also survives proving the

prognosis wrong. The Queen is happy for her son and accepts Alok Ananda, but feels

honor bound to take poison. However, a faithful servant discovers in time that the

Princess and her uncle are impostors and that the real princess is dead. The Queen is

saved and freed from her vow. They live happily ever after.

Songs/Dances:

1) The prince is rehearsing a dance. A man in western clothes performs ballet leaps

and turns and is joined by a girl in a typical who performs traditional

movements. The man gestures, "I love you”, but Kailash interrupts, scolding them for

performing cheap, unartistic dance.

2) "Jal Bin Machli": Alok Ananda dances by a pond after she has been rejected by

Kailash. She throws a goldfish from the water and imitates its movements, singing that

she feels like a fish out of water (Jal Bin Machli). She is wearing an orange sari as she

poses like a swimming fish, performs footwork on her toes, spins, and frenetically

undulates her body as if gasping for air. She returns the fish to the water at the end of the

dance when Kailash, who observes the dance, asks her to join his troupe.

3) "Mira Bai Bhajan": Alok Ananda sings a few lines of a song of Mira Bai which

show her unwillingness to give up dance and get married.

4) Alok Ananda is shown rehearsing a short, non-traditional Kavita about the waves

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coming into the store. She is dressed in a colorful, short blouse and tight leggings. She

performs small footwork and hand gestures. The angry Princess strips off her sari and

wildly dances to rock music, wearing bell bottoms.

5) “Gajara Lagake Bindiya Sajake”: The troupe goes hunting and kills a tiger. The

village is grateful and presents this dance and music program to the group. Village

women beat a huge drum with their hair braids and a male cobra appears. A group of

peacocks, led by a white peacock, enters and attacks the cobra, who dies. The women

now beat the drum with their open hair. A female cobra enters, searching for her mate.

When she realizes he is dead, she fights the white bird and kills him. The female cobra is

wounded in the battle and joins her lover in death. The movement is imitative of the

animals represented. The story o f the dance parallels the previous events of the hunt

where Alok Ananda saves Kailash’s life. In fact, Kailash discovers that the dance is

performed by Alok Ananda and his friend.

6) ‘Taro Me Sajake”: This is one of Kailash’s big concerts and the culmination of

what he considers a profound artistic concept. A giant orb appears and Alok Ananda,

representing Earth, emerges from the orb. She dances with a corps of white-clad women

who represent the stars on a revolving stage. Her aim is to reach her true love, the sun.

She approaches the Sun on a long ramp, but the sun is too hot and she falls down. The

stars laugh at and throw discs at her. Alok Ananda dances on one of the discs singing

“Jo Mai Chali,” as she is surrounded by a male corps of enemies. She performs small

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steps and turns on the disc as she approaches the sun again. As she is about to reach the

sun, the ramp collapses. The dance is a mixture of traditional steps and gestures and

western movements akin to Modem dance.

7) "Senorita": Alok Ananda has been medicated with brandy in the hospital. In her

drunken state, she imagines that the jester on the brandy bottle comes to life. She is in

western clothing as she dances with a deck of cards that has also come to life. A corps of

male dancers below shout to her. During the dance, she repels her enemies, the Princess

and her uncle. At the end of the dance, one of the queen cards, a male transvestite,

humorously steps out of his card. The dance is basically western styled, with some

Spanish movements.

8) "OhMitwa": This is another of Kailash's big concerts. Alok Ananda forces him to

let her dance by saying that she would rather die dancing than by shooting herself. She

dances with dancing bells tied around her good ankle and one crutch. A corps of men and

women dance with her as she hops on one leg. They also perform some lifts. Kathakali

dancers appear and they spin around each other. The Kathakali dancers tie her with ropes

and carry her to the god of death. She is reborn and dances without crutches as she sings,

" Jhumke Gaye Dil." They perform a celebratory folk based dance with vigorous

footwork.

Comments: This film was the dance director's debut The dance appears to be in the

tradition of Uday Shankar and Ananda Shankar in which all forms of dance are mixed. It

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is a very unusual creative effort. Alok Ananda is constantly dancing throughout the film.

Even her everyday movements are dance-related. When she meets Kailash the first time,

she covers her face with her hands and peeks through them to present herself. The

western dance of the film has a high Modem dance content.

Title: Jhanak Jhanak Paval Baie Year: 1955 Genre: Dancer Period: Modem Director/Producer: V. Shantaram Stars: Gopi Krishna, Sandhya Dance Director: Gopi Krishna

Plot Summary: This is a tale of a dancer and his gum father who are practicing for a big

dance competition in Benares. A girl, Neela, the student of a rival guru, sees Giridhar

(Gopi Krishna) dancing and realizing what “good Kathak” looks like, asks to become a

student of Giridhar’s father. He accepts her as a student. At one point the gum catches

Giridhar and Neela playfully performing “western dance” with the two servants.

Enraged, the gum throws a cane a Giridhar giving him a serious injury, but with Neela’s

care he soon recovers.

Through the course of their training, Neela and Giridhar fall in love, much to the

chagrin of Neela’s rich fiancee, who makes sure the gum is informed. The gum is angered,

and Neela leaves the house in shame. She tries to commit suicide by jumping into a river,

but is saved by an ascetic. She then becomes a wandering mendicant in imitation of Saint

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Mira Bai. Giridhar finds her, but she pretends that she does not know him which angers

him. The guru recruits another girl to replace Neela, but she is substandard.

Finally the day of the competition arrives and Giridhar out-performs his rival. In the

final portion of the competition where Giridhar is to perform with the substitute dancer,

the guru catches the girl taking a bribe to sabotage the performance from Neela's

ex-fiancee and he kicks her out Giridhar is in danger of losing his title. In the meantime,

Neela has been found by the servants dying from exposure. From her bed she hears the

distant sounds of the drums from the competition and her feet move sympathetically. She

manages to arrive at the competition in time to dance the final piece and save Giridhar's

title. She tries to leave after her mission is completed, but the guru stops her. Neela and

Giridhar are married in front of the whole audience who sing along as their ankle bells are

tied in holy matrimony.

Songs/Dances:

1) "Jhanak Jhanak Payal Baje": Title song from the beginning of the film showing

dancing feet scattering colored powder that takes the form of names in the film's opening

credits (credits are normally shown at the start of a Hindi film).

2) "Kaise Hai YehMohabbat": Neela dances to this exaggerated song the way her

first guru has taught her — badly. It is a combination of expression and pure dance.

3) Tatkar: Giridhar and his guru see Neela's display and are outraged. Giridhar

charges in and is challenged to show what "real" Kathak looks like. He performs

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incredibly rapid footwork showing-off his knowledge of “Tal” or rhythm and out­

performs even the drummer (also the rival guru) with whom he has a “Saval/Jawab” or

question/answer duel.

4) “Guru Shishya Namaskar”: After proving himself, Giridhar dances a traditional

prayer in praise of God and his guru. In this piece he shows-off his flexibility with deep

back-bends as well as his rapid turns which he takes around the room’s pillars. Neela is

in awe.

5) “Guru Vandana”: This song begins with the traditional prayer to God and guru

(different from the above mentioned prayer) as Neela performs a rite in which she is

formally accepted as a student of Giridhar’s father. This song blends into a song of the

season which shows Giridhar training Neela. The melody o f the song changes to match

each season which is also reflected by various landscape scenes. The dancers’ feet are

superimposed on the landscape scenes and the passage of time is suggested. This song

sequence reflects the importance of nature to the Indian arts.

6) “Kavita”: This is a famous Radha-Kxishna poem performed by Neela and Giridhar

beside a blue pool. Neela’s fiance has come to watch this rehearsal. Neela and Giridhar

become distracted during the dance as they begin to realize their feelings. This dance is a

metaphor for their love. It is a colorful expressive piece about Krishna teasing Radha that

ends with a pure dance sequence (Kavita is considered pure dance). Giridhar is painted

blue in imitation of Lord Krishna. The background dancers, as Radha’s friends, are also

lavishly costumed in ghagra/choli outfits.

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7) "Western Dance": The male servant shows-offhis knowledge of western culture

by whistling, singing, and dancing in "western style" (it is difficult to make out exactly

what kind of western dance this is). Neela, Giridhar, and the female servant join in the

dance and form almost a bunny-hop line. The guru discovers them and is so enraged that

he injures his son.

8) "SaiyaAjao": Neela sings to Giridhar as she comforts and feeds him during his

recovery.

9) "Nain So Nain": Giridhar’s father has left town to find costumes and bells so Neela

and Giridhar, along with the servants, go for a boat ride on the river. After they play and

imitate bird movements the song, set to a Dadra(waltz) beat, begins. We see Neela and

Giridhar dressed as mythological figures dancing in a garden with colored fountains.

They sing about their love as they form statuesque poses. They are also seen dancing as

themselves.

10) "Tumse Bole Ankiya": Neela wants to tease Giridhar while he is working on

making a painting with colored powders. She comes and messes up his work by doing

Kathak footwork on it He becomes angry, but she entices him into the woods, where she

is waiting, dressed in a peacock outfit, with a whole tribe of stilt dancers. (This stilt dance

was/is done by the Gond tribe, especially of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. They use

stilts for hunting.) Neela dances imitating the quivering movements of the peacock,

symbol of love, and performing sensuous deep backbends. Giridhar's anger is turned to

love by this display. However, he comes close to kissing her after the dance when his

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father returns and sees this.

11) "Vishwamitra": The guru angered, realizing that his two disciples have

frivolously fallen in love, unmindful of their duties to dance, forces them to perform a

dance of the story of the sage Vishwamitra to prove a point Vishwamitra was aroused

from his deep meditation by the seductive dance of a heavenly nymph who was sent by

the gods who did not want Vishwamitra to become more powerful than they. The guru

wants to draw a metaphor; his son has also been tempted out of his dedication to dance

practice. Neela wafts down a flight of cloud-covered stairs to where Giridhar sits

meditating. Wearing long golden nails, singing false promises, she flirts with the sage.

Finally his meditation is broken as he is obviously awed by the nymph. His Vishwamitra

also failing this test, the guru stops the dance, angry that life is imitating art

12) "Kyaa Kanin": Neela sings a song of desperation, "What should I do?". She is in

a flowing gown in the dance practice room reminiscing about all that has happened.

Giridhar is outside also singing. He sings that she should take the "ektara"(a one string

instrument) and emulate the saint Mira Bai. Neela is accepting responsibility for the

situation.

13) "Mira Bai Bhajan": Giridhar is shown practicing the Kavita with the new female

disciple, but he is distraught without Neela. The ringing of temple bells is heard and

Neela, dressed as Mira Bai, sings this famous Bhajan in praise of Lord Krishna. At the

height of the song the string of her instrument breaks and Giridhar appears. Neela rejects

him.

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14) "Pure Dance Competition": Giridhar vies for the title of "Nataraj" (Lord of

Dance") with his rival, played by Chaube Maharaj, who is now supported by Neela's

ex-fiancee. There are vigorous displays of Tore, Tukra, Paran, Tatkar, and Chakkar, all

accompanied by Pardhant The audience shouts cries of approval, "Wah Wah" (a form of

praise in place of clapping). Giridhar wins.

15) "Shiva Parvati Dance": This dance also reflects, through a mythological parallel,

what is happening to the film characters. Lord Shiva, Lord of Destruction and Lord of

the Dance, who created the universe through his divine dance, played by Giridhar in the

last stage of the competition, is in an angry state. The other gods fear that he will destroy

the universe if he is not stopped. His wife Parvati volunteers to go and calm his rage. The

unscrupulous dancer who has substituted for Neela has been dismissed by the guru. Neela

arrives singing a Sanskrit "sloka" (passage) as she dons her costume.

When she enters the stage, Giridhar is enraged and the world appears to be in the

throes of an earthquake-like tremor. He performs a vigorous Tandava (male) dance and

rushes at Neela with his trident, but strikes his father, who intervenes, in the arm instead.

Neela continues with her Lasya (female) dance of graceful movements. His rage is

pacified and the two dance together forming the well-known pose of Shiva and Parvati.

The other gods and their attendants join in, most notably Ganesha, their half-elephant

half-man son. This dancer is wearing an elephant mask. They all dance together in

celebration. There are elements of various folk dances, especially Manipuri and tribal

styled dances. Men dance with their drums and the ladies dance with lamps on their

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shoulders. The masculine and feminine aspects of dance are maintained. Neela balances

one lamp on her forehead and performs a backbend. She is wearing a long dress with a

stiff border that twists around her body in opposition to her movement. The drummers

are also beating the drums with lit torches. The lights go out and only the flames are

visible as the dancers continue to make various formations. The dance ends with the

dancers twirling with abandon.

16) "Jhanak Jhanak PayalBaje": This song is reprised. Neela and Giridhar have been

married, their ankle bells tied to symbolize the union. They sing and perform simple

footwork together. The whole audience sings along.

Comments: This film shows how music and dance can be successfully woven into the

plot. It is the first Technicolor film. It has been commented in So Many Cinemas: The

Motion Picture in India, by B.D. Garga, that the colors of the film are gaudy, but the

author fails to see how it differs from other Hindi films in this respect The director

wanted to bring India's classical arts to the people through film, but he was sometimes

criticized for doing this in a commercial manner. In spite of criticism, this film was very

successful with audiences. The dance in the film is definitely commercialized, but it is a

good representation of Kathak that brings a unique side of the art to the audience.

Most films dominantly show Moghul influence. Purists can complain, but this is a

creative effort to display Kathak. It cannot be shown on film as it appears on stage,

especially since the film is about the lives of the dancers. Instead of alienating the

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audience, it brings them into the dancers' world. It is doubtful that the majority of the

audience would have otherwise been exposed to such an in depth treatment of the subject

ofK athak.

Title: Khalnavak Y ear: 1993 Genre: Action/Hero Period: Modem Director/Producer: Stars: Sunjay Dutt, Madhuri Dixit, Dance Director: Saroj Khan (assisted by Usha Nagpal and Bhupender)

Plot Summary: A terrorist, Balu, played by Sanjay Dutt, is arrested. Balu has had a hard

life, full of betrayal, and is terribly misunderstood. Ram, the head police officer is intent

on finding Balu's villainous boss, an arms smuggler. When Balu escapes from prison,

Ram's reputation is threatened. In order to save her fiancee Ram's name, Ganga, a police

woman, pursues Balu by pretending to be a dancing girl. She is taken hostage by Balu

when he realizes that she is actually a police officer, but Balu has fallen in love with her.

Ganga realizes that Balu is really a good man beneath his tough exterior and keeps the

police from killing him for which she is arrested.

Ram, in the meantime, finds Balu's mother and realizes that he and Balu were boyhood

friends. Ram considers Balu's mother, who was also his school teacher, his mother.

When Balu's mother finds him, she confronts him and beats him for his bad behavior.

Balu, having realized that Ganga and Ram are engaged, escapes the police again and goes

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to the villain. He learns that the villain had killed his big sister many years before and

that he plans to kill his mother. Balu confronts the villain, but the villain is finally killed

by Ram. Balu is now the big crime boss. Balu hears about Ganga's trial and goes to the

court where he declares Ganga, who has been maligned by the press, to be pure. He

allows himself to be arrested, sacrificing his life, so that Ram and Ganga are free to marry

honorably. Ram tells Balu that he is no longer a Khalnayak (anti-hero), but a Nayak

(hero).

Songs/Dances:

1) "Khalnayak Hai Tu": A vamp, who is in love with Balu, dances with a corps of

men in front of a scull with glowing eyes. The set is designed like a temple, but it

appears that they are also dancing for the villain in a cabaret-like setting. The steps are

western-styled, but some classical dance poses and "mudras" (hand gestures) are

incorporated. The dance is interspersed with scenes of Balu being beaten in prison.

2) "Ay Sahib Yeh Theek Nahin”: This dance is performed during the wedding

celebration of Ganga's friend. It establishes the relationship between Ganga and Ram. It

is Expressional with some pure dance elements mixing folk and classical aspects. In one

part, Ganga dances in colored powder and performs pure dance sequences from Kathak.

3) "Choli Ke Piche Kyaa Hai": This bawdy dance caused much controversy because

of its suggestive lyrics. It is based on Rajasthani gypsy dance. Ganga and her friend have

disguised themselves as dancing courtesans. Strong hip and chest thrusts are combined

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with seductive expression as well as some spins and footwork. The friends dance with a

male and female corps. Ganga's costume and movement is more sophisticated than the

others in order to make her stand out Ganga is later shown singing film songs with

Balu's men in a bawdy fashion.

4) "Palki Pe Hoke Sawar": The heroine sings this song as she and Balu travel to his

hideout She sings from a cart and dances with some local tribal people.

5) "Aise Teri Yaad Ati Hai": Ram and Ganga remember each other in song.

6) "Choli Ke Piche Kyaa Hai": This is performed by Balu and his men dressed as

ladies. They are teasing Ganga and trying to make her eat They imitate the dance

movements Ganga had previously performed.

7) "Oh MaTujhe Salaam": Balu and Ram, in separate locations, wistfully recall their.

school days and Balu's loving mother. Balu is compared to Lord Krishna as a naughty

boy.

8) "AjaSajan Aja": Balu has given Ganga a statue of Lord Ram which inspires her to

sing. She dances in side her room and on the terrace as village women dance below. The

movements are mainly folk-based, but Ganga performs classical gestures symbolizing a

woman adorning herself for her lover.

9) "Oh MaTujhe Salaam": There is a reprise of this song as Balu and his mother

meet in a church where he is hiding. It is pointed out that Balu strongly resembles a

picture of Jesus.

10) "Khalnayak Hu Mai": Balu sings about himself and his hardships. The vamp

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gyrates with Arabic-style dance movements, while Balu's movements are a mixture of

folk and western steps.

Comments: This film reflects the real-life struggle of actor Sunjay Dutt which delayed

the film's release. Although the songs and dances of the film are often criticized for

vulgarity in the media, Madhuri Dixit, a trained Kathak dancer gives a polished

performance that, in the author's opinion, is not vulgar, especially when compared to

many of the western style dances popular in Hindi films. She is able to carry off the

dances in true "filmi" style. The controversy over the song "Choli Ke Piche Kyaa Hai"

led to a law suit and a debate in . However, this film was

immensely popular with audiences. "Choli Ke Pichee Kyaa Hai" remains popular. It is

performed at weddings, by Indian children at cultural programs, and by Mujra dancers at

parties. The film also parallels the epic, the Ramavana and is full of patriotic sentiment.

Title: Khuda Gawah Y ear: 1992 Genre: Action/Hero Period: Modem Director: Mukul S. Anand Producer: Manoj Desai and Nazir Ahmed Stars: Amitabh Bachchan, Sridevi Dance Directors: Saroj Khan and Chinni Prakash

Plot Summary: The film opens in . Two enemy Pathan tribes are playing a

polo-like game. The shocked hero discovers that his opponent is actually a beautiful

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woman and he loses the game. He is madly in love with this fiery woman, Benazir, but

she refuses to marry him until he brings back the head of the man who murdered her

father. The hero, Khan, travels to India to search for the killer. He finds his

man and kills him which incurs the wrath of the dead man's villainous brother, Pasha.

Badshah is arrested by a Rajput police officer. Pathans and are renowned for their

codes of honor. Both men understand their respective duties and the police officer allows

Badshah Khan to go home to fulfill his vow and marry his love, but he must return to

serve his sentence. Badshah returns home and weds Benazir. He has just enough time to

make her pregnant before returning to the jail in India. His friend, Khuda Baksh, is

responsible for her care.

Badshah and the Rajput officer become close friends. Meanwhile Badshah's daughter

is bom. She is a thoroughly westernized girl who travels to India and finds her father.

Her mother has gone crazy waiting for his return. Badshah's daughter, Mehendi, befriends

the Rajput officer's daughter, Henna, who is a policewoman (Mehendi is the Hindi word

for Henna and Henna is the word used by Muslims). Mehendi falls in love with a young

police officer with whom Henna is also in love.

Eventually Badshah's sentence has been served and he is to be freed, but Pasha and his

men show up to avenge the death of his brother. Mass mayhem ensues, but the bad guys

are finally killed and all wrongs are righted. Everyone is reunited and lives happily ever

after.

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Songs/Dances:

1) "Mai Asi Cheez": The two tribes dance while Benazir and Badshah Khan sing to

each other. She is resisting his affections. The men dance with swords and small scarfs

as an acrobat performs tricks. Folk dance movements are used with some western steps

and hip thrusts. Various circle formations are also made.

2) "Tu Mujhe Qabul": The whole wedding night is depicted with dancing and

drumming during the procession. The couple consummates the marriage. The song end

with Benazir spinning in a field and Badshah on a horse, circling her in the opposite

direction.

3) "TuNaJa Mere Badshah": Benazir sings to her husband, asking him to stay and he

replies that he will return.

4) "Rab Ko Yaad Karun": Benazir and Badshah remember each other while he is in

prison. He sings to the picture he has painted of her on his cell wall. She is pregnant and,

by the end of the song, has delivered the baby.

5) "Sab Nishaniya": Mehendi and the young police officer have fallen in love. This

song shows Mehendi's transformation from a westernized girl, to an Indianized girl. She

wears a sari and her lover adorns her with Indian ornaments. They pose like temple

statues as she learns about Indian traditions and frolic through fields of flowers. They

hold each other by a camp fire.

6) "Tu Mujhe Qabul": Mehendi sings and dances to her father, asking him to accept

her, during a birthday celebration for her and Henna. Badshah had wanted Mehendi to

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believe that he was dead and that Khuda Baksh was her real father. This dance contains a

lot of Kathak movement and expression.

7) "Tu Na Ja Mere Badshah": Benazir and Badshah Khan ride off into the distance to

the music of this song, finally reunited.

Comments: This film celebrates the best of the Subcontinent’s traditions of honor,

including the treatment of guests and the practice of adopting sisters and brothers.

Tolerance and acceptance between Hindus and Muslims is important in this film. Much

of the dance is folk-based and an attempt at recreating some Pathan dance movements is

made.

Title: Kohinoor Year: 1960 Genre: Romantic Period: Unknown(probably Moghul) Director: S.U. Sunny Producer: Dr. V.N. Sinha Stars: Dilip Kumar, Meena Kumari, Kum Kum Dance Director: Hiralal, Chiman Seth, Satyanarayan, Sitara Devi(Lucknow Gharana)

Plot Summary: The dashing Prince, son of the deceased king of Kailashnagar, now of

age, is to be coronated and mairied to the beautiful Princess Chandramukhi, from a

near-by kingdom, Rajgarh. The Prince's treacherous maternal uncle, in order to keep

control of the kingdom, attempts on several occasions to assassinate the ever-prepared

Prince. Along the way, the Prince, well-versed in classical Hindustani music, unwittingly

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gains the love o f a talented dancer, Rajlakshmi. He aids her in winning an arts

competition by accompanying her with his music. The competition ends when a cobra,

sent as an assassin, tries to bite the Prince. His pet mongoose saves him.

The Prince flees the kingdom before the coronation to escape death and, in a humorous

scene, meets the Princess by impersonating a religious ascetic. The Princess is kidnaped

by her father’s unscrupulous advisor who is madly in love with her. He wants to force her

to come to her senses and return his love. The Prince rescues her, a scene in which the

Princess repeatedly beats the bad guys over their heads with a pole, only to have her

kidnaped again. The Prince and the dancer’s servant devise a plan to rescue the Princess

by having the Prince masquerade as the great musical sage, Kohinoor Baba, and the

servant, his devotee. They convince the villain that they can win the love of the Princess

for him through the spiritually charged power of his music. The villain is fooled until the

disguise fails.

After a fight and ensuing confusion, the Prince is taken prisoner and the Princess

escapes down the river in a boat during a storm. The Princess finds her way back to her

palace, but the cruel villain kills her father in front of the court, throws her in the

dungeon, and takes control of the kingdom. The villain plans to put out the hero's eyes

with glowing hot iron rods before killing him. The dancer steps forward and offers to put

out his eyes herself as a revenge because the Prince did not return her love. She takes the

irons and the villain tells her not to leave any marks. Heat alone is sufficient She

apparently does the job.

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Believing the dancer has blinded the Prince, the Princess slaps and insults her only to

find out later that the dancer faked the ghastly deed and actually wants to help them. She

has devised a rescue plan and alerted the Prince's loyal soldiers. As part of the plan, the

Princess agrees to marry the villain. During the wedding the next day the Prince sings

and the dancer dances until the cavalry arrives. The villain is vanquished and the Prince's

uncle realizes the error of his ways. The newly victorious Prince can now wed princess

Chandramukhi. They thank the dancer who replies that she has only done her duty. The

singing Prince and Princess ride into the distance on horseback. Everyone lives happily

ever after.

Songs/Dances:

1) "Rang Lo": This is an exuberant dance in celebration of the spring festival of

colors. The participants throw colored powders and water at one another as they dance.

The whole kingdom dances as the Prince sings and wanders through the town. Men are

shown dancing with horse figurines on their waists. The Princess emulates Radha while

dancing in her courtyard with her hand maidens. One girl dancing with her is dressed as

Krishna. Their dance, as all the dances of this film, is in Kathak style.

2) "Madhuban Me Radhika": This is an exciting Kathak dance about Radha dancing

in the forest with Krishna. There are pure dance sequences, Gat, Expression, Tatkar,

Pardhant (by the musician), and Sawal/Jawab. It ends with a short Tarana. The Prince

sings and plays the sitar as Rajlakshmi dances. He performs expressional gestures such

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as hiding his face with a veil. The dancer performs many of the same gestures. AS the

dance comes to a climax, the cobra appears slithering toward the hero and on the last note

of music, the mongoose attacks it

3) “Aj Ki Rat, Taj Ki Rat”: The Prince and Princess wander through the forest in

search of each other as they sing, “on this night two stars are meeting on earth.” There is

light dance movement and expression. During the last verse, the lovers finally meet, but

the shy Princess runs home.

4) “Koi Pyar Ke Dekhe”: The lovers have escaped from the villain and are singing

about their love while riding on horseback. The music contains the sound o f trotting

horse hooves. A chorus of village girls occasionally appear, singing and gesturing.

5) A short sequence is shown where the dancer is practicing pure dance (Kathak) with

her teacher.

6) “Jadugar”: The dancer dances for the Prince, expressing her love for him. It is a

Kathak-based dance with some seductive Mujra and pure dance elements. She moves her

eyebrows up and down individually, a movement for which Kathak is known, and she

imitates the playing of the shehenai (a reed instrument). The dancer spins around the

room with abandon and even plays a row of (drums). She performs this in front of

a giant statue of Nataraj, Lord Shiva. At the end of the dance, a guard comes to her door

requesting that she come to the villain’s palace to dance, but she refuses because she

values love over money.

7) “Saiya Tore Dware Khare”:The Prince, disguised as Kohinoor Baba, sings a love

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song, with concomitant gestures, as he enters the villain's fort He sings a message to the

captive Princess, "your lover stands at your door". The princess is excited when she hears

his voice, but is disappointed upon seeing only a religious saint

8) "DilMeBajePyarKiShehnaiya": The Princess sings and dances with happiness

because her lover has arrived. She skips and performs fast, small running steps between

expressional verses. There is a folk dance feeling to the movement.

9) There is another short scene where the dancer is in practice, spinning out of

control because her heart has been broken by the Prince. Her teacher is angry and leaves.

In a symbolic gesture, she removes her ankle bells and tells God that she cannot dance.

10) "ChalengeTir JabDilPar": The lovers sit opposite one another on a round

platform as they sing this Qawwali. They perform elaborate gestures such as the shooting

of an arrow through the heart to symbolize being struck by love, as suggested by the

song's title. They mirror each other's actions and in the interlude between each verse, a

group of women dance. A the song comes to an end, the platform spins faster and faster.

11) "Yeh Kyaa Zindagi Hai": The Princess sings this sad song from the villain's

dungeon.

12) "Kal Chuki Sham-e-Gham": Rajlakshmi, accompanied by the prince, dances at

the sham wedding of the villain and Princess. She performs spins and footwork along

with quick traveling steps as she moves around the hall. Also included are slight

shoulder movements and jumps, as well as some sliding movements on the floor. She

appears nervous because of the impending rescue effort.

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13) “Koi Pyar Ke Dekhe” (reprise): The lovers trot off into the distance singing this

song.

Comments: Dilip Kumar does a commendable job mouthing the complicated dance

bolls and Sargam, as well as the complex fingering of the sitar. For this he won an

award. He must also be commended for his dignity and convincing acting while dancing.

His expressions are as good as any trained dancer.

This film is full of comedy. Dilip Kumar imitates the way that Hindu priests spout off

Sanskrit verses using nonsense words parodying the fact that most people do not

understand Sanskrit and are easily duped by dishonest priests’ double talk. There is

frequent use of mirrors and mirror imagery throughout the film, especially in comic

scenes.

A memorable and telling line form the film is “I’m not mean, I’m a dancer,” recited by

the dancer to the Princess, who believes she has blinded the Prince. She is played by the

actress Kum Kum. The exact time period is unknown, but judging by the language used

in the film, it probably occurred during the Moghul period, although the courts and

characters shown in the film are Hindu. It is interesting to note that in many films, the

maternal uncle plays a villainous role. This originates from mythology.

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Title: Laawaris Y ear: 1981 Genre: Action/Hero Period: Modem Director/Producer: Stars: Amitabh Bachchan, Zeenat Aman, Rakhi Dance Director: Unknown

Plot Summary: A rich man refuses to marry his singer girlfriend when she becomes

pregnant She delivers a baby boy and dies. Her brother's friend and wife, with whom

she was living, give the baby to a poor drunk to raise. The man cannot control his

alcoholic rages and mistreats the boy. As the boy grows, he works at various odd jobs.

He works for the family that gave him to the drunk man. The young daughter of the

family and her school master are impressed with the boy’s, Hira’s, intelligence. He speaks

many Indian languages. They give him a study book, but her father objects and Hira

quits.

When Hira is grown, he finds out that the drunk is not his father. He angrily declares

himself an orphan (laawaris) and goes to Kashmir to work for Vera, a rich acquaintance

and his father. The father has a special, inexplicable feeling for Hira. The father is

known for helping underprivileged people, especially orphans. Hira's mission in life is

also to help the poor and fight injustice. Hira meets a spoiled rich girl, Mohini, and after

he makes her repent for her selfish behavior, they fall in love. Veru becomes increasingly

villainous and jealous of Hira. Vera tries to rape a village girl. Her brother retaliates and

loses his arms in a fight with Vera's men. Hira helps them recover, but Vera returns for

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revenge. He and his men beat the brother and rape the girl. The brother and girl kill

themselves, but Hira is framed for the brother's murder. He is acquitted, and Veru's men

attack him.

Hira and Mohini realize that they knew each other in childhood when Hira worked for

their family. Her father is Veru and his father's lawyer. Eventually the truth comes out

that Veru's father is also Hira's father (they are half-brothers). After Veru is disowned, he

and the lawyer try to kill Hira and his father, they are arrested. Vem's girlfriend tells

everyone that she is pregnant with his child and that he has refused to accept

responsibility. Veru's father says that he will be responsible for the child and publicly

announces that Hira is his son.

Songs/Dances:

1) "Mere Angane Me": Vidhya Bai, played by Rakhi, sings this song at her lovers

birthday party. The song describes the various types of women a man can marry.

2) "Jiska Koi Naheen Usiko": This song is echoed throughout the film. A Fakir (poor

Muslim mendicant) wanders around singing to people who have no one to remember

God.

2) "Mere Angane Me": Hira hears this song on the radio and dances.

3) "Aapne To Jaise Paise": The hero sings to Veru about his(Veru's) love of money

while a vamp dances in a cabaret This is a typical cabaret scene. The hero dances with a

tambourine and the vamp performs a mixture of Arabic style and Mujra steps. The hero's

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movements are folk-based or slightly western.

4) "Kahe Paise Pe”: Hira sings to Mohini about her selfishness and love of money.

Hira dances with children in a circle, and chases Mohini through the town.

5) "Kab Ke Bichere": Hira and Mohini sing this love song while they frolic through

the fields. They observe a village wedding procession and Hira mimes the lifting of

Mohini's imaginary veil.

6) "Jiska Koi Naheen Usiko": The hero sings about a phrase he once heard a Fakir

(Muslim mendicant) say in order to comfort the village potter and his sister after he has

lost his arms.

7) "Mere Angane Me": The hero, dressed in various feminine guises, dances at his

half-sister's birthday party. He describes the many uses each type of woman has.

Comments: Hira is typical of what is called the "angry young man" character played by

the actor Amitabh Bachchan.

Title: Lekin Year: 1990 Genre: Romantic Period: Modem (with flashbacks to feudal Rajisthan) Director/Producer: Stars: , , Hema Malini Dance Director: Roshan Kumari(Jaipur Gharana)

Plot Summary: This is the story of a man, Samir, who travels to Rajasthan as curator for

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a government museum and encounters, to the great concern of his friends residing there,

the ghost of a village woman who constantly relives her tragic life at the hands of a cruel

king. Samir, who eventually believes he is a reincarnated character from the ghost's life,

realizes that he must be the one to release the ghost from this cycle even if it means

risking his own life. The ghost transports Samir to the past and explains how she, Rewa,

her elder sister, and their music and dance teacher (ustad) were held captive and tortured

by the maniacal king. When they attempted escape across the desert to their native

village during a severe sandstorm, Rewa died. The sister and ustad survived. It is Samir's

unfulfilled duty from his past life to lead Rewa's spirit across the desert to her home,

which he finally does after facing numerous dangers so that Rewa’s spirit can rest in

peace.

Songs/Dances:

1) "Bhaveri BoleNa": Opening song that sets the scene in picturesque Rajasthan.

2) "Yara Sili Sili": Rewa sings this haunting melody which sets a mysterious and

melancholy tone.

3) "Mai Ek Sadisi Beti Hu”: Another romantic melody sung by the ghost reliving her

past.

4) "Jhute Naina Bole": This Thumri is the only dance of the film. It is set in the court

of the cruel king. Hema Malini, accompanied by the ustad and her sister, dances for the

king. This is an expressional Kathak dance with some pure dance sequences. It is ended

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with a subdued Tarana.

5) "Allah": This is sung by the ustad and Rewa while imprisoned in the king's

dungeon.

6) "Duniya": This is also sung by the two captives.

7) "Surma-e-Sham": This is sung by the hero reflecting on the plight of his ghost

friend.

Comments: This film's music and dance are evocative of feudal Rajasthan, although an

exact year is not discemable. (Since the ghost's sister and ustad are alive in the modem

portion of the film, the time period cannot be very far back.) There are also depictions of

local gypsies and their customs. The dance in the film is truly classical Kathak and Hema

Malini, a trained dancer, is able to execute the nuances. Moon Moon Sen, who was

recently interviewed by the author, plays a side role.

Title: Mahal Year: 1949 Genre: Romantic Period: Modem Director/Producer: Amrohi Stars: Madhubala, Dance Director: Lacchu Maharaj (Lucknow Gharana)

Plot Summary: Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen most effectively sum up this

complicated plot in the Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema: "Amrohi's debut is now

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considered a Hindi classic. It is a complicated ghost story psychodrama choreographed

by and featuring hero Shankar (A. Kumar), who moves into an

abandoned mansion that has a tragic history. He notices his resemblance to a portrait of

the mansion’s former owner and sees a ghost of the man’s mistress Kamini (Madhubala),

who tells him he must either die if they are to be united or that he must marry her

reincarnation, the gardener’s daughter, Asha. His friend Shrinath tries to break the

obsession by arranging Shankar’s marriage to Ranjana [his sister]. However, Shankar’s

obsession continues to the distress of his new bride, who is expected, among other things,

to live in a snake-and-bat-infested hut Ranjana commits suicide, accusing Shankar of the

deed, but the truth comes out in the courtroom drama when the gardener’s daughter

admits to having masqueraded as the ghost. Shankar is nevertheless condemned to death

for Ranjana’s murder, but in a strange reversal of fortunes, transfers his obsession to

Asha: Instead of being fascinated by a dead woman, he is now the near-ghost fascinated

by the living Asha.” Kumar dies of shock, after begin pardoned at the last moment,

when he discovers that Asha, keeping her vow to Shankar to marry another after his

death, has married Shrinath.

Songs/Dances:

1) “Ayega Anevala”: The ghost sings as Shankar searches the house. She is on a

or boat in the mist, peeking from under her veil.

2) “Rat Phir Na Ayengi”: A seductive Kathak dance performed by courtesans

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who try to delay Shankar. There is Gat and expression. An unusual element in the dance

is the physical contact between the lead dancer and the hero. She moves close to him and

touches his face several times.

3) "Mushkil Hai Bahut": Song sung by Madhubala pining for the hero.

4) "BewafaNaTo Piya": Another song from the heroine longing for the hero.

5) "Mai Vo DulhanHu”: Sad song sung by Ranjana as she adorns herself.

6) "Tribal Dance": Ranjana and Shankar watch some tribals perform a ritual to

find out if a wife in the tribe has been unfaithful to her husband. Although meant to be a

tribal dance, there are obvious Kathak elements in the hand movements, spins, and other

footwork.

7) "Takarae To Accha Ho": Another sad song from Ranjana longing for death to

end her suffering.

8) "Hai Mera Dil": Sad song from the heroine.

Comments: The author was not able to verify the name of the lead dancing courtesan.

Title: Mnghul-e-A?am Y ear: 1960 Genre: Historical/Courtesan Period: Moghul Director/Producer: K. Asif Stars: Pritviraj, Madhubhala, Dilip Kumar Dance Director: Lacchu Maharaj(Lucknow Gharana)(assisted by Rama Devi and Laxmi) Guest Artist: Dancer, Gopi Krishna(Lucknow Gharana)

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Plot Summary: The outline of the subcontinent of India rises above Moghul city and

India speaks. India says that in its long history there was one man who truly loved “me,”

Emperor Akbar. The viewer is taken back three hundred years to the palace of Akbar, the

Emperor o f all Hindustan, where he is praying for a son since he is becoming old and

needs a successor to the throne. His priests are Hindu and . His queen, Jodha,

announces her pregnancy and the palace rejoices with song and dance. Girls and eunuchs

hold hands and spin each other around in joy. The reaction is even more joyous when the

queen delivers a son. A woman working in the palace comes to the king to be the first to

tell him the good news. He shows his happiness and generosity by granting her a boon

for anything she wants at any time of her life.

The Prince, Salim, grows to be a spoiled child, ordering his servants around,

drinking and watching entertainments all day long. His father, realizing the problem,

sends Salim to the battlefield to mature and become a worthy successor to the Empire.

After many years and many victories on the battlefield, Akbar is pleased with his son’s

heroic accomplishments and sends for his return to the palace. Preparations for Salim’s

return begin. His mother, ecstatic at the news, orders dancers to rehearse for a beautiful

performance that will erase the sight of battle from the prince’s eyes and the musicians,

the sound of battle form his ears. His mother, a Hindu, prays to Krishna and says that she

hopes she does not forget God when Salim returns.

Bahar, the Queen’s servant, goes to the court sculptor and challenges him to make

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a statue so beautiful that even a warrior would lay down his sword. She later fantasizes

about becoming the future queen of India and hopes Salim will fall in love with her.

A grown Prince Salim returns. Flower petals and jewels are strewn everywhere.

Jewels are handed out to those who congratulate the King and Queen. The palace

maidens are seen again holding hands and spinning.

There is singing in the background as Bahar takes the Prince to a veiled statue

made in his honor. Bahar tempts him to test the sculptor's claim about the statue's beauty,

but he is told that the astrologer said it was a bad omen to see the statue before its formal

unveiling the next day. He peeks anyway and agrees with the sculptor. At the unveiling,

Bahar, realizing the statue is actually a beautiful girl painted white and posing as a

sculpture, is jealous. She tells the prince it is customary to shoot the veil off with an

arrow, which Salim does with ease. The unflinching statue is revealed. The court is

impressed with the statue's beauty, then she moves and they realize she is human. The

Emperor gives her a place among the palace maids, renames her Anarkali from Nadira,

and tells her she will perform in the celebration of Krishna's birthday (Janmashtami) as

Radha, Krishna's famous lover.

During the dance and song performance, Salim falls even more deeply in love

with Anarkali. The performers are rewarded handsomely. Later Anar kali's (A.) sister

tells her that everyone knows Salim loves A. and that she will be the future queen of

India. A. responds that this is impossible because of her low birth. Her sister tells her that

kings are sent from God, but queens come from earth (anywhere). A.'s sister helps the

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two exchange notes. A. tells Salim that he is royal and she is humble.

Bahar invites A. to a song competition that night The Prince is to be the judge.

A. is naturally the more sincere performer. Later A. and Salim meet to the strains of

beautiful music in his garden. He proposes to her not realizing that Bahar is spying on

them. Bahar tells the Emperor of this and Akbar throws A. into the dungeon wrapped in

chains where she sings to console herself. Salim threatens to kill his father if A. is not

released. The Emperor calls A. and tells her that if she tells Salim she never loved him,

but only wanted to be queen, she will be freed. She does this, but with an ulterior motive.

Bahar tells Salim who feels betrayed by A. that A. will also dance that night to celebrate

her release. Salim tells A. that she is a shameful stain that has bloodied his garment.

The film is now in color as the Emperor and his family enter the court to view the

entertainment. A. dances and sings to a song that boldly reveals her true feeling of love

for Salim. Having defied the king and called him a pig, he sends her to the dungeon

again. The Emperor tells Salim that A. is unworthy of him. He loves his son, but his

duty is to India.

The film reverts to black and white. A repentant Bahar begs for forgiveness by

giving Salim the key to A.'s prison. Akbar plans to marry A. with the sculptor, but

sculptor refuses and informs Salim who then decides to battle his father. The sculptor

remarks that there is no difference between an emperor’s tyranny and justice. The Queen

is tom.

A. sings again, in chains, before being rescued and taken to Salim's camp. Akbar

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tries once again before the battle to convince Salim of his duty and fails. They battle each

other with full armies and Salim loses his sword, but his father is unable to kill him.

Akbar charges Salim with being a traitor and says he will not execute him if he hands

over A. for execution instead. Salim refuses and is prepared to die for love. The sculptor

sings an ode to love as the canon is pointed at Salim. Akbar lights the canon, but his

chief aide and brother-in-law, Mansingh, who sees A. coming into the arena, diverts it in

time. A. rushes in and collapses upon hearing the cannon fire, not realizing that Salim

was not hit Akbar's guards take A. When she recovers the king informs her that she will

be executed. A wall of bricks will be built around her. Her last wish, however, is to be

Queen for a day. Akbar accuses A. of wanting to be Queen all along, but she explains

that her true reason is to allow Salim to honor his promise to make her the Queen of

India A. does not want the future Emperor’s reputation to be spoiled by a lowly maid

because he did not keep his promise to her. The Emperor agrees, but at the end of the

day, she must make Salim smell a special drugged rose that will put him to sleep.

Color film is used again. A. is crowned and the celebration dance begins. Bahar

sings for them and another dancer appears spinning. Salim now drugged, sees the

spinning dancer reflected in the cut glass around the room and breaks the glass. He tells

A. that she has betrayed their love and the guards enter to take her as Salim passes out

Back to black and white. A. prepares to die, singing while she removes the royal

jewels when her mother rushes in and reminds the king that he had promised her a boon

many years ago that she now wants to use to save her daughter's life. Akbar tries to tell

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A.'s mother that he does not remember, but she reminds him that God will judge him and

he finally agrees to release A. on the condition that she leaves the city. They put her in a

wall so Salim will believe her dead and sneak A. through a tunnel and out of the city.

Before leaving, Akbar tells her that she is the ultimate symbol of love, but that he puts

duty and country above love and asks her forgiveness.

India again appears above the horizon and says that it, India, is the living symbol

of Akbar's justice, Moghul-e-Azam (Justice o f the Moghul).

Songs/Dances:

1) "Mohe Panghat Pe": A Krishna Lila with the maids dancing in the background

as Radha sings about how Krishna teases her by grabbing her wrist, etc. It is performed

in the court, in front of the fountains. The dancers are wearing elaborate ghagra-cholis.

The dance is mostly expressional and serves to heighten Salim's love as he is captivated

by her many charms. Jewels are thrown to the dancers at the end of the dance and Salim

gives A. a valuable necklace.

2) "HamBhi Dekhenge": Qawwali. The two groups sit opposite one another

singing and performing elaborate gestures. Both groups wearing the Moghul dress,

Bahar's with feathered topi (cap).

3) "Thumri": A court musician sings and plays this song as A. and Salim have a

romantic meeting by the reflecting pool.

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4) "Mohabat Ke Jhuti": A. sings about love's difficulties while chained in the

dungeon.

5) "Jab Pyar Kiya To Dama Kyaa": A. performs a Kathak dance including pure

dance and expression. Defying the Emperor, she openly expresses her love for Salim.

The song is reprised as A. salutes the Emperor in a formal fashion and is led out by the

guards.

6) "KaramKijiye": A. sings of her love and its pain from a dark dungeon.

7) "Zindabad": Song in praise of love sung by the sculptor before the execution

o f Salim . The crowd gathered at the site raises their hands to God as they sing the chorus

and march toward the steps of the platform where Salim is stoicly awaiting death.

8) "Jab Rat Hai Aisi Matvali": Bahar sings for A. and Salim as dancers in

multicolored costumes dance. An overhead shot shows them spinning as Gopi Krishna

enters wildlyspinning and performing pure dance.

9) "KhudaNeKi": A. removes her jewelry and is led by guards from the court

The song appears to be a part of her thoughts because she is not singing.

Comments: This reflects the real life romance of the lead stars and took nine

years to make. It is also one of the three all time box office earners. All of the dance is

Kathak-based. The characters in this film are considerably stronger than the characters of

the film Anarkali. especially Prince Salim.

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T itle: M other India Year: 1957 Genre: Social/Political Period: Modem Director/Producer: Stars: Nargis, Sunil Dutt, , Kum Kum Dance Director: Chiman Seth Dances by: Mazgaon Mitra Mandal, Sanskar Stri Mandal, Sorthi Ghedhia Gnati Garbi Mandal Guest Artist: Sitara Devi (Lucknow Gharana)

Plot Summary: This epic story opens with an old woman, “mother of the village,”

helping to inaugurate a dam. As a garland is put around her head, she begins

remembering the past, and the viewer is transported back in time to when she was a

young bride with a loving husband and supportive mother-in-law. Scenes of village life

are depicted. The couple farms and has children. The greedy village landlord/ money

lender, Sukhilala, constantly cheats the family and has a conflict with the mother-in-law.

Radha’s (the heroine’s) husband loses both arms in a fanning accident. He is taunted by

the landlord and feels useless. He runs away and Radha searches for him, but he is never

found. Her mother-in-law dies, and she is left to raise her family alone.

Floods and famine hit the village. Radha convinces the village people to stay in

their motherland. The situation worsens. Radha and her remaining two sons, Biiju and

Ramu, are starving to death. The landlord tries to take sexual advantage of Radha. Many

years pass, and the family has persevered. Ramu, the dutiful son, and Biiju, the rebel who

loves teasing the village girls, are grown. Ramu marries a pretty girl who goes though

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Biiju harbors a deep hate for Sukhilala and particularly resents the fact that, in

desperation, his mother once had to sell her gold wedding jewelry to the landlord. He

plots revenge and the retrieval of her gold bangles. He acquires a rifle which his mother

and brother take from him. Biiju has a fight with Sukhilala and is run out of town.

He becomes the leader of a band of outlaws and returns for revenge on the

wedding day of Sukhilala's daughter. He raids the wedding, kills Sukhilala, takes the

gold bangles back, and tries to rape Roopa (Sukhilala's daughter). Before Biiju can

escape with her, his mother stops him and tells him that she will kill him if he does not

free Roopa. He replies that since she is his mother, she cannot kill him. She tells him that

Roopa is not just Sukhilala's daughter, she is the village's daughter and the honor of a

village girl is the honor of the whole village. For that she is willing to sacrifice a son.

Biiju tries to leave with Roopa and his mother shoots him in the back with his rifle.

As Biiju dies, he turns toward his mother and shows her the gold bangles. The

viewer is brought back to the present as Radha, the old woman, is humbly inaugurating

the dam.

Songs/Dances:

1) "Dulhaniya Chali": This wedding song shows Radha being married and

transported to her new home.

2) "Are Pagal": The couple toils in the fields as they sing and dance. The

movement is simple and folk-based. By the end of the song, Radha is pregnant

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3) "Umariya Kat Ki Jay ire": There are more scenes of hard work in the fields as

the couple harvests the crops, Radha with a child on her back. The seasons pass and the

couple has three children by the end of the song.

4) "Nagari Nagari Dware Dware": Radha searches for her husband far and wide

as she sings.

5) "Duniya Me": Radha works in the flood ravaged field with her two young

sons as she sings this fateful song.

6) "Oh Janevalo Jao": Radha sings to the fleeing villagers that they should stay,

that their mother (earth) is begging them not to desert her.

7) "DukhBhareDin": Radha and her grown sons sing that the bad days have

finally passed. The village also sings as their dancing bodies form the shape of India.

8) "Ghunghat Naheen Kholungi”: Ramu's girlfriend sings and dances while they

run through the fields, flirting. She performs Kathak spins and expressions, especially

manipulatingthe veil. The lovers' forms are dramatically silhouetted during the last

portion of the song.

9) "Na Mai Bhagvan Hu": Biiju sings and dances while he gambles, teases

village girls, among other activities. He sings that he is not a god and not a devil, just a

human being.

10) "Garivale Gari": The women and men playfully race carts during Ramu's

wedding procession.

11) "HoliAyire": Sitara Devi dances with a male partner in Kathak style with

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the same motions that Radha once went through as a young bahu (daughter -in-law),

some folk movements added during the spring festival. Ramu’s wife also dances. They

perform both pure dance and expression.

12) “Oh Mere Lai Aja”: Radha chases Birju through the forest with outstretched arms

singing to him to return.

Comments: The dance of this film is largely folk-based because it takes place in and

reflects village life, but all of the dances contain some expression. Sitara Devi’s dance

and Ramu’s wife (played by Kum Kum) perform the majority of the Kathak-based

dances. The dance groups above under “Dances by,” are listed as such in the film’s

credits and are probably folk dance groups who were employed in the film. This is one of

the most important Indian films. The nationalistic social and political overtones are

obvious.

Title: Nagin Year: 1954 Genre: Romantic Period: Modem Director: Nandlal Jashwantlal Producer: S. Mukeiji Stars: Vyjayanthimala, Pradeep Kumar Dance Directors: Sachin Shanker, Hiralal, Yogen Desai, Surya Kumar

Plot Summary: A musical, with some political overtones, part Romeo

and Juliet, part Orpheus and Euridice, about two lovers from warring tribes of

professional snake charmers/catchers who sell venom. Mala, the daughter of the Nagi

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man(the villain) of her father's choice. The villain greedily sells Mala into a disreputable

life of performing in the theatre, but she escapes with her lover. A snake is sent to kill

Sanasen, but bites Mala. Sanasen, whose love is pure, saves her by praying to the gods

and calling the same serpent to return with his magical "been" (snake charming flute-like

instrument) playing to suck the venom back out of her body. She returns to life and the

lovers marry.

Songs/Dances:

1) The opening scene shows the chanting and drumming of the tribals to set the

atmosphere of the film.

2) "Man Dole Mera Tan Dole": This is the most famous song/dance of the film.

Mala is hypnotized like a cobra by the beautiful been playing of Sanasen, whom she has

vowed to kill. She dances with snake-like movements and expressive gestures.

3) "Sunire Sakhi": Mala dances with her friends, describing her love for Sanasen

and her desire to marry him.

4) "Jadugar Saiya": Mala flirts and dances with Sanasen in this romantic song

about their love.

5) "ChorDe": The lovers are at the Spring Fair and perform a dance in the

traveling theatre as impostors. The real dancers are no where to be found. It is a fanciful,

Hindi film version of a Siamese-style dance.

6) "Teri Dwar KharaEk Jogi": Sanasen has disguised himself as an ascetic to be

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with Mala. She bathes in a stream as he sings this sensual song to her.

7) "Yaad Rakhna": Sanasen is disguised as a bangle seller and enters Mala's

quarters to sing and dance with her about the joys of wearing bangles, a sign of

impending marriage.

8) "MeraDil YehPukare Aja": Mala has been tied up by her father and sings

this sad song, longing to be united with her lover, as she is being transported to her

wedding. She escapes, running across hill and dale to find him on the last beat of the

music.

9) "Oh Zindagi Ke Denewale": This starts as a tribal, Shaman dance to save

Mala who has been bitten by a cobra. There are heavy drum beats and chanting, but

Sanasen's voice fades in as he sings to the gods to help him save his lover’s life.

10) "SunRasiya": This is the first song in a suite of dances leading to the happy

conclusion and the only part of the film in color. This grand finale is on the scale of the

fantasy sequence of American In with fantastic settings and costumes. Sanasen sees

through the eyes of Mala as she searches for him in the heavens and the underworld.

First Mala, in Cleopatra-like garb and heavenly harem setting, sings to her lover. She

wanders outside and sees him in the stark rock-strewn landscape with a god-like halo,

surrounded by "Apsaras" (heavenly angels) who dance before him. Calling to him she

sings the song "Aja Ajao" as he becomes obscured by clouds. Next, Mala dances wildly

in front of a huge skull as she is assailed by masked homed demons with large manes and

zebra stripped unitards. This is reminiscent of mythological dance/drama.

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chief and Sanasen, the son of the Ragi chief, fall in love although she is betrothed to a

She then appears on a cliff, looking up at a god, costumed as a Kathakali dancer,

who tells her that she must go through the test o f fire to be united with her lover (this

recalls the episode of the Ramavana. where Sita goest through the same test to prove her

purity for Lord Rama). Back in tribal garb and setting she willingly submits to the test as

she sings ‘Teri Yaad Me Jalkar.” She describes how the moth knows it will be reduced

to ashes, but is still compelled to enter the flames, as she stands in the fire. Passing

through the fire. She is joyously reunited with her lover. They sing and dance “Chorki

Chorki” to the strains of the Shehnai (traditional reed wedding instrument). In modified

Manipuri costumes, they dance Rasa Lila with a giant crescent moon in the background

and pass through a garden of giant flowers.

Comments: The dance in this film is Kathak-based, although it is used in a non-Kathak

environment. The tribal dances are laced with North Indian folk movements and Kathak

expression and movement. The normally stiff Manipuri costumes are modified with

flowing skirts to accentuate the flowing spins o f Kathak. The film showcases the dance

talents of Vyjayanthimala.

A humorous chase scene in the film shows the tribals, unfamiliar with modem

technology, urging the cars to go faster, as if they were horses.

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Title: Paksgzah Year: 1971 Genre: Courtesan (Dancing girl) Period: ca. 1800 - 1900 Director/Producer: Stars: Meena Kumari, Ashok Kumar, Raaj Kumar Dance Directors: Gauri Shanker, Lachhu Maharaj (Lucknow Gharana)

Plot Summary: The romantic story of a Kathak dancer who suffers humiliation at the

hands of her oppressive society. Nargis, a Muslim dancing girl, is rejected by her lovers’

the Nawab’s, family because of her unworthy occupation. She runs away and gives birth

to Nawab’s baby, a girl, as she dies in an old graveyard. The daughter, cared for by her

aunt, grows up to be a dancing girl, well-known for her beauty and charm, who falls in

love with her father’s nephew by chance. She is also rejected by his family., who is

unaware of her true identity. He becomes engaged to another more suitable girl and

requests “Pakeezah” to dance at his wedding. She ends her performance by dancing on a

broken chandelier after which, near death and at the death bed of her father, all truths

revealed, she is allowed to marry her beloved.

Songs/Dances:

1) “Tarana”: A traditional Kathak number and opening dance of this film, which

introduces the mother, Nargis, as a tragic dancing girl.

2) “Inhi Logone”: Mujra: A flirtatious dance with a lot of traditional Kathak

movements. There are also Persian and Arabic influences (snake-like movements of the

arms and hands held together with palms above the head). This dance establishes the

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daughter as a well-known dancing girl.

3) "Tarhe Rahi Ho": Thumri: Expressive piece showing "solah sringar," the

sixteen ways a woman adorns herself. The Prince of Panipat shows his jealousy of

"Pakeezah" by threatening another man in the gathering with a shot of his gun.

4) "Chalte Chalte": An expressive dance using Kathak movement showing the

heroine longing for her lover.

5) "Mausam Hai Ashiqana": A love song that furthers the love theme between

Pakeezah and hero.

6) "Chalo Dildar Chalo": Another love song that expresses the hero and heroine's

feelings for each other.

7) "Tir Nazar Dekhenge": This is danced at her lover’s wedding. The lyrics have

a double meaning. Pakeezah entertains the wedding guests while telling her lover of her

bitterness. It is remarkable because she dances on broken glass. It is aturning point in

the movie when everybody's past returns to haunt them. Pakeezah's white dress and the

white sheeted stage are symbolic of her innocence and contrast with the red blood.

8) "Nazare Apke Mare," "Giri Gaye Re," "More Saiya": Are three Thumris used

as background music in the film for mood.

Comments: All dance in the film is Kathak-based. There is pure dance, but emphasis is

placed on expression. Meena Kumari was not primarily a dancer so a stand in was used

for difficult passages. This is one of the best examples of a Courtesan (Dancing Girl)

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film, a commercial film now considered a classic which was a legend in its time, rumored

to have taken some twenty years to make. It probably takes place some years after the

reign of the Great Moghuls judging by the existence of train travel.

Title: Ram Ten Ganga Maili Year: 1985 Genre: Romantic Period: Modem Director: Raj Kapoor Producer: Stars: Mandakini, Dance Director: Suresh Bhatt

Plot Summary: The film begins with a debate between two Calcutta politicians who

claim they will clean up the Ganga (Ganges) river. The son of the honest politician tries .

to assassinate the bad politician. A rich industrialist, who wants the politician in his

control so that his factory’s production will not be disrupted by anti-pollution measures,

bails the son out ofjail and tries to bribe the politician. The politician refuses and

consequently the dishonest politician wins the election with the industrialist's help.

The industrialist's son, Narain, and the dishonest politician's daughter, Radha, are

paired for marriage, but Narain is not interested in Radha. Narain and his school friends

get a grant from the politician to go to Gangotri, the source of the holy river Ganga, for a

pollution study. Once in Gangotri, Narain falls in love with a mountain girl, Ganga.

They marry with the approval of her brother, but her other relatives who want her to

marry a mountain man, object. The relatives attempt to raid the house where the couple

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is consummating their marriage, but Ganga's brother defends the house. He dies in the

process.

Narain returns home, but tells Ganga that he will return. Narain's grandmother has

misunderstood a letter he sent to her and arranges his marriage to Radha. When his

grandmother, learns the truth, she falls ill. Before dying she gives him her blessing.

Narain tries to return to Ganga, but his parents and the politician call the police who find

him and detain him. His parents lock him up until his marriage to Radha can take place.

His parents know that the politician will destroy their family if the wedding does not take

place. Meanwhile, Ganga delivers a baby boy. Narain begs his uncle, who is looked

down upon by the family for consorting with a courtesan, to retrieve Ganga. Facing the

shame of being deserted, Ganga meanwhile, decides to travel to Calcutta with her child to

find her husband. The uncle searches for Ganga, but cannot find her. He tells Narain, at

the request of Narain's mother, that she has probably died.

During Ganga's journey, she becomes lost and is tricked by some unscrupulous

people. A man, feigning blindness, hears her singing a lullaby to her son on a train and

takes her to a high-class brothel. The brothel owners have sympathy for Ganga because

of her singing talent and promise not to exploit her. They train her in music and dance.

However, they finally sell her to the politician who brings her to Calcutta. When the

politician and father realize who Ganga is, they try to send her away, but the uncle

arranges for her to perform at the wedding so that the truth will come out in public. She

sings and dances at the wedding revealing her situation during the celebration. Narain

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defies his parents and violence erupts. The couple manages to escape with the aid of

Radha. He leaves his family and returns with Ganga to the mountains.

Songs/Dances:

1) "Ram Teri Ganga Maili": This song is played for the opening of the film.

Scenes of the river and its natural beauty are contrasted with images of its pollution in

urban areas. Shots of half-burnt bodies floating on the water are particularly shocking.

2) "Ganga Lene Aye Hai": Narain sings this short verse as he dances to the river

to collect water for his grandmother and Ganga appears, saving him from falling off a

cliff.

3) "TujheBulaye YehMeriBahen": This erotic song caused some controversy.

Ganga sings and bathes under a waterfall, clad in a white, see-through sari, while Narain

observes the scene. The scene suggests that mountain girls do not have the same

inhibitions as city women.

4) "Husn Paharon Ka": The lovers sing this duet as Ganga takes Narain to collect

holy water for his grandmother. She explains the nature of the area and the philosophy of

mountain people. In one line she says that mountain people believe that foreigners

(non-mountain people, referring to city people) are dishonest

5) "Sim Sahiba Sim”: Ganga and her friends dance while choosing their

husbands, as is the tradition among mountain people. The dance has expression and small

lilting steps with some hip movement

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6) “Husn Paharon Ka”: A short reprise of the song is heard as Narain leaves to

Calcutta.

7) “Mai Hi Mai Hu”: The pregnant Ganga imagines Narain singing to her while he is

gone. The hero sings, “I am me and there is no one else like me.”

8) “Yaara Oh Yaara”: Narain sings, remembering his wife, while locked up by a

police officer. She is also shown remembering him.

9) Some girls are singing a Thumri and practicing Kathak as Ganga arrives in the

brothel.

10) “Ek Dukhiyari Kahe” (“Ram Teri Ganga Maili”): Ganga has become a courtesan

and performs this song for the corrupt businessmen and politicians who have cruelly

attempted to humiliate her. Scenes of people praying at the river, washing away their

sins, and setting lighted lamps on the water are shown. Ganga, elegantly dressed,

performs explanatory gestures while two girls perform ornamental pure dance in the

background. She says that the river, Ganga, cannot tolerate the amount of sin being

washed off into its waters. This is a parallel for her own situation.

11) “Ek Radha, Ek Mira”: Ganga performs this dance at the wedding of Radha and

Narain. It is expressional with light pure dance elements. Through this song Ganga

explains her situation and gains the support of Radha.

Comments: The dance of this film is Kathak-based. The choreography is simple

compared to that of some other films, but clear and well-executed. Mythology is

constantly and effectively used to point up the hypocrisies of Indian society.

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Title: Raaa Sultana Year: 1961 Genre: Historical (Semi-Historical) Period: 1200s Director: Devendra Producer: Chandrakant Chadda Stars: , Jairaj Dance Director: Satyanarayan

Plot Summary: A romanticized tale o f the Muslim queen of Delhi, Razia Sultana.

Young Razia, a Tom-boy who loves hunting, is in love with Altunia, a neighboring

prince, but her philandering power-hungry brother, Semab, disapproves of the

relationship as it potentially threatens his power. Meanwhile, a noble-hearted slave of the

court, Yakut, who has fallen in love with Razia, dedicates his life to her, although he

cannot ever marry her (Razia's father was, in fact, from a dynasty of slave kings). Razia's

father, Altamash, tries to kill his treacherous son for the rape and death of a village girl

and chases him out of the city.

During the chase the King is badly injured. Before the king dies, he gives the

throne to Razia who then rules as queen with the aid of the slave, despite the objections of

the men of the court. Razia's evil brother returns to eliminate his foes, foremost Altunia.

He is willing to eliminate Razia as well if necessary. The assassination attempt is foiled

by both the slave, who dies to save them, and Razia's other good-hearted (and it is

implied, gay or transvestite) brother, Firoze. The evil brother is vanquished and they live

happily ever after.

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Songs/Dances:

1) " Yeh Zindagi Kyaa Hai": Scenes of Mecca are shown during the opening song

to set the mood o f the film.

2) A short scene shows Razia's brother, Firoze, dancing Kathak, dressed as a

woman, for which he is scolded by his father.

3) "ChaliJati": A folk-based dance performed for Razia and Altunia by some

village girls. The dance contains some Gat and spinning as the girls make simple

formations. The song is a celebration of the couple's love. They handsomely reward the

dancers.

4) "Aja Oh Aja": Razia, in a flowing gown, dreams of dancing with Altunia. The

dream turns into a nightmare as Razia dreams that Altunia is killed in a sword fight with

Semab. The dance movements are soft, flowing, and fairly simple with an Arabic

influence.

5) "Allah Kasam": Two girls dressed as statues come to life and dance for

Feroze. They perform pure dance sequences and suddenly strike poses as if they have

again been turned into statues. Their movements are identical.

6) "Jaoji Jao": This is a Qawwali danced by a group of women for Feroze and his

servants, Mittu and Bittu. Both the men and women sing as the women make formations

descriptive of the lyrics.

7) "KehenaNaMano": This song is danced by Spanish gypsies as an

entertainment from Semab to Feroze, who hopes to win his brother's favor. The girls skip

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and make simple formations. There is a strong folk influence in the movement Feroze

gets up and dances with the girls.

8) "Ghalti Jayi Rat": This is a duet sung by two lovers wandering in the forest

observed by Razia and Altunia. The lovers pose and show their love through gestures and

facial expressions.

Comments: It is said that in real-life, Razia married the slave, but the filmmaker must

have thought that this would be unacceptable to the audience. The dance of the film is

Kathak based, but its purpose here is largely decorative.

Title: Salma Year: 1985 Genre: Courtesan (Dancing Girl) Period: Modem Director/Producer: Stars: Salma Agha, Raj Babbar, Farouque Shaikh Dance Directors: Hiralal, -Oscar(chief assistant: Chanda assistants: , Usha, Shailash) Guest Appearance: Prema Narayan

Plot Summary: The courtesan Salma Banarsi is fascinated by the work of a poet who

writes under the pen name, Raz Lucknawi. A young Nawab, Aslam, who hates poetry,

but falls in love with Salma, discovers this. The poet, whose real name is Iqbal, happens

to be his friend. With Iqbal's help, Aslam masquerades as the poet to make Salma fall in

love with him. The poet, however, is also in love with Salma, but sacrifices his love for

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his friend, although he knows his friend cannot marry her because she is a courtesan.

Aslam's parents find out about his relationship with Salma and are furious because they

want him to marry Mumtaz, a proper aristocratic girl.

Mumtaz's brother arranges to have Salma poisoned with a potion that will make

her lose her voice. Aslam's father shoots him in anger because he will not obey his

parents. It is commented upon by Salma's father and ustad that aristocrats would prefer

to sacrifice a son than to let a courtesan become a daughter-in-law. Aslam survives the

shooting, but his mother goes to Salma and begs her to leave Aslam before the family is

destroyed. Salma agrees, and with the poets help, convinces Aslam that she is unfaithful.

He decides to marry Mumtaz and to invite Salma to dance at his wedding. The poison

has begun to work on Salma and she is told by a doctor that if she were to sing again, her

vocal chords would break and she would die. Aslam bitterly asks her to perform at his

wedding.

Salma goes to Aslam's house and begins the performance while he is at Iqbal's

house finding out what his mother had arranged. Iqbal also tells him of Salma's medical

condition and they rush to Aslam's house where she is singing. It is too late to save her,

so they let her continue. Salma sings and dances as blood begins to drip from her mouth.

She dies singing "Ulvida," and Aslam carries her lifeless body in his arms. He rests it in

a bed of flowers. When Iqbal comes to put his hand on Aslam's shoulder, Aslam falls

over. He has died as well. The two lovers are seen running through a field of flowers, as

if they are in heaven.

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Songs/Dances:

1) Iqbal sings several lines of poetry.

2) Mumtaz dances to disco music and her brother tells her that she has to become

less westernized.

3) "Jhuta WadaNaKije": Salma and Iqbal sing this Qawwali for Aslam's

birthday party. It is a witty competition between the two and each has a chorus of singers

behind them. Salma dances in the musical interludes. She dances from both sitting and

standing positions. She performs some Kathak pure dance sequences as well. After the

competition, Iqbal imagines Salma dancing to the song.

4) "Ay Mere Mehboob": Aslam and Salma sing lines o f poetry before they sing a

romantic Ghazal while dancing in a field of flowers. They see a wedding procession of

some villagers and imagine what their children would be like.

5) "Kahe Baite Ho": Mumtaz's brother arranges this Qawwali so that Salma can

compete with another famous singer. Before the program starts, they poison Salma. She

has trouble singing at first, but finally manages to win the competition. The other singer's

movements are hard with strong hip thrusts while Salma's are more elegant. Pure and

expressional dance are used.

6) "Ay Shah-e-Medina": The song opens with the Muslim call to prayer. Salma

prays at a funeral and Mosque for the recovery of Aslam ,who has been shot by his father.

7) "HasinonKaDastur": Aslam has gone to a Kotha to watch a Mujra. The

dancer, played by Prema Narayan, performs footwork, spins, hip, and eyebrow

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movements. A drunk Aslam imagines Salma in her place and slaps her.

8) "Zindagi Teri”: Salma dances and sings a Qawwali at Aslam's wedding. She

performs expression and pure dance in the musical interludes. As the rhythm quickens,

the blood flow from Salma's mouth also increases until she spins out of control, singing

"Ulvida," and dies.

9) "MatamNaKaro": A voice sings about those who have died for love.

10) "Ay Mere Mehboob”: The lovers are seen frolicking in a heavenly garden.

Comments: Salma never finds out that Iqbal is the poet she loves. The dance is Kathak-

based.

Title: Sholav Year: 1975 Genre: Action/Hero Period: Modem Director: Producer: G.P. Sippy Stars: Amitabh Bachchan, , Hema Malini, Jaya Badhuri Dance Director: P.L. Raj

Plot Summary: This film is one of the three all-time box office successes. It is known as

a "curry" western, the Indian version of the . A retired police officer,

Thakur Singh, hires two thieves, Veru and , to help him get revenge on the

maniacal villain, , who has killed his family and continues to terrorize his

village.

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Veru and Jaidev arrive and vow to capture the villain alive. Their resolve is

strengthened when they realize that Gabbar Singh has cruelly chopped off Thakur Singh's

arms. Veru falls in love with Basanti, a saucy village girl who drives a horse cart. Jaidev

falls in love with Thakur Singh's widowed daughter-in-law, Radha. The villagers are

fearful of Gabbar Singh and unsure of the plan to capture him, but a Muslim man who has

lost his son to the villain, encourages them to be strong. Veru and Jaidev battle with the

villain and his men. Jaidev dies and Veru, angered, captures Gabbar Singh. Thakur Singh

arrives and insists on exacting his own revenge, but as he is about to avenge himself, the

police arrive. They tell Thakur that he is an example to people and should not stoop to

Gabbar*s level. They arrest Gabbar Singh and Veru is united with Basanti.

Songs/Dances:

1) "Yeh ": Veru and Jaidev sing of their friendship as they escape from an

act of thievery on motorbike. They gesture and perform various antics in this typical

male-bonding song.

2) "Holi Ke Din": The village dances to celebrate the spring festival. Basanti

dances in colored powder. Veru and Jaidev also dance, but Radha, the widow, cannot.

The movements are mainly folk based. The dance ends when Gabbar Singh raids the

village.

3) "Mehbooba": This Mujra is performed by actress Helen as a guest artist. She

and a musician dance around the camp fire in Gabbar Singh's rocky hideout. This is a

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Hindi film version of Arabic dance. (It lacks the smoothness of Arabic dance.) She

shakes her hips and shoulders as Gabbar and his men leer. The dancer spins around the

fire followed by the musician who spins on his knees and a chorus of men beat

tambourines. An explosion interrupts the dance.

4) "Koi Hasina": Veru teases Basanti who is trying to run away with her cart.

He tells her that she is more beautiful when she is angry and finally wins her affection.

5) "Mai Nachungi": Veru and Basanti are captured by Gabbar Singh. Gabbar

Singh forces Basanti to dance and tells her that if she stops, he will shoot Veru. She

frantically sings and dances. To make her task more difficult, the men throw glass bottles

at her feet and she dances upon it, finally collapsing at her lover's feet They are rescued

in time by Jaidev. Her movements are folk-based. As she becomes weaker, her spinning

becomes uncontrolled.

6) "Yeh Dosti" (sad): The song is reprised on Jaidev's death.

Comments: The sensitive question of widow remarriage is touched upon in the film.

Both Thakur Singh and Radha's father are not opposed to her remarriage, which is

revolutionary in itself, but ultimately Jaidev must die because the audience probably

would not have accepted Radha's marriage to him.

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Title: Tai Mahal Year: 1963 Genre: Historical (Semi-Historical) Period: Moghul Director: M. Sadiq Producer: A.K. Nadiadwala Stars: Bina Rai, Pradeep Kumar Dance Director: Sohanlal

Plot Summary: This is the well-known tale of Shah Jehan and Mumtaz Mahal and the

famed mausoleum that he built for her. The film opens in Meena Bazaar, a famous

market of , where some dolls are speaking about the history of the market and love.

Shah Jehan (son of Emperor Jehangir from the Anarkali tale), still a prince, sees Aijuman

Banu (daughter of one of the Emperor's officers and later named Mumtaz Mahal) in the

market, and they immediately fall in love. They send love notes through carrier pigeons

and meet. One of the court dancers, Gulbadan, also aids them, but she is also a

trouble-maker. He wants to marry Aijuman Banu, but his mother has plans for him to

marry another girl so she can keep power.

Aijuman is the Empress' niece so the Empress keeps her prisoner under the guise

of caring for her when she discovers their relationship. She also has the Prince sent off to

battle. This backfires when he victoriously returns and gains the favor of the Emperor.

Shah Jehan's brother tries unsuccessfully to assassinate him to gain power. The Emperor

becomes ill and marries the Prince to Aijuman and his brother to Aijuman's rival. The

Empress has them sent to a far off province, but eventually the Emperor dies and Shah

Jehan returns to rule. His brother has become a womanizing drunk incapable of ruling.

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Shah Jehan forgives his mother for her treachery and they live happily for many years

until Aijuman, now Mumtaz, dies giving birth to their fourteenth child.

Shah Jehan is devastated and isolates himself. The ghost of Mumtaz reminds him

to build a monument to their love and he builds the Taj Mahal. After his death, he is laid

to rest with her in the famous mausoleum.

Songs/Dances:

1) "Jo Baat Tujh Me Hai": The Emperor sings to the painting of his beloved that

her real-life beauty cannot be reflected in a mere reproduction. He imagines her peeking

through her veil at him.

2) "PaonChoo Lene Do": The lovers sing as they secretly meet in the Prince's

house, by the banks of the Jumuna river. He has spread flowers over the walk way and

she tiptoes through them, afraid of crushing them. He tells her that it is an honor for the

flowers to touch her feet She is shy to meet him and hides behind the pillars.

3) "Jo Wada Kiya" (happy): Aijuman manages to escape from the rooms where

the Empress is holding her and meet the Prince. The couple sings that they will always

honor the commitment of their love.

4) "Mushaira": A singing poetry competition in the court of the Emperor. Three

seated girls sing lines of poetry which are elaborated by gesture and expression. As

Aijuman's rival is finishing her poetry, Aijuman enters and finishes the song. The

Emperor is impressed by her talent and asks her to sing again. It is obvious during the

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competition that the Prince is infatuated by Aijuman and that his brother is in love with

the dancer, Gulbadan.

5) “Jurm-e-Ulfat Pe”: Aijuman sings at the request of the Emperor to finish the

Mushaira.

6) “Khuda-e-Bartar Teri”: This is a romantic song sung to Aijuman, who misses the

Prince. He has been sent to battle.

7) “Husn Se Hai Duniya”: Gulbadan dances in the court to celebrate the victory of

the Prince in battle. The dancers are dressed in harem pants and use tambourines. The

movement is based on folk and Arabic styles. They skip and use their hips along with

spins and expressive gestures.

8) “Chandi Ka Badan”: This is a Qawwali sung by the men and women for the

Prince’s brother. The women perform pure and expressive dance, while the men only

perform gestures. The movement is all Kathak-based.

9) “Na Na Na Re”: This is a lively folk dance performed for the royal couple in the

court of their Rajput friend by two women, one dressed as a man. It shows the difference

between the dance seen in Muslim and Hindu courts.

10) “Jo Wada Kiya” (sad): The Emperor is visited by the ghost of Mumtaz. She

arrives by dancing down a flight of obscured stairs from the moon to where he sits.

11) “Jo Wada Kiya” (conclusion): The Emperor has died and is united in eternity

with his beloved on the steps of the Taj Mahal.

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Comments: This is a beautifully romanticized version o f the tale. All o f the songs

contain expressive gestures based on Kathak technique. It is said that Shah Jehan had the

artisans’ hands cut off after they completed work on the Taj Mahal so that they would not

be able to create another monument of equal beauty. For this reason, it is sometimes

called the cruelest monument to love. This is the irony o f the Moghuls. They were

famed for their love of art and their cruelty. They often killed their fathers and brothers

to gain power.

Title: Umrao Jan Year: 1981 Genre: Historical/Courtesan Period: Circa 1840 Director/Producer: Stars: Rekha, Farouque Shaikh, PremaNarayan Dance Directors: Gopi Krishna, Kumudini Lakhia (both Lucknow Gharana), Aruna. (This choreographer’s name is listed in small print in the credits, and her last two names are impossible to read.)

Plot Summary: The story is based on the novel, Umrao Jan Ada: Courtesan of Lucknow,

by Mirza Mohammed Hadi Ruswa, who claims that this account was related to him by

the “real” Umrao Jan. A young girl, Ameera, is kidnaped from her home town by two

con men seeking revenge on her father for an unsettle dispute. She is sold to a madame

in Lucknow who renames her as Umrao Jan and educates her in the arts. They discover

that she is a talented poetess. A young Nawab falls in love with her. Unable to break

tradition, he marries a suitable girl, she is heart-broken, and leaves the Kotha with a

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dashing bandit. He is killed in a struggle with the authorities and she goes to to

continue plying her trade independently, but finally returns to Lucknow when the

Lucknow Kotha members find her. The household ends up fleeing to Faizabad when

British soldiers invade and she is briefly reunited with her mother. She is summarily

thrown out by her brother because of her status. Eventually she returns to the empty

Lucknow Kotha. The last scene shows her gazing wistfully into her mirror.

Songs/Dances:

1) The opening music shows Ameera (Umrao Jan) as a young girl being dressed

by female relatives in preparation for her marriage that will never be.

2) "Thumri": This song is comprised of several different verses in one Raga or

melody. The girls (Umrao Jan and the madame's daughter, Bismallah) are first formally

accepted by their ustad (guru) as students then they begin their first singing lesson. The

song continues as time passes and the girls are shown training in Kathak as well. They

interpret the verses which describe episodes from the escapades of Radha and Krishna

such as playing the flute, adorning themselves with jewelry, manipulating a veil, etc.

They also perform Gat and pure dance. By the end of the song, they are grown and are

ready for public appearance.

3) "Dil CheezKyaaHai": Umrao Jan dances and sings this Ghazal for her first

public presentation. The Nawab, hearing her lovely voice from his carriage parked

below, falls in love with her. This dance has expression interspersed with pure dance

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sequences. She begins the dance from a sitting position and through a series of gradual

movements rises to dance more complex movements. Hip movements are exaggerated

compared to the other dances in this film. This dance was choreographed by Gopi

Krishna and reflects his exuberant, "filmi" style.

4) "In Ankhon Ki Masti": This is another Ghazal danced by Umrao Jan. It is also

expressional with pure dance sequences. She begins by saluting the audience in

traditional style then interpreting the first verse from a sitting position. She rises to dance

and ends in a sitting position. The Nawab entranced by her beauty richly rewards her.

This dance was choreographed by Kumudini Lakhia and is reflective of her subde style.

It is softer and somewhat more classical than Gopi Krishna's choreography.

5) "Yeh Zameen Chand Se": The Nawab sings this Ghazal to Umrao Jan in the

garden where they are picnicking. He seems intent on proving throughout the film that

his poetry can compare to her*s.

6) "Justuju": Umrao Jan sings to the Nawab and his wife on the occasion o f their

son's first birthday. She expresses herself in gesture from a seated position. This was

choreographed by Kumudini Lakhia. The song contains a message to the Nawab that his

wife cannot understand. She sings that she has been searching for someone that she has

only seen in dreams. Incidentally, the wife and Umrao Jan had been held captive together

when they were kidnaped so many years before and they muse on the whims of fate.

7) "YehKyaa Jage": Umrao Jan sings and dances in Faizabad as she remembers

her happy childhood before being kidnaped. She contrasts long gazes with bursts of pure

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dance that reveal her pain and frustration. This was also choreographed by Kumudini

Lakhia. This dance contains no superfluous movements, yet expresses volumes.

Comments: All of the dance in the film is Kathak-based, and there are also many lines of

sting poetry that occur throughout which are attributed to the “real” Umrao Jan. The

Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema states that Rekha’s dancing ability is limited and needed

to be hidden by opulent sets and costumes in this film. The author disagrees. Rekha

delivers a commendable performance with clear expression and movements. At one

point in the film the madame’s daughter is kidnaped by bandits. We later find out that she

was rescued by an officer who she has stayed with ever since. This shows that, although

unusual, it was not impossible for a courtesan to have what amounts to a marriage.

Title: Utsav Year: 1984 Genre: Historical/Courtesan Period: Vedic Director: GirishKamad Producer: Shashi Kapoor Stars: Rekha, Shashi Kapoor, , Dance Director: No dance director is listed in the credits

Plot Summary: This film’s story is based on two ancient Sanskrit plays, Charudutta. by

Bhasa, A.D. 300 and The Little Clav Cart by Sudraka, A.D. 400.

The host, Sutradhar, and his side kick set the scene and introduce the characters of the

ancient Vedic drama about to unfold. The host tells of a time when art and literature

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flourished and invites his side kick to join in the Spring festival. (The movie's title means

"Festival.") The host is in fact the author of the Kamasutra. Vatsyayan, who goes on to

describe love as an art as well as gambling. [We see Champivala, the shampooer,

(gambler), thievery (Sachal, the thief), and political revolution (a revolutionary with no

name).]

He compares life to the art of music and introduces Charudutta (C.), a Brahmin

man obsessed with music to his detriment. As they look on, the King's brother-in-law

(Raja ka sala, R.S. or Sansthanak), madly in love, is chasing Vasantsena (V.), a beautiful

and well-known Vaishya or prostitute, through the streets of the town late at night. He is

beaten up by the revolutionaries and leaves while V. finds refuge in C.'s house. She is

attracted to the house by the music she hears. She falls in love with C. because of the

beautiful song he is singing and reveals herself to him in all her fine gold jewelry. They

make love and she leaves her gold jewelry with C. before leaving so that no thief steals it

from her on her way home.

The next day in the brothel, the sage Vatsyayan is talking to the girls saying that

he will immortalize their house with his great treatise on love-making, the Kamasutra.

He and his disciple watch over and record new positions for love-making.

Meanwhile the Revolutionary is trying to recruit the Gambler for his cause, to

overthrow the King on the day of the spring festival. The Gambler wants no part and by

accident escapes into the brothel.

V. is told that she should forget about love and go with R.S. Love is not for

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Vaishyas. The Gambler is caught trespassing in the brothel and lies saying that C. has

sent a message to V. The Gambler finally admits he is a fraud, but V. rescues him

anyway and he swears to devote himself to God and meditation. He leaves and the

women sing and dance in the courtyard with thoughts of spring.

Aditi, C.'s wife returns home from her parents' house. C. worries she will find the

bag of V.'s gold jewelry and hides it in his friend's room. That night Sachal, the Thief,

steals the jewelry in order to marry his girlfriend who is a servant in V.'s house. He must

buy her back because she is a servant C. and friend find the jewelry missing. C.'s wife

realizes what’s happened and becomes angry at C. Before leaving him for her parents

once again, she tells C.'s friend to deliver to V. her only gold necklace and an apology for

it's inadequacy.

One of the Revolutionaries battles with the kings guard and taken prisoner. The

Thief goes to buy his bride, but she realizes the jewelry belongs to V. They bring the

jewelry to V. telling her that C. sent it to her. V. realizes what has happened and tells

them to get married anyway. As the couple leaves the Revolutionary recruits the Thief to

his bride’s dismay.

C.'s friend delivers Aditi's necklace and message. V. is shocked that C.'s wife

knows. That Night V. goes to visit C. wearing the previously stolen jewelry. Meanwhile,

V.'s mother plots with R.S. to trick V. into meeting him. The Revolutionary is released

from prison by the Thief.

C. and V. wake up in bed. She says she must go because its her festival day.

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(Vasant means spring.) He goes to get her a car and Aditi, his wife enters with water for

V. to bathe. The two women get to know each other. Aditi tries on V.'s jewelry, they

sing, and Aditi tells her son that V. is also his mother. V. fixes the boy's clay cart with

gold jewelry so the other children will not make fun of him. V. asks Aditi why she is not

angry. She says that she is proud that her husband's lover is so beautiful and that since V.

was with him, he is a better lover.

Confusion ensues over two carts. V. is in one and a Revolutionary in the other.

V. thinks she is going home, the driver thinks she is not there and that he is going to tell

R.S. that V. is not meeting him as plotted. The R.S. is impatiently waiting for V. with a

band and a speech out in the countryside. He is enraged when the driver tells

him she is not there. He rips the cart apart and discovers V . He strangles her because she

calls for C. who happens to be playing the flute close by. R.S., thinking she is dead

frames C. with the murder. The Gambler, meditating close by also gets involved.

The other cart with the Revolutionary arrives in the city where the people are

celebrating the Spring Festival en masse. There is dancing and singing in the streets.

The kings soldiers are looting people's houses. The Revolutionaries change the flag and

fight the soldiers.

C. is waiting to be executed for V's murder. V. wakes up and runs through the

city to the execution spot. C. is pardoned by the new government to everyone's relief. V.

sees C. and his wife rejoicing and realizes that love is not for Vaishyas.

R.S. runs through the street, having been beaten by a mob of victorious

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revolutionaries and arrives at V.'s house, where she is waiting to welcome him. Everyone

ends in their proper social position just as they began.

Songs/Dances:

1) "SajeTale": A sensual song sung by Charudutta (C.) showing his devotion to

music. Vasantsena (V.) is entranced by his music and falls in love with him. The song

contains the musical theme for most of the films songs.

2) "Itne Me Mor Pankh Paras Hua": V. sings as the other girls echo her and

answer her. The peacock imagery in the song and the movement is important to the theme

of love and springtime in the plot. The girls move in stylised poses together and alone,

recalling carvings on ancient Hindu temples of actual dance poses, like statues come to

life. V. shifts from pose to pose while the girls in the background form pairs and spin

each other around (Kikli).

3) "MaiKyonBehekar”: Short song between the two women sung, while C.

dresses Aditi in her jewelry. The putting on of make-up and jewelry is a common theme

in classical dance. Aditi discovers her beauty and the women express their mutual

affection. They love the same man.

4) Spring Song: The city is singing and dancing together with wild abandon.

They perform various folkdances in a confusion of action from the celebration and the

revolution. Some of the men are dancing with horse costumes (a small horse-shaped

figure around the waist), but there is not a particular discernible region or style. The

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drums from the celebration reverberate around the city.

Comments: This film was chosen for this study, despite the fact that it is not a totally

traditional commercial film, for two major reasons. One is that is about a "Vaishya,” an

ancient class of courtesan, often times a dancing girl. The actual dance content might be

sparse, but it gives an historical background of how society viewed these women and

their place in that society. The second reason is that the producer, Shashi Kapoor, is a

famous long-time commercial film actor. It is a good opportunity to see how a

commercial film actor views the role of dance/song and female characters in film.

The host states in the beginning that in Vedic times many aspects of life fell under

the category of art including love, especially lovemaking as described in the ancient

treatise, the Kamasutra. He tells his sidekick that even Vaishyas, prostitutes, had their

place in Vedic society and that some people actually honored them. Other arts include

gambling, thievery, political rebellion, and one of the most pervasive arts, music.

Shashi Kapoor has stated in an interview that he wanted to make a non-formulaic

film as an experiment to see if it would be successful even though it does not have the

usual dependence on song and dance. It is an unusual film, complex in plot, like many

commercial films, and tastefully done, but one that must have stretched the government

censors' limits. He perhaps got away with this because of his name and because the film

is based on a well-known literary work. His film was not wholly successful with the

public in that it was not a huge money-maker, but prints are widely available in video

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rental stores. The eroticism is no doubt a factor in the public's interest It is said that a

more risque English version exists.

There are major differences in how female characters are viewed from other films.

They are more aggressive sexually and speak about it more openly in this film, as when

Aditi tells V. that since her husband has been with V., he has become a better lover.

There are strong characters like V. and her mother who are in control of their lives. V. is

wealthier than her lover C. which is brought up several times. It is popular to glorify

Vedic life, a time when erotic carvings and manuscripts flourished in some areas of India.

There are aspects o f Vedic life that were not fair to women, particularly to housewives,

that are not shown in the film such as their limited participation in religious ceremonies,

but many of the rules for housewives did not apply to the Vaishyas. None the less,

Shashi Kapoor felt that the audience would not accept the original ending of the story

where V. and C. marry and changed it so that C. ends up with his wife. The claim that

Vaishas were accepted and honored by society is not wholly true. This is evidenced by

passages in the original plays that criticize courtesans.

Rekha has recently acted in an English language film, Kamasutra. directed by

Mira Nair. Although it does not take place in Vedic times, Rekha plays an ex-courtesan

who teaches the Kamasutra to women.

Title: Yasmin Year: 1955 Genre: Courtesan (Dancing Girl)

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Period: Unspecified (possibly anywhere from 1200s-1600s) Director: A.R. Kardar Producer: M 3. Divekar Stars: Sham Kumar, Vyjayanthimala, Jayant, Marut Dance Director: B. Hiralal

Plot Summary: The setting is Arabia. A queen tells the king that she wants to arrange

the marriage of their spoiled son, Ahmed. The king sends him to govern a dessert region

until his marriage. There, Ahmed shirks his duties and falls in love with a dancing girl

whom he wants to marry, Yasmin. His father and mother are shocked to hear that their

son is keeping company with a dancing girl and more angry when he refuses to marry a

suitable girl.

Yasmin's father and the villain, who wants to marry her, are angry that they meet

secretly and beat up Ahmed. (They do not know he is a prince.) The villain tells Ahmed

that Yasmin is only using Him for his money. An angry Ahmed kidnaps Yasmin and she

finds out that he is a prince. He sends her away and agrees to marry the woman his

parents have chosen. He then changes his mind, realizing that his life is meaningless

without Yasmin. He searches for her. One of his men tells him that Yasmin really does

love him and Ahmed fights the villain.

Ahmed's father comes to battle with his errant son. Ahmed wins the fight, but

apologises to his father. His father tells him that he understands his son must truly love

Yasmin and that he has permission to marry her.

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1) Ahmed’s friend arranges a performance for him. Yasmin dances and Ahmed is

smitten. There is only music, no song. Yasmin performs an Indianized Spanish dance,

using her wide skirt and castanets. The music has Arabic influence.

2) “Bar Bar Ke Jam Pila De”: Yasmin dances in a sort of old-time cabaret Yasmin’s

dance has Arabic and Spanish influence. She dances with a tambourine and flirts with the

customers. A chorus of girls performs folk-based dance. They make various line and

circle formations.

3) “Bechain Nazar”: Ahmed and two o f his friends dance about love. They perform

folk-based steps that are meant to look like Arabic dance.

4) “Ankhon Me Samajhao”: Ahmed and Yasmin sing a romantic duet.

5) “Ab Vo Rat Kahan”: Yasmin sings about her separation from Ahmed.

6) “Dil Unko Dhundta Hai”: Yasmin dances in the streets searching for Ahmed. She

dances with small scarves. She uses turns, shoulder movement and expression.

7) “Has Haske Hasinon”: Yasmin’s father tells her that she must dance until she is

married. She dances with her skirt performs skips, spins and gestures.

8) “Mujhse Ilzam Bewafai Hai”: Yasmin sings that she has been accused o f

infidelity.

9) “Bechain Kamewale”: Ahmed throws Yasmin to the floor and she sings o f her

distress.

10) “To Accha Ta”: Ahmed and Yasim remember each other.

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11) "MohabatMePahilaKadam": Yasmin plays the guitar and wanders around

the cabaret

Comments: Most of the dance in this film has Arabic and Spanish influence, although a

lot of folk movements are also incorporated. Kathak movement is seen in the expressions

and some of the other pure dance movement. Vyjayanthimala's name does not appear in

the credits. Perhaps Yasmin and Ahmed were able to marry in this film, despite the fact

that she has no nobel blood, because the film occurs in Arab and not Indian society. It is

doubtful that the audience would have accepted this otherwise.

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Kumar, K. Naresh. Indian Cinema: Ebbs and Tides. New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications, 1995.

Mackenzie, Donald A. India. New York: Avenel Books, 1986.

Manuel, Peter. Thumri in Historical and Stylistic Perspectives. Delhi: Banarasidass, 1989.

Misra, Susheela. Some Dancers of India. New Delhi: Harmon Publishing House, 1992.

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Mohan, Jag. Documentary Films and National Awakening. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1990.

Monroy, Antonio. India. New York: Gallery Books, 1985.

Moraes, Dom and the Editors of Time Life Books. Bombay. Amsterdam: Time Life Books, 1979.

Mukheqi, Santosh Kumar. Prostitution in India. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications, 1986.

Nanda, Ritu. Rai Kapoor. Moscow: Iskusstvo Publishers, 1991.

National Geographic Society Lecture Series. "The Great Indian Film Bazaar," by Somi Roy. Washington, D.C., 13 Oct 1993.

Niranjana, Tejaswini, P. , and Dhareshwar. Interrogating Modernity: Culture and Colonialism in India. Calcutta: Seagull Books, 1993.

Pei, Mario. The Storv of Language. New York: Meridian, 1965.

Pfleiderer, Beatrix, and Lothar Lutze, eds. The Hindi Film: Agent and Re-Agent of Cultural Change. New Delhi Manohar, 1985.

Raheja, Dinesh, and Jitendra Kothari. Hundred Luminaries of Hindi Cinema. Bombay: India Book House Publishers, 1996.

Rajadhyaksha, Ashish, and Paul Willemen. Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Ray, Satyajit. Our Films. Their Films. Calcutta: Orient Longman Limited, 1976.

Renou, Louis ed. Hinduism. New York: George Brazillier, 1962.

Reuben, Bunny. Mehboob...India's DeMille: The First Biography. New Delhi: HarperCollins, 1994.

Follvwood Flashback: A Collection of Movie Memories. New Delhi: HarperCollins, 1 993.

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Richmond, Farley P., Darius L. Swann, and Phillip B. Zarrilli. eds. Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990.

Ruswa, Mirza Mohammed Hadi. Umrao Jan Ada: Courtesan of Lucknow, translated by M.A. Husaini and Khushwant Singh. Bombay: Disha Books, 1982.

Sinha, Arun. "Have Women Lost the Battle?" The Illustrated Weekly of India. 13-19 February 1993, vo CXm 7.

Smithsonian Institute, Patricia Gallagher ed. Aditi: The Living Arts of India. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1985.

Snell, Rupert. The Hindi Classical Tradition. A Brai Bhasa Reader. New Delhi: Heritage Publishers, 1992.

Spencer, Paul ed. Society and the Dance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

"Sridevi Stalked." Stardust International edn., May 1997, 56-57.

Valicha, Kishore. The Moving Image: A Study of Indian Cinema. Bombay: Orient Longman, 1988.

Vatsyayan, Kapiia. Indian Classical Dance. New Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Government of India, 1974.

Whispers Column. "Enter the Baby." Filmfare. April 1997, 12.

Dissertations

Arnold, Alison E. "Hindi Filmi Git: On The History Of Commercial Indian Popular Music" .(Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois At Urbana-Champaign, 1991.)

Binford, Mira Reym. "Media Policy As A Catalyst To Creativity: The Role Of Government In The Development O f India's New Cinema". (Ph.D. dissertation, The University Of Wisconsin-Madison, 1983.)

Bose, Mandakranta. "The Evolution of Classical Indian Dance Literature: A Study of the Sanskritic Tradition." (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Oxford (, 1989.)

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Ghosh, Sanjukta Tultul. "Celluloid Nationalism: Cultural Politics In Popular Indian Cinema”. (PhJD. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1992.)

Kumar, Keval Joseph. "Media Eeducation, Communications And Public Policy: An Indian Perspective", (Ph.D. dissertation, University Of Leicester, 1988.) Interview? By Author

Altar, Tom, Hindi film and television actor; Bombay, 27 June 1996.

Aman, Zeenat, Hindi film actress and producer; Bombay, 15 July 1996.

Anand, Chetan, Hindi film director, and Priya Rajvansh, Hindi film actress and producer; Bombay, 22 July 1996.

Azmi, Shabana, Hindi and English film actress; Washington, D.C., 14 Oct. 1994.

Bachchan, Amitabh, Hindi film actor and producer; politician; C.E.O. of

ABCLcorporation; Bombay, 3 July 1996 and Madras 4,5, and 6 July 1996.

Bansi Lai, Kathak guru; interviewed on various occasions from October, 1987-November 1990, New Delhi, India.

Dasgupta Bijon, Hindi film art director, and Trilok, Hindi film set designer, Hyderabad, 29 July 1996.

Dhillon, Poonam, Hindi film actress and producer; Bombay, 19 July 1996.

Dixit, Madhuri, Hindi film actress; Bombay, 26 July 1996.

Ganeshan, Rekha, Hindi film actress; Bombay, 20 July 1996.

Gupta, Neena, Hindi film actress; phone conversation with author, Bombay, 10 July 1996.

Iyer, Kalpana, Hindi film actress; Bombay, 23 July 1996.

Jaffrey, Javed, Hindi film actor, television personality, and dancer; Bombay, 26 July 1996.

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Jain, Jutta, cultural anthropologist, and Jyotindra Jain, senior director o f Crafts Museum, New Delhi; New Delhi, 14 June 1996.

Jha, Prakash, Hindi film director and producer; Bombay, 26 July 1996.

Joglekar, Archana, Hindi film and television actress, producer, director, and writer; Bombay, 7 July 1996.

Kapadia, Dimple, Hindi film actress; Bombay, 16 July 1996.

Kapoor, Anil, Hindi film actor; Hyderabad, 29 July 1996.

Kapoor, Boney, Hindi film producer; Hyderabad, 28,29, and 30 July 1996.

Kapoor, Shashi, Hindi and English film and stage actor and producer; also revived and heads in Bombay; Bombay, 2 July 1996.

Kamad, Girish, Ma.Phil. Political Science and Economics; manager of Oxford University Press; Hindi and Tamil film director and actor; former director of Pune Institute's acting program; Bombay, 25 July 1996.

Khan, Saroj, Hindi film dance director; Bombay, 24 July 1996.

Kohli, Raj Kumar, Hindi film director and producer; Bombay, 25 July 1996.

Kolhapure, Padmini, Hindi film actress; Bombay, 19 July 1996.

Kumar, Savan Tak, Hindi film director and producer; Bombay, 12 July 1996.

Kumari, Roshan, Kathak dancer/teacher and Hindi film dance director; Bombay, 23 July 1996.

Madhav, actor studying in ABCL's training program for entry into Hindi films; Bombay, 8 July 1996.

Matondkar, Urmila, Hindi film actress; Hyderabad, 29 July 1996.

Mukherjee, Victoria, anthropologist and documentary filmmaker; Bombay, 25 June 1996.

Munna Bhai, Hindi film director and cameraman; Hyderabad, 29 July 1996.

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Pallavi, Bengali actress who is trying to enter Hindi films; Bombay, 20 July 1996.

Paranjpye, Sai, Hindi film director and producer; Bombay, 26 July 1996.

Pathak, Supriya, Hindi film actress; Bombay, 15 July 1996.

Raj, P.L. (Peter Louis), Hindi film dance director; Bombay, 12 July 1996.

Ranjan, Shashi, Hindi television producer and writer; Bombay, 8 July 1996.

Rele, Kanak, director of Nalanda Centre and classical dancer; Bombay, 23 July 1996.

Roma, actress with one Hindi film to her credit; Bombay, 22 July 1996.

Roy, Somi, film curator; Washington, D.C., 13 Oct. 1993.

Sabbiya, Hindi film costume designer; Bombay, 25 June 1996.

Sachdev, Asha, Hindi film and television actress; Washington, D.C., 22 Oct. 1994; Bombay, 9 July 1996.

Sadhika, Hindi film actress; Bombay, 25 June 1996.

Sen, Moon Moon, Hindi and Bengali film and television actress; Bombay, 25 June 1996.

Sheshadri, Meenakshi, Hindi film actress and classical dancer; Bombay, 21 and 24 July 1996.

Shiromanee, Sushma, Hindi and Marathi film actress, director, and producer; Bombay, 17 July 1996.

Shukla, Girish and Shipra, Hindi television and film producers, photographers, writers, and advertising agents; Bombay, 10 July 1996.

Singh, Gurpreet, model and television actor; Bombay, 20 July 1996.

Sippy, Ramesh, Hindi film director and producer; Bombay, 22 July 1996.

Somal, Pammi, journalist and an assistant editor for Cine Blitz magazine; Hyderabad, 29 and 30 July 1996.

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Sridevi, Hindi and Teiegu film actress; Hyderabad, 28,29, and 30 July 1996.

Tabbasum, Hindi film actress, radio personality, and television producer; Bombay, 12 July 1996.

Taneja, Roshan, acting teacher; Bombay, 23 July 1996.

Tanna, Bipin, Hindi film costume designer; Bombay, 25 June 1996.

Verma, Gauri, Hindi film actor( villain roles) and horse trainer, Bombay, 25 July 1996.

NOTE: Many of the actors and filmmakers listed above work or have worked in films in other Indian languages as well.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.