·IAPITA POTTERY Not only did it know the whereabouts of Dr Gordon Grigg's camels, Argos also had information regarding the location, movement, air temperature and Dromedary Camel Australia is host to the world's only barometric pressure of known population of feral camels. 553 drifting and moored Introduced as pack animals after buoys, 11 ships, 1840, the advent of the car in the 1920's made them an outmoded 3 balloons, 392 fixed form of transport. About 35,000 of stations and another them roam the harsh terrain of 72 animals including Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland and NorthernTerritory caribou, turtles, whales causing expensive damage to and dugongs. fences. Little was known about An informative article their biology in the wild so the Argos location system was used to will appear in the next gather more information about issue of this magazine. them. (See ANH Winter 1987)

Data Collection Drifting Buoy Dugong of Stromatolites The discovery and emerging The dugong, the only herbivorous The understanding of the environment understanding of the El Nino and mammal that is strictly marine, is in which these ancient life-forms grow "Southern Oscillation" phenomena owe considered vulnerable to extinction. has been greatly enhanced by the use much to drifting buoys tracked by the The movements of dugongs have been of the Argos satellite-based data Argos system. These and similar monitored by Argos as part of a collection system. phenomena are not only of immense programme which aims to establish a importance to Australia and the weather sound biological basis for the we experience, but are among the most management of dugongs in the Great fundamental discoveries in recent times in Barrier Reef Marine Park. oceanography, meteorology and climatology.

For further information: Stephen T. Dyson (LS-ARGOS-Australasia - GPO Box 1289K - MELBOURNE 3001 - Telephone (03) 669 4650 Australian EDITORIAL Important Puzzles Natural History

Published by hat can old pieces of pot­ ous job. One organisation, the'ABRS, The Australian Museum Trust 6-8 College Street, tery tell us about cultural is quietly dedicated to maintaining Sydney, N.S.W. 2000 origins? The highly decor­ an enormous database that provides Phone: (02) 339 8111 atedW pottery pieces on the cover are access to Australian biological re­ Trust President: Robyn Williams known as 'Lapita'. Its occurrence in search. And it's a world first. Find out Museum Director: Desmond Griffin Pacific Island archaeological sites more in Forum on page430. EDITOR provides a vital clue to understand­ Much of the information for this Fiona Doig ing how these islands were settled. database is being derived from mu­ SCIE TIFIC EDITOR Read about the findings of the Lapita seums. These are important research Georgina Hickey, B.Sc. Homeland Project in the article on institutions-not just houses for col­ CIRCULATIO page410. lections and galleries, as many John McIntosh The lack of a centralised, up-to­ people tend to think. Robyn ART DIRECTIO Williams discusses this museum Watch This! Design date information base has long been a problem for biologists. In Australia, myth on page 409. TYPESETTI G Love Computer Typesetting Pty Ltd we have so many unique species and Aside from studying nature, can FILM WORK so few scientists studying them that we still identify with it? Are we head­ South Sea International Press Ltd researching them is a daunting task. ing for a biological blitzkrieg? These PRI TING Locating the latest information can questions are raised by Michael RodenPrint Pty Ltd be a nightmare: findings tend to be Archer, our new regular columnist. ADVERTISI G scattered throughout various re­ His vital, questioning style is a valu­ Jean Barnet search institutions or in obscure able contribution to ANH. (02) 939 6263 (02) 339 8234 journals, and sourcing can be a tedi- -Fiona Doig, Editor SUBSCRIPTIO S Contents Annual subscription (4 issues) Within Australia $A 16.00 Molluscan Dentistry­ 388 Other Countries $A20.00 The Tales That Teeth Tell Two-year subscription (8 issues) Bill Rudman and GeoffAvern Within Australia SA30.00 The Industrious Flea 396 Other Countries $A36.00 Arthur Woods For renewal or new subscription please Morning Glories of the Gulf 402 forward credit card authority or cheque Doug Christie made payable to: Peopling the Pacific- 410 The Australian Museum The Lapita Homeland Project P.O. Box A285 Sydney South Peter White, Jim Allen and Jim Specht .S.W. 2000, Australia Boabs 426 Subscribers from other countries please note that money must be paid in Ford Kristo Australian currency. VIEWS FROM THE All material appearing in Australian atural History is copyright. FOURTH DIMENSION Reproduction in whole or in part is not A Dying Need for Wild Places? 394 permitted without written authorisation Michael Archer from the Editor. Opinions expressed by the authors are RARE & ENDANGERED their own and do not necessarily represent the policies or views of the Rufous Hare-wallaby 406 Australian Museum. Ken Johnson The Editor welcomes articles or photographs in any field of Australian AUSTRALIAN WILD FOODS natural history. On the Liru Trail 420 Published 1988 Tim Low ISSN-0004-9840 lll!JIIII FORUM aic The ABRS-For What Does 430 Australian atural History is auclited it Stand? by the Audit Bureau of Circulations Bill Williams Front Cover Fragments of Lapila pottery like these REGULAR FEATURES have been found in many archaeo­ Letters 386 logical sites in the western Pacific. Quips, Quotes & Curios 400 Distribution of this pottery is an im­ portant indicator as to how these Poster Article 408 islands were settled. Photo by Robyn Williams 409 Anthony f-arr. Books 418 Photoart 423

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 385 A Cautionary Tale tration that alarms me. us as 'Fivies' and 'Tennies'. species of long ago. I am Effectively it parallels my The names derived from aware that there are three Robyn Williams' article own situation; the end of the fact that the approxi­ kinds of pandorea, but on snorkeling in the Spring the breathing tube is kept mately pea-sized berries none of the flora reference 1987 issue of ANH (vol. 22, above the surface by the were held, in the first case, books I've consulted has no. 6) was (as always) very float and the diver's body is by a five-pointed bract, mentioned the scent of the interesting; the accom­ subjected to the pressure. and the other by ten over­ flower. panying illustration, how­ lapping bracts. The 'Fivie' Please let me know what ever, reminded me of a was harder, drier and not you think these plants may near-fatal experiment that I sweet, and contained a be. carried out, aged about 12. hard seed. It grew on a -Vic Bird I lived on the upper bush about 1.2 metres Forster, NSW reaches of the Swan River high, with light green tea­ (Western Australia) and tree-coloured leaves and 'Fivies' would most likely frequently went canoeing. small clumps of leaves be a Styphelia species in Being very interested in about seven millimetres the southern heath family, fish, I decided to watch long and four millimetres Epacridaceae. Styphelia them under water at close wide. If I remember cor­ triflora is known commonly range. rectly, it had small white as Five Corners, and To do this I devised a tea-tree-type flowers be­ Maiden in Useful Native simple plan: I borrowed a fore fruiting in mid sum­ Plants of Australia (7 868, p. garden hose, one end of mer. It was widespread in 6 7) writes that "fruitshave a which my friend was to the sandy scrubland ex­ sweetish pulp with a large hold in the canoe while I tending from Dudley south stone. They form part of the breathed through the other to Jewel's Swamp, just food of the Aborigines and end on the river bottom. north of Belmont. are much appreciated by I realised that, under The 'Tennie' grew as a schoolboys." water, I would not be able small ground-cover plant, This plant is an erect to to remain motionless (to in clumps between 30 and spreading shrub, one to avoid frightening the fish) 45 centimetres across and without something to no higher than 15 centi­ weigh me down, so I tied metres. The leaves were an appropriately large dark green, very thick, stone around my waist and about one centimetre long dropped over the side of I have recently been told and fin-like. The berry was the canoe with the end of by an experienced pro­ prolific and preferred, as it the hose in my mouth­ fessional diver that I was was softer and sweet to instant terror! enormously lucky to sur­ taste. It too had a hard seed. l) With a force that nearly vive my experiment. Per­ If memory serves, it had a u:; o< ripped out the back of my haps it would be crimson to purplish flower l) LU palate, every vestige of air worthwhile to highlight the prior to fruiting, and was a V'> zLU in my lungs departed up danger of copies, or vari­ mid-summer harvest. It 0 the hose, leaving me on ations, of the device illus­ grew on the same sandy soil the bottom with the stone trated. and was scattered among Leucopogon parviflorus. around my waist! -Eric Watkinson the low scrub where the two metres high with I managed to free myself Northbridge, NSW 'Fivie' was found. leaves 10 to 25 millimetres and, half dead and not Another curiosity of the Jong and three to six milli­ understanding what had Does This Ring a Bell? area was the 'Pandorea'. It metres wide (longer than happened, reach the sur­ was known to us children as suggested by Mr Bird). The face. Of the numerous articles the 'Chocolate Bell' be­ flowers are pink with yel­ As an engineer I now re­ I've read on Australian cause of the rich chocolate low or sometimes greenish alise that I would have had native plant foods, I have smell of its flowers, as well yellow. at least a tonne of pressure not yet seen mention of as the colour of part of the The Fivies might also be on my chest and that the two berry plants that, as bells. Although I have re­ Leucopogon parviflorus or only reason that I was not children 65 years ago, we cently travelled within a L. lanceolatus. The former killed on the spot was commonly ate in summer radius of 250 kilometres of grows on sand dunes near probably that the hose was during bush rambles. ewcastle, and seen pan­ the sea, and has a white blown out of my mouth by I lived at that time in dorea widespread, not one fleshy fruit four to five milli­ the initial outrush of air. Redhead, about 20 kilo­ of the flowers had the de­ metres high. The leaves are ow, back to "Snorkel metres south of Newcastle. lightful chocolate smell of 7 7 to 29 millimetres long, Sense"; it is only the illus- The berries were known to the southern Newcastle two to seven millimetres 386 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 australian

wide, and the flowers are tralis (ANH vol. 22, no. 7, small, white and bearded. p. 320). There is a giant Leucopogon lanceolatus is earthworm in the red soils museum comes alive in 1988 with more common in bushland. of the Mt Warning region It has a small orange to red near Tweed Heads. I have fiveexciting new exhibitions. fleshy fruit, two to three also personally seen one millimetres high; the leaves dug up on Queensland's are 7 2 to 34 millimetres Mt Tamborine (at the back long, two to five millimetres of the Gold Coast hinter­ Pieces of Paradise: wide and, again, it has land) and it was about as big Pacificartefacts small, white, bearded as the one shown by Frazor flowers. Hercus. They are said to be through many eyes The 'Tennie' is most common on the Mt Tam­ probably Astroloma humi­ borine plateau. Could it be fusum, another member of possible that this is an iso­ Now open! the Epacridaceae. It is lated patch of the same known as the Native Cran­ earthworm species? berry. It has a red flower -Roger Burgess and a green fruit with Tweed Heads, NSW sweet, viscid pulp sur­ rounding the hard stone. There are actually two The leaves are six to 7 8 mil­ 'giant earthworms' in Aus­ limetres long with serrulate tralia. The other species is margins (that is, "fin-like"). Digaster longmani. Its type With regard to the locality is Mt Tamborine, 'Chocolate Bell' I am un­ Queensland and so would Now open! able to help. The botanical certainly be the species literature I consulted, like­ you sighted. It has also wise, gave no reference to been recorded from Kyogle the scent. State Forest, Richmond Tracks Through - Jocelyn Powell Range State Forest Time: The story of Royal Botanic Gardens Toonumbar State Forest Sydney, NSW and Stradbroke Island. human evolution -C.H. Giant Earthworms Where, when and how did modern Good Science I was very interested in humans come into being? When did Georgina Hickey's Rare & It is unfortunate that a our ancestors begin to walk upright, Endangered article on the regular reader of Australian Giant Gippsland Earth­ Natural History describes to make and use tools and fire? worm, Megascolides aus- this publication as being excellent except for its fail­ What forces of natural selection ure to promote creation favoured the remarkable expansion theory as a scientific equal of our brain? Opens September of evolution (Mat Vander­ klift, ANH vol. 22, no. 7, 1988. p. 291 ). Still to come: First impressions Rituals of Creationism has about as much value to scientists as the Human Lifecycle. w the flat Earth theory has to V geographers. To put for­ o<> w V'l ward Creationism as a z competing theory is akin to 0 � putting a garden slug in the < � barrier for the Melbourne

0u.. Cup. Only those confident ?;. of the intervention of some z < divine catapult would back lltec:x5 fyen'e11ce :::; ;;i. the slug. The Australian Museum t;; -Roger Bourne ::::, 6-8 CollegeSt, Sydney 339 8111 < Brisbane, Qld AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 387

very different from ours. They are has evolved for a specific purpose is feeding on the same sponge. In this made of chitin-the same substance found in the tropical snails of the way all the slugs share the load of that forms our fingernails and the ex­ genus Conus. These 'killer cones' of teaching fish that they are unpalat­ ternal skeletons of insects-and, shell-collecting lore have teeth able. While this is apparently effec­ although seemingly delicate, are modified to act as hypodermic tive for the slugs involved, it makes often very tough. Instead of being at­ needles or harpoons to sting, poison the job of the taxonomist, who is try­ tached to jaws, they are attached in and capture their prey. The second ing to differentiate species, very diffi­ many transverse rows to a tongue­ set of differences comprises the nor­ cult. Fortunately it is in this family of like, chitinous ribbon on the floor of mal variation one would expect to nudibranchs that the teeth show so the mouth. This ribbon is called a find between different species­ many interspecific differences. 'radula' and it is used to rasp or tear closely related species often have The aeolids are another major off pieces of food. As the oldest teeth similarly shaped teeth, while more type of nudibranch. They almost all wear out on the front of the radula, distantly related species, even feed on coelenterates, a group of new ones are made at the back of the though feeding on similar foods, will marine invertebrates that includes ribbon. often have quite differently shaped the sea-anemones, corals, hydroids, To study the radular teeth, they teeth. blue-bottles and jellyfish. Within the must first be removed by carefully Knowing the shape of a species' aeolids each family group has dissecting out the mouth region of teeth can thus provide information specialised feeding habits (for ex­ the animal. This tissue is then on both its feeding biology and its ample, some feed only on corals, 'cooked' in a solution of concen­ evolutionary relationship to other some only on sea-anemones), and trated caustic soda, which removes species that may look similar exter­ often each individual species will all surrounding muscle tissue, leaving nally. only eat one species of prey. Hence a flexible radular ribbon with its rows Marine sponges are the common of teeth. Finally, small pieces of food food of many dorid nudibranchs, and detritus are removed from the which graze by rasping off sections of teeth in a sonic cleaner-a machine the sponge with their radulae. that rapidly shakes the teeth by vi­ Sponges, however, are often tough brating them with sound waves. ow and have skeletal spicules of glass or clean, they are ready for SEM prep­ calcium carbonate designed to pre­ aration. vent damage from grazing animals. The SEM works by 'bouncing' To overcome this problem most electrons off the specimen being dorid teeth are strong, simple, hook­ studied. The electrons are collected like structures, their shape having and processed into a video image been determined entirely by the and recorded on photographic film. need to rasp off tough bits of food. To ensure that electrons will readily Because of this the teeth of most bounce off the surface of the speci­ dorid nudibranchs feeding on men, it is coated with a fine layer of spiculate sponges look the same. gold. The whole preparation process Their shape is almost entirely deter­ is laborious and often time­ mined by their function. In these consuming, but the information that species, differences in colour, body can be obtained from a study of these shape and internal anatomy are teeth well-rewards the hours of snail needed to identify them. dentistry. The chromodorid nudibranchs, We all know that mammal teeth however, usually feed on a special are modified in different species for group of sponges that, instead of different functions: Bugs Bunny's skeletal spicules, have a network of two buck teeth are used for eating fibres to maintain their shape. These carrots, and the large canine teeth of fibrous sponges are apparently much dogs have evolved for piercing flesh. easier to rasp, and the functional limi­ These functional differences are tations on tooth shape are therefore clear to even the most casual ob­ less severe. Chromodorid nudi­ server because the teeth involved branchs feeding on fibrous sponges are large and easy to see. In a snail or display an array of tooth shapes and slug, however, it is difficult enough to denticulation that are clearly not of find the ribbon of teeth, let alone see great functional importance. Three any differences in the shape of indi­ or four species with quite different vidual teeth. But the SEM has made teeth can be found feeding together this possible. on the same sponge. The sponges at­ Two types of differences can be tempt to defend themselves by pro­ seen in mollusc teeth. The first results ducing poisons, but the from the function to which the radula chromodorids take the poisons to is put in different species-the rad­ protect themselves from being eaten ula of a grazing herbivore, for ex­ by larger animals. In an elaborate ample, is going to be quite different game of hide and seek, these slugs to that of a specialised carnivore. A have evolved to look as similar as spectacular example of a tooth that possible in colour to the other slugs

390 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 D Chromodoris splendida D Chromodoris hunteri D Noumea haliclona D Mexichromis mariei These four chromodorid nudibranchs from New South Wales mimic each other in colour pattern. The differently shaped teeth show that each species is only distantly related to the others. Chromodorids feed on relatively soft sponges and this has allowed the devel­ opment of the fine denticles on the teeth.

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 391 different shaped teeth have evolved chunk of tissue. anemone. Each individual hydroid for feeding on different types of Although the difference in tooth animal or polyp usually lives in a cup­ coelenterates. shape between closely related aeolid like case and the aeolids that feed on The aeol· ids have also evolved a species is not great, the difference in these polyps have teeth designed to radula quite different from that of shape between those that feed on extract individual polyps from their dorid nudibranchs. In dorid different types of food is very clear. cases. Each tooth has a large, nudibranchs, the radula, which is One can- predict quite precisely pointed, triangular cusp with a series designed for rasping sponges, has whether an aeolid feeds on corals, of small denticles on each side. In many transverse rows of teeth and soft-corals, hydroids or sea­ coral-eating aeolids, the teeth have each row has many teeth; in aeolids, anemones simply by looking at the evolved large comb-like denticles to however, each row usually contains shape of its teeth. Many small aeolids reach down into the crevices of the only one tooth. These teeth are feed exclusively on hydroids, which hard coral skeleton to remove the designed to dig out individual are small colonial animals, each indi­ animal tissue. Sea-anemones, on the coelenterate polyps or to tear out a vidual resembling a minute sea- other hand, are individual polyps without a skeleton. They are much Soft-corals and the re­ bigger than the aeolids that feed on lated gorgonian Junceela, them so the aeolid, rather than eating are the food of them whole, can only take small Phyllodesmium. The deli­ bites. The teeth of anemone-eating cate white core of each of the tubular cerata con­ aeolids have a shape specialised for tains part of the gut of this this purpose, usually comb-like with aeo/id. The teeth are quite a row of large, pointed denticles but different from those of without any prominent central cusp. other aeo/ids and are We still don't know what all designed for ripping out nudibranch species eat and we still sections of soft-coral. have much to learn about their bi­ ology. But by using the SEM to study the anatomy of species for which we do have some information, we are able to make predictions on the ecol­ ogy and general biology of other species we know even less about. •

The electronmicrographs in this article were taken by GeoffAvern on the SEM at Macquarie University's School of Biological Sciences. Geoff recently won the Best Micrograph cat­ egory in the Australian Photomicrography Exhibition, sponsored by the Microscopical Society of Australia and Polaroid Australia Pty Ltd, and followedthis up with a win in a similar category in the Polaroid-sponsored inter­ national competition held in the USA. The Australian Museum is also delighted by the recent purchase of its own SEM, a Cambridge Stereoscan 120 from the UK, which, by the time of publication, will be photographing everything from the hairs on spider legs to mineral crystals to fibres in Melanesian fabrics.

The common Sydney aeolid Aeolidiella foulisi feeds exclusively on sea­ anemones. Toprevent being stung by the anemone the aeolid must take a bite then quicklycontract. The white threads from one anemone are defensive threads shot out to deter the aeolid.

392 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 Some nudibranchs feed on arborescent or plant-like bryozoans such as Scupocellaria. These bryozoans often grow on the bottoms of ships, and the nudibranch Polycera capensis probably reached'Sydney, where it is now com­ mon, by travelling, with its food, on the bottoms of ships.

The aeolid Phestilla lugubris feeds ex­ clusively on the bommie-forming coral Porites. The long slender dentic/es on the teeth are used like tooth-picks to scrape the tissue out of the coral skeleton.

The bright red nudibranch Madrella sanguinea is almost impossible to see when on the similarly coloured bryozoan (Mucropetraliella ellerii) on which it feeds. The rake-like teeth tear sections fromthe tough skeleton of the bryozoan.

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 393 to do. It led behind a row of houses to A Dying Need for Wild Places? a narrow corridor of grassland that had been used for many years as a communal tip. And then it hap­ hen I was an alien growing the only place where I could see pened. As I stood absent-mindedly up in a farming community leopard frogs, water snakes and (best on bits of half-buried tin, I was sud­ Win New York State, the of all) Painted Turtles. At eight years denly overwhelmed by a feeling of edge of our backyard was a vast of age, that ecological disaster area nostalgia. With no comprehension of swamp of soggy tussocks and willow with its vestige of wildlife became my what was happening, I just wanted to trees, which for generations had biological universe. Then I grew up, stand there, to somehow make the been used as a graveyard for solid returned to Australia, mentally over­ good feeling last. Hours after upend­ rubbish. Twisted edges of uninter­ dosed on Queensland's rainforests ing memories for an explanation, I pretable rusted things leered up out and fossils, and forgot America's understood: a dormant bit of mental of pools of reddish water among rusted refrigerators; or so I thought. chemistry formed in childhood had squishy islands of swamp grass. Clearly, we are a complex mix­ just been given a kick-start-old sub­ Although my brothers preferred the ture of chance imprinting and in­ urban dumps were good places to backyard and my parents the front stinct. Twenty years after returning to be. Emotionally, I was hooked on yard, to me that mixture of swamp, Australia, while waiting for a sub­ rusted refrigerators-a dump junkie. old bits of roofing iron and rusted re­ urban printer to produce page Although at first amused (I im­ frigerators was a place of eternal mys­ proofs, I strolled from his factory and agined spending the rest of my life tery and discovery-because it was down a back lane. It was something sneaking around other people's backyards in search of rubbish), the wider implications began to bother me. If we're all made of the same stuff, and if we all identify most strongly with environments in which we were raised as children, people brought up in cities will be less able to emotionally identify with the need to conserve natural non-urban en­ vironments. And because we con­ tinue to suck the world to death as if it were an inexhaustible lollipop and to sanctify growth-spiral economies (which can whip the green off trees faster than you can shriek 'whazzat?'), the steadily diminishing areas of wilderness will imprint fewer and fewer childhood minds. As a consequence, future generations will simply care less and less about the Earth's wild things and eventually the emotional need to experience wil­ derness 'in the flesh' will probably die altogether. Which from my point of view is unthinkable; even a dump junkie needs a bit of grass with his rubbish. Consider the facts. The world's tropical rainforests are being de­ stroyed at the rate of 5.9 million hec­ tares per year (about 11 hectares per minute). At this present rate of de­ struction, biologist Edward Wilson has determined that rainforests will vanish by the year 2135, taking with them into extinction somewhere be­ tween three and 15 million species (or maybe more), which is about half the world's total (Nature 323: 193, A rusted-out wreck in the dump near the printers. 1986). Because most humans also 394 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 ARCHER

tend to churn out more than two bones' that it is important to con­ Pelicans making use of our refuse. 'rug-rats' per couple, world popu­ serve biological diversity convince lation size is predicted to double by the growing numbers who don't? species that produce these essential the turn of the century and will First, all would-be Soldiers for chemicals occur in the tropical for­ almost certainly render AD 2135 an Wilderness who feel the urge to do ests now being destroyed. And for underestimate for D-day. This bio­ something should memorise the re­ something to covet (something that logical blitzkrieg has already well ex­ cent article by ecologist Daniel will tickle even the most insensitive ceeded any previous disaster in the Janzen (Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 17: 305- hip-pocket nerve), consider what is history of life. 24, 1986). After totting up available avariciously described as the 'bio­ If each succeeding, more de­ figures, he predicted that: "For at logical wealth' of the world: the vast manding wave of humans that rushes least 90% of the 5-10 million species library of renewable genes and over the world is less sensitive to the that live in the tropics ...the ecologi­ biochemicals.In fact, at least 50 per emotional need for wilderness, how cal future (within the next 30 years) is cent of the world's genetic resources do biologists who 'know in their extinction or restriction to wildland occur in rainforest species, and over reserves ...A seeming goal of hu­ 80 per cent of the tropical species manity is to convert the world to a now being blitzkrieged have not pasture designed to produce and even been named, let alone assessed sustain humans as draught animals." for potential goodies. Although this paper is brutally de­ Personally, although I now realise pressing, it's also full of useful I'm a dump junkie, I'm nevertheless suggestions. in love with biological diversity for its Second on the action agenda for own sake, which is why I became a biotic benefactors is a non­ palaeontologist-you get to wallow emotional prod guaranteed to mobil­ in the ledger book of all Life's ise even the most insensitive comings and goings. Unfortunately, Philistine: good old-fashioned fear having seen the rate at which and greed. beasties seem to be checking out of What is there to fear or covet in this book, I don't share anyone's op­ the business of biological blitzkrieg? timism about the future of Earth's For something to fear, consider what biological diversity. In fact, some­ will be lost as wilderness shrivels: 25 times our perverse indifference to per cent of all life-enhancing drugs the well-being of Life so amazes me "Don't be afraiddear - it's a tree!" obtain their active ingredients from that I'm tempted to skip to the back higher plants, and 50 per cent of all of the book to see how we end.• AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 395 The Industrious Flea By ARTHUR WOODS UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES

" ir," thundered Dr Samuel some can carry the bubonic plague spines give excellent anchorage: it is sJohnson in 1783, "there is no bacillus from rodents to human vic­ notoriously difficult to drag a dog or settling the point of pre­ tims, and the typhus rickettsia. But cat flea from the fur without bringing cedency between a louse and a flea." tastes change of course. The louse some of the host's hairs with it. They It is true that the old bully was really used to be considered a good omen. are, of course, quite wingless, discussing the comparative merits of When Thomas Beckett was mur­ although wingbuds can be seen on a couple of contemporary poets, but dered in Canterbury Cathedral in some pupae. Wings, however, are his analogy was false, for while no­ 1170 his fellow monks were over­ not needed, for fleas are notoriously body loves a louse, fleas are almost come with both grief and joy: grief for excellent jumpers. agreeable. The Reverend William the loss of the Saint, and joy at the One authority convinced himself Kirby and the Reverend William sight of lice-a sign of his piety­ that fleas jump backwards. No other Spence, the 19th-century fathers of swarming from his cooling corpse. biologist has repeated this claim, popular British entomology, had a Fleas (there are 1,500 or more de­ although it is known that, owing to friend-a young woman-who was scribed species in the world, and the distribution of the weight in their confined to bed with a broken limb more than 70 in Australia) are beauti­ bodies, fleas flip over and over in and complained of the attentionslike of fully adapted to their ectoparasitic 'flight' and often land facing the other fleas. "Dear Miss, don't you life on animals with hair or feathers. way. While airborne, one pair of legs fleas?" asked herI visitor, an elderly The head is wedge-shaped with the pokes over the back so that which­ lady. "Well, think they are the antennae tucked away in grooves, ever way it lands on the host it can prettiest little merry things in the and the body behind is smoothly use some leg spines as grappling world. I never saw a dull flea in contoured, with no sharp neck or hooks. In short, the legs on each side my life!" waist, so that the insect can slip resemble those of the three legs in It's an odd distinction-this one through the hairs or feathers without the coat of arms of the Isle of Man; between 'bad' louse and 'nice' flea. hindrance. The body is, however, and the flea could well share that After all, a visit by head lice is not a adorned with spines, often arranged island's motto, which translates as sign of neglect, and they attack only in combs, that point backwards. Thus 'However you throw me, I stand'! people and spread no diseases. the animal has no difficulty in dashing The leaping abilities of fleas have Fleas, on the other hand, are often forwards but cannot easily scurry been exaggerated. While it seems more catholic in their tastes and backwards. On the other hand, the that the flea hunted on the sheet can jump the length of a king-sized bed, the most olympianPu/ex of humanirritans, fleas, the widespread can achieve no more than 300 milli­ metres in the high jump and 900 mil­ limetres in the long jump. Some even claim these figures to be gross exag­ gerations. Naive calculators some­ times scale this up and conclude that a man-sized flea would achieve 100 metres and 300 metres in these events. Similarly Charles Rothschild, Walter Lord Rothschild's brother, whose lifelong passion for fleas was initiated by an Australian helmet flea in a slide collection, concluded after watching the performers in a flea cir­ u., >-...J cus that their efforts were equal to a 6 0a man dragging two dead elephants u., :) round a cricket field. These compu- � V, tations ignore the relatively rapid in- � An electron micrograph of Ctenocephaloides sp. This genus of fleacontains both the crease in the ratio of weight to � cat and dog flea, which were introduced into Australia with their respective hosts. muscle-cross-section area as an ani- � mal increases in size without change � 396 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988

Clean-up after the 1900 bubonic plaguein Sydney. The Oriental Rat Fleatransmitted the plague from rodents to humans .

...J ...J U,J I � �--!a..,;_.;;..-.1.,;,._.,;,; _ ...___.:;�....,;�;a;.--.....;_;__��-...... ;;..;;.... __.,:.;.,;;z_,��

Before the advent of pesticides, ingeni­ ous flea traps were used. A and 8 illus­ trate an 1Bth-century ivory cylinder punctured with holes. A peg smeared with blood was inserted (presumably to attract the fleas) and the whole structure was hung around a person's neck. A simi­ lar trap (C) was also used in the 18th cen­ tury. In this case a piece of wool doused with syrup to attract fleas was held in ... place by a split peg. Another trap (D)­ perhaps as old as the 16th century­ fjj consisted of the skin of a small animal � A attached to an artificial head and worn around the neck. A Chinese flea trap (E) consisted of a tube of bamboo coated with bird lime, enclosed in a wider, slotted tube. Carried inside the folds of E sleeves, the fleas supposedly adhered to the lime. in shape. If the length increases 100 contraction to be an explanation, and A superelastic protein called resilin in times, the cross-section (which is the flea owes its agility to a special, the flea's hind leg releases energy when proportional to muscle strength) in­ superelastic protein called resilin in stretched and enables the flea to jump creases only 10,000 times, but the its hindlimbs. extraordinary distances. weight increases a million times. Re­ The life-cycles of fleas are fairly alising that a man-sized flea would uniform. The adults of both sexes are grubs of at least some flea species simply crumble, Charles Rothschild parasitic blood-suckers on mammals need to eat blood (for the iron it con­ settled for two dead sheep. or birds, and are equipped with tains), but obtain it not directly from A flea's jump should not, how­ crowns of spikes inside the anterior the host but from the faeces or drops ever, be taken lightly. Kim Parker, gut to pierce red blood cells and re­ of undigested blood that the adult using high-speed cinematography, lease their contents. The larvae, on Heas release. When fully grown the found that in the first two­ the other hand, are long, thin, hairy, larvae form pupae inside silken thousandths of a second the acceler­ maggot-like creatures that feed on cocoons that are soon disguised with ation of a jumping flea is about 1.4 the rubbish in the lair or nest of the dust and debris. In time the adult kilometres per second per second host. The adult females of most fleas emerge from the pupae but re­ (140 times the acceleration due to mammalian fleas drop eggs 'over­ main within the cocoon until some gravity), which is about 20 times that board' or lay them in the fur from stimulus-often the footfalls of an of an Apollo moon rocket. Fortu­ where they soon fall. Most fleas that animal-urges them to break free nately for the flea, and sadly for us, its are restricted to birds live more or and look for a host. Consequently surface-area to weight ratio is high so less permanently in the nest, feeding people who enter a room or house air resistance soon brings it back to only when the owners are in resi­ that has been undisturbed for weeks, Earth. The speed with which the dence, and consequently lay their or even months, are often attacked limbs move is far too great for muscle eggs directly into the rubbish. The by swarms of hungry fleas. 398 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 not be confused with that of any and sneezes; however, in the Aus­ other insect. Consequently it is diffi­ tralian outbreaks early this century cu It to determine flea origins, almost all the cases were spread by although most entomologists link fleas. them to the scorpion-flies or the So fleas must be controlled. nematocerous dipterans-the There is no space to discuss modern mosquito-gnat group of flies. Fleas techniques beyond saying that certainly go back a long way and their treating the host alone is useless-its ubiquitous distribution suggests they nesting place must also get attention. originated on the great landmass of A 12th-centurytechnique may, how­ Pangaea before it split, in the late Jur­ ever, be of interest. assic (about 200 million years ago), John Scoggins, a travelling man, into Laurasia and Gondwana. Two entered an English village carrying a fossil fleas from the fish beds at bag of powder from a rotting tree Koonwarra, Victoria, date from the trunk. This he sold, a penny a pinch, Cretaceous (110 million years ago) to the village wives as a sure cure for and are the first possible indication of fleas. On his return a year later he was mammals in Australia. One is of the seized by the wives who threatened pulicid type and possibly similar to him with the Small Claims Tribunal or the sticktight fleas, but the other is a worse. "How did you use it?" he long-legged primitive species, with asked. "We sprinkled it on our antennae not fitting into grooves, beds", they replied. which perhaps lived in the outer fur "There's your problem," said of some unknown marsupial. The John. "You must first catch your ..,, distribution and host preferences of fleas, and rub them in the powder."• � southern flea families provide, inci­ This fossilflea ,. from the Cretaceous fish :;; dentally, evidence for the beds at Koonwarra, Victoria, provides � Gondwanan origin of marsupials. indirect evidence for the existence of o Despite their valuable contri­ mammals in Australia at that time. z butions to the work of palaeontol- ogists and flea-circus proprietors, Fleas' backward-pointing spines make them notoriously difficultto extract from some fleas are pests. The Oriental Rat Xenopsylla cheopis, fur. However, they enable the flea to Flea, which oc­ move about easily on the host animal. curs here and there in Australia, has often been responsible for the trans­ There is one known exception to mission of bubonic plagu� from this kind of larval life: the larvae of dying Black Rats (Rattus rattus) and Uropsylla tasmanica of the other rodents to humans. Infected Pygiopsyllidae, a largely Australian fleas have their gullets blocked by family, are parasitic on dasyurid mar­ the developing bacteria and, as they supials in Tasmania and Victoria. The desperately try to feed, they regurgi­ young larvae have large mandibles tate the bacteria, which are trans­ with which they attack the host's mitted to the victim. Once the skin, and the larger larvae live in bur­ epidemic has begun it may change rows in the skin, with their tails pro­ into the pneumonic form in which truding. the bacteria are spread by coughs The life-cycle of the flea dictates the kinds of birds and mammals that are most likely to be attacked-that is, those that have homes to come home to, even if some of them, like the birds, may be away for months at a time. Most nomadic animals, such as many ungulates, consequently es­ cape their attentions and, it is said, fleas leave horse grooms alone as long as they do not wash too often! Among the birds, those that have protected nests, such as in holes and tunnels, are most likely to be hosts. These include tunnel-dwelling martins, in particular, and also pet­ rels. Snodgrass, the great insect anat­ om1st of the 1930s, remarked that every part of the adult flea's outer skeleton is so distinctive that it could Fleas, which were glued onto various props, were made to 'perform'in flea circuses. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 399 QUIPS, QUOTES & CURIOS

The Harvestman's sperm, which comes from Taxonomic Tool the sex opening on the underside of the male, and Imagine an animal that expels it inside the female's looks like a beer barrel sex opening. In many walking on eight legs. spiders this follows a long Although an arachnid, it is courtship during which, by not a spider, which has two careful stroking, the male parts to its body separated 'persuades' his mate not to by a narrow waist. It is a bite and eat him. harvestman, and it differs Unlike spiders, scorpions from its spider relatives in and other arachnids, several ways. Harvestmen harvestmen mate using a don't have venom or fangs penis, which is extended but simply crush and tear from an opening, usually their prey (small inver­ between the male's hind tebrates) apart with their legs, into a similar opening crab-like nippers. Har­ beneath the female. There vestmen don't have silk; is only a short courtship they have two eyes instead during which the pair gets of eight; and the second into the correct mating pos­ legs, which are the longest, ition. are used as 'feelers'. They remain linked for Harvestmen have stink several minutes, or even 'z glands on either side of hours. The female can store i their bodies that shoot out the sperm in special sacs for � a foul defensive liquid; and months, until it is released � they have something else to fertilise the eggs immedi­ that spiders don't have-a ately before they are laid. Holonuncia sp. uses its large, spiny pedipalps to crush prey. penis. She uses a telescopic egg­ Spiders mate literally at laying organ that stretches tools for use in separating harvestmen. They com­ arms-length using a special from her sex opening to and describing different monly live amongst veg­ swelling at the end of the probe for suitable egg­ harvestman species. etation near the ground or male's pedipalp, a leg-like laying sites in rotting wood From an evolutionary under rotting logs and other appendage at the front of and other moist places. point of view the har­ debris in moister regions of the body. This swelling Spring is the main egg­ vestman's penis is an ad­ the continent. Some works a bit like an eye­ laying season for most vanced adaptation for species live in arid areas of dropper bulb-it sucks up Australian harvestmen, internal fertilisation. The Australia including the although some species lay ancestors of the arachnids Olgas and the caves be­ at other times of the year lived in the sea where neath the ullarbor Plain. when conditions are sperm could swim through Another has been intro­ favourable. the water and fertilise the duced from Europe and Harvestmen's penises eggs outside the female's now thrives in many back­ are equipped with all sorts body. Most land arachnids, yards and gardens. It has of plates, spines, knobs, such as scorpions, spiders become thoroughly 'dom­ bristles and curly bits-the and their kin, evolved com­ esticated' and I have even envy of any Parisienne plicated methods of in­ seen one cleaning up milk marital aids boutique. Their ternal fertilisation using and other scraps of food left function, however, is indirect methods of sperm by my cat. purely practical. They en­ transfer. Harvestmen ev­ -Glenn Hunt sure that the penis has the olved direct sperm transfer Australian Museum correct orientation for using a penis. For this and mating and they prevent other reasons, harvestmen When is an Animal 1-z closely related species are considered to be only a Plant? ::) from interbreeding. distantly related to spiders I z My work at the Aus­ and scorpions. Their All flesh is grass-that is wz ...J tralian Museum has in­ closest relatives are the to say, all animals are de­ (.J cluded a study of mites, some of which have pendent, directly or in­ An SEM photograph of a harvestman penis struc­ also evolved a penis. directly, on plants. Without harvestman's penis (Equitius ture, and it is clear that the Australia is home to green plants the human altus). penis is one of the best many native species of race would die out in a mat- 400 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 Compiled by GEORGINA HICKEY

components, in this case eschewing all gross solid algae, the Glaucophyceae, chloroplasts). We could food. In some cases (some seems to have evolved in describe such phenomena giant clams and the green this way, and no-one is sure in a sequence, starting per­ flatworm), the animals whether the blue-green haps with the growth of must catch new algae every objects in their cells are algae on the grooved hairs generation; yet others, blue-green algae (alga-like of sloths, which may such as the green Hydra bacteria) or chloroplasts. thereby benefit by a little and some seasquirts, carry The choice is almost a mat­ verdant camouflage. (Polar parental algae from one ter of personal philosophy bears in zoos sometimes generation to the next, or dogma, since now we have green fur, attributable thereby paving the way for have quite a body of evi­ to algal cells growing inside co-evolution in the two dence indicating that hollow hair-shafts, but no­ symbionts (that is, both chloroplasts may have one suggests that this could host and alga). evolved originally from be of use to the animals Intracellular algae have bacteria-like algae. under any circumstances.) to be closely integrated Recent studies by Ameri­ Various species of algae with their hosts-spatially can marine biologists on grow on the external skin or and metabolically. One certain protozoans that in­ shell surface of many kinds could say that their pres­ gest algae throw additional of aquatic animals, and in ence is tolerated by the light on such evolutionary some cases they may be host cells only because, by processes. In a recent pub­ mutually beneficial be­ paying metabolic rent (the lication on this subject, cause of the production of products of photosyn­ D.K. Stoecker and others oxygen during the hours of thesis), they offer compen­ (Nature 326: 790, 1987) daylight. Some occur in sation for the incon­ have shown that, while special cavities, while venience of having to much of the cellular sub­ others occur actually inside house them. Ultimately as­ stance of the algae is di­ the cells of the animal. sociations of this sort may gested in the ciliates' food ter of weeks: this is the ulti­ Here the metabolic activi­ lead to such a close inter­ vacuoles (their 'stomachs'), mate disaster that would ties of plant and animal dependence that host and many of the chloroplasts face us in a 'nuclear winter', cells must be very carefully guest cannot live without remain intact and continue when dark clouds would integrated so that neither one another. Like to function for a short obscure the life-giving rays organism outgrows the Philemon and Baucis of period of time, carrying of the sun. Without ad­ other. In a few algal sym­ Greek mythology, their out photosynthesis and equate daylight, green biotic associations (such as lives become so closely en­ thereby contributing to the plants can't live: they need with the green flatworm twined that the two differ­ organic nutrition of the cili­ it as a source of energy to fix Convoluta sp.) the partners ent organisms grow into ate cells. This probably also atmospheric carbon diox­ work so well together that one, and the intracellular happens when other trans­ ide by photosynthesis. But, no other food is needed; in algal symbionts may be in­ parent animals ingest algae: even though we have sun­ the adult stages, at least, distinguishable from cell as long as the chloroplasts shine, it does seem a pity the animals have reached a organelles, specifically in their food remain that we cannot live at least state of Nirvana, living by chloroplasts. undigested, and providing partly as plants do, perhaps the energy of sunlight and A whole subclass of light and carbon dioxide replacing bread and po­ can get into their guts, tatoes by a few hours of some photosynthesis can sunbathing. We can't, of take place. The longer course; but some animals these animals can keep can do almost as much, their ingested chloroplasts with the help of plants­ working, the less need they chiefly algae. have for external food. So, There are several ways in starting from beginnings which this trick can be ac­ such as these, natural complished. Some can be selection would inevitably designated as a kind of z favour those ciliates that symbiosis, while others � can retain more chloro­ might originate by cell-cell � plasts intact and for longer fusion or 'somatic hy­ � periods of time-thus lead- bridisation' (as it is called ing to more and better by genetic engineers), or by This seasquirt (Diplosoma virens) has a symbiotic relationship symbioses. 'organelle adoption' (the with algae. Here it is releasing bubbles of oxygen after a hard -Ralph A. Lewin capture of specific cell day's photosynthesis. University of California AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 401 MorningGlories of the Gulf By DOUG CHRISTIE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

he remote, sparsely populated ness. It extends in a long arc, several area along the southern margin hundred kilometres in length, and is of the Gulf of Carpentaria is the typically about one kilometre in T depth, starting about 300 metres home of the 'Morning Glory', one of the world's most interesting above the ground or sea-surface. Oc­ meteorological phenomena. casionally the cloud base lies within u.J The Morning Glory is a spectacu- 50 metres of the surface and the top � � lar cloud formation that appears of the cloud roll can exceed two kilo­ u shortly after sunrise in the form of a metres. The sudden appearance of a � horizontal, rapidly advancing roll large, well-developed Morning 8 cloud of remarkably uniform thick- Glory cloud line under otherwise clear conditions can present an ex­ Measuring the wind structure ahead of a ceptionally vivid picture in the still of Morning Glory Cloud. dawn. Despite their rather formidable large-amplitude 'solitary waves'. Un­ appearance, Morning Glories sel­ like the more familiar, continuously dom produce rain. They are, how­ oscillating type of wave, solitary ever, invariably accompanied by a waves are localised waves with only short-lived-but often intense­ one isolated crest. These individual wind squall. The motion of cloud ele­ waves arise quite naturally from a ments in the strong up-draughts wide variety of atmospheric disturb­ along the leading edge, and down­ ances such as intense thunderstorms draughts along the trailing edge, and sea-breeze frontal systems. If gives the impression that the cloud is conditions are suitable, these waves rolling backwards as it advances. produce what appears to be a propa­ Morning Glories may occur as single, gating roll cloud, as moist air from isolated, propagating roll cloud for­ near the surface is lifted along the mations, or as a long series of up to front of the wave to the condensation i!: ten individual roll clouds separated level. The cloud that is formed by this� by about ten kilometres and ten to 15 process later evaporates as air des- � minute intervals. cends in the down-draught along the 8 "' On average, Glories travel at 40 trailing edge of the wave. kilometres per hour, but occasionally Solitary waves do not generate disturbance, with its strong wind they travel at over 60 kilometres per Morning Glory roll clouds when the squall and turbulence, is not, how­ hour. They are most frequently seen lower atmosphere is dry. In this case, ever, destroyed by the disappear­ between the months of August and the disturbance is marked at the sur- ance of the cloud line. Instead it ovember. face by a sudden, short-lived wind remains coherent and continues to The area along the southern mar­ squall and by a change in pressure, travel inland, often over substantial gin of the Gulf of Carpentaria­ typically of about one millibar. At- distances, as a clear-air disturbance. particularly in the neighbourhood of mospheric disturbances usually gen- Our recent investigations have Burketown-is unique in that it is the erate more than one solitary wave. shown that Morning Glory waves ex­ only known location where Morning Occasionally these disturbances ap- tend over a much wider area than has Glory cloud formations can be seen pear as a long sequence of waves, previously been realised. North­ with any regularity. A few isolated with the leading solitary wave having easterly Morning Glories originate observations of similar roll cloud for­ the largest amplitude and usually during the evening of the previous mations over other maritime regions producing the most spectacular day over the highlands of the Cape of Australia, the Gulf of Papua, the Morning Glory cloud line. As a rule, York Peninsula. Aided by prevailing Straits of Malacca, northern Ger­ however, most disturbances along winds and topography, the disturb­ many and the mid-western United the southern coast of the Gulf of ance moves south-west, arriving near States have, however, been re­ Carpentaria are accompanied by dawn on the following morning over ported. only a few solitary waves and last for the Burketown area. In their earlier Until recently, the Morning only a relatively short period of time. stages, these disturbances may ex- Glory was regarded as a meteorologi­ Most Morning Glories in the tend as far north asWeipa and at least cal mystery of unknown origin. It is Burketown area appear over the Gulf as far south as Cloncurry. The dis­ now known that Morning Glory roll from the north-east. These usually turbance continues to propagate clouds are visible manifestations of break up and dissipate within the first during the daylight hours inland over 100 kilometres of their inland jour- northern Queensland and along the Morning Glory fromthe air. ney into drier air. The solitary wave southern side of the Gulf of

• Burketown

Morning Glory occurrence in northern Australia 404 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 DIRECTION.,___ OF w·AvE PROPAGATION

fl ---- ight ---- Path ---....I _ ...... - ...... , , INCREASING HEAD WIND DECREASING HEAD WIND AND UP-DRAUGHT I "' AND DOWN-DRAUGHT ' ...... ' .... ' ...... "--... Carpentaria. Observations using sen­ Influence of wind shear on the behaviour of an aircraft during a head-on encounter sitive microbarometers have been with a solitary wave on final approach to the runway. made of Morning Glory waves at Camooweal near the Queensland­ wave from the front during final ap­ Northern Territory border and at proach to the runway. In this case the Boroloola along the south-western aircraft rises above the intended side of the Gulf. Remnants of these flight path under the influence of the disturbances have also been re­ leading up-draught and increasing corded on numerous occasions dur­ c.: headwinds. The normal reaction of a ing the evening of the same day at the � pilot at this point is to decrease thrust Australian National University's � and increase drag in an attempt to re­ Warramunga Research Station near tj turn to the normal glide path. This ac­ Tennant Creek, some 1,000 kilo­ � tion, however, when combined with metres from their origin over the ea the sudden loss of lift due to decreas- Cape York Peninsula. Morning Glory over Burketown. ing headwinds and the down­ Spectacular Morning Glories are draught at the back of the wave, also observed during the early day­ thunderstorm squall lines. Studies of could leave the aircraft perilously light hours from the south and south­ Morning Glory waves can therefore close to the ground, well short of the east. The origins of these southerly be expected to lead eventually to im­ runway threshold. Jet-powered air­ disturbances, however, are not fully proved weather forecasts for the Gulf craft, with their relatively slow re­ understood. of Carpentaria region. These investi­ sponse, are particularly susceptible An extensive investigation of the gations also have an important bear­ to sudden transient windshear dis­ properties of Morning Glory waves ing on our understanding of the turbances of this type, but all types of has been carried out over the last few transport of noxious insects by local aircraft may be affected. years, and it is now recognised that winds, the redistribution and disper­ Low-altitude windshear has solitary waves and related nonlinear sal of atmospheric pollutants, and the been recognised for some time as a wave disturbances occur commonly prediction of wind-shift lines, which serious, but often poorly under­ over much of the Australian region have a strong influence on bushfire stood, worldwide hazard to aviation. and elsewhere. The waves that are control. The Morning Glory solitary wave found in inland areas appear to be One particularly important as­ studies have highlighted a new similar in all respects to Morning pect of the Morning Glory solitary source of windshear and turbulence Glory waves except that they occur wave research program is the recog­ that may help to account for some without cloud. It is now realised that, nition that waves of this type may previously unexplained aircraft acci­ even in the area along the south­ produce intense horizontal and verti­ dents. eastern margin of the Gulf of cal windshears near the ground that It seems unlikely that there is any Carpentaria, solitary wave disturb­ are a potentially serious hazard to air­ other place where conditions are as ances occur more frequently than craft, especially during the landing or favourable as those along the south­ not as clear-air disturbances. take-off stage. The leading up­ eas tern corner of the Gulf of The results of these investi­ draught and trailing down-draught in Carpentaria for the production of gations are of considerable value these disturbances may exceed 1 6 spectacular Morning Glory roll cloud since they provide insight into the knots, and the horizontal wind formations. A visit to Burketown dur­ fundamental dynamical behaviour of component near the surface may ing the spring months to observe and the lower atmosphere. Since solitary vary by more than 30 knots during photograph this unique and often waves have very large amplitudes, the passage of the wave. The most awesome natural phenomenon can they constitute an important trigger­ hazardous situation occurs when an be a very memorable and rewarding ing mechanism for the formation of aircraft encounters a clear-air solitary experience.• AUSTRALIAN ATURAL HISTORY 405 hen explorer Ernest Giles are well known for their suscepti­ was returning across the bility to catastrophic events. WGibson Desert in 1876, he As noted by Giles, Maia are commented on the abundance of approximately rabbit-sized, reaching small wallabies living in the spinifex. 1.5 to 1.8 kilograms when fully He noted that they were exceedingly grown. They are covered with thick good eating and were similar to rab­ woolly fur that was once plucked and bits in size and taste. These were Ru­ spun by Aborigines into string. Abor­ fo us Hare-wallabies, Lagorchestes igines recall the meat as a great deli­ hirsutus. cacy and regard the blood remaining Almost 60 years later in 1930-31, in the body cavity after cooking as O.H. Lippert travelled through the good medicine for old people. Great Sandy Desert repairing wells Maia once lived among the highly along the Canning Stock Route. He flammable hummock-forming also found Rufous Hare-wallabies to spinifex communities on sand dunes be plentiful and collected several and sand plains. Permanent surface specimens for the Western Aus­ water is normally absent from these tralian Museum. In 1933 H.H. areas and the Maia must derive their Finlayson recorded a unique and fas­ moisture from food. Small, crudely cinating account of Aborigines hunt­ prepared squats are made under� ing Rufous Hare-wallabies with fire spinifex and low shrubs in winter, but f near the Musgrave Ranges in north­ in summer they often dig short bur- � ern South Australia. Again several rows to escape the heat. Maia tend to � museum specimens were obtained. sit tight in their squats but, when dis-� The situation then changed rap­ turbed, explode from the cover and � idly for these wallabies, known as bolt with remarkable speed between Maia by Aborigines of the deserts the spinifex hummocks. Unlike A Maia or Rufous Hare-wallaby. Only a along the Western Australian border. many other macropods they do not sm�/1, vulnerable population remains in Information provided by these thump their hind feet in alarm but mamland Australia. people show that the wallabies emit a sharp squeak. This led to them of Maia in the central deserts is un­ vanished from their vast desert tribal being called 'whistlers' by the early certain but, because this area was not lands sometime in the 30 years fol­ colonists of Western Australia. used for pastoralism until recently, it lowing the work of Finlayson and The Maia is one of four described is clear that grazing is not implicated. Lippert. Just when this happened is species of hare-wallabieS, two of Feral cats were present for at least 50 not clear, and it seems to vary from which are already extinct. The reason years before the Maia abruptly place to place. for the rapid and catastrophic decline crashed, so it seems unlikely that A tiny and extremely vulnerable they were a singular cause. Rabbits population of perhaps 50 animals oc­ Aboriginal burning patterns are being used to re-create the Mala's former invaded the central desert at the turn cupying about 50 square kilometres habitat. of the century and foxes followed in in the Tanami Desert is about all that remains. Additional security is pro­ vided by populations on Bernier and Dorre Islands off the Western Aus­ tralian coast, but island populations

z 0 Vlz I Q

u..,z >< 406 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 Typical Maia habitat, showing runways in foreground. the 1930s. They most probably had a rophically destructive wildfire and considerable effect in the south. In create sufficient diversity to maintain the northern deserts, however, their the colony. impact was probably slight as foxes A captive breeding colony in A fresh and exciting look at the world's never reached these areas until re­ Alice Springs is producing Maia for crocodilians and the ways in which they cently and rabbits appear never to re-introduction into a part of their can be conserved. Latest developments have been in high numbers. former range on Aboriginal land. The in zoological research. A common feature of the decline traditional owners are very keen for Subjects range from the chemistry of crocodilians' eggs and sex determination in all areas is its close correlation with this to happen and have provided in embryos, to the ways populations of the time that Aborigines left their enormous assistance and advice in crocodiles and alligators are surveyed country for the missions, stations and the project. This includes the selec­ and studied. Rescue operations where tion of suitable areas for re­ crocodilians are in very low densities, to settlements. Their universal land sophisticated harvestprogrammes where management tool was fire, and it is introduction, the explanation of how crocodiles and alligators are abundant. the changing fire regime that un­ Maia once used these areas, and ad­ There is information on the archosaurial doubtedly affected the Maia. Burn­ vice on the use of fire to create suit­ ancestory of crocodilians, and on the equally intriguing market-place for croco­ ing by the Aborigines throughout the ably patchy habitat. dilian skins and the distribution and status seasons produced a mosaic of veg­ The status of the Maia on main­ of living crocodilians, also the technology etation in different stages of recovery land Australia is at best precarious, for crocodile farming. that ameliorated the effects of large and on Bernier and Dorre Islands it is Fifty contributors come from a range of summer wildfires, produced a shift­ certainly vulnerable. There is no as­ disciplines, yet all are expert in one aspect ing diversity of habitats, and ensured surance that re-introduction will suc­ of crocodilian biology and management. a continuity of shelter and feeding ceed or that the existing Tanami 568pp, areas for the Maia. Fires of 30,000 population will sustain itself through Price $72.00 square kilometres (half the size of the certainty of periodic drought, Tasmania) have occurred in recent predation and perhaps other un­ plus years. known factors. Habitat management certified Available An effort is now under way that and re-introductions are the first postage fromleading employs fire in the remaining Tanami steps by the Conservation Com­ natural history Desert Maia colony to create habitat mission of the Northern Territory in a ($9.00) booksellers or positive effort to prevent the third direct from diversity similar to that produced by the publisher. traditional Aboriginal burning pat­ hare-wallaby of mainland Australia terns. The situation is critical given from becoming extinct.•. the extremely low number of ani­ -Ken Johnson 43 Rickard Road, Chipping2170 Norton mals. It is anticipated that this man­ Conservation Commission NSWAustralia agement will prevent a catast- of the Northern Territory

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 407 POSTER Red-capped Robin

f the five 'red-breasted' Except in odd instances, the div­ There is little about the voice to 0 robins in Australia, the most ision of labour in breeding is the attract attention. Although very dis­ widespread is the Red­ same as for most robins, with the fe­ tinctive, the song and calls are feeble capped Robin, Petroica goodenovii. male performing the bulk of the and frequently insect-like. It is common throughout most of its work. She constructs the nest and in­ The Red-capped Robin is a very range and occurs through most of the cubates the eggs. The male feeds her restless bird. It sits for a few seconds southern half of the continent and as she sits and, on about the fourth nervously flicking its tail and wings, much of the northern, with isolated day after hatching, begins to feed the then darts to a new perch, sits briefly, populations on Rottnest Island off chicks as well. This species is one of and continues moving. The sudden the Western Australian coast, on many that unwittingly plays host to flash of red of a moving male adds a Greenly and Pearson Islands off the the eggs of cuckoos, especially pleasant spot of colour to some of the Eyre. Peninsula in South Australia, Horsfield's Bronze Cuckoo. Waiting drier inland scrubs but it is surprising and on Flinders Island in Bass Strait. It for an unguarded moment, the fe­ how inconspicuous he can remain is absent from Tasmania and Kanga­ male cuckoo sneaks into the nest, until such movement. roo Island. where it deposits an egg to be This robin is one of the tamest The Red-capped Robin is the dry­ hatched by the unsuspecting robins. members of a group noted for this country member of the red-breasted The chick in the photo is a bronze characteristic. Unfortunately, even robins, ranging through most habitats cuckoo, although not identifiable to with its remarkable tolerance of hu­ except wet, dense forests and tree­ species level. mans, it has not stood up to the ad­ less plains and deserts. Most of its Sexual dimorphism in the Red­ vances of habitation around larger suitable habitat is on the western side capped Robin is pronounced. Imma­ urban centres. It could once be found of the Great Dividing Range, but in a ture males look like females but may in the vicinity of Sydney, Melbourne, few places its distribution reaches have some reddish breast feathers. Perth and the other large cities, but it the east coast. It breeds between Older females gain a reddish tinge to is now greatly reduced in number or August and December throughout the crown and many have a pro­ absent from these places.• the southern part of its range and, as nounced pink tinge on the breast. in many other species, the birds dis­ Young, hen-plumaged males may fatracted from The Robins and Flycatchers of Australia by Walter E. Boles (National Photo­ perse after breeding. In the northern mate and rear young, although they graphic Index of Australian Wildlife, 1988). parts of its distribution, it is only a do so with a lesser degree of success Available from the Australian Museum Shop, winter visitor. than older birds. 6-8 College Street, Sydney, NSW, 2000.

408 VOL. 22 0. 9, WINTER 1988 What are Museums for?

ask this question not as a piece of pact of development. And make no manner of investigation in search of abstract musing, nor in search of mistake, we have only just begun to serendipity and some far-distant, as­ definitions. I ask it because all our record properly the extent of our bio­ yet-unknown 'relevance'. Australia is institutionsI of learning and research logical heritage and the complexities too small a community to 'manage are in a state of upheaval. Fundamen­ of its ecology. How can you make ef­ blank cheques', and priorities must tal reassessments are being made: of fective decisions about the exploi­ always be determined, as indeed basic and applied research, of the ef­ tation of kangaroos, rainforests or they are at places like the Australian ficiency of the CSIRO, of the import­ fisheries unless you know what's Museum. ance of publishing papers versus there? Frankly, our ignorance is stag­ Finally, we must not underesti­ teaching students at our universities, gering. mate the importance of education as of the role of tenure. No-one is safe. The second is that a natural his­ duty for the scientist. Many scientists Everyone in science should be able tory museum is a unique focus for regard it as a necessary nuisance, to argue convincingly about why such work. Like a botanical garden something that's done 'on the run'. their work is necessary. Especially in records and keeps plant life, so does But if only a few dozen experts know natural history museums. a museum gather animal and human of a discovery, how can the public be The role of a natural history mu­ data as a reference available to the expected to appreciate the value seum is mixed and much of the re­ whole world. No other institution, (real or potential) of the work? Sci­ search side is unknown to the public. certainly not a university, carries ence is, or should be, part of every­ Most people see a museum as a place such a specific burden. one's culture, not the currency of to visit, where dead animals are kept, Third, a museum responds not secret societies. where displays of body parts try to only to other scientists but to public I have no doubt that the future of show relationships between animal interest, often that of amateur in­ museums can be as glorious as their groups and how they evolved. How quiry. The museum belongs to every­ past. But this will not be achieved many people realise the extent of re­ body and should be open equally to while complacency lingers. It is time search going on in the museum's Nobel laureates and children. for scientists to stand up and be basement, or by museum scientists And fourth, a museum is a home to counted, wherever they work.• away on field trips-be it up moun­ specialist societies, from bird­ tains, under water or in swamps? watchers to Aboriginal groups, want­ Some folk might wonder why ing to marshal! the scientific taxes should be spent on specialists information available to different in worms or reptiles or butterflies, ends. who spend their lifetimes collecting All that without even mentioning specimens and studying their anat­ the obvious functions of education omies and classification. Indeed, and as a place for the occasional visit. there are some harsh people (not There are indeed forces abroad many) who say that scientists have a to limit the activity of our publicly jolly nice time pursuing their funded institutions and, indeed, the interests at our expense in the Natural History Museum in London pleasant surroundings of the labora­ has been reported by New Scientist tory or in the wild. Off they go as possibly having to severely cut its dressed in jeans or rather less, for a research because of poor funding. So few weeks at the Great Barrier Reef how should we who love museums or in Kakadu National Park or even a respond to hard times and likely tropical rainforest. Once there, our critics? intrepid boffins seem to the outsider For a start we must insist that to do little more than many of us do those who do the scientific work are on our holidays. Can we afford such able to speak out convincingly about things in these times of apparent aus­ the worth of what they do. Research terity? people can be a sheltered lot, talking I believe that we must afford only to their mates and rarely even such research, whatever Australia's considering how they would explain economic circumstances, fo( several their raison d'etre to the person on reasons. the Toorak tram. The first reason is that we must Then we must realise that re­ know what flora and fauna are here search cannot be open-ended. One before we can possibly assess the im- can't possibly countenance all

AUSTRALIA NATURAL HISTORY 409

,- I � ...."'

Q..t

Sam and Kougas from Madina Village, New Ireland, sieve archaeological dirt from human settlement from Santa Cruz to Ba/of 1 cave through flywire, recovering very small bones, shells, stone chips and pot­ Tonga and Samoa. Lapita pots are tery fragments. very distinctive, being decorated with bands of very small, fine geo­ metric decoration, impressed with a comb-like toothed stamp and some­ times filled with a white lime paste. This pottery is also found throughout the Bismarck Archipelago, and a few pieces have been found on Manus Island and the north-west coast of the Papua New Guinea mainland. In none of these areas, however, does it mark the oldest sites. Lapita sites all date to between � about 3,400 and 2,000 years ago. "" •• \ SOLOMON - ISLANDS They have been found so far only in �-� ·-r3.�. ' coastal or small offshore island lo­ ·-.SANTA cations. Those in the Bismarcks and ·• CRUZ SAMOA as far east as ew Caledonia contain c,:., ·- o--�­·:. obsidian (a volcanic glass), trans­ FIJI - .·. ported up to 3,000 kilometres from NEW�·: sources on Lou Island, and Talasea CALEDONIA TONGA and Mopir on New Britain. This implies continuing contact beween the people who lived on Lapita sites, a suggestion supported by the close similarities in the pottery whatever its age and location. The Project developed a two­ ' \ pronged attack on the problem. First, we set out to show that Bismarck cul­ v tures older than those making Lapita were developing in directions favourable to the emergence of Lapita cultures, including, in particu- 412 VOL. 22 0. 9, WI TER 1988 1 • • ADMIRAL TY ISLANDS / MANUSISLAND�-;, / 'C::i,, LOU ISLAND ELOAUA ISLAND

0

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Ba/of 2 cave, New Ireland, has been oc­ cupied by people for 15,000 years. The excavation is just visible by the reflec­ tor, lower right. lar, a familiarity with and common use of the sea and its resources. Sec­ ond, if the Bismarcks were the home­ f­ land, we could expect that Lapita I uw sites there would be the oldest, com­ c.. mon, and occurring over a consider­ V, � abJe time period. Four limestone caves and shel­ Lapita pottery sherds from Watom Island, foundby FatherOtto Meyer in 1908-9, and ters along the length of New Ireland now in the Museum fur Volkerkunde, Basel. were excavated. The findings indi­ cate that humans have occupied this levels obsidian from New Britain and come from three species of sharks, all large island for the last 30,000 years. Lou sources. Dates from Balof 2 of which live in coastal waters and The oldest radiocarbon dates are suggest New Britain obsidian was grow to maximum lengths of about on marine shells from the bottom reaching New Ireland between 7,000 three metres. These teeth suggest level of Matenkupkum, a cave about and 8,000 years ago, but was that catching sharks, which has been 15 metres above sea-level. Four subsequently largely replaced by prestigious in northern New Ireland dates, all of them around 32,500 material from Lou. At Matenkupkum until very recently, has a long history. years ago, have been determined for only New Britain obsidian is present, This find, more than any other, shows this site. The shells, some of which and this site also lac;ks the a familiarity with the sea and its deni­ were probably burned, are directly undistinguished pottery that appears zens thousands of years before the associated with flaked stone tools in the upper levels of the other sites. settlement of more eastern islands. and with bones of land animals that Matenkupkum may thus have been A different aspect of Bismarck had been eaten. The shellfish in abandoned earlier than the other Archipelago societies before the de­ these earliest bottom levels are very caves, and preliminary radiocarbon velopment of Lapila is shown by the large and never attain a similar size in dates also suggest this. Four species discovery of settlements on some later, higher levels, suggesting that of mammals (a possum, two rats and more remote islands. Such settle­ we have discovered the initial occu­ a wallaby) come in at various points ment required ocean-going canoes. pation of this locality. in the archaeological sequences, These pre-La pita settlements have so Two of the other three sites­ strongly implying human introduc­ far been found in the Admiralty Balof 2 and Panakiwuk-are tions and supporting further ideas of Group and on Nissan Island, and in younger, with basal levels dating to considerable interaction between each case the occupation occurs 14,000-15,000 years ago. Buang the various islands of the Bismarcks about 1,000 years earlier than the Marabak is not yet dated. Despite in­ and the New Guinea mainland. earliest Lapita pottery. From Nissan, dividual differences, all four New Ire­ Another interesting find at Balof one can see the most northerly land cave sites exhibit interesting 2 is of sharks' teeth in all levels back Solomon Islands, so that pre-Lapita similarities. All contain in their upper to about 7,000 years ago. The teeth occupation of that chain also now AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 413 ,_ J: uL.U 0.

Obsidian flow on Schaumann Island, Talasea. seems very likely. In the Admiralty Islands, pre­ Lapita occupation, dated to more than 4,000 years ago, goes along with the almost total absence of Lapita from the entire island group. This is a most surprising discovery, for much of the obsidian in La pita sites actually comes from Lou Island in this group. This suggests that the obsidian miners were already established when the Lapita potters arrived, and were not interested in acquiring or making similar pots. What they received for their obsidian remains to be determined, as do the questions of what it was used for at Lapita sites and why it was so important. The Project also recorded some 17 new Lapita sites or findspots, more than doubling the number already known from the Bismarcks. The majority of these were on small, offshore islands such as Duke of York , Kandrian and Arawes, with some examples on the larger, more continental islands. The presence of all these sites, which contain obsid­ ian from New Britain and Lou Island, dispels any idea of a line of sites that might mark a rapid migratory pass­ age. It also dispels notions of little contact between Lapita potters and other inhabitants. As well as finding new sites, Pro­ ject teams also returned to re­ excavate at two previously known sites, Watom and Eloaua. On Watom, the presence of several levels of occupation is allowing the identification of an evolutionary se­ quence of Lapita development, Lapita pottery fragmentsfrom New Ireland. which appears to span the period Radiocarbon dates available for just passing through. 600BC-AD100. This site was clearly six of these sites range over a period The Project did, however, dis­ more than a transit camp. of about 1,500 years, starting about cover one piece of evidence con- Re-investigation of the large 1 S00BC. There is now enough evi- elusively demonstrating that people Eloaua site paid off when rich water­ dence from Lapita sites to suggest of this time had links with islands to logged deposits were found at its that they are no earlier here than the west as well as the east. At a large edge. A lens of fresh water (like that further east in the Pacific; but it is also village site on the south coast of Lou found on most atolls) preserved true that Lapita pottery went on Island, amid extensive evidence of house posts, food plants and other being made in the Bismarcks for an obsidian tool factory, was a small organic remains, together with quite a long time, and that there is no bronze artefact. This tool, possibly a broken pots, shell tools and orna­ way it can be seen as the result of a chisel blade, is the first prehistoric ments. rapidly moving group of colonisers, metal object ever found in island 414 VOL. 22 0. 9, WINTER 1988 A Bronze Find in PNG metres of undisturbed ash that had rare collector's item, it was not obvi­ Life on volcanic Lou Island has been deposited 2, 100 years ago. The ous. always been both bountiful and object was carefully stored and The nearest likely sources for dangerous. Bountiful because the brought back to the laboratory for a bronze over 2,000 years ago would volcanic soils grow first-rate gardens; thorough inspection as the first­ be the islands of the archipelagoes dangerous because volcanic erup­ dated prehistoric metal from Papua stretching from the southern Philip­ tions may at any time bury the land­ New Guinea. pines to the western end of New scape metres deep in ash and In the laboratory using an X-ray Guinea. In carrying this small bauble pumice. One such catastrophe hap­ microprobe on a small section of the back to Lou Island there is no need to pened near the present village of metal, it was possible to analyse its invoke long-range sailing exploits Baun, 2,100 years ago. chemical composition. This varied out of island South-East Asia: the Our first evidence for this, in from a copper and silica-rich crust ubiquitous obsidian found thou­ 1983, was at the foot of a five-metre­ weathered onto the outer surface, to sands of kilometres away in the high cliff of volcanic ash. A daily high a metallic copper-tin bronze near islands to the east of Manus was most tide, eating into the land, revealed a the core. Its composition was around likely carried by the same adventur­ layer containing obsidian (volcanic 87 per cent copper, 12 per cent tin, ous sailors from Manus in ocean­ glass) points and blades, pottery and 0.2 per cent lead and trace amounts going sailing canoes. This small bone. of iron, manganese, antimony, silver bronze item is evidence that the Returning for a fortnight in 1985, and gold. But knowing at last that it same ability was exercised in sailing we found that the sea had washed was a true bronze failed to explain its to the fringe of island South-East Asia away several metres of cliff but, after use. Under a low magnification, cer­ 1,500 kilometres to the west. This oc­ careful excavation of the site, a small tain surface areas showed how it had curred 1,600 years before the first ac­ section of the old surface, as it was been shaped by filing or abrasion, count of the same route was when the ash and pumice rained but there was no clear sharp edge recorded, in the journals of the Span­ down, was uncovered. There were that would indicate its purpose as a ish conquistador Alvaro de Saavedra some flat slabs of stone providing a cutting implement. There was no ob­ while on his way to the Molucas, via small pavement, hundreds of obsid­ vious way of suspending it from a Manus, in July 1528. ian points in various stages of com­ cord if it was an ornament. If it had a -Wal Ambrose pletion from raw flakes, two stone use, apart from being an amulet or a Australian National University axes whose wooden parts had long Excavation of Sasi site, Lou Island, where the bronze object was uncovered. since decayed away, part of a pig's jaw, turtle remains, many shellfish and some fish bones. Broken pottery fragments were scattered about, along with charcoal and hearth stones from cooking fires. We also found a small green metal object. It was coated, as were all the finds, in fine volcanic ash. Our instant impression was that this small tabular object must be a copper relic from the last war. But this could not explain its presence beneath five

The bronze object measures only 2.7 centimetres.

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 415 Archaeologist Peter White sorts washed finds of bones and shells at the field camp. This is work for the evening or 'day off'.

Melanesia and is indisputable evi­ dence of contacts with Indonesia or the Philippines. It is, however, as­ sociated with pottery that is decor­ ated with incised lines and applied >­ bits of clay, and is not classic Lapita in uJ: LU c.. any way. The village was occupied V, i Volcanic landscapes at Talasea, one of the main sources of obsidian in the western Pacific.

largely or wholly within the second nology may just as well have been ac­ G 71/ew&;a LCTAl(cL half of the Lapita period, that is, prob­ quired by Bismarck inhabitants in the Bl@·WATCUING ably around 200BC. course of their voyaging in the west­ In terms of the questions asked at ern Pacific 4,000 years ago. What the JOURNEYS the beginning of the Project, it is now Project has not managed to do, how­ clear that the basic developments ever, is show why Lapita pottery is so that lay behind the Lapita cultures similar throughout the area of its dis­ occurred within the Bismarck Archi­ tribution or how Lapita cultures are * Overland New Zealand. 12 days of ornithological highlights. pelago. In that area also we have related to those succeeding them. found a continuity within Lapita cul­ What happened to the vast network * SouthernSeabirds and Stewart ture and evidence of a developmen­ of obsidian distribution, and what Island EHiay live-aboardcruise. tal sequence in the pottery once it lifestyles people later had, also re­ * Chatham Islands. 10 days. starts to be made there. main subjects for further research. Includes Pitt Island. On the other hand, the Project Thus the settlement of the Pa­ * Bird Islands and Birds of the found that Lapita, at its start, was a cific Islands, from the Solomons to Hauraki Gulf. 8-day live­ fully developed industry demon­ Easter Island, a subject that has exer­ aboard cruise. strating a clear mastery of both tech­ cised academic minds for two cen­ * Sub-antarctic Islands. Includes nology and fine decoration. It is thus turies, has been largely solved. To Auckland & Campbell Islands. hard to avoid the view that pottery archaeologists it now appears to be a Limited places on each Journey, so making, at least, was introduced into phenomenon for which expla­ don't be disappointed - book early. nations must be sought in the WRITE TO: the area, presumably from the west. N.Z. Bird Journeys * Pottery manufacture is found in Bismarck Archipelago.• island South-East Asia for at least P.O. Box 5177 The Lapila Homeland Project encompasses a Dunedin 2,000 years before the earliest Lapita. loosely defined group of more than 30 field New ZHland. The economic and cultural evi­ and laboratory researchers in institutions in dence, however, is against the notion Australia, New Zealand and USA. The Project * A division of Southern Heritage was co-ordinated by Professor Jim Allen and (N.Z. Nature Tours) Ltd. of pottery being introduced via a IN ASSOCIATION WITH WWF-NZ managed by Dr Chris Cosden, both of La large-scale migration of people. Trobe University, Melbourne. They originally There is, indeed, no need to believe initiated the project at the Australian National in migrations at all: pottery tech- University.

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quire particular investi­ nature writers begin to use Crown of Thorns phenom­ '·\t lilill gation. The two seem to the new names and in­ enon. Both were compiled FWRAOF merge into one species in terpretations for well­ and produced by the Great AUSTRALIA Qld". A definitive revision known wildflowers. Barrier Reef Marine Park of this genus was imposs­ The next Flora due is Vol­ Authority (GBRMPA). ible, Hewson contends, ume 19, covering part of The booklet is a 42-page because the crinum lilies the eucalypt family feature of Australian Sci­ are genetically unstable, (Myrtaceae); it too should ence Magazine and was and the specimens held by prove a most interesting originally published as part herbaria are poorly pre­ and significant publication. of Issue 3, 1987. The con­ served. -Tim Low tents are a comprehensive Another contributor to overview of the Crown of the volume, Rod Hender­ Thorns phenomenon writ­ son, notes that among the ten by some of Australia's Flora of Australia. flax lilies (Diane/la) the respected marine scien­ Vol. 45. "tendency to hybridize is tists. A confident beginning Hydatellaceae to probably widespread in the is made with a discussion Liliaceae genus and may account for on the reasons for out­ Ed. by Alexander 5. some of the problems in breaks, and an admission George. Australian placing some plants to that there is still no answer. GovernmentPublishing species in the field and The need for continued re­ Service, Canberra, 1987, identifying particular speci­ search is stressed early and xvi + 521 pp. $54. 95. mens· in the herbarium". is a theme repeated Here is an admission that, throughout. Volume 45 of the Flora of despite a detailed revision A second theme re­ Australia is an intimidating of the genus-the product peated often is the tome. In 521 pages of of more than a decade's GBRMPA's unwillingness highly technical prose it research-Henderson is to control Crown of Thorns keys and describes some unable to identify with cer­ The Crown of Thorns outbreaks on reefs other 404 species of Australian tainty some flax lily speci­ Story than those important for lily, ginger and related mens. Video produced by the tourism or science. This is plants. In presentation and Expressions of doubt like Education and Information understandable for two style its 36 contributors these appear throughout Section, Great Barrier Reef reasons. Overseas at­ make no concessions to the this volume, and highlight Marine Park Authority, tempts to clear reefs of the general reader. the problems faced by Aus­ Townsville, 1987, 26min. starfish were expensive, Nonetheless, this is an tralian plant taxonomists. $35.00; plus booklet and failed. Also, partially exciting and very important Among these are the lackof edited by Leon Zann and successful clearings that publication. The eighth so a meaningful species defi­ Elaine Eager, Great Barrier left a residual starfish popu­ far to appear in the Flora nition (and the conflict Reef Marine Park lation could lead to sus­ series, it will eventually be between 'splitters' and Authority, Townsville, tained, endemic outbreaks joined by another 45 or so 'lumpers'), the inadequacy 1987, 42 pp. $3.00. that would cause pro­ volumes to provide a com­ of specimens, problems longed damage to reefs. It is plete record of Australian posed by hybridisation, and About 25 years ago in the a commendable policy of plant life. the failure of many botanists early stages of the Crown of the GBRMPA that, unless Or such is the aim. In fact, to complement herbarium Thorns Starfish outbreak, the outbreaks are proved to Australia's plantlife is so in­ work with experience in the many scientists were at a be human-indi.;:.:ed, it will completely known that this field. loss to explain or, worse not interfere in a natural is no more than a token ob­ In the face of these short­ still, had contradictory event. jective. The Flora volumes comings, the Flora of Aus­ views on the phenomenon. Other sections of the published so far leave obvi­ tralia series is probably The Great Barrier Reef is booklet examine the bi­ ous problems of plant about as good as we could currently experiencing a ology of the Crown of classification unresolved, hope for. Volume 45 is the second series of outbreaks, Thorns Starfish, the history and Volume 45 is no excep­ largest and most significant but at least scientists can of outbreaks, and evidence tion. so far, and includes the de­ now say something defini­ for outbreaks being either Consider, for example, scription of an unpre­ tive about it. They certainly human-induced or natural botanist Helen Hewson's cedented 48 new species, know a lot more about the phenomena. Most interest­ comments about crinum as well as many new var­ starfish than they did 25 ing are the discussions on lilies (Crinum species): ieties and subspecies and years ago. The Crown of the variety of ways being "there are two large com­ even a few new genera. Its Thorns Story (in booklet investigated for controlling plexes (C. flaccidumand C. impact will be felt in the and video form) provides outbreaks (particularly bio­ angustifolium) which re- natural history arena as up-to-date accounts of the logical controls), and new

418 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 museumaustralian geological evidence for fish. Together, they are an past outbreaks. ideal resource for an eco­ Conspicuously lacking in logical case study in the the booklet is material by classroom. If you are Professor Robert Endean, unsure about which to buy, For Specialist University of Queensland, go for the booklet. It pro­ one of the earliest partici­ vides more information Natural History pants in the Crown of than the video and is a bar­ Thorns debate. Most of the gain at only $3.00 (plus 30 Books marine science establish­ cents postage, available ment has disregarded from the GBRMPA). But Endean's controversial hy­ both are recommended. potheses on the Crown of -William Gladstone Thorns phenomenon. De­ spite this, some of the AUSmAl.11>1S SEASHORES Commonwealth's research The Top End of Down money has funded Pro­ Under fessor Endean's research Peter Jarver. Thunderhead into predators of the star­ Photographies, Darwin, JI>� fish. An update on his 1986, 2nd ed., 119pp. findings would have been a $29.95. worthwhile contribution to this publication. During his eight years in The video accompany­ Darwin, photographer­ ing the booklet was pro­ author Peter Jarver has L.....111. duced by the GBRMPA's managed to capture the Education and Information beauty of the Top End Service. It contains the when at its best: during the Order form for books including those same material that is pre­ Wet. It's a time most of us reviewed in this issue sented in the booklet. would not ordinarily visit Scientists from the there, so this book is re­ Quantity Title Price GBRMPA, James Cook freshing in its focus. It con­ University and the Aus­ sists of three parts: Darwin, The Australian Museum tralian Institute of Marine Kakadu National Park and Environment Series: Science are interviewed in 'Cloud Mountains of the Australia's Great Barrier Reef $14.95 scenic laboratory settings Top End'. I found the latter Australia's Seashores $14.95 the most fascinating, com­ about their research into The Illustrated Dictionary of the Crown of Thorns prising a collection of Jarver's best storm and Australian Birds by Common phenomenon. All speak Name $24.95 well, although the Director cloud photos. Very dra­ could have used less tech­ matic. But then we are Flora of Australia Vol. 45 $54.95 nical jargon. Underwater looking at the Top End. The Crown of Thorns Story footage of the starfish cuts The emphasis is on im­ Video $35.00 in throughout the story, ages. There is just enough video plus booklet $38.00 and there are some won­ text to provide a back­ The Top End of Down Under $29.95 derful shots of larval Crown ground of information. Postage & Handling will be an additional charge of Thorns. Some may feel the book is The video is presented in too specific in the choice an efficient, yet detached, of areas covered; indeed Please charge to: monologue. It is a pity the this vague geographical 0 Bankcard O Mas1ercard O Visa O American Express y GBRMPA did not cast an area is generally con­ Card Number Expir Dare / / enthusiastic scientist as sidered broader than ame Jarver's coverage. Never­ presenter. An eloquent Address scientist's excitement and theless, it gives us a taste of curiosity about nature the tropics and that is an at­ readily captures any tractive lure. If it doesn't at Signamre audience's attention. least tempt you to visit, it is Post to: The Australian Museum Shop, The booklet and video the perfect coffee table P.O. Box A285, Sydney South, NSW 2000, are valuable presentations book for avid armchair 6-8 College St, Sydney. Phone: (02) 339 8350 travellers. on current knowledge of Send a letter with these details if you don't want to cut the magazine. the Crown of Thorns Star- -Fiona Doig

AUSTRALIA NATURAL HISTORY 419 byTIMLOW I AUSTRALIAN WILD FOODS

Darwin on work experience. The On the Liru Trail desert was as new to him as to me. My second encounter was more enlightening. It came two days later, visited Ayers Rock for the first time after contacting the ranger station, last year and found the plantlife so when four Pitjantjatjara women, enthralling that I never found time national park rangers, led me along toI climb the Rock. Almost 500 plant the famous Liru Trail, which runs to species grow in the national park, an the base of Ayers Rock. I was awed by extraordinary variety for a stretch of these desert women. They strolled ° desert. into the 40 heat without footwear or Near the Rock live Pitjantjatjara water, while I lumbered along be­ Aborigines, speaking their own hind, embarrassed by my heavy tongue and maintaining many of their waterbottle. traditional ways. I hoped for some These women proved to be ex­ chance to make contact with these tremely shy. They knew almost no people, to learn first-hand about English, and I was shocked by the their desert foods. ·cultural chasm dividing us. I have My first opportunity came in the travelled through many countries of Olgas when an Aboriginal ranger the world, have stayed in remote strolled by. I asked him about the Borneo villages, but have never felt Sandalwood or Plumbush fruits so distanced from other human be­ (Santa/um lanceo/atum) I was photo­ ings, and in my own country. I could graphing. not fathom the body language of "Don't ask me!" he replied. "I'm Mulga "apples", foundon the foliageof Edible red lerp is found on the twigs of a steak and vegies man. Apples and Mulga trees, are one of the desert's more Mulga. Tiny sap-sucking insects live be­ oranges are all I know about." It tran­ extraordinary foods. They taste like neath each red lump. spired that he was just down from dried apples.

3 0 ..J � ;::: .;; 0.... 0 a..I 420 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 these people, much less the words they spoke. To learn about their foodplants was difficult. For the most part they could only point and say "bush tucker". They understood few of my questions and I could grasp little of what they said. Sometimes I could not decide if they were speaking Pitjantjatjara or English. Once I pointed to a small leafy spurge (Euphorbia species) and asked if it was used as medicine. I knew that some desert tribes used spurge sap to remove warts. They seemed to confirm this usage, saying what sounded like "ointment, oint­ ment", until I realised with a jolt that their actual words were "Emu food, Emu food"-the spurge was merely a food of Emus. Our outing was only brief­ before long their feet became scorched and we had to return. On The Mulga woodland at Ayers Rock looks bleak and inhospitable, but it is a rich source of wild foods. the way back they drank most of my water. But I was content for we had agreed to go out again the next morn­ ing. On our second walk they showed me just how rich in wild foods a stand of Mulga (Acacia aneura) can be. Mulga is the common outback wattle that forms vast, bleak thickets in which few other plants can grow. A stand of Mulga looks an unlikely place for wild foods, yet it was here the women best flaunted their skills. They beckoned me to a Mulga stem covered in shiny red lumps-the sugary red shells of a tiny sap-sucking bug, Mulga Lerp (Austrochardia acaciae). In the foliage they pointed out Mulga "apples" -small green galls formed by wasp larvae. Most kinds of tree galls taste horribly as­ tringent, but these were slightly sweet and reminiscent of dried apples. On the lower Mulga twigs the Sweet sticky gum oozes from the stems of Mulga trees after insect damage. women found lumps of glistening gum, candy-hard outside, syrupy­ At a different time of year I would also (Portulaca oleracea), two of the sweet within. These precious sticky have seen the edible fruits of the desert's most important foods. After treats ooze from Mulga branches fol­ Pale-leaf Mistletoe (Amyema rain these small plants produce copi­ lowing insect attack. maideni1), which hangs limply from ous tiny seeds that Aboriginal The Mulga trees were not in seed, Mulga boughs. In all, five different women also ground to flour and or no doubt I would have been foods, four of them sweet, on one baked as loaves. shown another important food. The species of tree! While photographing the Pig­ small but highly nutritious Mulga But this was not the end of the weed I was reminded of a comment seeds were traditionally pounded to lesson. In open spaces between the written by colonial botanist Joseph flour and baked as cakes. Dried stands of Mulga I was directed to Maiden in 1889: "One would sup­ Mulga seeds comprise 20 per cent clumps of Woollybutt Grass pose that so small a seed would protein and almost ten per cent fat. (Eragrostis eriopoda) and Pigweed scarcely repay the labour of collect-

AUSTRALIAN ATURAL HISTORY 421 r------·I I �.o JkTT�CID I u>JJ.I11J[[p)ily .LJ.&..lV � I ...,,,..,..-,-,----,----,---, I I I I I I I ing", although he conceded that the wood shrubs grew, their blue-grey I I Aborigines "get in splendid con­ drooping leaves shimmering in the I I dition on it". heat. During summer these shrubs I ___,.;._ ...__ I Nutrition tests by Sydney Univer­ produce tasty purple fruits, relished I I sity show why. Pigweed seeds by the Pitjantjatjara (and by white I I outscore wheat and rice on almost rangers), although Emus take much I I every nutrient. They yield 18.5 per of the crop. Sandalwood shrubs I cent protein, compared with 11 .5 per seem to need the extra run-off from I I cent for wholemeal wheat and only the Rock, for I never saw them grow­ I I 6.9 per cent for brown rice. ing in the surrounding countryside, I I Woollybutt seeds are just as impress­ although they were common in the I I ive, scoring 17.4 per cent protein, Olgas along gully lines. I I and an iron content of 31 milligrams One other fruiting shrub grows at I I per 100 grams, compared with a the base of Ayers Rock, or rather, on I mere 3.2 milligrams in wholemeal the Rock itself. This is the Small­ I .__._a__; I flour. By any reckoning, these are im­ leaved Rock Fig (Ficus p/atypoda), a I pressive foods. scrawny shrub or sprawling tree that I OUT NOW I Growing alongside the Pigweed produces hundreds of sweet, gritty I Simply Living is a magazine I were a number of tar vines figs. Aborigines in some desert areas I with your best interests at heart. I (Boerhavia species), small herbs with dried its small figs for future use, but I As we approach the 1990's, much I dark-green triangular leaves. I know during our walk we gladly ate all we I of that interest centres on I from Aboriginal food lists that the could find. I our relationship with our I taproots of these were widely eaten, My tour of the Liru Trail was pri­ I environment, our health, and so I was surprised that the oldest vately arranged, but public walks are developing world consciousness. I I woman shook her head dismissively organised almost every week. Thou­ Don't miss Volume 3 Number 5, I when I pointed out one of these. But, sands of visitors from Australia and I out now... I I I after a brief disagreement with one of around the world have now been in­ I FEATURES: her colleagues, I was told that tar troduced to Pitjantjatjara foods. For Aboriginal Desert Art I vines were in fact used as foods "in me it was an exceptional experience, I olden times". This was a salutary and I hope one day to return for an I The Danger of War Toys I lesson, for it showed that, despite the extended desert walk. I hope the I Vaccinations - I obvious expertise of these women, women have forgiven me for my I A campaign of Fear I some of their traditional knowledge clumsy and, no doubt, offensive at­ has been lost. tempts at communication. Next time I The latest in Solar Energy I The Liru Trail winds to a close at a I shall make sure I have mastered I Genetic Engineering 1 bitumen road close to Ayers Rock. some Pitjantjatjara words, and es­ I in Australia I We made the short walk to the base pecially their rules of social etiquette. I The Beta-Carotene I of the Rock where stands of Sandal- I owe them that much, at least.• Cancer connection I I I I Citizen Diplomacy I between east and west 1 I ------I Simply Living I I Subscription Offer! I I 6 issues (1 year) - $27 I 12 issues (2 years) - $50 I I Please send me ...... issues of Simply Living. I I I enclose cheque/money order for $...... I I (payable to Simply Living) or please I I debit my credit card. I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Signature: ...... : ...... Exp. Date: ...... 1 Name (Please Pnnt) ...... I : ss .. 1 : · ����� .. :::::::::::::::::::::: �;����;:·.:·.·.:·.:::::::: I · I I Simply· Living Magazine, I I PO Box 124, Terrey Hills, I NSW 2084 Phone (02) 450 2644 I Fax (02) 450 2775 I L ------· Sandalwood fruits are purplish black with a ring at the base and a large round seed. 422 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 .,,.,.,. '. . ., {

By FORD KRISTO JERVIS BAY NATURE RESERVE

o some they are solitary and majestic; to others they seem grotesque and hideous. Either way,T they are certainly both notice­ able and remarkable. The Boab trees (Adansonia gregorii) of north­ western Australia stand out as fantas­ tic and bizarre plants. Their appearance is unlike any other tree found in our continent. Their pres­ ence confers a surreal and perhaps extraterrestrial feeling to our rugged north-western landscapes. They were discovered by Captain (Sir George) Grey who initially be­ lieved them to be disease-affected examples of some other species. Worldwide there are only three known species of Adansonia: A. gregorii is endemic to Australia, oc­ curring in the hot humid to hot sub­ humid climatic zones; A. digitata is found on the African continent; and the 'Monkey Bread Tree' (A. madagascariensis) is found in Madagascar. In Africa, the tree is known by the common name of 'Baobab', but in Australia the trunc­ ated name 'Boab' is more commonly used. The term 'Bottle Tree' is also used for obvious reasons; and for less obvious reasons, with the bush aesthete's enigmatic insight, the Soab is also called the 'Dead Rat Tree'. The seasonally leafless boughs of the Boab are evidence of its adap­ tation to harsh, drought-like con­ ditions typical of the northern Australian dry season. Being decidu­ ous, the Boab avoids water stress that might otherwise occur in the dry season (winter) by transpiration through the leaf stomates. After 2 shedding its leaves in the dry season i'i2 it utilises stored nutrient reserves and � available ground water until con- o ditions are again favourable. In late u. spring to early summer, the was made into a bread or mixed with Cream-coloured Boab blossom. monsoonal wet season provides the water as a drink or eaten dry. They necessary conditions for leaf growth. also exploited water stored in hol- scenes are traded for the tourist dol­ Af ter fertilisation the large, lows sometimes found at the bases of lar. cream-coloured Boab blossoms de- branches. Moisture was also taken The Boab gourd isn't the only part velop into gourd-like, woody fruits. from the tree by making holes in the of the tree to go under the knife. The The pith of these fruits is edible, the trunk and chewing the roots. The bark has the quality of retaining in­ ta t and texture being somewhat wood is soft, fibrous, porous and scriptions for long periods of time. � � _ _ ac1d1c like a tart, dried apple. The tree spongy. The wood fibres were used Some inscriptions date back to the was a resource for the food economy to make cords and ropes. Today, sou­ 1820s. Sir Augustus Gregory (in of traditional Australian Aborigines in venir Boab fruits etched with designs whose honour the Australian species the north-west. The powdered pith depicting wildlife and outback was named), on his expedition in 1855-56, cut a message into a Boab for members of his party who had missed a rendezvous on the Victoria River. The inscription read "Letter in oven" (a camp oven was buried at the base of the tree). Once historical bulletin-boards for early explorers, their wide trunks now tempt peripa­ tetic, insensitive, graffiti-carvers. Fu­ ture generations will no doubt stand behind barriers to observe and mar­ vel at the heavily-inscribed trunk of one of these trees and attempt to de­ cipher the profound significance of the cryptic "R.J. L G.P. '78 True". Both the age and the dimensions of these trees can reach incredible extremes. One African specimen has

Aborigines powdered the pith of the Boab fruitand made it into bread. Eaten raw it tastes like a tart, dried apple.

428 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 The message on this Boab tree, north of the Prince Regent Rive,rin the Kimberley re­ gion of Western Australia, reads "H.M.C. MERMAID 1820". It was carved by mem­ bers of Philip Parker King's hydrographic survey of that date.

been dated at over 5,000 years old. African Baobabs can attain a height of 18 metres and a trunk diameter of nine metres. Australian specimens attain a height of nine to 12 metres and a trunk circumference of 15.7 metres; however larger trees are no� uncommon. A huge cavity in the base of the trunk of a Boab near Wyndham, north-western Australia, was large enough to be used as a tem­ porary lock-up by the local police until the 1890s. There is a similar 'prison tree' at Derby, Western Aus­ tralia. According to an Aboriginal legend recounted by the Wadaman people of the orthern Territory, Boabs were actually human beings in times past. The myth tells of how a young child pricked the ear of a Dingo, whose subsequent yelp un­ leashed an almighty cataclysm. As a result, all the lowland people of the tion.) Another Aboriginal legend The prison tree at Derby, Western Aus­ area were changed into various types maintains that the Boab was a very tralia. of plants and animals. People who proud and arrogant tree. Apparently had changed into Boabs and other this must have been unacceptable ground today are supposedly its plants stopped 'dead' in their tracks, behaviour, stepping way beyond the roots. Coincidentally, an Arabian instantly inanimate. (Which almost realms of Dreamtime decorum. The legend runs along the same lines ex­ begs the question, is being lignified, unfortunate offending Boab was cept, in this case, it was the devil who dignified? Nowadays, only the funda­ rammed into the earth head-first by was largely responsible for the un­ mental, vegetarian reincarnationist an unnamed, mythical being, and fortunate tree's altered sense of might occasionally stray in this direc- what we see of the tree above- perspective.•

AUSTRALIA ATURAL HISTORY 429 f QR UM By BILL WILLIAMS Zoology DeP-artment, UniversitY, of Adelaide

menting the identity and distribution of Australian plants and animals. In other words, the ABRS was planned as a focal point for the documen­ tation of Australian biodiversity. It could not hope to do the primary hewing at the coal-face so painstakingly being undertaken by Australian biologists in museums, herbaria and elsewhere; rather, it hoped to support, sustain, expand, collate and (gently, as occasion de­ The manded) provide for more direction in Australian taxonomic work. ABRS To do all of this, a small group of biologists with appropriate technical support staff was set up in Canberra. The ABRS is co-ordinated by the Bu­ reau of Flora and Fauna. Day to day events are under the control of the director, but the good ship as a whole ForWhat is steered by an advisory committee, which reports to the Minister for the Arts, Sport, the Environmnent, Tour­ ism and Territories. The advisory does it committee is itself advised about publications by the Fauna and the Flora editorial committees. To avoid misunderstanding, it must be acknowledged that the Stand? ABRS has by nomeans done enough, as measured against original hopes and the tasks before it. Like all gov­ ernment departments, it has suffered from recent financial cut-backs, with predictable and inevitable conse­ quences. Less money has meant fewer publications, smaller grants ompared with many other tific institutions. With this realisation, and a thinly spread staff countries, Australia has a large the Commonwealth Government in attempting-sometimes without number of plant and animal 1973 created the Australian Biologi­ avail-to continue to implement species,C many of which are unique. cal Resources Study (ABRS). policies begun in the first flush of Yet the size of the scientific com­ A large number of professional bi­ ABRS life. Remarks of this sort, how­ munity researching our flora and ologists, as well as an increasing num­ ever, should not detract from some fauna is rather small. The Register of ber of amateur ones, know about the major accomplishments. Taxonomists and Biogeographers ABRS. Well, at least they have heard The ABRS has instituted a system (Bureau of Flora and Fauna, 1987) for of it, and some even know what the of grants supporting research on the Australia lists 449 zoologists and 454 acronym ABRS stands for. But taxonomy of particular plant and ani­ botanists. A recent survey conducted surprisingly few professional biol­ mal groups that otherwise would not in the United States by the Associ­ ogists, and fewer still amateurs, have have been studied. These grants ation of Systematic Collections esti­ any perception other than a hazy one have led to the publication of more mated 8-10,000 individuals (about of the ABRS. And that,in my view, is a than 500 books and primary research 30 per cent of which were botanists) pity, given its importance. articles. Vegetation maps at engaged in equivalent pursuits. Add Its objectives, briefly, are: to pro­ 1:1,000,000 scale have been pre­ to this the number of endangered vide a system of grant support for pared for over half the continent. In­ species, many faced with the threat taxonomic (classification) and formation on over a million mammal, of extinction in the near future, and distributional studies; to commission reptile, amphibian and plant speci­ the task of documenting and re­ and publish handbooks on the flora mens has been included in the Bio­ searching our flora and fauna appears and fauna of Australia; and, by taking logical Information System database daunting. This task is clearly beyond advantage of recent computer tech­ distributed throughout museums the ability and resources of our scien- nology, to develop databases docu- and herbaria in Australia. As part of 430 VOL. 22 NO. 9, WINTER 1988 the ABRS program, nine volumes of (and undescribed) species play key have now been published or are in the Flora of Australia have been pub­ roles in the functioning of progress. The first volume (1983) lished and the series will continue as ecosystems, yet the often scant catalogued our amphibian and rep­ a publication that systematically literature on them is dispersed, in tile fauna; subsequent volumes cata­ catalogues the Australian flora. many languages, and often relatively logued the ants and wasps, beetles The ABRS has also published a inaccessible. The Zoological Cata­ (part 1 ), spiders (part 1) and pseudo­ series of books derived from its logue of Australia was conceived as a scorpions. Volumes on mammals, database that scientifically docu­ concise, computer-based data bank dragonflies, stoneflies, caddisflies, ments groups of the Australian fauna containing current taxonomic and springtails and mayflies are in press, (Zoological Catalogue ofAustralia) as biological knowledge of the Aus­ and other volumes in preparation in­ well as a ten-volume zoological treat­ tralian fauna to serve as a clude those on sponges, fishes, non­ ise of the whole Australian fauna nomenclatural and bibliographic di­ marine molluscs, starfish, sea (Fauna of Australia). rectory for further work. A published urchins, beetles (part 2), bees, true The described fauna of terrestrial, database like the Catalogue is as use­ bugs and birds. marine and inland aquatic environ­ ful to wildlife managers, environ­ Data for inclusion in the Cata­ ments of Australia numbers some mental consultants and naturalists, as logue are assembled in four separate 150,000 species in about 4,000 fam­ it is to taxonomists and ecologists. files. The standard Catalogue book ilies. A similar number of species re­ Several volumes of the Catalogue format is generated by combining in­ mains undescribed. Many described covering more than 10,000 species formation from all four using a corn-

Senator Graham Richardson, Minister for the Arts, Sport, the Environment, Tourism and Territories, seen here launching fauna of Australia with Margaret Cameron, Chairman of the ABRS Advisory Committee, and Tony 8/unn (left), Secretary of the Department.

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 431 puter integration program. The book all Australians is enormous. tinue to publish as fast as possible form of the Catalogue is 'written' by The incomplete state of our further volumes of the Flora, Cata­ the computer. This system of prep­ knowledge of the Australian fauna logue and Fauna. The rate of publi­ aration was developed to allow rapid can be seen by examination of any of cation, of course, will be determined updating of databases as information the invertebrate volumes of the by funding allocations, but the grow­ becomes available. As well as ap­ Catalogue. For a large part of this ing importance of these publications pearing in book form, the database fauna, the only relevant literature must provide solid testimony of the can be accessed through the use of consists of the original description; value of the ABRS to the Australian key standard search terms. These in­ the only known specimens are those community and, thereby, attract clude terrestrial and marine geo­ in the original type series. Clearly, continuous government funding. Be­ graphical areas, political areas, work on the biology of these species cause of present fiscal exigencies, life-history characteristics, feeding and descriptions of the remaining there are also plans to concentrate + habits, community and habitat de­ 1 so,ooo undescribed species are ABRS grant-funding more on groups scription plus vegetation types. As a immense challenges for Australian of fauna and flora of known ecologi­ consequence, a list of species names biologists. cal, environmental or economic im­ with particular taxonomic, geo­ The Fauna of Australia has differ­ portance than on taxonomically graphical and ecological attributes ent objectives from those of the unknown groups of less determinate may be extracted on request. En­ Catalogue. It is intended as a major importance. And finally, the ABRS as­ quiries regarding use of the database reference source for scientists, fauna pires to the greater support of Aus­ should be directed to the Bureau of authorities, teachers,students and all tralian biologists. Flora and Fauna. This kind of naturalists. Volume 1 A, dealing with The success of these plans and as­ database, combining nomenclatural, general background topics, has just pirations, of course, is dependent bibliographical, geographical and been published; subsequent vol­ upon the continued support of the ecological information, is unique to umes, dealing with major animal Commonwealth Government. Let us Australia. No other country has such groups, will be published between hope that our political leaders con­ a program or information source. now and 2001, although not in nu­ tinue to be as wise as those visionary Properly funded and supported, the merical sequence. politicians who were responsible for potential benefits of this database to Obvious future plans are to con- the formation of the ABRS. • FAUNAof AUSTRALIA The Fauna of Australia is a project of the Bureau of Flora and Fauna which will provide an encyclopaedic reference to all known terrestrial and aquatic animals of Australia. The Fauna will present, in ten volumes of approximately 800 pages each, a comprehensive account of the current knowledge of the biology, taxonomy, evolution and history of discovery of the animals which live in Australia. This information will be set in a global context. Volume 1 A is the companion for all future volumes in this magnificent series and includes a selection of essays providing background information on Australia. The production of the Fauna of Australia reflects the deep and varied interests of all Australians in their magnificent and unique island continent.

This prestigious series will serve as a major reference text for scientists and amateur naturalists, for students and the community at large.

AGPS Phone Shop 008- 026148 (toll free) on line 24 hours 7 days a week. Canberra customers call 95 4861. Casebound Edition Cat. No. 87 0967 9 $44_95

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