DOCSLIB.ORG

Consequences of Weed Invasion and Control on Plant-Bird Interactions and Bird Communities

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Consequences of Weed Invasion and Control on Plant-Bird Interactions and Bird Communities CONSEQUENCES OF WEED INVASION AND CONTROL ON PLANT-BIRD INTERACTIONS AND BIRD COMMUNITIES A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree Doctor of Philosophy from UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG by Carl R. Gosper, B. Nat. Res. (Hons) DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 2004 CERTIFICATION I, Carl R. Gosper, declare that this thesis, submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution. Carl R. Gosper 10 September 2004 C.R. Gosper Weed invasion and plant-bird interactions Table of Contents List of Figures...................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ x Abbreviations and conventions............................................................................................ xi Abstract.. ............................................................................................................................ xiii Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... xv CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION...................................................................... 1 1.1 PLANT-ANIMAL INTERACTIONS..................................................................................... 3 1.2 INVASIVE SPECIES AND THEIR ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS .................................................. 3 1.2.1 Disruption of plant-animal interactions by biological invasions .......................... 4 1.2.2 Effects of invasive plants on plant-animal interactions and fauna communities .. 4 1.3 MANAGEMENT OF INVASIVE PLANTS AND ITS EFFECTS ON PLANT-ANIMAL INTERACTIONS AND FAUNA COMMUNITIES ................................................................. 6 1.4 INVASIVE PLANTS IN AUSTRALIA.................................................................................. 7 1.4.1 Interactions and effects of invasive plants on birds in Australia........................... 7 1.5 STUDY SPECIES – BITOU BUSH (CHRYSANTHEMOIDES MONILIFERA SPP. ROTUNDATA)..8 1.5.1 Invasive C. monilifera in Australia ....................................................................... 8 1.5.2 Ecology of C. monilifera..................................................................................... 10 1.5.3 Effects of C. monilifera invasion on biodiversity ............................................... 11 1.5.4 Control of C. monilifera...................................................................................... 11 1.6 THIS STUDY ................................................................................................................. 12 1.6.1 Thesis outline ...................................................................................................... 14 CHAPTER 2. FRUIT CHARACTERISTICS OF CHRYSANTHEMOIDES MONILIFERA AND A COMPARISON WITH CO-OCCURRING NATIVE PLANT SPECIES…….......................................................................................................................15 2.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 17 2.2 METHODS .................................................................................................................... 17 2.3 RESULTS...................................................................................................................... 19 2.3.1 Morphology......................................................................................................... 19 2.3.2 Nutrient content................................................................................................... 19 2.3.3 Periods of inflorescence and fruit production ..................................................... 21 2.4 DISCUSSION................................................................................................................. 22 2.4.1 Morphology......................................................................................................... 22 2.4.2 Nutrient content................................................................................................... 24 v C.R. Gosper Weed invasion and plant-bird interactions 2.4.3 Periods of inflorescence and fruit production ..................................................... 24 2.4.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 26 CHAPTER 3. PLANT FOODS OF BIRDS IN COASTAL NSW AND PREDICTED IMPACTS OF CHRYSANTHEMOIDES MONILIFERA ON PLANT-BIRD INTERACTIONS ................................................................................................................ 29 3.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 31 3.2 METHODS .................................................................................................................... 32 3.3 RESULTS...................................................................................................................... 33 3.3.1 Plant visitors........................................................................................................ 33 3.3.2 Bird diets............................................................................................................. 34 3.3.3 Temporal patterns of plant resource availability................................................. 35 3.4 DISCUSSION................................................................................................................. 36 3.4.1 Study biases ........................................................................................................ 36 3.4.2 Plant-bird interactions......................................................................................... 37 3.4.3 Predicted effects of C. monilifera invasion and control...................................... 42 3.4.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 45 CHAPTER 4. INVASIVE BITOU BUSH (CHRYSANTHEMOIDES MONILIFERA SSP. ROTUNDATA) FRUITS AS FOOD FOR BIRDS IN EASTERN AUSTRALIA ........... 61 4.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 63 4.2 METHODS .................................................................................................................... 64 4.3 RESULTS...................................................................................................................... 64 4.3.1 Dispersers............................................................................................................ 65 4.3.2 Predators ............................................................................................................. 67 4.3.3 Pulp consumers ................................................................................................... 67 4.4 DISCUSSION................................................................................................................. 67 4.4.1 Bird species that use C. monilifera fruits............................................................ 67 4.4.2 Fruit and crop characteristics of C. monilifera.................................................... 69 4.4.3 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 69 CHAPTER 5. THE EFFECT OF CHRYSANTHEMOIDES MONILIFERA MANAGEMENT ON THE RATE OF REMOVAL OF VERTEBRATE-DISPERSED FRUITS…… ......................................................................................................................... 71 5.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 73 5.2 METHODS .................................................................................................................... 75 5.2.1 Study areas.......................................................................................................... 75 5.2.2 Study species....................................................................................................... 76 vi C.R. Gosper Weed invasion and plant-bird interactions 5.2.3 Experimental stations.......................................................................................... 77 5.2.4 Experimental design............................................................................................ 78 5.2.5 Statistical analysis............................................................................................... 79 5.3 RESULTS...................................................................................................................... 80 5.4 DISCUSSION................................................................................................................. 85 5.4.1 Effects of habitat ................................................................................................. 85 5.4.2 Effects of location ............................................................................................... 88 5.4.3 Differences in removal rates between species ...................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Thymelaeaceae)
    Origin and diversification of the Australasian genera Pimelea and Thecanthes (Thymelaeaceae) by MOLEBOHENG CYNTHIA MOTS! Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR in BOTANY in the FACULTY OF SCIENCE at the UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG Supervisor: Dr Michelle van der Bank Co-supervisors: Dr Barbara L. Rye Dr Vincent Savolainen JUNE 2009 AFFIDAVIT: MASTER'S AND DOCTORAL STUDENTS TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN This serves to confirm that I Moleboheng_Cynthia Motsi Full Name(s) and Surname ID Number 7808020422084 Student number 920108362 enrolled for the Qualification PhD Faculty _Science Herewith declare that my academic work is in line with the Plagiarism Policy of the University of Johannesburg which I am familiar. I further declare that the work presented in the thesis (minor dissertation/dissertation/thesis) is authentic and original unless clearly indicated otherwise and in such instances full reference to the source is acknowledged and I do not pretend to receive any credit for such acknowledged quotations, and that there is no copyright infringement in my work. I declare that no unethical research practices were used or material gained through dishonesty. I understand that plagiarism is a serious offence and that should I contravene the Plagiarism Policy notwithstanding signing this affidavit, I may be found guilty of a serious criminal offence (perjury) that would amongst other consequences compel the UJ to inform all other tertiary institutions of the offence and to issue a corresponding certificate of reprehensible academic conduct to whomever request such a certificate from the institution. Signed at _Johannesburg on this 31 of _July 2009 Signature Print name Moleboheng_Cynthia Motsi STAMP COMMISSIONER OF OATHS Affidavit certified by a Commissioner of Oaths This affidavit cordons with the requirements of the JUSTICES OF THE PEACE AND COMMISSIONERS OF OATHS ACT 16 OF 1963 and the applicable Regulations published in the GG GNR 1258 of 21 July 1972; GN 903 of 10 July 1998; GN 109 of 2 February 2001 as amended.
    [Show full text]
  • TAG Operational Structure
    PARROT TAXON ADVISORY GROUP (TAG) Regional Collection Plan 5th Edition 2020-2025 Sustainability of Parrot Populations in AZA Facilities ...................................................................... 1 Mission/Objectives/Strategies......................................................................................................... 2 TAG Operational Structure .............................................................................................................. 3 Steering Committee .................................................................................................................... 3 TAG Advisors ............................................................................................................................... 4 SSP Coordinators ......................................................................................................................... 5 Hot Topics: TAG Recommendations ................................................................................................ 8 Parrots as Ambassador Animals .................................................................................................. 9 Interactive Aviaries Housing Psittaciformes .............................................................................. 10 Private Aviculture ...................................................................................................................... 13 Communication ........................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Common Birds in Tilligerry Habitat
    Common Birds in Tilligerry Habitat Dedicated bird enthusiasts have kindly contributed to this sequence of 106 bird species spotted in the habitat over the last few years Kookaburra Red-browed Finch Black-faced Cuckoo- shrike Magpie-lark Tawny Frogmouth Noisy Miner Spotted Dove [1] Crested Pigeon Australian Raven Olive-backed Oriole Whistling Kite Grey Butcherbird Pied Butcherbird Australian Magpie Noisy Friarbird Galah Long-billed Corella Eastern Rosella Yellow-tailed black Rainbow Lorikeet Scaly-breasted Lorikeet Cockatoo Tawny Frogmouth c Noeline Karlson [1] ( ) Common Birds in Tilligerry Habitat Variegated Fairy- Yellow Faced Superb Fairy-wren White Cheeked Scarlet Honeyeater Blue-faced Honeyeater wren Honeyeater Honeyeater White-throated Brown Gerygone Brown Thornbill Yellow Thornbill Eastern Yellow Robin Silvereye Gerygone White-browed Eastern Spinebill [2] Spotted Pardalote Grey Fantail Little Wattlebird Red Wattlebird Scrubwren Willie Wagtail Eastern Whipbird Welcome Swallow Leaden Flycatcher Golden Whistler Rufous Whistler Eastern Spinebill c Noeline Karlson [2] ( ) Common Sea and shore birds Silver Gull White-necked Heron Little Black Australian White Ibis Masked Lapwing Crested Tern Cormorant Little Pied Cormorant White-bellied Sea-Eagle [3] Pelican White-faced Heron Uncommon Sea and shore birds Caspian Tern Pied Cormorant White-necked Heron Great Egret Little Egret Great Cormorant Striated Heron Intermediate Egret [3] White-bellied Sea-Eagle (c) Noeline Karlson Uncommon Birds in Tilligerry Habitat Grey Goshawk Australian Hobby
    [Show full text]
  • Chrysanthemoides Monilifera Ssp
    MANAGEMENT OF BONESEED (CHRYSANTHEMOIDES MONILIFERA SSP. MONILIFERA) (L.) T. NORL. USING FIRE, HERBICIDES AND OTHER TECHNIQUES IN AUSTRALIAN WOODLANDS Rachel L. Melland Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Agriculture, Food and Wine University of Adelaide August 2007 Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................... II ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ VI DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ VIII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................. IX CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 AIMS OF THIS THESIS .......................................................................................................... 3 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................... 5 2.1 PROCESSES OF NATIVE ECOSYSTEM DEGRADATION ............................................................ 5 2.2 GLOBAL PLANT INVASIONS – ECOSYSTEM DEGRADING PROCESSES .................................... 6 2.3 THE ENVIRONMENTAL WEED PROBLEM IN AUSTRALIA ..................................................... 10 2.4 CAUSES AND PROCESSES OF INVASIVENESS .....................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Fire Management Newsletter: Eucalyptus: a Complex Challenge
    Golden Gate National Recreation Area National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior Point Reyes National Seashore EucalyptusEucalyptus A Complex Challenge AUSTRALIA FIRE MANAGEMENT, RESOURCE PROTECTION, AND THE LEGACY OF TASMANIAN BLUE GUM DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION, CURIOUS SPECIES dead, dry, oily leaves and debris—that is especially flammable. from around the world captured the imagination, desire and Carried by long swaying branches, fire spreads quickly in enterprising spirit of many different people. With fragrant oil and eucalyptus groves. When there is sufficient dead material in the massive grandeur, eucalyptus trees were imported in great canopy, fire moves easily through the tree tops. numbers from Australia to the Americas, and California became home to many of them. Adaptations to fire include heat-resistant seed capsules which protect the seed for a critical short period when fire reaches the CALIFORNIA Eucalyptus globulus, or Tasmanian blue gum, was first introduced crowns. One study showed that seeds were protected from lethal to the San Francisco Bay Area in 1853 as an ornamental tree. heat penetration for about 4 minutes when capsules were Soon after, it was widely planted for timber production when exposed to 826o F. Following all types of fire, an accelerated seed domestic lumber sources were being depleted. Eucalyptus shed occurs, even when the crowns are only subjected to intense offered hope to the “Hardwood Famine”, which the Bay Area heat without igniting. By reseeding when the litter is burned off, was keenly aware of, after rebuilding from the 1906 earthquake. blue gum eucalyptus like many other species takes advantage of the freshly uncovered soil that is available after a fire.
    [Show full text]
  • Bird Species List for Mount Majura
    Bird Species List for Mount Majura This list of bird species is based on entries in the database of the Canberra Ornithologists Group (COG). The common English names are drawn from: Christidis, L. & Boles, W.E. (1994) The Taxonomy and Species of Birds of Australia and its Territories. Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union Monograph 2, RAOU, Melbourne. (1) List in taxonomic order Stubble Quail Southern Boobook Australian Wood Duck Tawny Frogmouth Pacific Black Duck White-throated Needletail Little Black Cormorant Laughing Kookaburra White-faced Heron Sacred Kingfisher Nankeen Night Heron Dollarbird Brown Goshawk White-throated Treecreeper Collared Sparrowhawk Superb Fairy-wren Wedge-tailed Eagle Spotted Pardalote Little Eagle Striated Pardalote Australian Hobby White-browed Scrubwren Peregrine Falcon Chestnut-rumped Heathwren Brown Falcon Speckled Warbler Nankeen Kestrel Weebill Painted Button-quail Western Gerygone Masked Lapwing White-throated Gerygone Rock Dove Brown Thornbill Common Bronzewing Buff-rumped Thornbill Crested Pigeon Yellow-rumped Thornbill Glossy Black-Cockatoo Yellow Thornbill Yellow-tailed Black-Cockatoo Striated Thornbill Gang-gang Cockatoo Southern Whiteface Galah Red Wattlebird Sulphur-crested Cockatoo Noisy Friarbird Little Lorikeet Regent Honeyeater Australian King-Parrot Noisy Miner Crimson Rosella Yellow-faced Honeyeater Eastern Rosella White-eared Honeyeater Red-rumped Parrot Fuscous Honeyeater Swift Parrot White-plumed Honeyeater Pallid Cuckoo Brown-headed Honeyeater Brush Cuckoo White-naped Honeyeater Fan-tailed
    [Show full text]
  • Jervis Bay Territory Page 1 of 50 21-Jan-11 Species List for NRM Region (Blank), Jervis Bay Territory
    Biodiversity Summary for NRM Regions Species List What is the summary for and where does it come from? This list has been produced by the Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (SEWPC) for the Natural Resource Management Spatial Information System. The list was produced using the AustralianAustralian Natural Natural Heritage Heritage Assessment Assessment Tool Tool (ANHAT), which analyses data from a range of plant and animal surveys and collections from across Australia to automatically generate a report for each NRM region. Data sources (Appendix 2) include national and state herbaria, museums, state governments, CSIRO, Birds Australia and a range of surveys conducted by or for DEWHA. For each family of plant and animal covered by ANHAT (Appendix 1), this document gives the number of species in the country and how many of them are found in the region. It also identifies species listed as Vulnerable, Critically Endangered, Endangered or Conservation Dependent under the EPBC Act. A biodiversity summary for this region is also available. For more information please see: www.environment.gov.au/heritage/anhat/index.html Limitations • ANHAT currently contains information on the distribution of over 30,000 Australian taxa. This includes all mammals, birds, reptiles, frogs and fish, 137 families of vascular plants (over 15,000 species) and a range of invertebrate groups. Groups notnot yet yet covered covered in inANHAT ANHAT are notnot included included in in the the list. list. • The data used come from authoritative sources, but they are not perfect. All species names have been confirmed as valid species names, but it is not possible to confirm all species locations.
    [Show full text]
  • Pollination Ecology and Evolution of Epacrids
    Pollination Ecology and Evolution of Epacrids by Karen A. Johnson BSc (Hons) Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Tasmania February 2012 ii Declaration of originality This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma by the University or any other institution, except by way of background information and duly acknowledged in the thesis, and to the best of my knowledge and belief no material previously published or written by another person except where due acknowledgement is made in the text of the thesis, nor does the thesis contain any material that infringes copyright. Karen A. Johnson Statement of authority of access This thesis may be made available for copying. Copying of any part of this thesis is prohibited for two years from the date this statement was signed; after that time limited copying is permitted in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. Karen A. Johnson iii iv Abstract Relationships between plants and their pollinators are thought to have played a major role in the morphological diversification of angiosperms. The epacrids (subfamily Styphelioideae) comprise more than 550 species of woody plants ranging from small prostrate shrubs to temperate rainforest emergents. Their range extends from SE Asia through Oceania to Tierra del Fuego with their highest diversity in Australia. The overall aim of the thesis is to determine the relationships between epacrid floral features and potential pollinators, and assess the evolutionary status of any pollination syndromes. The main hypotheses were that flower characteristics relate to pollinators in predictable ways; and that there is convergent evolution in the development of pollination syndromes.
    [Show full text]
  • Survival of Brown and Striated Thornbills in the Brindabella Range, Australian Capital Territory S
    138 S. V. Briggs and S. A. Thornton: Management of River Red Gums for waterbird nesting Corella 19(4) REFERENCES Lowe, K. W. (1989). Notes on the breeding of the Pacific Heron Ardea pacifirn near Balranald, New South Wales. Beck. L. ( 1991). Lowbidgee management plan stage two: land Corella 13: 88-89. and water management 1991-1996. Department of Water Maher, P. (1988). Historical records on colonial nesting water­ Resources. Leellln. birds in Moira Lake and Gulpa Creek wetland complexes. Briggs. S. V .. Thornton. S. A. and Hodgson, P. F. (1993). Report to New South Wales Department of Water Characteristics of River Red Gums used by nesting water­ Resources, Sydney. birds. A11s1. Birds 27: 12-20. Maher, P. (1990). Bird survey of the Lachlan/ Murrumbidgee Briggs. S. V. Thornton. S. A. and Lawler, W. G. (1994). confluence wetlands. Report to National Parks and Wildlife Management of Red Gum wetlands for waterbirds. Report Service, Sydney. to Natural Resources Management Strategy. National Parks Maher, P. (1993). Breeding success of' ..:olonial waterbirds in and Wildlife Service. Sydney. Moira Lake and Gulpa Creek wetlands. Proc. S. Riverin.a Chesterfield. E. A.. Loyn. R. H. and Macfarlane, M. A. Field Naturalisls Club 1: 47-57. ( 198-+). Flora and fauna of Barmah forest and their manage­ Marchant, S. and Higgins, P. J. (1990). 'Handbook of Austra­ ment. Forest Commission Victoria Research Branch Report lian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds, Vol. I b. (Oxford No. 2-+0. University Press: Melbourne.) Forestry Commission of New South Wales (1985). Manage­ Magrath, M. J. L. (1992). Waterbird study of the lower ment plan for Murray management area.
    [Show full text]
  • Local Native Plant Species for Superb Fairy-Wren Habitat
    Suggested local native plant species for Superb Fairy-wren habitat Extract from the report, Superb Fairy-Wren Habitat in Glebe and Forest Lodge, S. Stevens, The Glebe Society, Sydney, 2008. The plants listed are thought to have been indigenous to inner-western Sydney prior to white settlement. Emphasis in this list is on plants that should be fairly easily obtainable, but a few that may be difficult to obtain at present, such as Epacrids and some Peas, and plants such as Epacrids have traditionally been difficult to propagate, have been included to indicate the variety of plants that are suitable for Superb Fairy-wren habitat, and with a view that these plant species may be available in the future. Indeed, highlighting them as suitable small bird habitat may influence some nurseries to add them to their stocklists. Botanical Name Common Name Height (m) Paperbarks Melaleuca armillaris Bracelet Honeymyrtle 5 Melelauca decora a Paperbark 7 Melaleuca ericifolia Swamp Paperbark 8 Melaleuca linariifolia* Snow-in-summer 8 Melaleuca nodosa p Ball Honeymyrtle 6 Melaleuca styphelioides* p Prickly-leafed Paperbark 10 Tea-trees Leptospermum squarrosum* Pink Tea tree 3 Leptospermum polygalifolium * Lemon-scented Tea tree 3 Leptospermum trinervium Paperbark/Slender Tea-tree 4 Wattles Acacia binervia Coast Myall 4 Acacia falcata Sickle Wattle 3 Acacia fimbriata* Fringed Wattle 3 Acacia floribunda* White Sally Wattle 4 Acacia implexa Hickory Wattle 8 Acacia linifolia* White Wattle 3 Acacia longifolia* Sydney Golden Wattle 4 Acacia parramattensis Parramatta
    [Show full text]
  • THE Distrffiution of the AUSTRALIAN PSITTACINES (Order PSITTACIFORMES: Parrots, Cockatoos, Etc.)
    THE S.A,' ORNITHOLOGIST 3 THE DISTRffiUTION OF THE AUSTRALIAN PSITTACINES (Order PSITTACIFORMES: Parrots, Cockatoos, etc.) by ALAN LENDON, Adelaide This paper is the culmination of many east-central Queensland and of the Paradise years of documentation of personal obser- Parrot in the vicinity of the Mitchell River. vations and of published records especially those in The Emu and The South' Australian ORDER: PSITTACIFORMES: PARROTS, Ornithologist, of the distribution of the Aus­ COCKATOOS, ETC. tralian members of the order Psittaciformes. FAMILY TRICHOGLOSSIDAE: LORIKEETS An attempt has been made to collate this in­ 254 TRICHOGLOSSUS MOLUCCANUS formation with the records of the specimens RAINBOW (BLUE MOUNTAIN) LORIKEET in the various Australian Museums, thanks Checklist distribution-E.A.,- S.A., T. to the courtesy of their Directors, and with Eastern Australia is best divided into the communicated observations of numerous States. In Queensland, there are records field workers, far too numerous to mention from some Torres Strait islands and from individually. Great reliance has been placed all of Cape York Peninsula and thence down on the various regional textbooks of Aus­ the whole of eastern Queensland without ever tralian birds, particularly Birds of Western going much further west than the limits of Australia by Serventy and WhitteIl, Tasma­ the Great Dividing Range. It is appreciated nian Birds by Sharland, A H andlist of the that there is considerable overlap of the range Birds of Victoria by Wheeler, A Handlist of of this and the next species at the base of the Birds of New South Wales by McGill, Cape York Peninsula. List of Northern Territory Birds by Storr, and In New South Wales, the recorded distri­ the papers appearing in The South Australian bution is again limited to the Great Dividing Ornithologist by Terrill and Rix and by Range and to the east thereof and but rarely Condon.
    [Show full text]
  • Honey and Pollen Flora of SE Australia Species
    List of families - genus/species Page Acanthaceae ........................................................................................................................................................................34 Avicennia marina grey mangrove 34 Aizoaceae ............................................................................................................................................................................... 35 Mesembryanthemum crystallinum ice plant 35 Alliaceae ................................................................................................................................................................................... 36 Allium cepa onions 36 Amaranthaceae ..................................................................................................................................................................37 Ptilotus species foxtails 37 Anacardiaceae ................................................................................................................................................................... 38 Schinus molle var areira pepper tree 38 Schinus terebinthifolius Brazilian pepper tree 39 Apiaceae .................................................................................................................................................................................. 40 Daucus carota carrot 40 Foeniculum vulgare fennel 41 Araliaceae ................................................................................................................................................................................42
    [Show full text]