3 slight exceedance of 3 µg/m against the WHO limit for PM2.5 at AN1, AN2 and AN4 (results of 28 µg/m3 compared to the WHO limit of 25 µg/m3).
In general, air quality at all the sampling stations was good/healthy based on the air quality results obtained. This is due to the sampling location being a low density, coastal area with no industrial air discharges, and where the likelihood of poor air movement is low due to the land and sea breeze interaction.
5.1.11 Ambient Noise Ambient noise level sampling was carried out from 18th to 21st February 2016 at the same stations as the air quality survey. The results were compared against the maximum permissible sound level for Suburban Residential Areas, Public Spaces, Parks and Recreational Areas specified under Schedule 1 of the Guidelines for Environmental Noise Limits and Control /9/, where the permissible sound level is 55 dB(A) for day time and 45 dB(A) for night time. Detailed explanation of the methods and results is provided in Appendix C.
The ambient noise levels during day time and night time were relatively high, exceeding the limit at all stations except at AN2 and AN4 during day time hours (Table 5.16). The predominant source at all stations was road traffic noise.
Table 5.16 Sound levels (LAeq) recorded at the sensitive receptors during the surveys in February and March 2014.
Period Sound Level Equivalent (LAeq), dB(A) Guidelines Schedule 1 for Suburban Residential AN1 AN2 AN3 AN4 AN5 (dB(A))
Day 56.3 51.5 56.7 53.9 59.2 55 time
Night 55.3 49.2 53.6 50.6 54.1 45 time
5.2 Biological Environment
5.2.1 Data Collection and Sources The existing biological environment consists of both terrestrial and marine environments, encompassing different types of habitats. In order to capture the diversity of habitats and to ensure their adequate representation, the biological environment is described within the following boundaries:
Marine ecology – encompassing an area covering more than 10 km radius from the project boundary extending to Tg. Tuan. Terrestrial ecology – 5 km from the project boundary.
Table 5.17 Details of data collection for biological environment
Component Type of Data Source Date of Collection
Terrestrial vegetation Primary Survey 26 January 2016 Secondary Satellite Image SPOT-6 2015 and Google Earth January 2016
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Component Type of Data Source Date of Collection
Terrestrial fauna Primary Mist nets 9 - 12 April 2015 Cage trappings 31 May - 3 June 2015 Avifauna Primary Point count survey 12 - 15 December Transect line survey 2015
Mangrove Primary Survey 25 January 2016 Secondary Satellite Image SPOT-6 2015 and Google Earth January 2016
Seagrass Primary Survey 24 April 2016
Benthic Habitat Primary Splash camera survey 5 – 11 February 2016 Side scan survey 2 – 13 February 2016
Marine megafauna Secondary Various publications
Fish fauna Primary Seven sampling stations Neap: 3 - 4 February 2016 and 26 March 2016 Spring: 13 March 2016 and 15 March 2016 Fish trap: 2 - 18 April 2016
Plankton Primary 8 sampling stations 25 – 26 January 2016 1 – 2 February 2016
Benthos Primary 16 sampling stations 27 – 31 January 2016
5.2.2 Terrestrial Ecology
5.2.2.1 Vegetation Terrestrial vegetation along the coastline within the study area is predominantly mangroves or mixed beach vegetation. Further inland it is dominated by plantation areas, particularly palm oil. Based on the satellite image interpretation and subsequent field verification, the total terrestrial vegetation area, excluding grassland and swamp, is approximately 1,083 hectares, measured approximately 5 km inland (Figure 5.57 and Table 5.18). Photo 5.5 shows some examples of terrestrial flora along the coastline which includes Barringtonia asiatica or putat laut (Lecythidaceae), Callophyllum inophyllum or bintanggor laut (Clusiaceae), Terminalia catappa or ketapang (Lecythidaceae), Casuarina equisetifolia or rhu (Casuarinaceae) and Pandanus affinis (Pandanaceae).
Focusing on the 1 km boundary from the project site, vegetation within the village areas is mainly remnant grassland patches and scattered trees in between houses (refer to Appendix C for survey findings). In other areas, where trees were observed, the physiognomic type is mostly shrubland or sparse shrubland. Vegetation species include Areca catechu (Pokok
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Pinang), Mangifera indica (mango tree), Colocasia species (elephant-ear plant), Mallotus paniculatus, Macaranga spp. (Pokok Mahang), Melastoma malabathricum, Bambusa spp., Acacia auriculiformis, Oncosperma tigillarium, Mimosa pudica, Lalang (Imperata cylindrical), Terminalia catappa, Stenochlaena palustris, Dicranopteris linearis (fern) and some other shrubs and ferns.
Figure 5.57 Vegetation type within 5 km of the project area.
Table 5.18 Percentage of vegetation type within 5 km of the project area
Vegetation Type Area (ha) Percentage
Grassland 304 9
Plantation 1822 56
Swamp 39 1
Terrestrial Vegetation 1083 33
Total 3248 100
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Photo 5.5 Beach vegetation along the shoreline from Tg. Batu Supai to Tg. Che’ Amar
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5.2.2.2 Fauna Generally, mammal diversity in different habitats (mudflats, mangroves, mixed vegetation, and orchards) within Kuala Linggi is relatively high. A total of 24 species of mammals were recorded during surveys in 2015 (refer to Appendix E for fauna survey report) comprising four species of carnivores (cat, civet and otters), six species of chiropterans (bats), three species of primates (macaque, monkey and loris), eight species of rodentia (rats and squirrels), one species of pholidota (pangolin), one species of scandentian (treeshrew) and one species of ungulate (wild boar).
A total of 16 mammals species were recorded inhabiting Sungai Linggi mangrove, represented by four species of carnivores (cats, civets and otters), four species of chiropterans (bats), three species of primates (monkeys and slow loris), three species of rodentia (rat and squirrels), one species of scandentia (common treeshrew), and one ungulate (wild boar).
Mammals are categorised as Totally Protected, Protected and Not Protected according to the Wildlife Act 2010. Out of the 24 species of mammals documented, four species were listed as totally protected mammals (slow loris (Nycticebus coucang), leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), oriental small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea) and smooth otter (Lutra perspicillata)) and four species were listed as protected (dusky leaf monkey (Trahypithecus obscurus), common palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) and wild pig (Sus scrofa)). The remaining non-protected 16 mammals include the common treeshew (Tupaia glis) and Malaysian wood rat (Rattus tiomanicus).
All of the totally protected and protected mammals mentioned above were mainly found within the Sg. Linggi mangrove area. The exception is the long-tailed macaque which was mainly found along the shoreline of Negeri Sembilan (Tg. Agas to Tg. Selamat) where a mangrove fringe along the shoreline is available and Pasir Panjang forest reserve.
The lowest mammal diversity was observed along the shoreline of Malacca (Tg. Batu Supai to Kuala Sg. Baru) due to the mainly residential landuse and more limited terrestrial vegetation compared to the Sg. Linggi and Negeri Sembilan shoreline (refer to Figure 5.57 for terrestrial vegetation cover).
Among the bat species, the common long-tongued fruit bat (Macroglossus minimus) is the dominant and most common fruit-eating (frugivorous) bat in the mangrove forests and coastal area. Other frugivorous bats recorded are the Horsfield’s bat (Cynopterus horsfieldi) and cave nectar bat (Eonycteris spelaea). The insectivorous bats (Microchiroptera), however are less commonly encountered. An individual trefoil horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus trifoliatus) and a pouched tomb bat (Tophozous saccolaimus) were also recorded.
The shrews were represented by the common tree-shrew (Tupaia glis). This species is known to be widespread on the mainland in all types of forest habitats, extending from the lowlands to higher elevations up to 1500 m. Squirrels were represented by two species, one of which is the plantain squirrel (Callosciurus notatus). Members of this arboreal species are commonly found in scrubs, gardens, orchards, and smallholdings, where they range freely into the adjoining forest including the mangrove, inland primary and secondary forests.
The smooth otter (Lutra perspicillata) was commonly sighted in Kuala Linggi. The mangrove waterways and creeks in the area support a viable population of this species. The most abundant primate in the area is the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis). This species is ubiquitous throughout the mainland, occurring abundantly from the coastal zone (including mangroves), to primary and secondary forests, orchards, plantations, and forest fringes. In fact, this species has even colonised settlement areas and has learnt to co-exist successfully with humans to the extent that the monkeys have become a pest and nuisance.
The most prevalent large mammal in the survey area is the wild boar (Sus scrofa). This species is known to occupy all types of habitats including mangroves, scrubs, forest fringes, and plantation areas. The wild boar, pangolin, and primates are all protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010.
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Photo 5.6 Example of protected wildlife captured from the camera trap: long-tailed macaque (top) and wild boar (bottom)
Photo 5.7 Monkeys and squirrels observed within study site
5.2.3 Avifauna The bird survey consisted of point count observations for land birds and line transects for the wader census, which was conducted during migratory (1 campaign) and non-migratory (2 campaigns) seasons between April 2015 and December 2015 (see Figure 5.58). Refer to Appendix E for details on the survey findings and methodology, including coordinates of survey stations.
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Figure 5.58 Avifauna survey stations
5.2.3.1 Species Diversity and Abundance A total of 100 bird species, from 47 families, were recorded within the study site, from both point count and transect data. A total of 86 species from 42 families of birds were observed through the point count method. Among families which recorded the highest species of bird were Cuculidae (species of cuckoos and malkohas), followed by Columbidae (species of doves and pigeons) and Alcedinidae, Megalaimidae, Sylviidae, Picidae and Sturnidae. A total of 14 species of bird from seven families were recorded through the line transect surveys. Family Ardeidae (herons, egrets and night-heron) had the highest number of bird species along the shore at Kuala Linggi, followed by species of Scolopaeidae (sandpiper and redshank) and species of Accipitridae (eagle and kite).
Most of the birds are classified as residents (74 species), followed by migrant birds (11 species). Thirteen of the recorded species are resident and migrant, and two species are listed as introduced species. The highest bird count is the resident birds, as shown in Figure 5.59.
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Figure 5.59 Overall bird count (inland and waders)
The highest number of inland and mangrove birds was recorded in the zone from Tg. Agas to Tg. Selamat, followed by the Negeri Sembilan inland, see Figure 5.60. For waders, the highest bird count was at Tg. Agas to Sg. Raya, followed by the southern coastline of Tg. Selamat (Tg. Selamat to Sg. Raya) (Figure 5.61).
Figure 5.60 Inland and mangrove bird count in the study area
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Figure 5.61 Waders count in the study area
5.2.3.2 Conservation Status Out of the 100 bird species found within the study area, 79 species are classified as ‘Totally Protected’ under the Protection of Wildlife Act 2010. Examples include the little heron (Butorides striata) and lesser adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus)). Under the same legislation, only one species is listed as ‘Other Protected Bird Species’, namely the oriental white-eye (Zosterops palpebrosus). Six species are categorised as ‘Game Bird’ (e.g. common sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos) and white-breasted waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus)). The remaining 14 species are not protected under the legislation.
Although high species diversity was recorded under the ‘Totally Protected’ category, high abundance was also recorded for non-protected species, as shown in Figure 5.62.
Figure 5.62 Conservation status of birds found within study area as categorised by the Protection of Wildlife Act 2010.
As shown in Figure 5.63 and Figure 5.64, the highest number of totally protected birds was recorded at Negeri Sembilan along the coast between Tg. Agas to Tg. Selamat.
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Figure 5.63 Number of inland and mangrove birds protected under the Protection of Wildlife Act 2010
Figure 5.64 Number of waders protected under the Protection of Wildlife Act 2010.
5.2.3.3 Summary The birds in Kuala Linggi are relatively high in abundance and species richness. This is probably due to the high habitat variability (e.g. mangroves, mudflats, mixed vegetation, shrubs, oil palm plantation, rubber plantation and orchards) within the area. Common land birds can easily be observed such as the common myna, peaceful dove, Eurasian tree sparrow, Asian glossy starling and white-throated kingfisher. However, Kuala Linggi has a low
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number of waders. This could be due to limited mudflat areas as the area is predominantly sandy shores and sandy beaches. In addition, most waders are migratory birds and require extensive mudflat areas for their stop over, in order to obtain food and shelter before continuing their journey.
The highest number of bird species and abundance was recorded in the area from Tg. Agas to Tg. Selamat. This could be due to the various kinds of vegetation within the area compared to the other point counts location whereby the area includes mangroves and terrestrial forest reserve. These habitats are suitable areas for different kinds of birds with different adaptations. The other point counts show low species richness as most of the point counts were located near to oil palm plantations and residential areas.
The Lesser Adjutant and Large Green Pigeon are the only IUCN-listed Vulnerable species found in Kuala Linggi. According to the IUCN, vulnerable species are classified as a population with a very restricted area of occupancy (typically less than 20 km2) or number of locations (typically five or fewer) such that it is prone to the effects of human activities or stochastic events within a very short time period in an uncertain future, and is thus capable of becoming critically endangered or even extinct in a very short time period.
Out of 100 species of birds documented in Kuala Linggi, three species (namely the mangrove pitta, buff-necked woodpecker, and long-tailed parakeet) are categorised as Near-threatened (NT). According to the IUCN Red List, the population trend for these species is decreasing globally.
Tg. Tuan Wildlife / Forest Reserve Tg. Tuan, located approximately 11 km northwest of the project site, has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by Bird Life International, the National Geographic Society and the Hawk Mountain Sanctuary. There are five main species of migratory raptors which cross the Straits of Malacca between Tanjung Tuan and Sumatra and back again. They are the Crested Honey-Buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus), Black Baza (Aviceda leuphotes), Japanese Sparrowhawk (Accipiter gularis), Chinese Goshawk (Accipiter soloensis), and Grey-faced Buzzard (Butastur indicus).
During the spring migration, thousands of raptors fly across the narrowest stretch of the Straits of Malacca to Tanjung Tuan. The Malaysian Nature Society (MNS) organises an annual event, known as the Raptor Watch, which attracts many avid bird watchers and nature lovers alike to count and document the behaviour of these raptors during this migratory season in Tanjung Tuan Wildlife/Forest Reserve. After having used up most of their energy flying across the Straits without a break, the raptors fly low at the event site making it possible to have a good sighting of these birds.
5.2.4 Mangrove The mangroves within 5 km boundary from the project site were mainly observed along Sg. Linggi, fringing the shoreline of Negeri Sembilan from Tg. P. Mengkudu to Tg. Agas. Within Malacca, patches of mangroves were observed north of Tg. Bt. Supai (Figure 5.65), along the shoreline from Tg. Che’ Amar (Photo 5.9) to Tg. Serai and in patches at Tg. Dahan (Photo 5.10). The total mangrove area within 5 km of the project area is approximately 268 ha based on mapping from satellite imagery (satellite Image SPOT-6 2015 and Google Earth January 2016) and ground truthing. Refer to Appendix C for further details.
Based on consultation with the Forestry Department, it is noted that most of the Sg. Linggi mangroves on the Malacca side are located within the Linggi Forest Reserve. The Town and Regional Planning Department have carried out a detailed study on the preservation of mangroves in Sg. Linggi among other areas, and the study proposes a Ramsar area within Sg. Linggi as shown in Figure 5.66 and a proposed tourism zone which includes mangrove tours /10/.
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The mangroves at Negeri Sembilan are more diverse compared to mangroves in Malacca, as shown in Figure 5.65. Dominant species within this study area are Rhizophora spp. and Sonneratia spp. Frequently observed species include Avicennia spp., Bruguiera spp. and nipah. Rarely observed is Lumnitzera spp. (Photo 5.11). Generally, mangroves appeared healthy, although occasional dead trees were also seen. Portions of mangrove at Tg. Agas have been cleared (Photo 5.12).
Figure 5.65 Dominant species at surveyed mangrove area.
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Figure 5.66 Proposed Ramsar site under the Town and Regional Planning Department’s study.
The average mangrove tree height along Sg. Linggi is 5 m to 8 m with canopy cover between 60% to 65%, while mangroves fringing the shoreline had an average tree height of 7 m and canopy cover between 50% and 65%.
The mangrove area that will be impacted by the bridge construction, which is located at Tg. Bt. Supai, is dominated by Sonneratia spp., as shown in Photo 5.8.
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Photo 5.8 Mangroves patches at Tg. Bt. Supai where the access bridge will be constructed
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Photo 5.9 Mangroves on rocky shore at Tg. Che’ Amar
Photo 5.10 Sonneratia spp. at Tg. Dahan
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Rhizophora apiculata Sonneratia alba
Nypa fruticans Avicennia alba
Bruguiera cylindrica Lumnitzera littorea
Photo 5.11 Some of the species observed within study area.
Photo 5.12 Cleared mangrove at Tg. Agas
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Signs of mangrove planting activities were observed within the Kuala Linggi Mangrove Recreational Forest and tree saplings were also observed along Sg. Linggi and south of Tg. Selamat (Photo 5.13 to Photo 5.15).
Photo 5.13 Seedlings observed within the Kuala Linggi Mangrove Recreational Forest
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Photo 5.14 Rhizophora seedlings (top) and saplings of Nipah (bottom) at Sg. Linggi
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Photo 5.15 Standing dead mangrove fringe (top) and north of this location, young mangroves (bottom) – mangroves south of Tg. Selamat.
5.2.5 Seagrass As described in the TOR, a single patch of seagrass, Enhalus acoroides, was observed in the intertidal area off Tg. Bukit Supai. To verify and map the distribution of seagrass in the study area, an aerial drone survey was carried out during low tide in this intertidal zone, whereas the subtidal areas were surveyed through a combination of acoustic techniques and underwater towed video mapping as described further in the following section and in Appendix C.
The site investigations revealed no subtidal seagrass areas, whereas the intertidal seagrass was limited to three discrete, single-species patches in the Tg. Bt. Supai embayment, as shown in Figure 5.67.
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Figure 5.67 Location of seagrass beds within the study area.
The two larger patches are Halodule pinifolia and the small patch is Enhalus acoroides (see Photo 5.16, A and B). In terms of health, seagrass percent cover is estimated at around 40% – 50% for all patches. The seagrass patches were located between 25 m and 60 m from the beach with a combined estimated area of 173 m2.
Halodule pinifolia is known to be a preferred food for Dugong as it is a fast growing species with a rapid turnover and high seed set. This species is also well adapted to high disturbance /11/. Enhalus acoroides is a larger-bodied species with tough rhizomes and leaves up to 150 cm growing in sandy loam substrates /12/. Both species are listed in the IUCN Red List as Least Concern species /13/.
In Malaysia, fifteen (15) species of seagrasses belonging to eight (8) genera and three (3) families have been reported /14/. There are several localities along the Straits of Malacca which support well-developed seagrass communities that constitute a large portion (40.0% - 85.7%) of all known seagrass species in Malaysia, whereby the central and southern regions of the Straits have a greater diversity of seagrass species compared to the northern reaches /15/. The seagrass patches at the Project site are not considered to be regionally significant given their very limited extent.
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A - Enhalus acoroides B – Halodule pinifolia
Photo 5.16 Seagrasses found in the study area.
5.2.6 Benthic Habitat Benthic habitat mapping was conducted to determine the presence or absence of sensitive habitats within and around the project site. This was carried out over an area from Tg. Tuan to Tg. Keramat. The area was surveyed using a combination of side scan sonar survey, underwater towed video camera transects and targeted drop-down underwater video camera stations. Further details on the surveys are provided in Appendix C. Substrates were classified into five (5) general groups, based on modified Line Intercept Transect methodology of English et al., 1997 /16/, namely: Hard Corals (HC), Soft Corals (SC), Rubble (RB), Mud (MD) and Sand (SD). Where possible, taxonomic identification was referenced from various guidebooks and keys /17,18, 19/.
The resulting marine habitat map for the survey area is displayed in Figure 5.68. The survey area was predominantly characterised by sandy sediment, with some muddy sediments recorded closer to the shore. This is consistent with the results of the sediment particle size analysis detailed in Section 5.1.6.1. Areas of potential rocky/hard substrate were delineated from the side scan sonar data and, based on the ground-truthing, it can be inferred that these areas generally support soft coral growth (Octocorallia). Further details on the distribution of soft and hard corals is detailed in the sections below.
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Figure 5.68 Marine habitat map.
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Coral distribution, abundance & health Coral reefs are one of the world’s oldest, most diverse and productive ecosystems, usually existing in shallow coastal zones of warm tropical and subtropical oceans /20/. They are communities of soft-bodied invertebrates housed within a calcitic exoskeleton, living in a symbiotic relationship with unicellular algae. Coral reefs are important as a habitat for marine fish and invertebrate species and in protecting shorelines /21/.
According to previous studies, corals can be found in the nearshore areas along the shoreline of Malacca, from Kuala Linggi to Pulau Besar Island Group. The nearest recorded coral area to the project site is located at Batu Tg. Serai North and Batu Tg. Serai South, approximately 500 m south east of the project area /22/.
Side scan sonar and underwater towed video camera drop-point verification survey revealed that the area surveyed between Tg. Selamat and Tg. Dahan contained a patchy distribution of rocky/hard substrate with associated with soft coral (Octocorallia). Commonly referred to as soft corals, Octocorallia are not close relatives of Scleractinians (true / hard corals). The polyps of octocorals bear eight tentacles (hence the name octo-coral), which are fringed by one or more rows of pinnules along the edges /19/. These characteristics distinguishes soft corals from true corals. Octocorals can be divided into three orders: Alcyonacea (soft corals and sea fans), Pennatulacea (sea pens) and Helioporacea (blue coral) /19/. Most of the octocorals possess sclerites (which is the hardened body part) that provides support and protection for the animal. These are made of polycrystalline aggregates of calcite (a type of calcium carbonate). Some of the sclerites can be quite large.
Even though the distribution is scattered and sparse, they occur over a large area, approximately 3150 ha. A small patch of hard coral was observed along a tow cam transect in the south of the project area, near to Tg. Dahan. At Tg. Tuan, to the north of the project area, a mixture of hard and soft corals were observed (see Figure 5.69).
The more dominant octocorals found in K. Linggi need a firm substratum for attachment and growth. In addition, most soft coral larvae choose a consolidated hard substratum for attachment, whereas loose rubble or thick layers of sediments or turf algae are generally not suitable /20/. Rocky substrate or outcrops were found in the study area with some outcrops estimated to be between 5 m and 10 m in height which can provide suitable bedrock for these group of octocorals.
Where soft and hard coral were observed in the video footage, these areas were classified according to the classification system outlined in the Status of Coral Reefs of the World /23/ (Table 5.19).
Table 5.19 Reef quality classification.
Category % live coral cover Excellent > 75 Good 51 - 75 Fair 25 - 50 Poor < 25
Out of the 55 drop-down video stations completed, soft coral was observed at 36 stations. In terms of percentage coral cover, 32 of these stations were classified as ‘poor’ (< 25%) and 4 stations were classified as ‘fair’ (25 - 50%).
Out of the 30 towed camera transects completed, soft coral was observed along 21 of the transects and hard coral was observed along 3 of the transects. ‘Poor’ coral cover was observed along all 21 transects, ‘fair’ coral cover was observed along 7 transects and ‘good’ coral cover was observed along one of the transects.
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The soft coral observed in the project area was primarily classified as ‘poor’ quality with percentage cover generally ranging from between 1% and 20%. The soft coral was patchily distributed and interspersed with hydroids and other biota also found attached to the rocky substrate. Some small patches of soft coral were classified as ‘fair’ and one area was classified as ‘good’.
The hard coral observed in the project area was classified as either ‘fair’ or ‘poor’ quality with percentage cover generally ranging between 10% and 40%. The hard coral was observed in more dense patches compared to the soft coral which was more sparsely distributed. The hard coral was often covered in algae, with a high density of brown macroalgae (Sargassum sp.) recorded around Tg. Tuan.
Figure 5.69 Coral percentage cover.
Diversity Mainly octocorallia from sea fans and sea whips family were observed. It is noted that species identification during the surveys was very difficult due to low visibility and hence close-up photos showing details of the coral polyps or sclerites were not available.
The most frequently encountered species during the survey is Annella mollis from the family Subergorgiidae. This species is widely distributed throughout the surveyed area (deep and shallow area). Research indicates that Annella mollis can be found at the lower reef slope and
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reef bottom on rock or sand substrata. However, off K. Linggi, this species was associated with hard substrate and also found anchoring in sand substrate. Goh and Chou (1996) /24/ described this species which was formerly named Subergorgia mollis among the species found in the southern islands of Singapore. This species is quite common with a wide geographic distribution.
Some of the other taxa of soft coral identified are Ctenocella pectinata, Junceella sp. and Dichotella gemmacea from the family Ellisellidae and one unidentified species from the family Plexauridae (Table 5.20). None of these species are considered rare or endangered. The octocorals identified to be present in the study area are not uncommon, particularly in the region of Indo West Pacific /25/.
Ctenocella pectinata is considered the only valid species from this genus and is reported from Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, northern Australia and the Great Barrier Reef (GBR). In northern Australia and the GBR, this species is common in strong current turbid waters of near-shore environment /19/. At Linggi Ctenocella pectinata was observed in deeper sites and further away from the shore of K. Linggi. This observation corresponds to the observations in northern Australia and the GBR where it is rarely found above 5 m depth.
Junceella sp. are the unbranched, whip-like colonies of octocoral which can grow up to 2 m tall and some very tall Junceella sp. was observed at K. Linggi. Its geographic distribution includes the Red Sea, South China Sea, central Indo-Pacific, GBR, Micronesia and as far as New Caledonia /19/. Other than the current-swept muddy bases of reef and mid-shelf reefs, it also occurs in turbid coastal inter-reef environment and muddy estuaries.
Another sea whip found in K. Linggi is identified as Dichotella gemmacea. This species is considered to be the only valid species of this genus and it has been reported in the Straits of Malacca /26/, central Indo-Pacific, South China Sea and eastwards towards New Caledonia /19/.
Table 5.20 List of soft coral identified at K. Linggi.
Phylum Sub Class Order Family Genus/ Common name Species
Cnidaria Octocorallia Alcyonacea Subergorgiidae Annella mollis Giant Sea Fan
Cnidaria Octocorallia Alcyonacea Ellisellidae Ctenocella Harp Coral pectinata
Cnidaria Octocorallia Alcyonacea Ellisellidae Junceella sp. Sea whip
Cnidaria Octocorallia Alcyonacea Ellisellidae Dichotella - gemmacea
Cnidaria Octocorallia Pennatulacea Pennatulidae Pteroeides sp. Spiky sea pen
Cnidaria Octocorallia Alcyonacea Plexauridae - Sea Fan
Cnidaria Octocorallia Unidentified species
Hard Coral The dominant lifeforms of the hard coral that was observed at Tg. Tuan and Tg. Dahan were Coral massive (CM), Coral encrusting (CE), and Coral submassive (CS). The absence of branching hard coral and branching Acropora indicates that the area are prone to strong current and wave action.
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Table 5.21 List of hard coral identified at K. Linggi.
Phylum Sub Class Order Family Genus/ Species
Cnidaria Hexacorallia Scleractinia Poritidae Prites spp.
Cnidaria Hexacorallia Scleractinia Merulinidae Goniastrea spp.
Cnidaria Hexacorallia Scleractinia Merulinidae Favites spp.
Cnidaria Hexacorallia Scleractinia Mussidae Favia spp.
Photo 5.17 Hard coral at Tg. Tuan are associated with algae (Sargassum sp. and Caulerpa sp.)
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Photo 5.18 General condition of reef at Tg. Dahan.
Turbidity and Coral Distribution The species of octocoral found in K. Linggi are mostly azooxanthellate that is corals with an absence of photosynthetic algae. This is not surprising as the water in the study area has high turbidity; results of fines particles and wave actions plus tidal movement of the consequent turbid water on and offshore. Turbidity affects the soft coral distribution through increasing sedimentation rate and reduction of light intensity.
The distribution range of octocorals varies with light exposure which depends on water clarity and depth. Particles suspended in the water not only make the water turbid but also absorb light, and a turbid site at 10 m depth can appear dark even in the middle of the day /19/. This is true for the surveyed area as per Photo 5.19 to Photo 5.21. Turbidity is greatest on the shallow continental shelf close to the coast or close to river mouths, where waves and tidal currents resuspend sediments and mud from the sea floor /19/ (Figure 5.70). Depth limits of species increase with increasing water clarity: for example, in turbid waters, zooxanthellate soft corals are restricted to the upper 10 m, whereas azooxanthellate species (in particular ellisellid, subergorgiid, plexaurid and Dendronephthya) predominate below 10 m depth /27, 28/. This zonation is well displayed at the reef off K. Linggi; where hard coral (zooxanthellate coral) do not occur in areas of more than 10 m depth and azooxanthellate sea fan dominate the deeper reef.
Light intensity and substrate types determine the soft coral larvae choice of settlement sites. Many azooxanthellate larvae tend to settle in relative darkness /19/. As discussed above, the hard substrate found off K. Linggi were often associated with azooxanthellae soft coral and it is thought this is due to suitability for the larvae to settle (darkness and hard substrate for attachment).
Thick sedimentation can affect the coral distribution as it can smother small colonies and coral recruits by restricting gas exchange between colonies and the water column. Sediments also negatively affect rates of photosynthesis, due to stress and due to reduction of light /29/.
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In conclusion, the high turbidity, which is related to high sedimentation rates, high suspended solid and low light intensity of coral area off K. Linggi was well reflected by the predominantly poor live coral percentage throughout the area (Figure 5.70).
Figure 5.70 Baseline TSS in mg/L during Southwest monsoon.
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Photo 5.19 Photo of unidentified species of soft coral captured by the underwater video camera attached with torchlight due to low visibility.
Photo 5.20 Feather star and soft coral in high turbidity water of K. Linggi.
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Photo 5.21 Annella mollis in turbid water of K. Linggi.
Associated Reef Organisms Coral reefs support a diverse range of fauna, both vertebrate as well as invertebrate. This is because they act as refuges, feeding and nursery grounds for marine fauna such as reef fishes /30, 31/.
Sponges, hydroid, featherstar and damselfish were among the associated reef organisms observed from the video footages. Macroalgae such as Sargassum sp. were frequently associated with the hard coral area. Two adult size Butterflyfish were observed trapped inside one of the fishermen’s fish-traps (Bubu) implying that this indicator fish is common at the soft coral area.
Another inhabitant of the reef area in Kuala Linggi are sea turtles. During the habitat survey, a carcass of a juvenile hawksbill turtle was found floating near Tg. Serai, off K. Linggi (death likely linked to fishing practices) suggesting that this reef area may also be a feeding area for turtles. The find is not surprising as turtle nesting grounds were identified in the vicinity of the reef area. Further information on turtles within the study area is discussed in Section 5.2.7.
5.2.7 Marine Mega Fauna Marine mega fauna consists of the larger marine animals which are commonly found within a marine area. These animals are mostly mammals, which either inhabit the marine area or just pass through during migration. The Straits of Malacca is a marine area where mega fauna have been recorded in the past few years although the knowledge on the distribution of marine mammals throughout most parts of Malaysia remains basic and poorly documented /32/. The project area is located within the Straits of Malacca, being one of the largest estuarine environments in the Southeast Asia regions, characterised by soft-bottom habitats, fringing coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves lining the coastlines /33/. Secondary data from existing literature has been used to document this section. Focus is given to literature
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documenting the marine mega fauna and other species of conservation significance of the Straits of Malacca, specifically, those nearby the proposed project area. For the purpose of this report, this section is categorised into two sub-sections, namely marine mammals and other species of conservation significance.
5.2.7.1 Marine Mammals Dolphins have been spotted around Kuala Sg. Linggi by local villagers /34/. The latest sighting recorded was in November 2014. Other news reports showed dolphins and whales at Port Dickson, Negeri Sembilan (22 km away), with the latest sighting in 2015 /35, 36/. These cetaceans were not identified as they were spotted by local villagers.
In 2009, Prime Scientific Sailing Expedition sighted Ginkgo-toothed whale (Mesoplodon ginkgodens), Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa Chinensis) and Irrawaddy dolphins (Orcaella brevirostris) in the waters of Malacca and Negeri Sembilan as shown in Table 5.22 and Figure 5.71 /32/. Indo Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis) were sighted southwest of Pulau Besar, Malacca in 1999 /37/, A blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) was stranded in Kg. Sebatu, Malacca in 1892 /38/.
Table 5.22 List of marine mammal species recorded in the marine waters of Malacca and Negeri Sembilan waters (Source: Ponampalam, L., 2012 /32/)
Species Occurrence (LS – live sighting; ST – stranding)
Family Delphinidae
Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus) - Ta LS, ST Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) – Ob LS, ST Indo-Pacific Humpbacked Dolphin (Sousa chinensis) – Sch LS, ST
Family Ziphiidae Ginkgo-toothed Whale (Mesoplodon novaeangliae) – Mg ST
Although other species of marine mammals have not been spotted by humans along the waters of Malacca, they may still be present migrating along the Straits of Malacca. Figure 5.71 shows the location of sightings/findings of these fauna along the coast of Peninsular Malaysia.
Table 5.24 shows nine (9) species of marine mammals which have been recorded within Straits of Malacca waters. The eight species of marine mammal reported here came from nine (9) genera and four (4) families.
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Figure 5.71 Map showing locations of life sightings and stranding of various cetacean species in Peninsular Malaysia. The letters indicate species observed as per Table 5.22 and locations are listed in Table 5.23 (Source: Ponampalam, L., 2012 /32/).
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Table 5.23 List of marine mammal species recorded in Peninsular Malaysia according to location of sightings and their conservation status. (Source: Ponampalan, L. 2012 /32/; and Jaaman, S. A. 2002/38/; unless indicated otherwise)
Species Occurence Conservation Status (IUCN Red List) Family Dugongidae Johor (Pasir Gudang, Sg. Rengit, Tg. Vulnerable Dugong (Dugong dugon) Pengelih), Singapore, Langkawi Family Phocoenidae Straits of Malacca, Matang, Pulau Indah Vulnerable Finless Porpoise (DHI pers. Ob.), Langkawi, Perak, Pahang, (Neophocaena phocaenoides) Johor estuary, between P. Ubin – Johor, Singapore Family Delphiniidae Pantai Merdeka (Penang), Mersing, Straits Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella of Malacca, Matang (Perak), Singapore, Vulnerable brevirostris) Kuala Rompin (Pahang), Sg. Bernam (Selangor) Short-finned Pilot Whale Jeram (Selangor), Straits of Malacca, Data Deficient (Globicephala macrorhyncus) False Killer Whale (Pseudorca P. Redang (Terengganu), Langkawi Data Deficient crassidens) Melon-headed whale Kg. Kuala Tunjang (Kedah), Sg. Tiang Least Concern (Peponocephala electra) (Perak) Common Dolphin (Delphinus Kuala Gula (Perak), Straits of Malacca, P. Least Concern sp.) Tioman (Pahang), P. Pemanggil (Johor), Langkawi, P. Sembilan (Perak), P. Redang & P. Kapas (Terengganu), Singapore. Spinner Dolphin (Stenella P. Tioman (Pahang) Data Deficient longirostris) Indo-Pacific Bottlenose P. Redang (Terengganu), Langkawi, Data Deficient Dolphin (Tursiops aduncus) Singapore, Straits of Malacca, Indo-Pacific Humpbacked Straits of Malacca, Perak, Penang, P. Near Threatened Dolphin (Sousa chinensis) Kapas (Terengganu), Malacca, Langkawi, Sg. Pulai (Johor), Singapore. Family Physeteridae Sperm Whale (Physeter South China Sea, Straits of Malacca Vulnerable macrocephalus) Family Balaenoptera Blue Whale (Balaenoptera Straits of Malacca Endangered musculus) Sei Whale (Balaenoptera Kuala Kedah (Kedah) – DHI pers. Comm. Endangered borealis)
Conservation Status The conservation status of the marine mammal species within the Straits of Malacca is listed in Table 5.24. Classification is based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (http://www.iucnredlist.org) and the Protection of Wildlife Act 2010.
Under the IUCN Red List, one (1) species is classified as endangered, two (2) species are classified as ‘vulnerable’, one (1) species is considered ‘Near Threatened’, while the rest are listed as ‘Data Deficient’. Under the Protection of Wildlife Act 2010, four (4) species are ‘Totally Protected’ while the remaining species are classified as ‘Protected’. One species of dolphin is not listed.
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Table 5.24 Status of marine mammal species
Species Status
IUCN Red Book Protection of Wildlife Act 2010
Family Balaenopteridae
Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus) Totally Endangered Protected
Family Delphinidae Long-beaked Common Dolphin (Delphinus capensis) – Dc Data Deficient Not Listed
Pygmy Killer Whale (Feresa attenuata) – Fa Data Deficient Protected
Short-finned Pilot Whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) – Gm Data Deficient Protected
Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) – Ob Vulnerable Protected
Indo-Pacific Humpbacked Dolphin (Sousa chinensis) – Sch Totally Near Threatened Protected
Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops aduncus) – Ta Data Deficient Protected
Family Phocoenidae
Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides) – Totally Vulnerable Np Protected
Family Ziphiidae Ginkgo-toothed Whale (Mesoplodon novaeangliae) – Mg None Protected
5.2.7.2 Hawksbill Turtles The hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) is a circumtropically distributed marine species that inhabits coral reef areas and which usually nests on isolated sandy beaches, often on remote islands. For centuries the hawksbill has been harvested primarily for its shell, which is used to make jewellery, and less so for its meat. Hawksbill eggs also continue to be collected for food across the species’ range. The hawksbill turtle is currently listed as Critically Endangered (CE) on the IUCN Red List /39/.
The hawksbill is the second smallest species of marine turtle, rarely exceeding 75 cm in carapace length. Its name is derived from the overlapping (imbricate) scutes on the carapace, which have been the hawksbill’s downfall owing to their natural beauty. Hawksbill shell is prized in many parts of the world for its translucency and natural design and is used in the manufacture of cosmetic items, sunglass frames and jewellery. A nesting hawksbill turtle is depicted in Photo 5.22.
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Photo 5.22 Hawksbill turtle nesting on an offshore island. Source: Nicolas Pilcher - Marine Research Foundation (Sabah, Malaysia)
Hawksbill turtles are distributed throughout the tropical belt /40/ and they generally nest in diffuse, small numbers. Malacca’s annual average number of nesting females ranges from around 55 to 105 turtles (based on Department of Fisheries Malaysia - Malacca data and 4 to 8 clutches per season – see following section on reproductive cycle).
General Reproductive Cycle An understanding of the general life cycle of sea turtles helps put conservation measures into perspective. For instance, knowing that turtles take 30 to 35 years to mature means that hatchlings departing beaches in 2016 will only start to be seen around 2040. Similarly, impacts to turtles in 2016 may only manifest themselves many years later.
Adult male and female turtles invest one to three years into fat storage, as energy reserves for the reproductive migration, mating, egg laying and return to foraging grounds. Female adult turtles go through a period of vitellogenesis during which the egg follicles are nourished and readied for the nesting season. This period may last six to ten months prior to migration. Once biologically ready, adult hawksbills migrate from feeding grounds to (often distant) nesting areas in the vicinity of nesting beaches (in this case nearshore waters off Malacca) and upon arrival of males and females, they mate during a period of 1 - 2 months. After mating, females take 2 – 4 weeks to emerge on a beach and lay a first clutch of eggs. After this, they may return 4 – 8 times to lay eggs again in the same season (Figure 5.72).
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Figure 5.72 Generalised life cycle of hawksbill turtles (after Lanyon et al. 1989 /41/).
Each hawksbill turtle nest may contain around 100 - 200 eggs, which measure 3 - 4 cm and weigh 15 - 25 g. The eggs take approximately 50 - 60 days to incubate, and hatch invariably after dark, when the sand surface cools. The hatchlings excavate through the sand for two or three days before emerging. Hatchlings crawl down the beach and head directly offshore using light, wave direction and the earth’s magnetic field for guidance.
Malacca Hawksbills Knowledge of turtles landing in Malacca dates back to the 16th century. The earliest scientific assessment of hawksbills in Malacca was conducted in 1991 and 1992 /42/, during which the nesting season was firmly documented (from February through September with a peak during May, June and July); and during which hatcheries were established to protect clutches from predators and poachers.
Since that time both the Department of Fisheries Malaysia – Malacca (DOFM-Malacca) and World Wildlife Fund for Nature Malaysia (WWF-Malaysia) have established long-term monitoring and conservation activities on nesting beaches, expanding the coverage to encompass key nesting sites.
The federal Wildlife Conservation Act (2010) lists sea turtles as a fully protected species but management of turtles remains a State matter under Article 14 of Malaysia’s constitution. The Fisheries Act (1985) provides protection to turtles outside of State territorial waters. Turtles are protected under the Melaka Fisheries (Turtles and Turtle Eggs Rules; 1989), which allows for the State authorities to create reserves for turtle conservation and provide for a licensed egg collecting system. A detailed assessment of the hawkbsill turtles and their habitats is provided in the following sections:
Nesting Sites Key nesting sites have been identified by DOFM-Malacca, DOFM-Negeri Sembilan and WWF Malaysia, although turtles reportedly use other beaches on an occasional basis. The key sites within the 10 km study area are presented in Figure 5.73 and Figure 5.74. DOF Malacca is currently conducting monitoring and conservation activity for nesting sites along the Malacca
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shoreline. DOFM Negeri Sembilan obtained information on the turtle nesting beaches based on secondary data collected (Personal communication, Mr. Shubli, DOFM-Negeri Sembilan).
Of these nesting sites, the sites in Malacca which receive the most nests are Padang Kemunting (18% of all nests), Pulau Upeh (18% of all nests), Kem Terendak (15% of all nests), and Pasir Gembur (10% of all nests) (refer to Appendix E, DOFM-Malacca Turtle Data). However, in recent years, notably in 2011 - 2012, there were substantial declines in nesting at Kem Terendak and Pulau Upeh. These four key sites are shown in Figure 5.74.
Figure 5.73 Key nesting locations for hawksbill turtles in Negeri Sembilan (within 10 km from project boundary).
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Figure 5.74 Key nesting locations of hawksbill turtles in Malacca (within 10 km from project boundary)
Nesting Trends Overall nesting numbers from 2006 to 2014 indicate that the population appears to be stable or slightly increasing (Figure 5.75), although a longer time-series would help identify this trend more accurately.
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Figure 5.75 Total nests deposited by year across all sites in Malacca. Data courtesy of DOFM-Malacca
Foraging Grounds Hawksbill turtles are generally spongivorous, feeding on sponges and other invertebrates associated with coral reef environments /43/. These habitats need not be in the vicinity of nesting beaches, as the turtles can migrate substantial distances from nesting grounds to foraging grounds /44/. As discussed in the previous section (Section 5.2.6), areas of soft coral were observed in the survey area, with limited hard coral areas identified. Coral reef areas in Malacca are limited, with the highest coral reef coverage found off Pulau Besar, some 50 km south of the proposed project area.
It is likely that core foraging areas for Malacca’s adult hawksbills are outside of Malacca. However, given reports of stranded and bycaught juvenile turtles (including one sighting during the current survey) there are likely resident and foraging populations (currently unknown abundance) within the nearshore waters of the State.
The maps below are based on a satellite telemetry study conducted from 2006 to 2013 on 15 nesting Hawksbills in Malacca. They provide information on important turtle habitat ranges during inter-nesting periods, migrations and foraging areas. The turtles were tagged and tracked as part of a collaborative effort between WWF Malaysia, the Malacca State Department of Fisheries, and the Malacca State Government.
All 15 turtles migrated south, mostly to the southern waters of Singapore and Riau islands (Figure 5.76). The tracking efforts also revealed that the turtles spent up to two months in the vicinity of the nesting beaches, in what is known as the inter-nesting period.
Figure 5.77 shows the inter-nesting habitat of 11 hawksbill turtles. Home ranges were measured using fixed kernel density (FKD) methods. The home range area (95% FKD) covers 1,783 km2 and the inter-nesting core area (50% FKD) is 479 km2.
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Figure 5.76 Post-nesting migrations of 15 hawksbill turtles from Malacca. Figure courtesy of WWF- Malaysia.
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Figure 5.77 Home range of Hawksbills during inter-nesting period in Malacca.
Threats to Hawksbill Turtles During all phases of their life cycle turtles are prone to a number of threats, including fishery bycatch, impacts to nesting beaches, pollution of marine environments, rising sea temperatures and sea levels, hunting and egg poaching. However, three key anthropogenic threats likely represent the majority of threats to sea turtles: fishery bycatch, habitat alteration / destruction, and shipping. Bycatch in commercial and artisanal fisheries is one of the largest threats to marine turtles across the globe /45/ due to the overlaps in fishery activity and marine turtle habitats.
Vessel traffic is a threat to turtles /46/, where ports and shipping traffic intersect with sea turtle nesting beaches, nearshore habitat and ocean migration paths. The Straits of Malacca experiences very high shipping densities, as is detailed in Section 5.3.10. Habitat loss is a major threat to turtles, in Malacca and elsewhere. Ongoing landfilling and dredging projects have already impacted substantial portions of the hawksbill habitat in Malacca, and careful consideration is needed for those remaining areas important to sea turtles.
Habitat degradation can take several forms with regard to sea turtle biology, such as restriction of access (turtles cannot physically access the beach), light pollution (which influences nesting behaviour and hatchling orientation) and domestic, fishery and industrial waste (which may entangle nesting turtles and hatchlings). Beach alterations in the form of construction,
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seawalls, and other man-made structures have the potential to influence to turtle nesting patterns and marine movements along Malacca beaches.
5.2.8 Painted Terrapins
5.2.8.1 Introduction The Painted Terrapin, Batagur borneoensis, is a large, freshwater turtle (carapace length up to 50 cm) that inhabits parts of large rivers under tidal influence. Its distribution is limited geographically to Sumatra, southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo /47/. Peninsular Malaysia is believed to be the last stronghold for this species in the world, with the largest wild populations found here. The Painted Terrapin is currently listed as Critically Endangered (CE) on the IUCN Red List /48/. Figure 5.78 shows an example photograph of an adult male exhibiting dichromatism (two different kinds of colouring) during the breeding season, as well as B. borneoensis hatchlings.
The distribution of B. borneoensis in Malaysia is not very well documented, with a general lack of more recent data on this species. Most of the research in determining the population status was carried out in the 1980s to 1990s. B. borneoensis is active during the day and night and their activities appear to correlate with the tides more than any other factors. As the tide rises the terrapins move upstream, into tributaries, where they forage until the ebb tide when the current carries them downstream /49/.
Juvenile B. borneoensis are reported to be omnivorous as the young will consume more animal foods such as molluscs to obtain their source of calcium, while adults appear to be predominantly herbivorous in the wild. Their feeding time mostly occurs during the high tide where the vegetation is exposed and fruits from low-hanging braches dangle in the water /50/. Adults are believed to feed on riparian plants, including the stem of grasses, stem of aquatic macrophytes, fruit of Pandanus spp., and the fruits, flowers and body of Sonneratia spp. /47/.
Figure 5.78 An adult male B. borneoensis (left) exhibiting sexual dichromatism during the breeding season. B. borneoensis hatchlings (right).
5.2.8.2 Population Status B. borneoensis has a wide distribution in Peninsular Malaysia, ranging from the northern state of Perlis to the southern corner of Johor. Moll (1990) visually confirmed the presence of the species in 14 rivers during his survey of Peninsular Malaysia and it was suspected to occur in 19 other rivers, based on museum specimens, interviews with locals, visual confirmation by investigators and scientific literature /51/.
Based on interviews with licensed egg collectors, Moll (1985) noted that only five out of 17 rivers surveyed contained more than 100 nesting females /47/. The Setiu and Paka Rivers in
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Terengganu are believed to harbour the largest nesting populations, followed by the Linggi, Pahang, Semerak and Kemaman Rivers /57;59/.
In 2001, Sungai Paka, Sungai Setiu and Sungai Linggi were believed to be the only three rivers in Peninsular Malaysia with a high possibility of inhabiting more than 100 breeding females of B. borneoensis /52/.
B. borneoensis nesting beaches in the Linggi area are displayed in Figure 5.79; these locations are based on Sharma (1997) /59/, personal communication with Dr. Reuben Sharma and personal communication with Mr. Fardiansah, Turtle Information Centre, Department of Fisheries Padang Kemunting.
Reports on population sizes usually refer only to the number of nesting females based on field research /53; 54/. The most practical population size estimation is based on the number of nests and nesting females per season. Historical data shows that in a span of 25 years from 1990 to 2014, only 901 B. borneoensis nestings were recorded (Dept. of Fisheries, Melaka). The highest number of nestings was recorded in 1997, with a total of 198 landings. In contrast, only one nesting was recorded in 2002.
However, annual nesting statistics gathered by the Department of Fisheries do not reflect the actual nesting numbers since nesting surveys are not conducted by the Department, and data are supplied by egg collectors and restricted to locations where licenses were issued /59/.
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Figure 5.79 B. borneoensis nesting beaches in the Linggi area, based on Sharma (1997), personal communication with Dr. Reuben Sharma, 2016 and personal communication with Mr. Fardiansah, Department of Fisheries Padang Kemunting, 2016.
Honegger (1998) /55/ has stated that the individual nesting populations are, in general, extremely small and the species is considered to be seriously threatened with extinction. Sharma and Tisen (2000) /56/ highlighted that the population of B. borneoensis in Peninsular Malaysia has severely depleted and in Thailand was reported to be almost extinct with only one population of scattered animals left in Klong La-Ngu in Satun Province /55/.
The population of B. borneoensis appears to be depleted in Linggi River due to the large number of adults that have fallen prey to illegal traders. It was believed that the decrease in numbers was due to the human consumption of eggs. The alteration and destruction of habitat is also thought to have contributed to declining numbers. The clearing of the forested water shed and sand and tin mining lead to a greater silt load with associated problems of increased flooding, silt deposition and reduced productivity.
5.2.8.3 Reproduction and Hatching Success Although B. borneoensis has been reported to nest on marine beaches /47/, they are also known to nest on estuarine sand islands and upriver sand banks. On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, they are known to swim out of the river and nest on adjacent beaches,
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often within several kilometres of the river mouth. On the west coast, nesting may occur as far as 16 km (Linggi River) and 18 km (Perak River) from the estuary /57; 59/.
Reproduction for B. borneoensis is seasonal and the start of the nesting season may vary annually. This species characteristically spends a great portion of their life cycle in estuarine and brackish waters, even laying their eggs on beaches in similar areas as sea turtles. On the East coast of Peninsular Malaysia sporadic nesting occurs in May, with the period June to August being the main nesting period /47/. Painted terrapin nesting from Sg. Linggi is reported to peak between October to February, during the northeast monsoon (personal communication Mr. Fardiansah, Turtle Information Centre, Padang Kemunting). The months with the most nesting is December and January. Historical data (1995 and 1996) show that Painted Terrapins nest all year round /54/.
B. borneoensis lays relatively large eggs with small clutch sizes in comparison to other freshwater turtles. Hatching success in the Linggi River was reported as less than 15% in 1988 /51/ and 31.4% in 1990 /58/. Comparatively, the mean hatching success of the species in the Setiu and Paka Rivers were reported as 71.5% and 80.1%, respectively. The differences in the hatching success could be due to varying egg handling methods, incubation conditions, egg fertility or predation rates /59/.
5.2.8.4 Habitat and Threats This species nests primarily on coastal beaches and the lack of such beaches may be the reason for its limited distribution in the west coast rivers. Nesting beaches for B. borneoensis are heavily disturbed to make way for industrial and tourism development. Water pollution due to toxic and industrial wastes is another major threat not only to the terrapins but also affects other species and the entire ecosystem /61/.
Other factors that contribute to the negative coastal growth, and possibly limit the distribution of B. borneoensis include the construction of dams along the major rivers and the reduction in sediment transport into the Straits of Malacca /60/.
The major threats to the species are the overexploitation of eggs for human consumption, improper coastal and estuarine development and habitat degradation /57/. Terrapins are also killed by humans in a variety of accidental and intended purposes. Collisions with motorboats occasionally occur and could be fatal /61/. In smaller rivers where fishermen lay their fishing nets across the river, the terrapins also get trapped in fishing nets and other fishing gear and drown.
Although the specific habitat requirements for B. borneoensis have not been determined, it was found that B. borneoensis takes refuge by holding on to riparian vegetation for long hours, in submerged trunks and roots of rengas air (Gluta velutina) and putat air (Barringtonia racemosa). B. borneoensis also prefer to bask on the trunks of Sonneratia spp., Pandanus spp., and mats of aquatic vegetation.
5.2.8.5 Salinity Tolerance B. borneoensis is a unique species in that it lives in the freshwater environment but shares a nesting beach with marine turtles. It is likely that hatchlings must swim through the sea to reach the river mouths, yet they are intolerant of long-term immersion in sea water when tested in the laboratory /62/. Painted Terrapin hatchlings are not physiologically specialized for a life in estuaries of high salinity, yet they can survive for at least two weeks in 100% seawater (35 ppt).
A few similar species include the Diamondback Terrapins, Pig-nosed Turtles and the Common Snapping Turtles. At hatching and for many months afterward, Diamondback Terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) cannot grow in salinities above about two-thirds seawater (i.e. 23.3 ppt). Yet, salinities near the nests are above this level /63/.
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In the case of female turtles nesting in estuarine areas, they may also rely on a second temporal factor, which is related to periods of fresh water runoff generated by heavy rainfall /62/. In large rivers, tidal salinity fluctuation allows periods of exposure to salinity levels below 50% seawater (i.e. 17.5 ppt), which is sufficient for rehydration and foraging /64; 65; 66/. In the mouth of the Purari River, where the Pig-nosed Turtle, Carettochelys insculpta, coastal nesting also occurs /67/, salinity never exceeds 10% of standard ocean water, i.e. 3.5 ppt /68/.
5.2.8.6 Management and Conservation in Malaysia In Peninsular Malaysia, six out of the eleven states have legislation pertaining to protection and exploitation of turtles and three states (Pahang, Penang and Perak) have had a draft document under review for several years /52/. According to Sharma and Tisen (2000) /56/, Selangor and Perlis do not have any legislation to protect the chelonians.
Sarawak has listed B. borneoensis as a Totally Protected Species under the Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1957 (amended 1973/1998). Enforcement of this protection is under the responsibility of the Wildlife, National Parks and Wildlife Office of Sarawak Forestry Department /56/. The Customs (Prohibition of Exports/Import) Orders of 1988 has banned all export and import of turtle eggs, including B. borneoensis eggs.
The Department of Fisheries, Melaka, initiated a Painted Terrapin Conservation Project in 1990, where terrapin eggs were purchased from licensed egg collectors for incubation. From 1990 to 2006, the Department managed to secure a total of 826 nests for incubation. In 2006 the department also started to collaborate with WWF Malaysia in its conservation programme. They pay egg collectors around RM1.50 for each painted terrapin egg which is incubated by the WWF and then eventually released into the Linggi River.
The management of Painted Terrapins are now under PERHILITAN. The change in management was made two years ago in 2014. However, Department of Fisheries Malacca still assists in the Painted Terrapin conservation by still buying back any terrapin eggs collected (personal communication, Mr. Fardiansah, DOF Padang Kemunting).
More recently, in 2014, a study on the Painted Terrapin in the Linggi River was initiated by Dr. Reuben Sharma (Universiti Putra Malaysia). This study involves marking and recapturing and temporarily tagging individuals as well as monitoring the genetic health of B. borneoensis in the Linggi River. At the time of writing the results of this study had yet to be made available.
5.2.9 Crocodiles Crocodiles are a valuable part of the Malaysian biodiversity, as a keystone species of Malaysia’s wetland ecosystems. Within Peninsular Malaysia the Indo-Pacific crocodile (Crocodylus porosus Schneider) is not common but can still be found within certain locations /69/. Historically, the species appears to have been widespread and attacks on humans were very frequent along the coast during the first half of the 20th Century.
From the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, C. porosus is currently listed as ‘Least Concern/Lower Risk’ and this was based on a population assessment in 2009 /69/. C. porosus is also listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora /69, 69/. This species is listed under of The Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 (Act 716) as a ‘Totally Protected Wildlife’ species in Peninsular Malaysia. Crocodiles inhabiting the Sungai Linggi (especially the downstream stretch) and surrounding areas do not appear to be threatened as suggested by their high density and successful breeding.
Long-term studies of C. porosos in Peninsular Malaysia are virtually non-existent, with the exception of a study by Sebastian (1993) /70/. This study listed 10 localities where C. porosus had been reported and suggested that a few rivers in Terengganu, Perak, and Pahang, Negeri Sembilan may have the most significant populations. A preliminary survey of C. porosus in
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Rembau Estuary, undertaken in 2009, indicated a relative density of 2.9 ind/km and the presence of hatchlings, indicating successful nesting in the previous season /71/.
Field observations using spotlight studies from May 2015 till December 2015 (Figure 5.80) (Appendix E) showed that the population density for crocodiles along the downstream stretch of Sungai Linggi is 12.5 ind/km and values of monthly corrected densities are between 5 ind/km and 24.9 ind/km. Based on the Rembau survey, this might indicate that C. porosus populations in Sungai Linggi have undergone marginal increase over the past 5 years, to reach a density of approximately 4.5 crocodiles per km of river bank. The emergence of hatchlings and crocodiles of a size less than 50 cm indicates the existence of substantial areas of suitable habitat, as well as numbers of breeding adults, forming an important reservoir population of C. porosus in Sg. Linggi (Figure 5.81).
Figure 5.80 Crocodiles spotted using spotlight technique on four different sampling dates.
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Figure 5.81 Crocodiles less than 50 cm and more than 2 m in size.
Although many parts in the north and south of the Sungai Linggi has been developed for oil palms plantations, settlements and poultry farms, there are still many intact mangroves along the river fringes and extensive swamps to the south of Sungai Linggi, most of which provide ideal breeding habitat for C. porosus, and are sparsely inhabited by local people.
The C. porosus population has a relatively stable population density which varies from month to month. This variation is probably due to external factors (such as phases of the moon, disturbance intensity during the survey, and tidal current during the survey) and not due to significant fluctuations in population.
5.2.10 Fish Fauna Fish are a major source of high-quality protein, providing about 16% of animal protein for human consumption around the world /72/. Fish are either caught in the wild or raised through fish farming or aquaculture. Kuala Linggi is one of the main fishing areas in Malacca. Fishermen coming from Tanjung Selamat, Tanjung Agas and Kuala Sungai Baru use drift nets to catch fish within the area. One of the main factors contributing to the high abundance of fish in the area is the mangrove forest, which acts as nursery for juvenile fishes /73, 74/.
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Fish sampling using local fishing methods was carried out at seven stations as shown in Figure 5.82. Sampling was carried out over spring and neap tides; day and night. More detailed results of the fish fauna survey can be found in Appendix C.
Figure 5.82 Locations of fisheries sampling stations within and around the proposed project area.
5.2.10.1 Fish Diversity & Abundance A total of 1,805 individuals of fish, 558 individuals of shrimp, 69 individuals of crab and two (2) individuals of horseshoe crab were caught during the survey. The fish caught belonged to 25 families and consisted of 36 species. The crustaceans (shrimps and crabs) belonged to four families, consisting of four species and one species of horseshoe crab was recorded.
The highest abundance of fish were recorded during neap tide night time sampling, with a total of 713 individuals. However, the highest number of species was recorded during spring tide daytime sampling, with 22 fish species (Figure 5.83). The second highest number of fish was caught during spring tide daytime with 532 individuals and second highest number of species was recorded during spring tide night time with 16 species. This is followed by spring tide night time with 312 individuals and 15 species and the lowest count was during neap tide daytime with 251 individuals and 14 species.
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Figure 5.83 Overall species count and Catch-per-unit-effort for fish fauna and crustaceans from all stations.
In terms of biomass, the highest biomass value was recorded at station F7, located north of Tg. Bidara, during neap tide night time (154.75 g/m2/hour), followed by station F3, located immediately north of project area (approximately 2 km from rivermouth), during neap tide daytime (55.48 g/m2/hour). The third highest biomass value was recorded at station F7, north of Tg. Bidara, this time during spring tide daytime (41.77 g/m2/hour). High biomass was recorded in the nearshore areas which indicates that the number of adult fish are high in mangrove habitats, reflecting the role of mangrove as breeding, spawning and foraging grounds /75/. These areas of high catch are consistent with the main fishing area used by fishermen which extends from Pasir Panjang, Negeri Sembilan to Tg. Kling, Malacca.
5.2.10.2 Species Composition The species caught in the highest number was the anchovy Setipinna taty (ikan kasai), with a total of 860 individuals. The second most abundant species was the river perch Johnius belangerii (ikan gelama), with 415 individuals. Other species which were caught in high numbers included Anodontastoma chacunda (ikan selangat), with 165 individuals and Arius sp. (Duri) with 126 individuals (Figure 5.84 and Figure 5.86). In terms of crustaceans, the most abundant species was the prawn Penaeus sp., with 497 individuals recorded.
The main commercial capture fisheries in this area are stingrays, shrimps, mussels/cockles and squid. The commercial value of the fish species caught during the survey was generally low to medium, with only a small percentage (between 6% and 20%) categorised as having a high commercial value.
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A B
C D
Figure 5.84 Example photographs of A: Setipinna taty, B: Johnius belangerii, C: Anodontastoma chacunda, and D: Arius sp.
Figure 5.85 Species diversity and abundance from all stations (not including crustaceans)
5.2.11 Plankton Communities Plankton are a heterogeneous set of organisms that are found in all waters (marine, estuarine and fresh). Plankton are broadly classified into two groups: the phytoplankton (plants) and the zooplankton (animals). They are microscopic organisms that form a major link in the aquatic food web. The biological productivity of a marine ecosystem is also largely dependent on the primary production by phytoplankton which are subsequently consumed by heterotrophs such as zooplankton, fish, marine mammals and benthos.
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These planktonic communities are generally influenced by various environmental factors such as light and nutrients whereas spatial variation is largely influenced by hydrodynamic processes such as water currents, tides and wind.
For this study, phytoplankton and zooplankton sampling was carried out at eight (8) stations to obtain data on diversity and abundance. Data analysis also includes indices to determine species diversity, evenness, dominance and frequency. Complete methodology and findings can be found in Appendix C.
5.2.11.1 Phytoplankton There were five (5) groups of phytoplankton identified in Kuala Linggi namely Bacillariophyta (diatoms), Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), Foraminifera (protist), Pyrrophyta (dinoflagellates) and Tintinnida. A total of 39 species from 26 orders were identified from samples taken at all stations during ebb and flood tides.
In general, the number of species were lower in estuarine waters (16 species during ebb; 28 species during flood) compared to marine waters (31 species during ebb; 33 species during flood) (Figure 5.86). Among the phytoplankton communities, Bacillariophyta was the most dominant group, constituting an average of 94.4% of the total phytoplankton density followed by Tintinnida (2.4%), Foraminifera (1.6%), Cyanobacteria (1.4%) and Pyrrophyta (0.2%). This is not surprising as the dominance of Bacillariophyta is quite common in the Straits of Malacca /76/ compared to other groups of phytoplankton.
Figure 5.86 Number of phytoplankton species recorded at each station.
During ebb tide, the percentage compositions of diatoms were much higher at the estuary stations compared to the marine stations. Conversely, the compositions where higher at the marine stations during the flood tide. This variability was mainly driven by the dominance of Cyclotella sp. at station P1. The results also show variability in species dominance at the marine stations where Coscinodiscus sp. dominated during ebb tide (except at stations P6 and P8) and Hemiaulus sp. dominated during flood tide.
In terms of density, cell counts ranged from 48 ± 19 cells L-1 to 4,251 ± 1,476 cells L-1 during ebb tide and 109 ± 16 cells L-1 to 423 ± 31 cells L-1 during flood tide, as shown in Figure 5.87 and Figure 5.88 respectively. Overall, the total number of phytoplankton recorded in Kuala Linggi is low compared to other studies conducted within the Straits of Malacca /77, 76/. This could be influenced by seasonal variation as shown by Siswanto and Tanaka /78/.
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On an important note, dinoflagellates are a group of phytoplankton known to cause harmful algae blooms (HABs). Three (3) species of dinoflagellate from the genera Ceratium, Dinophysis and Protoperidinium were identified in Kuala Linggi’s waters. Among these genera, Ceratium and Dinophysis are considered harmful /79/. Dinoflagellates were found to be present in only three (3) stations (P1, P2 and P4) during flood tide.
Figure 5.87 Mean phytoplankton density (cells/L) of during ebb tide in the study area
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Figure 5.88 Mean phytoplankton density (cells/L) of during flood tide in the study area
In general, the variability in density and diversity between the sampling stations was much larger during ebb tide. Nonetheless, there were no obvious differences in density between the sampling stations and between flood and ebb tides. The exception to this was at station P1 where the density was more than 17 times higher during ebb tide compared to flood tide. As mentioned previously, the high density at station P1 was due to the high numbers of Cyclotella sp. found in the water sample. The reason for such high numbers is not clear, however the station’s proximity to various industries, (chicken farm and oil palm factory) that might be contributing nutrients either through point source discharge or surface run off, could be one of the reasons since nutrient is the limiting factor for phytoplankton. Water quality results from station P1 also showed higher nutrient (ammoniacal nitrogen, phosphate and nitrate) concentrations during ebb tide compared to flood tide. The differences in diversity between ebb and flood tide were more prominent at the estuary stations. This could be due to the influence of freshwater and seawater mixing.
5.2.11.2 Zooplankton For zooplankton, identified species were from the groups Calanoida, Monstrilloida, Cyclopoida, Harpaticoida, crustaceans (copepod nauplii, cirriped larvae, decapod larvae, amphipod, mysid) and non-crustaceans (chaetognath, cnidarian, polychaete larvae, fish
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larvae, mollusc and unidentified eggs). A total of 36 species of zooplankton, not including unidentified eggs, were identified from samples taken at all stations during ebb and flood tides. The number of species were generally lower during ebb tides (between 13 and 18 species) compared to flood tides (between 14 and 21 species) (Figure 5.89).
25
20
15
10 No.of Taxa
5
0 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 Flood Ebb Station
Figure 5.89 Number of zooplankton species recorded at each station.
Calanoida, which is an order of copepod, was the most dominant group with an average percentage composition of 62.4% of the total abundance. This finding is similar to the findings by Rezai et al /80/ where the waters of Straits of Malacca were dominated by copepods in terms of both abundance and percentage composition.
As shown in Figure 5.90 and Figure 5.91, zooplankton abundances were generally higher at the river stations, P1 and P2, during ebb and flood tides where the total abundance at each station were more than 2,300 ind. m-3. This could be related to the higher phytoplankton cell densities found in the area considering zooplankton are the primary consumers of phytoplankton.
There were no obvious differences in diversity and evenness between the river and marine stations.
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Figure 5.90 Mean zooplankton abundance (ind./m3) of during ebb tide at the study area
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Figure 5.91 Mean zooplankton abundance (ind/m3) of during flood tide at the study area
5.2.12 Macrobenthos The soft-bottom benthic community includes a wide range of organisms from bacteria to plants (phytobenthos) and animals (zoobenthos) from the different levels of the food web. Zoobenthos can be differentiated using two categories; infauna and epifauna. Infauna are animals that live in sediments, almost all worms and bivalves belongs to this category, and epifauna are organisms that live on the surface of bottom sediments; many crabs and gastropods are considered as epifauna /81/.
The major factors responsible for diversity and spatial distribution of macrobenthos in a particular area are usually sediment texture, hydrography, and food availability (nutrient concentration). Silty sediment is known to sustain macrofaunal diversity and density, while sand dominance would show a reduction in the macrofaunal and clayey-silt substrates are known to support more epifauna /82/.
In Kuala Linggi, macrobenthos sampling was carried out at 16 stations to obtain data on diversity and abundance. The complete methodology and results can be found in Appendix C.
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A total of 29 macrobenthos taxa were identified in the study area, belonging to seven (7) different phyla; Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata, Sipuncula, Nematoda and Chordata. Out of these seven (7) phyla, Annelida was the most species-rich group with 11 taxa and the most dominant phyla in terms of abundance which accounted for 36.1% of the total macrobenthic density; this was followed by Arthropoda (22.2%), Echinodermata (15.1%), Sipuncula (11.2%) and Mollusca (10%). Chordata and Nematoda only contributed 3.2% and 1.4% of the total density, respectively. Annelids are commonly known to be the dominant benthic fauna in marine sediments where they play a major role in the marine food chains and functioning of the benthic environment.
In terms of density, the highest was at station B5, near Tg. Serai with 381.9 ± 245.5 ind. m-2. The sediment type at this station comprised 45% sand, 30% silt, 18% clay and 7% gravel. This type of sediment and benthic environment seemed to be preferred by Arthropoda which was the dominant group present (67% of the total individuals found in this station).
Generally, the diversity of macrobenthos around Kuala Linggi was quite low. At three (3) stations (B4, B6, B15), only one (1) species was found giving a Shannon-Wiener Index and Pielou’s Index of 0, respectively. Whether these findings are common in the area is still not known as there are very limited studies and literature on the macrobenthic communities in the Malacca Straits to compare these findings to.
Figure 5.92 Mean macrobenthos density (ind./m2) in the study area.
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5.2.13 Integrated Ecological Processes Ecosystem connectivity can be described is a number of ways. From a systems processes point of view quantitative estimates of the fluxes in nutrients and organic carbon are used to describe important pathways, including trophic connectivity /83, 84/. Trophic based models using energy equivalent conversion factors have also been used extensively to study ecosystem wide fisheries impacts and management. Habitat utilization through life cycle stages may also be used to describe connectivity as well.
Within the context of this EIA time and resources has not allowed for specific studies of these processes to define key biological interactions. Fortunately the connectivity with respect to some fish and shrimp/prawns has been extensively studied in tropical ecosystems, including West peninsular Malaysia, and can be referred to in describing key processes for Sg. Linggi and adjacent coastal waters.
In assessing ecosystem connectivity for the immediate area of Sg. Linggi, two scales of connectivity are relevant. One is the area of immediate interaction between the Linggi estuary and the adjacent coastal system, the other is linkages between the estuary, the coastal zone and the much larger area of Malacca Straits.
In the case of the estuary–coastal waters interactions the physical and biological interactions relating to the tidally driven exchange and estuarine mixing and flood driven outflow dominate the spatial scales relating in particular to net productivity effects.
At a more regional scale factors including nutrient gradients and associated primary production; larval transport; algal driven primary production, the interactions between pelagic and benthic feeders and fisheries impacts along the continental shelf all become important.
Illustrated conceptually in Figure 5.93, the key ecosystem compartment are largely defined in terms of hydrological time and space scales. This is because material exchange, and to a lesser extent some biological processes, are dominated by hydrodynamic process at the scale of the Linggi estuary and the associated coastal waters. In brief, Sg. Linggi is a flooded river valley fed by two rivers from within a large catchment that contributes significant freshwater flows at times, as well as some nutrients and both organic and inorganic particulate material. These processes operate at timescales of seasonal to inter-annual and directly affects the estuary for the duration of the high flow periods of days to months.
The estuary and its associated mangrove system are dominated to a greater extent by diurnal and lunar cycles of tidally-driven mixing and water exchange with the adjacent coastal waters. The estuary on a daily basis influences the coastal waters to the immediate north of the Sg. Linggi mouth, as does the seasonal river outflows, whereas the coastal waters to the south are not so directly affected.
Overall the coastal waters within the Malacca Strait receive a significant contribution by rivers both large and small, of freshwater and their associated sediment and nutrient loads from peninsula Malaysia and the Sumatra. The much lower salinity that occurs in the waters in the Malacca Strait which had at the time of sampling a salinity of between 29.4 -30.1 ppt off Linggi compared with that for the marine waters globally of between 31 and 39 ppt, with an average of 35 psu (=ppt) /85/ well illustrates this. How well-mixed these waters are is not well understood. There is the possibility of a coastal boundary layer whose waters are continuously exchanged and mixed with the estuaries on each side of the Strait, but have a much slower mixing across the entire strait itself. Bong and Lee (2008) /86/ as part of a cruise of the Malacca Straits in 2004, reported that offshore waters for some marine water quality variables were very different to onshore waters.
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Figure 5.93 Conceptualisation of key ecosystem compartments in the Sg. Linggi and coastal waters
Fortunately, there has been extensive studies on the linkages between mangroves, estuaries, coastal environments and fisheries for west peninsular Malaysia. These have been effectively summarised by Chong (2007) /87/ in terms of west coast peninsular Malaysia based on his and others extensive research on the Matang mangrove forest (Sg. Merbok), Sg. Dinding in Kuala Selangor, Sg. Sementa Besar in Klang and the Klang-Langat Delta. We are left therefore with the need to infer much of what we know from studies undertaken elsewhere in Malacca Straits or coast tropical coastal environments generally. In addition, the biology of many key species is reasonably well understood and this understanding may be applied to the Linggi region as this part of Malacca Straits is part of a pan Indian Ocean- Pacific Ocean distribution for many of these species found here.
A physically dominant attribute of the Linggi estuary is its mangrove fringe. Mangroves have a strong terrestrial connectedness as evidenced by the wide diversity of vertebrate and invertebrate species that occur within the canopy and use it has habitat (Nagelkerken et al. 2008) /88/. At the same time, mangroves have a strong marine connectedness through a number of mechanisms. Mangroves are intertidal and as is the case in all tropical intertidal mud/sand flats and mangrove systems, the near to diurnal, tidally driven change along the land-sea transect of flooding and drying brings into play two very different set of processes.
Under an outgoing tide (drainage) regime, the sediments become exposed and available to a range of both terrestrial and marine foragers such as crabs, mollusc species, birds, mud skippers and otters for example. Under an incoming tide (flooding) predation pressures change as a range of fish and crustaceans move in to forage across the flats and up into the mangroves driving many of their prey species back into the sediments for protection or using the structured complexity for predation avoidance. A the same time the area changes from basking habitat for crocodiles and terrapins to feeding habitat, fish in the case of the crocodiles and vegetation in the case of the terrapins.
The overall conclusion by Chong (2007) is that Malaysian mangroves provide an attractive nursery ground for a large diversity of fish, prawns (shrimp) and other marine species. He also notes that carrying capacity for individual mangrove systems is dependent on several variable including hydrodynamics, the ecohydrology, and degree of human disturbance and intervention. Mangroves and their associated mudflats are considered important to both juvenile fish and shrimp but in different ways. Mangrove detritus is important for the shrimp food web in mangrove creeks in Malaysia, whereas fish larvae and juvenile fish in mangroves consume zooplankton that derive most of their energy requirements from phytoplankton and
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phyto-micro-benthos. It is also important to recognise that mangroves offer physical structural complexity and as such have a refuge function as well, particularly for juvenile fish
Chong et al 1990 /89/ in a comparison of the fish and prawn communities of coastal mangroves with adjacent and inshore waters of the Klang Strait concluded that, while mangroves provide both food and shelter for juvenile prawn and fish, the coastal systems (mangroves and mudflats combined) were utilised by some 34 species of fish from offshore waters for foraging.
Another example that provides evidence of the close link between estuarine and coastal mangroves, and adjacent coastal waters is a case study for peninsular Malaysia presented by Blaber et al 2000 /90/. They cite the work of Chong et al 1990, 1998 and others that shows that trawling for prawns in shallow nearshore areas leads to over exploitation off offshore fisheries because of diminished recruitment, as a large portion of the inshore trawl catch was young fishes two to four times the weight of prawns caught.
5.3 Human Environment
The project is located along the northern shoreline of the State of Malacca near the rivermouth of Sg. Linggi. Administratively, the project is within Mukim Kuala Linggi, District of Alor Gajah. However, the EIA study area, which extends 5 km from the project site, also falls within Mukim Pasir Panjang, Negeri Sembilan and Mukim Kuala Baru, Malacca.
This section provides an overview of the population, economic activities and land and sea- uses pertinent to the study area to provide the social context for evaluating the impacts of the project on the human environment. This is based on existing data and studies, supplemented by a detailed socioeconomic survey carried out in the study area.
5.3.1 Data Collection and Sources As described in Chapter 1, the EIA study boundary for the human environment component is a 5 km radius from the project boundary. Information concerning the study area was sought from published and unpublished reports on the human environment in the study area and from primary data collected from social surveys. The socioeconomic surveys were carried out in February and March 2016 and are described further in the following sections with full details provided in Appendix F. Land traffic surveys were carried out in May 2015 (see Appendix M), while the landuse survey was conducted in January 2016 (see Appendix C).
The assessment of the human environment in this section is divided into the following components:
Settlements; Land use; Socioeconomic profile; Fisheries and aquaculture; Tourism and heritage; Public health status; Public perception of the project; Land traffic; and Marine traffic and navigation.
5.3.1.1 Socio-economic Survey Methodology A brief summary of the socio-economic survey approach is provided here in order to provide background to the results presented in the subsequent sections. For further detail, refer to Appendix F.
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