Zombies, Vaults & Violence: Collective Memory and the Representation of Atomic Fears in Video Games Ryan Scheiding A Thesis In the Department of Communication Studies Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Communication Studies) at Concordia University Montréal, Québec, Canada 15 October 2020 © Ryan Scheiding, 2020 CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES This is to certify that the thesis prepared By: Ryan Scheiding Entitled: Zombies, Vaults & Violence: Collective Memory and the Representation of Atomic Fears in Video Games and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor Of Philosophy (Communication Studies) complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality. Signed by the final examining committee: Chair Dr. Anita Sinner External Examiner Dr. Rachael Hutchinson External to Program Dr. Marc Steinberg Examiner Dr. William Buxton Examiner Dr. Fenwick McKelvey Thesis Supervisor Dr. Mia Consalvo Approved by Dr. Krista Lynes, Graduate Program Director December 15, 2020 Dr. Pascale Sicotte, Dean Faculty of Arts and Science iii ABSTRACT Zombies, Vaults & Violence: Collective Memory and the Representation of Atomic Fears in Video Games Ryan Scheiding, Ph.D. Concordia University, 2020 This dissertation examines the representation of atomic/nuclear weapons and fears within video games through the lens of collective/cultural memory, historiography, game studies and critical theory. These diverse fields are combined into a research typology labelled as discourses of the past which argues that the past is mediated based upon the needs of entrenched power for use in, and the organization of, the present. The study focuses specifically on the representation of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 in both their American and Japanese contexts. The dissertation first engages with key works in the relevant fields. This literature review grounds the work in established theory while also defining and outlining the discourses of the past research typology. The second major section engages in a discussion of the author’s positionality and describes the methodological considerations of the typology. Through a historiographical analysis, the dissertation argues that the dominant discourses of the past of the atomic bombings in the United States/West is to justify the use of the bombs while erasing Japanese victims. This is further examined in three case studies of American games: Fallout 4, Far Cry 5, and Far Cry New Dawn. A historiographical analysis of Japanese sources finds that there is no one dominant collective/cultural memory and, instead, atomic bomb and war memory is diffused into three discourses of the past (a hero/victim/perpetrator memory triad) where no one discourse is entirely dominant or marginalized. Instead, the relative power of each is dictated by person, place, space, and/or temporality. This is further explored in a case study of three Japanese games: Resident Evil 3, Yakuza 6: The Song of Life, and Valkyria Chronicles 4. Through the combination of theory, historiography, and case studies the dissertation ultimately argues that the selected games mimic the dominant discourses of the past while also adhering to established video game genre conventions and expectations. These findings are then put into contemporary context to argue for the continued relevance of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The researching, writing, and editing of this dissertation has been one of the most fulfilling experiences of my life. The support that I have received in undertaking this endeavour goes beyond words. However, I would like to do my best to thank the following people while also offering my greatest apologies for any potential omissions. Completing a PhD can often be isolating or seen as a solitary endeavour but, luckily, that was not my experience. First and foremost, I would like to thank Mia Consalvo. You have been with me from the beginning, provided guidance, made sure that I stayed focused, and pushed my work to be the best that it could be. There were several times when this project reached the level of being “good enough” but you pushed me to go beyond that and, I believe, achieve something special. Many people are supervisors, but few are truly mentors. Thank you, Mia. To my other committee members, Bill Buxton and Fenwick McKelvey, I would like to thank you for your feedback, your time, and your guidance. You were always available when I needed you and I have appreciated working with both of you, both on this dissertation and on other unrelated projects. I was also quite fortunate to have two highly qualified external examiners, Rachael Hutchinson and Marc Steinberg. Your work helped to both define my field and allow for work such as mine to exist. Thank you for your time, feedback, and critique. I am greatly indebted to the members of the Concordia University Communication Studies department, especially Yasmin Jiwani, Jeremy Stolow, and Sandra Gabriele who have all supported my professional and intellectual development in various ways throughout my time in Montreal. Thank you as well to Mircea Mandache for all of your administrative work and guidance. In addition, I would like to acknowledge the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, the organization that funded this research through their doctoral fellowship grant. I want to thank all of my friends at the mlab for years of support, good times, and intellectually stimulating conversation. Marc, Sarah, Nic, Dan, Robyn, Scott, Courtney, Samia, Annie, Andrei, Jessie, Patricia, Michael, Lyne, Forest, and Tamyres you are all greatly appreciated. I cannot imagine what my PhD experience would have been like without you and I will cherish the times we had and the memories that we made. I also will not forget the non- v mlabbers who helped me through my PhD, Mimi, Luciano, Kalervo, Gina, and Tanya. Thank you for your collaboration, support, and friendship. Finally, thank you, Lychee. You have always seen me for who I am, accepted me, and expected nothing short of my best. You helped me feel seen and grow as a person. I will be forever grateful. I am greatly appreciative of my ever-supportive, ever-understanding family members. Mom, you taught me the value of hard work, always supported my decisions (no matter how far away they took me) and loved me unconditionally. What more could I ask for? Papa and G, you welcomed me into your home, supported me, and allowed me the time, space, and ability to work and research. Beyond this, you showed the value of curiosity and standing up for what I believe in. Tiffany and Kayla, my dear sisters, through our shared experiences (and shared burdens) you showed me both true strength and the value of laughter. Grandma, you introduced me to historical inquiry and lit the flame that became this project. I love you all. Finally, I would like to thank my cat Tubba, who passed away before this project could be completed. You were my best friend. You supported me in the ways that only a pet could. I will always miss you. Rest well, dear friend. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………… VIII I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Destruction of Raccoon City……………………………………………………….. 1 1.2 Outline of Chapters……………………………………………………………………… 4 1.3 What is Missing? A Note on Erasure………………………………………………….... 8 1.4 Stylistic Choices & Citation Standards…………………………………………………11 II. DISCOURSES OF THE PAST 2.1 Discourses of the Past…………………………………………………………………… 13 2.2 Collective/Cultural Memory………………………………………………………….... 14 2.3 Discourse/Critical Theory…………………………………………………………….... 30 2.4 Game Narratives & Game Histories…………………………………………………… 43 2.5 Defining a Discourses of the Past Typology……………………………………………. 52 III. POSITIONALITY & METHODOLOGY 3.1 Positionality……………………………………………………………………………... 56 3.2 Methodology…………………………………………………………………………….. 61 IV. AMERICAN MEMORY DISCOURSE & HISTORIOGRAPHY 4.1 Charting American Discourse and Historiography…………………………………... 74 4.2 Early Formulations……………………………………………………………………... 74 4.3 Crystallization into Hegemony……………………………………………………….... 82 4.4 Non-hegemonic Views & Discourses…………………………………………………… 99 4.5 Summarizing American Discourses of the Past…………………………. …………..108 V. AMERICAN VIDEO GAMES AS ATOMIC BOMB DISCOURSE 5.1 American Video Games as Atomic Bomb Discourse……………………................... 109 5.2 Case Study - Fallout 4…………………………………………………………………. 110 5.2.1 General Information and Series History…………………………………………. 110 5.2.2 Setting……………………………………………………………………………. 112 5.2.3 Narrative…………………………………………………………………………. 115 5.2.4 Characters………………………………………………………………………... 118 5.2.5 Gameplay……………………………………………………………………….... 128 5.2.6 Analysis………………………………………………………………………….. 133 5.3 Case Study - Far Cry 5………………………………………………………………… 135 5.3.1 General Information and Series History…………………………………………. 135 5.3.2 Setting……………………………………………………………………………. 136 5.3.3 Narrative…………………………………………………………………………. 138 5.3.4 Characters………………………………………………………………………... 145 5.3.5 Gameplay……………………………………………………………………….... 146 5.3.6 Analysis………………………………………………………………………….. 148 5.4 Case Study - Far Cry New Dawn……………………………………………………… 150 5.4.1 General Information and Series History…………………………………………. 150 5.4.2 Setting……………………………………………………………………………. 150 5.4.3 Narrative…………………………………………………………………………. 152 vii 5.4.4 Characters………………………………………………………………………... 155 5.4.5 Gameplay………………………………………………………………………...