The Behavior Analyst 1993, 16, 167-175 No. 2 (Fall) Discriminating Utopian from Dystopian Literature: Why is Walden Two Considered a Dystopia? Bobby Newman Queens College and the Graduate Center, CUNY, and Queens Services for Autistic Citizens, Inc.

Skinner thought of Walden Two as a utopia, but many literary critics consider it a dystopia. The present paper examines works by several authors of utopian literature in an effort to determine what elements lead critics to classify works as "dystopian." Common elements seem to include (a) suspicion ofscientific social planning, (b) the unhappiness of the characters portrayed, (c) suspicion of sources of control of behavior outside the individual, (d) violation of a presumed inherent need to struggle, and (e) suspicion ofbehavioral methods ofgovemance. The elements Walden Two shares with other utopias and dystopias are examined, and the conclusion is offered that Walden Two could not be considered a dystopia for any ofthe traditional reasons. Instead, the negative view of Walden Two seems to be an outgrowth ofliterary devices and general negative reactions to behavioral determinism. Key words: B. F. Skinner, Walden Two, utopia, dystopia

The term utopia was coined by Sir often considered them otherwise (Ku- Thomas More in 1516 from the Greek mar, 1991). The fact that Walden Two words for "no" and "place." Since that was regarded as a utopia by its author but time, the term has served as the name as a dystopia by critics (e.g., Krutch, 1954; for a genre of fiction that describes so- Matson, 1976; Stevick, 1968; Walsh, cieties deemed to be either nearly perfect 1962) does not make Skinner's work or nearly perfectly horrible. The terms unique. Nonetheless, Walden Two seems dystopia or antiutopia have sometimes to have inspired fiercer objections than been used to characterize the latter (e.g., any other modem utopian novel. For ex- Kateb, 1963). ample, in his description of Walden Two, Walden Two is interesting from a lit- Frye (1965) stated that "its Philistine erary standpoint in that many non-be- vulgarity makes it a caricature ofthe ped- havior analysts did not believe Skinner antry of social science" (p. 32). was being serious when he wrote his nov- Critics of utopian and dystopian lit- el; they believed that he was in fact being erature (e.g., Davis, 1981; Kateb, 1963; satirical and presenting a dystopia. Neg- Kumar, 1987; Walsh, 1962) have iden- ley and Patrick (1952) originally thought tified several elements that lead to the as much. When they realized Skinner's classification of a given work as dysto- true intent, they denied the work entry pian. These elements include (a) suspi- into their summary ofutopias. They also cion of scientific social planning, (b) the referred to the children of Walden Two unhappiness ofthe characters portrayed, as "little guinea pigs" and spoke of the (c) suspicion of sources of control of be- novel's "nauseating conclusion" (p. 590). havior outside the individual, (d) viola- Ofcourse, many authors intended their tion of a presumed inherent need to novels to be either utopias or dystopias struggle, and (e) suspicion of behavioral but have been faced with critics who have methods of governance. This paper ar- gues that these elements do not provide I would like to thank Dawn M. Buffington, Don- an adequate basis for classifying dysto- ald A. Cook, John W. Eshleman, Claire L. Poulson, pias in general, and for classifying Wald- Richard F. Rakos, and Deborah Shanley for con- en Two as a dystopia in particular. The siderable conceptual and editorial assistance. Correspondence concerning this article should be negative reaction to Walden Two seems addressed to Bobby Newman, Psychology Depart- instead to be due to Skinner's literary de- ment, Queens College CUNY, Flushing, NY 11367. vices and to general negative reactions to 167 168 BOBBY NEWMAN the deterministic assumptions of behav- racy, considered by Wells (1923) to be ior analysis. the leading of credulous and ignorant masses by energetic and unscrupulous in- dividuals, has been abandoned in these SUSPICION OF SCIENTIFIC utopian visions. Instead, experts in par- SOCIAL PLANNING ticular disciplines make decisions regard- Scientific social planning, of course, ing policy in that area, subject to open presupposes an orderliness to behavior criticism. Policies are carried out because that we call behavioral determinism. This it is clear that they will lead to maximum idea is incongruent with viewpoints rang- long-term reinforcement. If they do not, ing from Christian theology to "third the policies or the planners are changed. force" humanism. Describing objections These Comtean expert-governed so- from the religious side, Stevick (1968) cieties make many uneasy (e.g., Burgess, satirized Frazier of Walden Two and 1978), and they inspired some ofthe dys- wrote, "The Church is a community topian novels under consideration. Many which must affirm freedom 'or its pro- critics fear that such utopias may make gram would be absurd"' (p. 10). Third individuality a thing of the past-an in- force humanists such as Matson (1976) tolerable loss (Kateb, 1963). Mumford also find behavioral determinism unac- (1965) sums up the issue as follows: "The ceptable: "There is so much that is wrong sugared concept of scientific control, with this behaviorist panacea -so much which B. F. Skinner insinuates into his that is patently silly and morally irre- Walden Two, is another name for ar- sponsible .. ." (p. 119). rested development" (p. 10). Frye (1965) Skinner's work has not been alone in notes that the work shows the "infantil- evoking such reactions. The utopian nov- ism of specialists who see society merely els of H. G. Wells, also based upon sci- as an extension of their own specialty" entific social planning, received similar (p. 32). responses (Kumar, 1991). E. M. Forster Nonetheless, the use of science in the (1928/1964) wrote the dystopia The Ma- design of a society, or a society attempt- chine Stops as "a counterblast to one of ing to live up to the ideal ofscience, need the heavens of H. G. Wells" (quoted in not lead to the novel being called a dys- Shusterman, 1965, p. 51). The dystopian topia. Huxley's Island (1962/1989) was novels Brave New World, We, and Nine- designed in this manner, and is generally teen Eighty-Four were also written as di- considered a utopian novel (Richter, rect reactions to Wellsian utopian novels 1971). The same could be said for New (Kumar, 1987). Atlantis, Campanella's City of the Sun Wells and Skinner are alike in other (1602/1885), and other visions that are ways. For example, they share the view generally considered utopian (Berneri, that not to act does not avoid control of 1969; Eurich, 1967). It seems that the use behavior, but merely leaves control to of science as a means of social design is other sources (e.g., Skinner, 1971). The not enough to create a dystopia. supposed noninfluence of "neutral" One of the factors that most readily stances is illusory (e.g., Wells, 1905/ accounts for the controversy surrounding 1967): Skinner's vision of utopia is its seeming proximity and possibility. As stated by A state powerful enough to keep isolated under modem conditions would be powerful enough to Skinner (1979), rule the world, would be, indeed, if not actively Walden Two was not an escape to a distant island, ruling, yet passively acquiescent in all other human to a "No-where," or to a future time. As Frazier organizations, and so responsible for them alto- said, it differed from the classical utopias precisely gether. (p. 12) because it was to be found (and could be believed Taking their lead from Bacon's New in) here and now. (p. 349) Atlantis (1980), both Wells and Skinner Other novels were set on a different plan- seek to describe societies in which science et (e.g., Wells's A Modern Utopia), on the forms the basis ofpublic policy. Democ- moon (e.g., Wells's The First Men in the WALDEN TWO 169

Moon), in a distant land (e.g., Bacon's the original 20th century champion of New Atlantis, More's Utopia, Huxley's behaviorism (Watson, 1924/1970) was Island), in another dimension (e.g., quite frank in stating his belief that ap- Wells's Men Like Gods), or at some fu- plied behaviorism could lead to a utopia: ture time (e.g., Bellamy's Looking Back- I am trying to dangle a stimulus in front of you, a ward; Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451; Bur- verbal stimulus which, ifacted upon, will gradually gess'sA Clockwork Orange; Forster's The change this universe. For this universe will change Machine Stops; Huxley's Brave New if you bring up your children, not in the freedom of the libertine, but in behavioristic freedom.... World; Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four; Will not these children, in turn, with their better Rand's Anthem; Wells's The Time Ma- ways of living and thinking, replace us as society chine, The World Set Free, and The and in turn bring up their children in a still more Dream; Zamiatin's We). Walden Two, scientific way, until the world finally becomes a however, could be enacted here and now, place fit for human habitation? (pp. 303-304) and numerous experiments have already The ideas of Watson and Skinner pre- shown the power ofthe behavior-analytic sented in a nonfictional format inspired system upon which Skinner's utopia is hostility and misunderstanding. The por- based. The existence ofcommunities in- trayal of scientific planning of society in spired by Skinner's vision (e.g., Com- a fictional format should be expected to munidad Los Horcones, 1989) helps to do no less. make the "fears" very real. Proximity and possibility may not be enough to explain the reaction to Walden Two, however. UNHAPPINESS OF THE Communal arrangements based upon CHARACTER PORTRAYED Looking Backward, for example, have Trepidation regarding the scientific also been attempted (Richter, 1971), planning ofsociety aside, to regard Wal- largely without hostility from critics. den Two as a dystopia seems strange. In Although other utopian visions have Walden Two, "people are truly happy, spawned real communal experiments, secure, productive, creative, and for- none have had as their basis the "dehu- ward-looking" (Skinner, 1986, p. 364). manizing" behavior-analytic base of Nonetheless, critics (e.g., Negley & Pat- Walden Two. As Skinner predicted in the rick, 1952) of Walden Two have sug- pages of Walden Two itself, this experi- gested that no sane individual could pos- mental basis upsets the critic (as can be sibly be happy living in Frazier's seen in the dialogue given to Castle in community. Kateb (1963) expands the Walden Two). The ends of the Walden point to all utopias by quoting Alexander Two social experiments certainly do not Gray: "No Utopia has ever been de- cause anxiety in the critic. Walden Two scribed in which any sane man would on is a utopia ofmeans, with the ends being any conditions consent to live, ifhe could somewhat standard, occasionally even possibly escape" (p. 1 5). Skinner (197 1) cliche, in the genre of utopian literature responded to such objections as follows: (Kumar, 1987). The hostility to Walden The problem is to design a world which will be Two therefore seems to be a reaction to liked not by people as they now are but by those its means, and can be interpreted as an who live in it. "I wouldn't like it" is the complaint example of a more general reaction to ofthe individualist who puts forth his own suscep- Skinner and the experimental analysis of tibilities to reinforcement as established values. A behavior. world that would be liked by contemporary people On the whole, these reactions have been would perpetuate the status quo. (p. 164) less than positive. This fact can be clearly This issue of the happiness of citizens seen in utopian novels (Newman, 1991), can, perhaps, be avoided entirely. Hap- some of which specifically warn against piness seems not to be a criterion in the state control by behavioral technology designation of novels as utopian or dys- (e.g., Brave New World and A Clockwork topian. The residents of the acknowl- Orange). That these reactions appear in edged dystopia Brave New World are al- this form is not unexpected, given that most exclusively happy. The same could 170 BOBBY NEWMAN be said ofthe residents ofother dystopian and Utopia are all excellent examples of novels such as TheMachine Stops, Fahr- such arrangements, and are descriptions enheit 451, and We. As expressed by the ofhow environments shape the behavior Savage in Brave New World, the key point of individuals. Island was Huxley's final of many dystopian novels is the inalien- acceptance of, and eloquent praise for, able "right to be unhappy." this basic behavioral idea. If planners or managers set society into motion, it is SUSPICION OF SOURCES OF the everyday positive interactions and not BEHAVIORAL CONTROL the actions of some outside agency that OUTSIDE THE INDIVIDUAL keep it going. The fact that there is a Several popular dystopias have had planner, or that the sources of control of dictatorships as their basis of govern- behavior are assumed to be within the ment. Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four is individual's interactions with the envi- perhaps the finest and most chilling ex- ronment, does not automatically qualify ample of a dictatorial government. The a work as dystopian. societies of We, Brave New World, An- them, and others also leave decision VIOLATION OF HUMANITY'S making in the hands ofan elite minority. PRESUMED NEED TO A Clockwork Orange warns us that when STRUGGLE we allow behavior to be controlled by an Taking their lead from Plato's Repub- elite minority, humanity has ceased to lic, many utopian and dystopian novels be. Davis (1981) agrees, and follows up have used a dialogue as the primary by noting that "man as a moral agent" means ofpresenting ideas. Seemingly in- (p. 387) may be destroyed under such evitably, a verbal clash between a pro- systems. The society of Walden Two is ponent ofthe social order and a dissident mistakenly considered to be a dictator- comes to the front. These discussions of- ship by critics (e.g., Krutch, 1954; Mat- ten center around the idea ofthe inherent son, 1976), largely because the determin- need of humanity to struggle, to rise up istic basis of its system emphasizes to a challenge, and to face adversity. sources of control of behavior that are Without such challenges to conquer, life outside the individual. becomes hollow and meaningless (Kateb, Walden Two does have planners and 1963). In Brave New World, the discuss- managers who structure the environment ants are the Savage and Mustapha Mond. in order to shape behavior. Yet, this ar- In The Machine Stops, the clash is be- rangement is not unknown in utopian tween son and mother. In Walden Two, works. Plato's Republic had its guardian it is between Castle and Frazier. In Men class. A Modern Utopia (Wells, 1905/ Like Gods, it is between Catskill and 1967) had its semimonastic samurai class, Urthred the Utopian. In Nineteen Eighty- which was later seen to have dissolved Four, the debate is between Winston and by the time of Men Like Gods, so that O'Brien. In The Wanting Seed, the dis- nearly all people became part ofthe sam- cussion is between Tristam and Major urai class. Edward Bellamy's Looking Berkely. Backward features (equally paid) hier- As much as anything else, these dis- archical ranks within an "industrial cussions allow us to see whether a novel army." The societies described in these was intended to be utopian or dystopian. novels seem to function rather well, and Who wins these debates sets up the novel quite apart from any contact with, or fear as utopian or dystopian. Unfortunately of, this "guardian dictatorship." The so- for the sake ofclassification, the author's cieties are structured such that interac- choice and the reader's choice as to who tions lead to mutual positive reinforce- wins the argument may be entirely dif- ment, and the need for other sources of ferent. The reasoning and history that led governance or laws is minimal. Men Like an author to his or her utopian or dys- Gods, Looking Backward, The Dream, topian vision may be totally lost on oth- WALDEN TWO 171

ers. Twin Oaks cofounder Kathleen Kin- would create a society in which positive kade (1973) provides an example: "We reinforcement would be available for had read Brave New World and Nineteen constructive behavior. Sir Thomas More, Eighty-Four and were not impressed. The in Utopia, suggested the same thing. It is writing is great, the logic downright silly" interesting to note that few critics have (p. 148). described how More wanted to limit free- Similarly, claiming that Skinner's sys- dom. tem would eliminate the need for hu- Aldous Huxley provides an interesting manity to struggle (as suggested by Bur- twist on the issue of whether behavioral gess, 1973) might be considered methods of governance are inherently "downright silly." A society based upon dystopian. Brave New World portrayed experimentation holds as a basic prin- behavioral interventions in their poorest ciple that not all ideas will lead to their light, whereas Brave New WorldRevisited desired ends. Ifevery idea was successful, mentioned Walden Two as a possible so- there would be no need for experimen- lution to problems pushing society to- tation. For better or worse, frustation and wards Huxley's feared dystopia. Finally, struggle would not be eliminated from in his last novel, Island, Huxley por- Walden Two; thus, the need ofhumanity trayed a society that used the same sci- to struggle would remain intact. ences as his behavioral dystopia, but for entirely humanistic ends (Baker, 1990; SUSPICION OF BEHAVIORAL Newman, 1992; Watt, 1974). Kumar METHODS OF GOVERNANCE (1991) summed up the historical pro- One ofthe main arguments ofantiuto- gression: pians is that utopias are not desirable be- In 1948 B. F. Skinner gleefully turned the tables on attain or main- Huxley by employing many ofthe devices ofBrave cause there is no way to New World in his utopia ofbehavioral engineering, tain a utopia without sacrificing the Walden Two. The example must have been infec- principles behind the utopian vision (Ka- tious, for Huxley also later reversed himself. In his teb, 1963). As mentioned above, regard- utopia, Island (1962/1989), he attempted to dispel less ofSkinner's intentions, Walden Two some of the gloom he had created by showing how is feared partially because ofa beliefthat Brave New World practices could be deployed in a the Skinnerian system would inevitably positive way. (p. 47) lead to a dictatorship. This fear can be We thus come to a crucial point. Wal- traced, in no small part, to misunder- den Two provoked far fiercer reactions standings regarding Skinner's use of the than did Island, which is generally con- term "freedom." Matson (1976), for ex- sidered utopian. Yet, both societies used ample, has said that Skinner's political the same sciences, relying on the same system would be oppressive: "there is no behavioral interventions that many fear. place for the idea of freedom ... within As mentioned above, the use of behav- the system of scientific behaviorism" (p. ioral methods of governance per se does 121). Sir Karl Popper made his objec- not automatically classify a work as a tions concrete. He refused to sign The dystopia. Humanist Manifesto Two because Skin- ner, "an enemy of freedom and de- mocracy," had already signed (see Free WHY IS WALDEN TWO STILL Inquiry, 1(2), pp. 3-4 for Popper's sen- CONSIDERED A DYSTOPIA? timents and Skinner's reply, and Free In- Although all of the traditional sugges- quiry, 1 (3), pp. 3-4 for Anthony Flew's tions as to why a novel might be consid- and Sidney Hook's additional objections ered dystopian have been applied to to Skinner's involvement in the human- Walden Two by its critics, none of these ist movement). Skinner's view of free- reasons is sufficient. The reactions to dom, as well as his emphasis on positive Walden Two instead seem to have arisen reinforcement in lieu of coercion, is well from the absence of traditional literary known to behavior analysts. Skinner devices and, more important, a general 172 BOBBY NEWMAN philosophical objection to behavioral de- to society's problems. Both are societies terminism. in which consumerism has not taken hold and in which behavioral science is em- Literary Devices ployed to allow each individual to live How then, should we explain the fact life to the fullest in a relatively simple that Walden Two, in contrast to other fashion. similar novels, is still considered a dys- Skinner created a society that simply topia? Perhaps the reason for this seem- asked "to be left alone" (pp. 195-196). ing paradox rests in literary distractions, As mentioned above, Huxley did the a "cushioning ofthe blow," with the sci- same in Island. In contrast to Huxley's entific elements being obscured by more vision, however, this request is not vio- philosophical ones. New Atlantis fea- lated in Walden Two. Had Skinner set tured the new humanist philosophy. City up Walden Two as a battleground on ofthe Sun was a Christian work. Island, which a peaceful people were overcome as will be discussed below, was based by a neighboring bully and Frazier turned largely on Eastern philosophy. Skinner's into a martyr, the novel's reception may vision had no such distractions from its very well have been different. Readers scientific basis. The fact that Wells's nov- need feel no sympathy for the residents els, which also contained no distractions of Walden Two. Rather, it is made clear from their scientific basis, are also con- that the residents should feel sorry for sidered dystopias by many of the same the rest of us. By failing to make the res- critics who consider Walden Two a dys- idents of Walden Two, particularly Fra- topia lends support to this notion. zier, appear to be victims, Skinner failed Huxley apparently guessed that threat- to provoke the crucial sympathy required ening many social institutions (e.g., elim- of the reader. inating the nuclear family, practicing se- The Islandresidents did indeed rely on lective breeding, and advocating the use a science of behavior in the creation of ofhallucinogens) in his novel would pro- their society. In contrast to Skinner's ag- voke hostility towards the residents of nostic vision, however, Huxley's novel the Island. Huxley thus wisely made his described a society that combined sci- characters sympathetic from the begin- ence with Eastern mysticism. The Pa- ning, advocates ofhis "perennial philos- lanese created a culture in which "ele- ophy." The Palanese residents of the Is- mentary ecology leads straight to land are portrayed as the pacifistic elementary Buddhism" (pp. 219-220). underdogs, an endangered species. They The image that emerges is of an enlight- are a simple people, using the best oflab- ened people, not of a society of "little oratory science and Eastern enlighten- guinea pigs." Walden Two did not have ment to provide the greatest opportuni- the metaphysical base ofIsland. Without ties for individual self-actualization. They the metaphysics and without the enlight- have not opted for a consumer culture, enment (the cushioning of the blow), all despite considerable resources. They seek one is left with is the determinism that to live their lives simply, advance their offends many individuals. This deter- culture (spiritually, not materialistically), minism, when combined with the lack of and change the world by example. Ifthey sympathy for its residents, leaves Wal- cannot change the world by example, they den Two designated as a dystopia. seek to be left alone. Nevertheless, the Palanese know that they will not be left Determinism alone. They are beset from all sides, and Determinism as a philosophy of hu- by the end of the novel their way of life man behavior lacks appeal for a variety is ended and their homeland invaded. of reasons. Such a view is regarded as Huxley's vision is strikingly similar to unpleasant or threatening to the "hu- Skinner's earlier vision. Both societies manity" ofthe individual, much as evo- avoided central government as a solution lutionary theory is considered by some WALDEN TWO 173 to be unpleasant or a threat. Stevick whether the author intended it or not. (1968) illustrates the point: "A reader Even novels that were written to glorify might well conclude that, for all his hu- human freedom (e.g., We, The Wanting manitarianism, Skinnerjust does not like Seed, Brave New World) describe deter- people very well" (p. 16) and "The most ministic systems. If the environment precious thing about man is his human- could not shape the behavior of the in- ity. Walden Two commends its deliber- dividual, then why would we find ideal ate abandonment" (p. 28). individuals within the ideal societies, or Sentiments such as Stevick's are large- corrupt individuals within the corrupt ly a product of the misconception that societies? Utopianism would be pointless the deterministic view of human behav- without determinism. Skinner's novel ior is incompatible with a view of the does what the others do not: It forces us human as inventor. For example, Stevick to examine this issue without distrac- (1968) has said that Skinner could not, tions. It is small wonder that most would according to his own theory, create a new rather condemn Walden Two than praise society: "If man were only the product it. of external forces, one supposes that Utopian novels, by nature, often ques- nothing new, fresh, and creative [such as tion the existing social order. Because they Walden Two -Skinner's novel or Fra- are controversial, many utopian novels zier's community] could emerge in hu- have been published under pseudonyms man culture" (p. 24). Matson (1976) ex- (Kumar, 1991) or their authors subtly pands on the objection: "If Skinner is disguised their ideas. Walden Two un- correct in his deterministic assumptions, questionably challenges some ofsociety's then his argument is superfluous and fu- most cherished notions. If Walden Two tile.... If we can act upon the environ- is considered a dystopia for this reason, ment and initiate behavioral technolo- then the label "dystopia" should be worn gies- Skinner is thoroughly refuted in his proudly and should be shared by some basic premises" (p. 123). Thus the con- of the best work of the genre. cern with determinism continues. Kumar (1987) describes the concern of the humanist: CONCLUSION It is here that the general humanist critique is most The history of utopian literature has uneasily and most insecurely on the defensive. It been one of utopia suggested and dys- seems concerned to preserve a "sacred" area ofhu- topia answered. Ideas presented as uto- man life and consciousness from the scrutiny of science. Certain cherished human values-free will, pian have almost universally been turned spontaneity, creativity-seem threatened by the around and presented as dystopian. Ar- scientific approach to human behavior. There ap- istophanes counters Plato's image. Bacon pears to be an anxiety that perhaps man will after is countered by Swift. Wells is countered all turn out not to have the god-like attributes pos- by Huxley, Forster, and Zamiatin. Bel- tulated of him. (p. 369) lamy is countered by Morris. Skinner is Skinner apparently did not want to in- countered by Huxley and Burgess (al- clude distractions from the deterministic though later supported by Huxley). It basis of his utopian vision, distractions seems that no one has yet described a that may well have led to a warmer re- social order that all could agree is uto- ception for the novel. As with much of pian. The negative reaction to Walden Skinner's other work, Walden Two was Two, although occasionally infuriating, apparently meant to challenge the reader should thus not be unexpected. to deal with its arguments head-on. Some authors (e.g., Bellamy) of uto- Behavior analysts were not the first to pian novels have lamented that the so- suggest that behavior is determined, and lutions for the problems confronting so- they surely will not be the last. Indeed, ciety are often at hand, ifonly they would this deterministic assumption is con- be used. Behaviorists have expressed the tained within most utopian novels, same sentiment, as have the characters 174 BOBBY NEWMAN in the utopian novels themselves (e.g., be. Given the history of utopian litera- Equality 7-2521, protagonist ofAnthem, ture, however, effecting such a change in when he tried to reintroduce the electric perspective may not be an easy task. It light into a candle-using society). Walden is more likely that scientific utopians will Two can be read as a suggestion to use learn that one cannot please everyone, the science of behavior analysis to solve that some insist on the right to be un- some of society's most pressing prob- happy, and, most important, that chal- lems. Before the suggestion is heeded, lenging cherished ideas often leads to re- however, the philosophical objections to sistance. the behavioral system must first be dis- pelled. The key question ofhow to change the REFERENCES reception of Walden Two, and, more gen- Bacon, F. (1980). The great istauration and new erally, the reception ofbehavior analysis, Atlantis. Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan David- comes down to how to cushion the blow son, Inc. Bailey, J. S. (1991, May). Promotingfreedom and of behavioral determinism. This issue dignity: A new agenda for behavior analysis. Pa- has, of course, inspired considerable per presented at the annual convention of the speculation by behavior analysts. 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