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Developing the Modern Scene Design Process: Cognition and the New Stagecraft

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Developing the Modern Scene Design Process: Cognition and the New Stagecraft DEVELOPING THE MODERN SCENE DESIGN PROCESS: COGNITION AND THE NEW STAGECRAFT by David Bisaha BA, The College of William and Mary, 2007 MA, University of Pittsburgh, 2010 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2015 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH THE KENNETH P. DIETRICH SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by David Bisaha It was defended on April 8, 2015 and approved by Christopher Drew Armstrong, Associate Professor, History of Art and Architecture Michelle Granshaw, Assistant Professor, Theatre Arts Lisa Jackson-Schebetta, Assistant Professor, Theatre Arts Dissertation Advisor: Bruce McConachie, Professor, Theatre Arts ii Copyright © by David Bisaha 2015 iii DEVELOPING THE MODERN SCENE DESIGN PROCESS: COGNITION AND THE NEW STAGECRAFT David Bisaha, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2015 This dissertation examines the working processes and professional activities of American scenic designers between 1910 and 1950. Beginning with the assertion that a common idea of design process has persisted among American professionals for much of the century, my case studies probe the history of “the process.” Previous historians have noted that the modern scene design process was heavily informed by the New Stagecraft movement and promulgated its aesthetic values: simplicity, unification, collaboration. Inspired by European modernist production, especially the work of Edward Gordon Craig, Adolph Appia, and Max Reinhardt, New Stagecraft artists produced simplified or abstract settings, unified design concepts, and introduced a more collaborative production model. This dissertation argues that the New Stagecraft revolution was not only an aesthetic shift, but also the beginning of theatrical design as a profession. I do so by analyzing ways in which New Stagecraft designers defined and defended their professional status. They developed new tools for script analysis and documenting their work, published books and articles demonstrating the value of good design, and strategically allied themselves with organized labor and major universities. They also institutionalized their practices in labor regulations, entrance exams, and educational curricula. The perceived stasis of the design process can be attributed to the preservation of specific design behaviors in these institutions. Methodologically I draw on studies of designing based in the cognitive and design sciences. Archived remnants of past designers are analyzed through iv principles of situated and extended cognition, such as offloading, affordances, and artifact use. I then develop my conclusions through concepts of professional expertise, including reflective practice and practicum education, and finally link individual practices to social change by applying the history of professionalization as it has been developed by sociologists. In total this dissertation charts a method for applying cognitive studies research to theatrical design history, and a way of linking private creative practices to larger changes in theatrical production methods. By studying the behavior of influential scenic designers, both in the studio and in their professional networks, I show how strategically placed individuals’ processes came to define the field. v TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE ..................................................................................................................................... X 1.0 INTRODUCTION: DESIGN, COGNITION, AND THE NEW STAGECRAFT . 1 1.1 WHAT IS DESIGN?............................................................................................ 3 1.2 THEORETICAL CONTEXTS........................................................................... 6 1.3 RELATED WORK IN THEATRE STUDIES ................................................ 11 1.4 DESIGN OF THE DISSERTATION ............................................................... 15 1.5 CHAPTER SUMMARIES ................................................................................ 20 2.0 FINDING AND DEFINING DESIGN PROCESS .................................................. 24 2.1 A SNAPSHOT OF MIDCENTURY PROCESSES ........................................ 28 2.2 PHASES OF THE DESIGN PROCESS .......................................................... 32 2.2.1 Analysis and Problem-Structuring .............................................................. 37 2.2.2 Idea Generation and Abduction ................................................................... 39 2.2.3 Refinement, Specification, and the Cognitive Artifact ............................... 40 2.3 A CASE STUDY IN ROUGH DRAFTS: HENRY HEYMANN ................... 43 2.3.1 Analysis and Problem-Structuring .............................................................. 46 2.3.2 Idea Generation and Conversation with the Sketch .................................. 50 2.3.3 Artifacts in Problem Solving ........................................................................ 60 2.4 JO MIELZINER’S DEATH OF A SALESMAN DESIGN PROCESS ......... 66 vi 2.4.1 Overview of Salesman Design Phases .......................................................... 68 2.4.2 Mielziner’s Spatial Analytics ........................................................................ 72 2.4.3 Mielziner’s Use of Sketches and Models...................................................... 75 2.4.4 Collaborative Artifact Use ............................................................................ 78 2.5 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 83 3.0 FROM MODEL BOXES TO RENDERINGS: ROBERT EDMOND JONES’ DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPEAN RENDERING TECHNIQUES .................................... 85 3.1 DESIGN AS MODEL BUILDING BEFORE 1912 ........................................ 91 3.1.1 Model-Box Processes ..................................................................................... 95 3.1.2 “Belasco Realism”........................................................................................ 100 3.2 NEW STAGECRAFT TECHNIQUES .......................................................... 105 3.2.1 Design Techniques of Robert Edmond Jones ........................................... 112 3.3 RENDERING AS EUROPEAN TECHNIQUE ............................................ 122 3.3.1 Ernst Stern and Max Reinhardt................................................................. 123 3.3.2 Other European Influences on Rendering ................................................ 135 3.4 JONES RETURNS, JONES DRAWS............................................................ 138 3.5 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 144 4.0 DESIGN PROFESSIONALISM, UNIONISM, AND CLASS TENSIONS ........ 146 4.1 UNIONISM AND THE PROFESSION ......................................................... 151 4.2 DESIGNERS IN THE UNION: NEGOTIATING INDEPENDENCE....... 156 4.2.1 The Economics of Theatre Design after World War I ............................. 157 4.2.2 USA Local 829 “Goes After” the Designers .............................................. 161 4.2.3 Standard Contracts and the Rise of the ‘Independent’ Freelancer ........ 165 vii 4.2.4 Depression-Era Protectionism and Class Tensions .................................. 172 4.3 DESIGNERS OUTSIDE THE UNION: PROMOTING DESIGN PROFESSIONALISM ..................................................................................................... 182 4.3.1 Lee Simonson’s Authorial Interventions ................................................... 187 4.3.2 Publishing Theatrical Design Labor after Simonson ............................... 196 4.3.3 Design Professionalism Diversifies ............................................................. 199 4.4 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 202 5.0 FASHIONING THE “WORKING MODEL:” DESIGN PROCESS PEDAGOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY............................................................................................................. 206 5.1 DESIGN THEORIES AND PROFESSIONAL PRACTICES .................... 210 5.2 GEORGE PIERCE BAKER’S WORKSHOP AS PRACTICUM .............. 219 5.3 OENSLAGER’S CURRICULUM AS STUDIO EDUCATION.................. 226 5.4 DONALD OENSLAGER’S NEW STAGECRAFT PHILOSOPHY .......... 239 5.5 YALE’S COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE .................................................... 243 5.6 A CONTRASTING MODEL OF DESIGN EDUCATION: CARNEGIE TECH.................................................................................................................................249 5.7 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 255 6.0 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 258 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 265 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Balyasnikov Concept Sketch #1 .................................................................................... 52 Figure 2. Balyasnikov Concept Sketch #2 .................................................................................... 53 Figure 3. Balyasnikov Concept Sketch #3 .................................................................................... 54 Figure 4. Balyasnikov Ground Plan
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