The LIST:

Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Ray MONTGOMERY and Bob O’DELL

Jerusalem, Israel 2019 The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Copyright © 2019 by Ray Montgomery and Bob O’Dell

Numerous English translations of the Bible were used in preparing this work. More often than not, the translation was modified by the authors to better reflect the meaning of the original text, the passage’s readability, and/or its context in this work. We encourage readers to look up the verses quoted herein in their favorite translation and consider the differences to more deeply appreciate the Word of God.

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1. Judaism 2. Christianity 2. Bible Study 3. Bible Commentary 4. Repentance 5. 9th of Av 6. Church Forefathers 7. Jewish History 8. Tisha b’Av

I. Montgomery, Raymond and O’Dell, Bob II. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qTable of Contents r

Introduction 7 Notes and Assumptions 9 Note About Rigor and the Use of Wikipedia 10 Acknowledgements 11 Endorsements 12 Legend 14 Glossary of Terms 15

CHAPTERS

Antiquity 19 1st Century: 1—99 21 2nd Century: 100—199 25 3rd Century: 200—299 33 4th Century: 300—399 39 5th Century: 400—499 87 6th Century: 500—599 97 7th Century: 600—699 105 8th Century: 700—799 113 9th Century: 800—899 115 10th Century: 900—999 121 11th Century: 1000—1099 123 12th Century: 1100—1199 137 13th Century: 1200—1299 153 14th Century: 1300—1399 197 15th Century: 1400—1499 229 16th Century: 1500—1599 263 17th Century: 1600—1699 305 18th Century: 1700—1799 325 6 . Table of Contents

19th Century: 1800—1899 341 20th Century: 1900—1999 385 21st Century: 2000—2099 481

APPENDIX

List of 9th Av Events 499 List of 10th Av Events 500 List of Auto-Da-Fés Against Jews 501 List of Blood Libel Accusations Against Jews 506 List of Crusades 510 List of Nations Granting Emancipation for its Jews 512 List of Jewish Expulsions 513 List of Host Desecration Accusations Against Jews 519 List of Inquisitions 521

Introduction q by Ray Montgomery r

T he LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History (hereafter referred to simply as The LIST) is the combined research of Ray Montgomery and Bob O’Dell, details of which were copied, collated, combined and compiled from the accompanying source references for each entry, to whom full attribution must go. Each entry therefore represents a succinct compilation of the salient points for the reader to gain an overview of the event. The reader is encouraged to go to the source references listed for further information.

The purpose of The LIST is to bring to the attention of Christians worldwide what our research has done for us: personal ownership of the sins of our Church forefathers, and repentance for them. When Bob and I first did our own research — independent of each other (2013 and 2010 respectively) — we were changed forever. Combining our research, and investigating each entry further to provide the essential points to serve as a starting point for you, the reader, has meant revisiting painful memories of the impact that our research first visited upon us all those years ago. But despite this pain, we feel that it is an essential journey which each and every Christian worldwide must undertake. Sin cannot be swept under the rug; it must be acknowledged, and repented of.

But how is this to be done, when so little of these past atrocities is known? This is why we felt the need to publish this information so it could be widely disseminated. We feel that the unfolding of the Lord’s purposes in these last days may well depend upon the Body of Christ worldwide coming to individual and corporate repentance.

While this book is a valuable reference source, it can actually be read as one larger-than-life drama that spans generations. If you are like us, you will inevitably ask: How could this have happened? While we have our opinions, we have refrained from adding them into any of the historical entries, except in a small number of cases, where we note them as such. We believe it is more important that you grapple with the historical record yourself and raise your own questions, as you discover the unfolding drama of the more than 850 compiled historical entries contained herein.

Because this book contains a lot of information to “process,” we encourage you to also buy the companion book 40 Days of Repentance: A Companion Guide to The LIST, where we openly share our personal stories of discovery and our reaction to this tragedy. These 40 daily devotions are to be read in the 40 days leading up to either the 9th of Av or Yom Kippur. Each devotion discusses a specific entry taken from The LIST, presented in “bite-sized” chunks to aid 8 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History the reader in processing and coming to terms with this information. In the Companion Guide, we and many other authors invite you to join us in prayers of repentance. But repentance must begin from an honest assessment of a situation, and for that reason we recommend you begin your personal journey right here.

Great care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of the information in this book, going back to original sources whenever possible, as we didn’t wish to become yet another “echo chamber” merely repeating what is commonly reported on other lists. Occasionally we came across information that was listed everywhere, but which we couldn’t source — other than on those lists — so we identified it as such, with the request that if you have knowledge of where this can be sourced to, to please contact us.

Likewise, if you see any errors, or know of an original source we couldn’t find, or you know something that hasn’t been included but which you feel should be and which falls within the criteria of what is on this LIST (see notes and assumptions below), please contact me at [email protected]. Neither Bob nor I are Church historians, so this book has been a labour of love to produce so that all Christians everywhere have access to this information. It is therefore a living document, subject to update and revision so it can be as accurate and complete as possible, in order for an honest assessment to be made of the role that our Church forefathers played in the historical persecution of our Jewish brethren.

Be warned! Much of the information contained in this book is deeply disturbing, and may distress you! This is a painful journey, but it is an essential one. But be encouraged, because it is possible to emerge from this document with joy and a hope for Christians and Jews to become united around a shared body of scripture, united in spirit, and united in love.

This full document contains over 850 entries spanning more than 20 centuries in over 400 pages in a very readable format. It is a valuable reference resource for study and understanding the truth about Christian persecution of Jews throughout history.

Zechariah 8:23 commands us to love not just peace, but truth as well!

The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History is the largest, most complete compilation of historical truth on this critical topic that has ever been compiled into a single volume. qNotes and Assumptionsr

This LIST concentrates on events between the years 40 CE to the present. As Europe (and Russia) committed most of the known atrocities, and as they were primarily Christian in name during that span of history, any known atrocity that fell within those bounds and time frame is included. Atrocities committed in the Middle East and North Africa are assumed to be perpetrated by Muslim nations and are therefore not included, with the following exceptions.

1. All Crusades, Inquisitions, and auto-da-fés are listed herein for the sake of completeness and without attempting to sort out events that targeted Jews alone.

2. All known Jewish expulsions from 586 BCE are listed for the sake of completeness, with those perpetrated by Muslims so noted.

3. All 9th of Av events from 586 BCE to the present day are provided for the sake of completeness, as well as some key events that fell on the following day, the 10th of Av.

In addition, key events both leading up to Israel’s founding as a nation in 1948, and in the years since, are listed for the sake of completeness and historical context. qNote About Rigor and the Use of Wikipediar

While we are not professional, accredited historians, our goal in this project has been to only include in this document material which was examined and found to be included in multiple, competent sources. Where possible we even include original source material. Given this document was built with this level of rigor, then why do we often cite Wikipedia as a source?

First, we used statements in Wikipedia in our descriptions only when they included a reasonable underlying reference source as well. Then we added into this document further independent, credible reference sources. However, credible academic sources are sometimes difficult and expensive for the average reader to obtain. Therefore the result we have achieved is what we believe to be a balanced approach, where our document is robust, but where possible, also containing convenient online links whereby the casual reader can quickly learn more about a topic of interest.

However, we cannot and do not validate every historical statement made in a Wikipedia entry that we reference, nor can we assure that the Wikipedia entry has not been edited since we examined and quoted a statement from it ourselves. Our primary examination period was between August 2018 and February 2019. Readers who use Wikipedia for further learning on topics should be aware of the risks of open sourced approaches, such as Wikipedia, and to examine who was doing the editing of the Wikipedia entry in question. qAcknowledgementsr

Thank you to everybody who suggested items for inclusion in The LIST.

We especially want to thank Laura Densmore who suggested a number of entries, including the opening entry for Kadesh Barnea, “Exodus 1947,” and the Pittsburgh massacre of 2018; Steve Wearp who told us about the Évian Conference in 1938; and Amy Cogdell who helped clarify the process of Catholic Steps to Sainthood in the Glossary of Terms. Laura, Steve and Amy are also contributors to the companion book 40 Days of Repentance: A Companion Guide to The LIST.

Special mention goes to Abigail Wolfer. Due to time constraints for the immediate release of version 1.2 of The LIST in August 2018, we didn’t have the time or the resources available for an independent review prior to release. Abigail, a Root Source subscriber, volunteered her services for this release. Her timely response to deadlines, her attention to detail, and her suggestions for clarification of specific entries and definition of terms have been much appreciated. Thank you, Abigail. qEndorsements r

“This list is amazing and is so powerful because it covers the actual events in fact by fact review. I believe that this will be very influential. Your majestic work will capture the hearts and minds of this generation for the future. I am so excited about the list becoming available.”

Dr. Brad Young Professor Emeritus of Judaic-Christian Studies of the Graduate School of Theology Oral Roberts University

“Having just finished reading the entire book, and I am stunned and speechless. Such a parade of perversions is impossible to contemplate. It goes beyond the barbaric. How there are any Jews left is a miracle from heaven. May this document appeal to the conscience of the readers to bring about a hopeful admission of the responsibility that still hangs heavy over Christian history.” Merv Watson Christian Historian Co-Founder, Feast of Tabernacles in Jerusalem

“This LIST and what it represents has the potential to play a key part in the Geula (Redemption) process regarding the nations. Paging through it, one wonders if amends can ever fully be made, but this document proves to be a sincere and responsible step in the right direction.” AnaRina Heymann Director of Align With Zion

“Knowing this harvest of information gathered meticulously for the Church around the world, I recommend everyone study it closely and then share it with others in your community of faith. Until we realize the depth of involvement in betrayal of the Jewish people which the Church perpetrated through the centuries, we will never realize how it has grieved our Father in Heaven. Sowing these seeds of revelation in order to prompt repentance, will help us move in the right direction for the future.” Sharon Sanders Co-Founder, Christian Friends of Israel “I can see this as a monumental resource in understanding the disastrous effect this has had on our Jewish brothers and sisters as well as for the Church in its effort to convince the world that it has lived out the message and mission of Jesus. Unfortunately, we continue to “shoot ourselves in the theological foot” by utilizing scripture now with discriminatory words and actions and the denial of human and civil rights to others. I highly recommend this book. I pray that it will be a catalyst to open up the hearts and minds of people, and that it will begin to create a world of health, hope and healing for all.”

The Rev. Dr. Ronald A. Sparks Minister, The Community Church (United Church of Christ) California City, CA Retired Army Reserve Chaplain

“Antisemitism is an old and perverse disease upon humanity that morphs, multiplies and metastasizes. While we may never be able to fully eradicate it, Bob O’Dell and Ray Montgomery are hoping to develop a vaccination called repentance. If enough Christians embrace repentance, that could prevent the terrible plague of antisemitism from spreading to future generations. As the grandson of Holocaust survivors, I am humbled and grateful for what Bob and Ray are doing to eradicate the terrible disease of antisemitism.”

Rabbi Naphtali “Tuly” Weisz Director, Israel365 Publisher, The Israel Bible

“I am very blessed to see another fine work that carefully documents the long history of Christian abuses against the Jewish people. While there are many Jewish surveys of this painful history, there are a relative dearth of similar Christian treatments. Yet it is the Christian treatments that are needed most. Jesus Himself said that the truth will set us free. If you are a follower of Jesus, please allow the painful truths contained in this book to soak in. Jews and non-Jews alike must be aware of the Church’s own horrific historical sins in order that we do not repeat them and so that we may stand rightly with the Jewish people today in this atmosphere of such rampant antisemitism.”

Joel Richardson NYT bestselling author, teacher qLegendr

9th of Av events

10th of Av events

Crusades

Inquisitions and auto-da-fés

Positive events

The HOLOCAUST

Jewish expulsion

Note regarding sources: Readers interested in reviewing our sources or conducting further research, can access 9-av.com/footnotes and search (Ctrl+F) for the list item’s Reference number (usually its year followed by a dot and the digit 1 or a subsequent number representing its number in the list of items in that year). At the bottom of the file is the bibliography of books referenced throughout The LIST. qGlossary of Termsr

Aliyah: “Aliyah” is defined as “the act of going up” i.e. towards Jerusalem. “Making Aliyah” means moving to the Land of Israel, and is one of the most basic tenets of Zionism. The State of Israel’s Law of Return gives Jews and their descendants automatic rights regarding residency and Israeli citizenship.

Reference: 2.1

Auto-da-fé: An auto-da-fé (“Act of Faith”) was the ritual of public penance of condemned heretics and apostates. Although the Inquisition and the auto-da-fé were used on anyone accused of heresy, its main victims were former apostate Jews and Muslims.

Reference: 2.2

Blood libel: A blood libel was an accusation that Jewish people used the blood of Christians in religious rituals, especially in the preparation of Passover bread (matzo). These allegations began appearing in the 12th Century, and in the 1930s became part of Nazi propaganda. (See ritual murder below).

Reference: 2.3

Catholic Church - Steps to Sainthood: The process of Canonization has changed over the centuries (see Wikipedia for details), but the process as we understand it today is called a Cause, and does not begin until five years after the death of the candidate.

1. When a Cause is officially begun, the candidate is called a “Servant of God.” Evidence is gathered for and against the Canonization. Two theologians examine the Servant of God’s writings to make sure that there is nothing in them contrary to the Faith and Moral teaching of the Church, after which the testimony of witnesses who knew the candidate well is gathered.

2. Documents and testimonies are collected and presented to the Congregation for the Causes of Saints in Rome to prove that the candidate lived heroic virtues. If approved, the Servant of God is given the title “Venerable”.

3. To be beatified and recognized as “Blessed,” one proven miracle acquired through the candidate’s intercession is required in 16 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

addition to recognition of heroic virtue (or martyrdom in the case of a martyr).

4. Canonization requires a second miracle to have taken place through the intercession of the Blessed and after the date of his or her Beatification. Once proven, the Pope declares the person a “Saint”. Catholics do not “worship” the Saints but rather venerate them. The prayers of those on earth are united with those in heaven and presented to God.

Reference: 2.4

Converso: A converso (“convert”) was a Jew who converted to Catholicism in Spain or Portugal, particularly during the 14th and 15th Centuries, or one of their descendants (see Marrano below). Or as the British Jewish historian Cecil Roth summarised it:

“They were Jews in all but name, and Christians in nothing but form.”

Reference: 2.5

Host Desecration: Medieval Christians believed that Jews would steal consecrated host wafers and desecrate them by stabbing them to make them bleed. According to the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which became dogma at that time, a consecrated host wafer becomes the flesh of Jesus Christ. It was thus believed that Jews would steal and desecrate these wafers to reenact the crucifixion of Christ. In the 19th Century it was shown that the red color often found on the wafers was due to a fungus, micrococcus prodigiosus.

Reference: 2.6

Judaize: Judaizers are those who teach it is necessary to adopt Jewish customs and practices, especially those found in the Law of Moses.

Reference: 2.7

Marrano: A marrano was a Christianised Jew (or Moor) in medieval Spain, who professed conversion in order to avoid persecution, but continued to practise Judaism in secret (see Converso above). They were sometimes referred to as “New Christians”; today they are sometimes called “crypto-Jews” in scholarly works.

Reference: 2.10 Reference:

southern Russia in 1881–1884, following the assassination of Tsar Alexander II. II. Alexander Tsar of assassination the following 1881–1884, in Russia southern

into common usage with extensive anti-Jewish riots that swept Ukraine and and Ukraine swept that riots anti-Jewish extensive with usage common into

anti-Jewish rioting in Odessa in 1821. As a descriptive term, “pogrom” came came “pogrom” term, descriptive a As 1821. in Odessa in rioting anti-Jewish

such incident to be labeled with the modern word pogrom is believed to be be to believed is pogrom word modern the with labeled be to incident such

populations on Jews in the Russian Empire and in other countries. The first first The countries. other in and Empire Russian the in Jews on populations

violently.” Historically, the term refers to violent attacks by local non-Jewish non-Jewish local by attacks violent to refers term the Historically, violently.”

Pogrom is a Russian word meaning “to wreak havoc, to demolish demolish to havoc, wreak “to meaning word Russian a is Pogrom

Pogrom:

Reference: 2.9 Reference:

distinction between New Christians and Old Christians. Old and Christians New between distinction

In 1772, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo decreed an end to the legal legal the to end an decreed Melo e Carvalho de José Sebastião 1772, In

Christian blood “from time immemorial”. immemorial”. time “from blood Christian

In Philip II’s reign (1556-98) it included any person with any fraction of New New of fraction any with person any included it (1556-98) reign II’s Philip In

fraction of New Christian blood up to the third generation. generation. third the to up blood Christian New of fraction

not only recent converts, but also all their known baptized descendants with any any with descendants baptized known their all also but converts, recent only not

be tainted by virtue of their non-Spanish bloodlines. New Christians included included Christians New bloodlines. non-Spanish their of virtue by tainted be

(converts to Christianity), who they considered to to considered they who Christianity), to (converts conversos Christian New the

European bloodlines, wanted to legally and socially distinguish themselves from from themselves distinguish socially and legally to wanted bloodlines, European

or convert to Christianity. Old Christians, who claimed “pure unmixed” Spanish Spanish unmixed” “pure claimed who Christians, Old Christianity. to convert or

A New Christian is another term for a a for term another is Christian New A , , converso

New Christian (or Neo-Christian): (or Christian New

Reference: 2.8 Reference:

sense of loathing, rather than as a reference to Jews’ reluctance to eat pork. pork. eat to reluctance Jews’ to reference a as than rather loathing, of sense

was a pejorative term for these “crypto-Jews” originally intended to impart a a impart to intended originally “crypto-Jews” these for term pejorative a was

derives from the Spanish word meaning swine, or pig, and and pig, or swine, meaning word Spanish the from derives marrano term The

celebrated by the Catholic Church, is on July 1 July on is Church, Catholic the by celebrated .

st

commemorates the defeat of Haman’s plot to massacre the Jews. St. Esther’s day, day, Esther’s St. Jews. the massacre to plot Haman’s of defeat the commemorates

created the Festival of Santa Esterica to replace Purim, the Jewish festival that that festival Jewish the Purim, replace to Esterica Santa of Festival the created

in the royal palace in order to become the king’s wife, as their patron saint; they they saint; patron their as wife, king’s the become to order in palace royal the in

resulted in them adopting Esther, who had to keep her Jewish identity a secret secret a identity Jewish her keep to had who Esther, adopting them in resulted

This religious duplicity, where they had to keep their Jewish identity hidden, hidden, identity Jewish their keep to had they where duplicity, religious This

17 Terms of Glossary . 18 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Ritual murder: The two principal feast-days associated with ritual murder have been Purim and Passover; the latter at Easter and the former about one month before it.

When a Ritual Murder accusation was made at Purim, it was usually that of an adult Christian who was murdered for his blood; it is said that the blood was dried and the powder mixed into triangular cakes for eating; it was also said that the dried blood of a Purim murder might sometimes be used for the following Passover.

When a Ritual Murder accusation was made at Passover, it was usually that of a child under seven years old, as perfect a specimen as possible, who was not only bled white, but crucified, sometimes circumcised and crowned with thorns, tortured, beaten, stabbed, and sometimes finished off by wounding in the side in imitation of the murder of Christ. It was also said that the blood taken from the child was mixed either in the powdered state or otherwise into the Passover bread (see blood libel above).

Reference: 2.11 qr .

Antiquity

1312 BCE: 9th of Av: Kadesh Barnea

The 9th of Av, known in Hebrew as Tisha B’Av, has its beginnings at Kadesh Barnea. In Numbers 13:31, ten of the spies who were sent into the Promised Land said

“...we can’t attack those people; they are stronger than we are.”

As judgment, God decreed in Deuteronomy 1:35

“No one from this evil generation shall see the good land I swore to give your ancestors.”

In Jewish tradition, this occurred on the 9th of Av. Since then, it has been a date of misfortune in the Jewish calendar.

Reference: 1.1

586 BCE: 9th of Av: First Temple destroyed

The first Temple was completed by King Solomon. It was destroyed on the 9th of Av, 586 BCE by the Babylonians.

The Talmud (Yoma 9b) suggests the theological reasons for the Temple’s destruction:

“Why was the first Sanctuary destroyed? Because of three [evil] things which prevailed there: idolatry, immorality, bloodshed.”

Reference: 1.2 20 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

586 BCE: 10th of Av: First Temple destroyed

The fires that began on the 9th of Av continued to burn until the middle of the following day, the 10th of Av, leading the Talmudic sage Rabbi Yochanan to state:

“Had I been alive in that generation, I would have fixed [the day of mourning] for the tenth [of Av], because the greater part of the Temple was burnt on that day.”

So, just as the 9th of Av has been a day of misfortune throughout Jewish history, so too has the 10th of Av been.

Reference: 1.3

139 BCE: Jews expelled from Rome, Italy

The Jews were expelled after being accused of aggressive missionary efforts.

Reference: 1.4 qr .

1st Century: 1–99

19: Jews expelled from Rome, Italy

Tiberius expels the Jews for aggressive missionary efforts.

Reference: 19.1

40: Cornelius believes

About seven years after the death of Christ, a Roman Centurion in Caesarea becomes the first non-Jewish disciple.

Reference: 40.1

41: Claudius

Claudius gives the edict of toleration to the Jews.

Reference: 41.1

45: “Christians”

In Antioch (Syria) the disciples are first called Christians.

Reference: 45.1 22 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

c. 50: Council of Jerusalem

The Council of Jerusalem was the first recorded Church Council. While this council was composed of Jews who made decisions about gentiles, the rest of the church councils and synods listed in this document are of the exact opposite composition: gentiles who would make innumerable decisions concerning the Jews.

Reference: 50.1

50? 52?: Jews expelled from Rome, Italy

Jews are expelled by Claudius. When the Jews return, Paul writes the book of Romans to the Jewish and Gentile believers in Rome, who are meeting together again after a 5-year separation from each other.

Reference: 50.2

70: 9th of Av: Titus destroys Second Temple

People affected / deaths: 1.1 million

The second Temple is destroyed by Titus after a siege that began in 66 CE. Josephus also records that 97,000 Jews were sold as slaves. The population went from 600,000 before the siege to between around 40,000 after.

The Talmud (Yoma 9b) suggests the theological reason for the Temple’s destruction:

“But why was the second Sanctuary destroyed, seeing that in its time they were occupying themselves with Torah, [observance of precepts, and the practice of charity? Because therein prevailed hatred without cause.”

Reference: 70.1

Reference: 73.1 Reference:

Romans.” the to subject be to alive all them

with this intention, that they would not leave so much as one soul among among soul one as much so leave not would they that intention, this with

himself, and fell down dead near to his own relations. So these people died died people these So relations. own his to near dead down fell and himself,

palace, and with the great force of his hand ran his sword entirely through through entirely sword his ran hand his of force great the with and palace,

himself... and when he perceived that they were all slain, he set fire to the the to fire set he slain, all were they that perceived he when and himself...

he whose lot it was should first kill the other nine, and after all should kill kill should all after and nine, other the kill first should was it lot whose he

slain them all, they made the same rule for casting lots for themselves, that that themselves, for lots casting for rule same the made they all, them slain

by lot executed that melancholy office; and when these ten had, without fear, fear, without had, ten these when and office; melancholy that executed lot by

his arms about them, and they offered their necks to the stroke of those who who those of stroke the to necks their offered they and them, about arms his

whom laid himself down by his wife and children on the ground, and threw threw and ground, the on children and wife his by down himself laid whom

“They then chose ten men by lot out of them to slay all the rest; every one of of one every rest; the all slay to them of out lot by men ten chose then “They

women and five children survived. Josephus said: said: Josephus survived. children five and women

960 Zealots commit suicide rather than face slavery or execution. Only two two Only execution. or slavery face than rather suicide commit Zealots 960

960 deaths: / affected People

73: Fall of Masada of Fall 73:

Reference: 71.1 Reference:

) 130 below, entry also see (

become a heap of rubble, the temple hill a mound overgrown with thickets.” thickets.” with overgrown mound a hill temple the rubble, of heap a become

“Therefore because of you, Zion will be plowed like a field, Jerusalem will will Jerusalem field, a like plowed be will Zion you, of because “Therefore

survival. It also fulfilled Micah 3:12: Micah fulfilled also It survival.

city into a Roman colony totally dependent on Rome for for Rome on dependent totally colony Roman a into city

vegetation necessary to support a population, and to turn the the turn to and population, a support to necessary vegetation

The Romans plowed Jerusalem over with salt to destroy any any destroy to salt with over Jerusalem plowed Romans The

of Av: Romans plow Jerusalem over with salt with over Jerusalem plow Romans Av: of 9 71:

th

23 1–99 Century: st 1 . 24 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

2nd Century: 100–199

c. 107: Ignatius of Antioch dies

Ignatius of Antioch (c. 35-107) was an early Christian writer and bishop of Antioch. He is considered by the Roman Catholic Church to be the successor of Saint Peter. He wrote several letters, including his letter to the Magnesians.

In “Chapter IX — Let us live with Christ”, he contrasts the Jewish Sabbath practices with the Christian life, which includes the Lord’s Day:

“...Let us therefore no longer keep the Sabbath after the Jewish manner, and rejoice in days of idleness... But let every one of you keep the Sabbath after a spiritual manner, rejoicing in meditation on the law, not in relaxation of the body, admiring the workmanship of God, and not eating things prepared the day before, nor using lukewarm drinks, and walking within a prescribed space, nor finding delight in dancing and plaudits which have no sense in them. And after the observance of the Sabbath, let every friend of Christ keep the Lord’s Day as a festival, the resurrection-day, the queen and chief of all the days [of the week]...”

In “Chapter X — Beware of Judaizing”, he writes:

“...It is absurd to profess Christ Jesus, and to Judaize. For Christianity did not embrace Judaism, but Judaism Christianity, that so every tongue which believeth might be gathered together to God.”

It is widely quoted that Ignatius said that anyone who eats the Passover with the Jews was partaking with those responsible for killing Jesus (if you know an original source for this claim, please contact us), despite the fact that Passover was to be a Feast forever.

Reference: 107.1 26 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

115–17: Kitos Jewish War

People affected / deaths: 460,000–plus Roman citizens in Cyprus, Cyrene

Jewish communities of Cyprus, Cyrene and possibly others were completely depopulated and permanently expelled to the eastern edges of the Roman Empire, mainly Judea.

Reference: 115.1

130: 9th of Av: Hadrian orders Governor Rufus to plow Jerusalem over

Hadrian orders Jerusalem to be plowed over in preparation for building a new pagan city, Aelia Capitolina on the location, thus fulfilling Micah 3:12:

“Therefore because of you, Zion will be plowed like a field, Jerusalem will become a heap of rubble, the temple hill a mound overgrown with thickets.”

(see also 71 CE)

Reference: 130.1

c. 130–40: Marcion of Sinope compiles “Marcion’s Canon”

Marcion of Sinope, a bishop of Asia Minor who went to Rome and was later excommunicated for his views in 144 (see entry below), was the first to propose a definitive, exclusive, unique list of Christian scriptures, compiled sometime between 130–40 CE.

Marcion’s Canon, possibly the first Christian canon ever compiled, de- emphasized Christianity’s Old Testament and Jewish roots as much as possible, and consisted of 11 books: a gospel consisting of 10 sections drawn from the Gospel of Luke; and 10 edited and redacted Pauline epistles: Galatians, I & II Corinthians, Romans, I & II Thessalonians, Ephesians (which he called

Reference: 132.2 Reference:

the “new Israel”. “new the

hand of judgment against the Jews, reinforcing their claim that they had become become had they that claim their reinforcing Jews, the against judgment of hand

When Rome crushed the rebellion, many Christians believed they saw God’s God’s saw they believed Christians many rebellion, the crushed Rome When

other ritual practices. Jewish sacred scrolls were burned on the Temple Mount. Mount. Temple the on burned were scrolls sacred Jewish practices. ritual other

Sabbath observance, circumcision, Jewish courts, meeting in synagogues and and synagogues in meeting courts, Jewish circumcision, observance, Sabbath

all Judeo-Christian sects, made anti-religious decrees forbidding Torah study, study, Torah forbidding decrees anti-religious made sects, Judeo-Christian all

of Av to mourn their losses in the revolt. Hadrian discriminated against against discriminated Hadrian revolt. the in losses their mourn to Av of th 9

Jews were forbidden from living in Jerusalem, and only allowed there on the the on there allowed only and Jerusalem, in living from forbidden were Jews

580,000 deaths: / affected People

132–35: Bar Kokhba Jewish Revolt Jewish Kokhba Bar 132–35:

Reference: 132.1 Reference:

circumcision. circumcision.

castration of citizens or slaves throughout the Roman Empire) to include include to Empire) Roman the throughout slaves or citizens of castration

Hadrian extends a previous ban by Emperors Domitian and Nerva (on the the (on Nerva and Domitian Emperors by ban previous a extends Hadrian

132: Hadrian bans circumcision bans Hadrian 132:

Reference: 130.2 Reference:

see entries below for 367, 397 367, for below entries see ( Testament New the of Canon the be to ). ).

identify its own writings, and to spur the Church to specify what it considered considered it what specify to Church the spur to and writings, own its identify

Marcion’s choice of a selective and altered canon forced the Church to specifically specifically to Church the forced canon altered and selective a of choice Marcion’s

. . Apostolikon the

, and the 10 Pauline letters, letters, Pauline 10 the and , Evangelicon the became Luke to according Gospel

Laodiceans), Colossians, Philemon, and Philippians. After these changes, the the changes, these After Philippians. and Philemon, Colossians, Laodiceans),

27 100–199 Century: nd 2 . 28 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

135–36: Jews expelled from Judea

People affected / deaths: hundreds of thousands

Following the defeat of the Bar Kokhba Revolt by the Romans, Emperor Hadrian expels hundreds of thousands Jews from Judea.

Reference: 135.1

135: 9th of Av: Fall of Betar

People affected / deaths: 100,000

Betar, the last stronghold of the Jewish leaders, falls, with over 100,000 Jews being slaughtered. This is the start of the Jewish Diaspora.

Reference: 135.2

136: 9th of Av: Jerusalem is rebuilt as the Roman city of Aelia Capitolina

Jerusalem is rebuilt as the Roman city of Aelia Capitolina and the heathen temple to Jupiter is built on the Temple site. The name of the region of “Israel” is also changed to “Palaestina”, i.e. Palestine.

Reference: 136.1

138–61: Emperor Antoninus Pius reigned

After Hadrian’s death in 138, it took less than a year for Antoninus Pius, one of the Roman Empire’s “Five Good Emperors”, about a year to repeal all the edicts persecuting the Jews and their way of life. The religious persecutions of Hadrian had devastated the country, depopulated the cities, and made the intellectual

race...” Israelitic true the are Christ, of bowels the from out quarried been

“...As, therefore, Christ is the Israel and the Jacob, even so we, who have have who we, so even Jacob, the and Israel the is Christ therefore, “...As,

Chapter 135: 135: Chapter

crucified Christ...” crucified

“For the true spiritual Israel... are we who have been led to God through this this through God to led been have who we are Israel... spiritual true the “For

Chapter 11: 11: Chapter

Chapter 137 exhorts Jews to be converted. be to Jews exhorts 137 Chapter

as Replacement Theology, such as in Chapters (Dialogues) 44, 119, and 135. 135. and 119, 44, (Dialogues) Chapters in as such Theology, Replacement as

arguments which have become central to a set of beliefs that is today known known today is that beliefs of set a to central become have which arguments

the Jewish Messiah. It is one of the earliest works that contains many of the the of many contains that works earliest the of one is It Messiah. Jewish the

text with 142 Chapters (Dialogues) that seeks to prove to Trypho that Jesus is is Jesus that Trypho to prove to seeks that (Dialogues) Chapters 142 with text

100-65) wrote “Dialogue with Trypho”, a Christian apologetic apologetic Christian a Trypho”, with “Dialogue wrote 100-65) c. ( Martyr Justin

155–60: Justin Martyr writes “Dialogue with Trypho” (a Jew) (a Trypho” with “Dialogue writes Martyr Justin 155–60: c.

Reference: 144.1 Reference:

see entry below entry see ( 208 around Marcion”), (“Against Marcionem ). ).

and written against — notably by Tertullian in a five-book treatise, treatise, five-book a in Tertullian by notably — against written and Adversus Adversus

and excommunication. Marcionism was denounced by its opponents as heresy heresy as opponents its by denounced was Marcionism excommunication. and

CE. The movement that bears his name, Marcionism, began with his teachings teachings his with began Marcionism, name, his bears that movement The CE.

110-60) was excommunicated from the Roman Church in 144 144 in Church Roman the from excommunicated was 110-60) c. ( Marcion

144: Marcion of Sinope: excommunication and “Marcionism” and excommunication Sinope: of Marcion 144:

Reference: 138.1 Reference:

schools and synagogues were openly reestablished. reestablished. openly were synagogues and schools

could now freely practice and worship God in their traditional methods, and the the and methods, traditional their in God worship and practice freely now could

were still not allowed to proselytize, but those who were born into the faith faith the into born were who those but proselytize, to allowed not still were

there would have been an end to the Jewish people in the Roman empire. Jews Jews empire. Roman the in people Jewish the to end an been have would there

development of the Jews impossible. Had these conditions lasted much longer, longer, much lasted conditions these Had impossible. Jews the of development

29 100–199 Century: nd 2 . 30 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Chapter 137:

“...Assent, therefore, and pour no ridicule on the Son of God; obey not the Pharisaic teachers, and scoff not at the King of Israel, as the rulers of your synagogues teach you to do after your prayers...”

Reference: 155.1

c. 167: Melito of Sardis: first to accuse the Jews of deicide

Melito wrote:

“The Lord is insulted, God has been murdered, the King of Israel has been destroyed by the right hand of Israel.”

His preaching would later inspire pogroms against the Jews. In 1965 The Roman Catholic Church under Pope Paul VI issued Nostra Aetate as part of Vatican II (see entry below, 1965), repudiating the doctrine of Jewish guilt for the Crucifixion.

Reference: 167.1

170–235: Hippolytus of Rome: Contra Judaeos, “Against the Jews”

Hippolytus of Rome was one of the most important third-century theologians in the Diocese of Rome. His expository treatise “Against the Jews” imputes the existing miserable condition of the Jews to their rejection of Jesus:

“Now, then, incline your ear to me, and hear my words, and give heed, you Jew... And surely you have been darkened in the eyes of your soul with a darkness utter and everlasting. For now that the true light has arisen, you wander as in the night, and stumble on places with no roads, and fall headlong, as having forsaken the way that says, ‘I am the way.’”

Reference: 170.1

Reference: 197.1 Reference:

the extent of stepping on it.” on stepping of extent the

are not allowed even as strangers to greet the land of their fathers even to to even fathers their of land the greet to strangers as even allowed not are

they wander over the world without either man or God for their king; they they king; their for God or man either without world the over wander they

it. Scattered in all directions, straggling, exiles from their own soil and sky, sky, and soil own their from exiles straggling, directions, all in Scattered it.

themselves did not admit the fact, their ruinous situation today would prove prove would today situation ruinous their fact, the admit not did themselves

true path, and profanely turning aside from their training! Even if they they if Even training! their from aside turning profanely and path, true

transgressed, being puffed up by confidence in their fathers to leave the the leave to fathers their in confidence by up puffed being transgressed,

“The Jews had long enjoyed favour with God... But how greatly they they greatly how But God... with favour enjoyed long had Jews “The

love of God: God: of love

Apologeticus Tertullian’s made it clear that the Jews were disinherited from the the from disinherited were Jews the that clear it made

Apologeticus Tertullian: 197:

Reference: 180.1 Reference:

to the Gentiles outside the vineyard the fruits of its cultivation.” cultivation.” its of fruits the vineyard the outside Gentiles the to

when they slew Him. Therefore, God has justly rejected them and has given given has and them rejected justly has God Therefore, Him. slew they when

“The Jews have rejected the Son of God and cast Him out of the vineyard vineyard the of out Him cast and God of Son the rejected have Jews “The

for what later became known as Replacement Theology: Theology: Replacement as known became later what for

clear that the Jews were disinherited from the love of God, which sows the seeds seeds the sows which God, of love the from disinherited were Jews the that clear

In his book “Against Heresies”, he identified Jews with Heresies, and made it it made and Heresies, with Jews identified he Heresies”, “Against book his In

180: Irenaeus’ writings Irenaeus’ 180: c.

Reference: 175.1 Reference:

you.” than unruly more

“O Marcomanni, O Quadi, O Sarmatians, at last I have found a people people a found have I last at Sarmatians, O Quadi, O Marcomanni, “O

being disgusted with rebellious Jews, he is reported to have said: have to reported is he Jews, rebellious with disgusted being

As Marcus Aurelius was passing through Palestine on his way to Egypt, and and Egypt, to way his on Palestine through passing was Aurelius Marcus As

175: Marcus Aurelius despises the Jews the despises Aurelius Marcus 175: c.

31 100–199 Century: nd 2 . 32 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

3rd Century: 200–299

c. 200: Tertullian: Adversus Judaeos, “Against the Jews”

Adversus Judaeos purports to present a written refutation of Jewish objections put forward in the course of an actual discussion during which the Christian spokesmen against the Jews could not make themselves heard. The treatise was inspired by a lengthy argument between a Christian and a Jewish convert, which suffered from the interruptions of ignorant bystanders. Tertullian decided to settle the question in writing, with biblical references, to avoid confusing possible converts. The discussion concerns the validity of the Law, the messiahship and divinity of Jesus, the rejection of the Jews, and the choice of the Christianized pagans in their place as the People of God.

He interpreted God’s statements to Rebekah concerning the twins (Esau and Jacob) in her womb (Genesis 25:23) in the following manner: Esau, the older brother, represents the Jewish people; Jacob, the younger brother, represents the Christians. He indicated that God thereby revealed that the Christians would overcome the Jews, and the Jewish people would serve the Christians.

Reference: 200.1

200: Emperor Septimius Severus, Origen

When Emperor Severus forbade conversions to Judaism, Origen, the Bishop of Alexandria wrote:

“We may thus assert in utter confidence that the Jews will not return to their earlier situation, for they have committed the most abominable of crimes, in forming the conspiracy against the Savior of the human race ... Hence the city where Jesus suffered was necessarily destroyed, the Jewish nation was 34 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

driven from its country, and another people [meaning the church] was called by God to the blessed election.”

Reference: 200.2

c. 208: Tertullian: Adversus Marcionem, “Against Marcion”

“Against Marcion” was written by Tertullian against the heretical views of Marcion and the canon of scripture he had put forth, known as Marcion’s Canon (see entry above, 130-40). This examination of Marcion’s heresies was an important development in the distinction between the Old and New Testaments, which over time would help propel the separation of Christianity from its Jewish roots, even though the Canon of 27 books that constitute the New Testament as we know it wouldn’t be defined until the fourth Century (see entries below for 367, 397).

In Book 3, Chapter 14 Tertullian writes:

“Now the apostle John in the Apocalypse describes a sharp two-edged sword as proceeding from the mouth of God, exceeding sharp: and this has to be understood as the divine word, doubly sharp in the two testaments of the Law and the Gospel...”

In Book 4, Chapter 6 he writes:

“Certainly the whole of the work he [Marcion] has done, including the prefixing of his Antitheses, he directs to the one purpose of setting up opposition between the Old Testament and the New, and thereby putting his Christ in separation from the Creator, as belonging to another god, and having no connection with the law and the prophets.”

Reference: 208.1

much of the anti-Jewish polemic. polemic. anti-Jewish the of much

were responsible for the killing of Jesus. This declaration was responsible for for responsible was declaration This Jesus. of killing the for responsible were

Christian doctrines, declared the Jews as dangerous enemies of Christians, and and Christians, of enemies dangerous as Jews the declared doctrines, Christian

the Christian Church whose writing contributed to the early formation of of formation early the to contributed writing whose Church Christian the

Origen (184-253), one of the most distinguished of the early Fathers of of Fathers early the of distinguished most the of one (184-253), Origen

220: Origen, Bishop of Alexandria of Bishop Origen, 220:

Reference: 213.1 Reference:

Visibility Contrasted with the Father’s Invisibility.” Father’s the with Contrasted Visibility

“New Testament Passages Quoted. They Attest the Same Truth of the Son’s Son’s the of Truth Same the Attest They Quoted. Passages Testament “New

Chapter 15 is titled: is 15 Chapter

Distinctness, Thus Supplied.” Thus Distinctness,

Witnessed in Many Passages of the Old Testament. Arguments of Their Their of Arguments Testament. Old the of Passages Many in Witnessed

“The Natural Invisibility of the Father, and the Visibility of the Son Son the of Visibility the and Father, the of Invisibility Natural “The

Chapter 14 is titled: titled: is 14 Chapter

“New Testament” as a collection of books: of collection a as Testament” “New

Old Testament and New Testament by name. This was the first use of the term term the of use first the was This name. by Testament New and Testament Old

noteworthy about this work is that two of the chapter headings mention the the mention headings chapter the of two that is work this about noteworthy

( Marcionem Adversus his in Testaments “New” ), what is is what ), 208 in above entry see

although he had previously written of the distinction between the “Old” and and “Old” the between distinction the of written previously had he although

In “Against Praxeas”, Tertullian defends the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. But But Trinity. Holy the of doctrine the defends Tertullian Praxeas”, “Against In

, “Against Praxeas” “Against , Praxean Adversus Tertullian: 213: c.

Reference: 212.1 Reference:

included Jews. Jews. included

Empire were to become Roman citizens, which therefore therefore which citizens, Roman become to were Empire

Emperor Caracalla declaring that all free men in the Roman Roman the in men free all that declaring Caracalla Emperor

was an edict issued by Roman Roman by issued edict an was Antoniniana Constitutio The

Constitutio Antoniniana Constitutio Caracalla: Emperor 212:

35 200–299 Century: rd 3 . 36 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Widely quoted and attributed to Origen is the following quote (if you know its original source, please contact us):

“We may thus assert in utter confidence that the Jews will not return to their earlier situation, for they have committed the most abominable of crimes, in forming this conspiracy against the Savior of the human race…hence the city where Jesus suffered was necessarily destroyed, the Jewish nation was driven from its country, and another people was called by God to the blessed election.”

Reference: 220.1

220–30: Origen: On the First Principles

“On the First Principles” is a theological treatise by the church father Origen. It was the first ever systematic exposition of Christian theology.

Book One describes the heavenly world, and includes descriptions of the oneness of God, the relationship between the three persons of the Trinity, the nature of the divine spirit, reason, and angels.

Book Two describes the world of man, including the incarnation of the Logos, the soul, free will, and eschatology.

Book Three deals with cosmology, sin, and redemption.

Book Four deals with teleology and the interpretation of the scriptures.

In this treatise Origen recommends the Old and New Testaments be interpreted allegorically at three levels, the “flesh”, the “soul”, and the “spirit”. He states that many of the events recounted in the Scriptures, if they are interpreted in the literal, or fleshly, sense, are impossible or nonsensical; they must be interpreted allegorically to be understood:

“the reader must endeavor to grasp the entire meaning, connecting by an intellectual process the account of what is literally impossible with the parts that are not impossible but historically true, these being interpreted allegorically in common with the part which, so far as the letter goes, did not happen at all.”

This method of allegorizing the interpretation of scripture permitted him to read almost any meaning he desired into the language of the Bible, thus

followed by lists of scriptures to prove the point. the prove to scriptures of lists by followed

heaven”, of kingdom the to attain should Jews the than

”; “That rather the Gentiles Gentiles the rather “That ”; L the of Light the lose also would they “That ord

received”; received”;

“That they would lose Jerusalem, and leave the land which they had had they which land the leave and Jerusalem, lose would they “That

departed from the the from departed , and have followed idols”; idols”; followed have and , L ord

“That the Jews have fallen under the heavy wrath of God, because they have have they because God, of wrath heavy the under fallen have Jews the “That

He then goes on to write headings such as: as: such headings write to on goes then He

nations and from the whole world.” whole the from and nations

to their place, deserving well of the the of well deserving place, their to by faith, and coming out of all all of out coming and faith, by L ord

had been promised them for the future; while the Christians had succeeded succeeded had Christians the while future; the for them promised been had

and had lost God’s favour, which had been given them in past time, and and time, past in them given been had which favour, God’s lost had and

“Jews, according to what had before been foretold, had departed from God, God, from departed had foretold, been before had what to according “Jews,

Books of Testimonies Against the Jews”, he writes that: writes he Jews”, the Against Testimonies of Books

early Christian writer. In the introduction of Treatise XII to Quirinus in in Quirinus to XII Treatise of introduction the In writer. Christian early “Three “Three

200-58) was appointed bishop of Carthage in 249 and was an an was and 249 in Carthage of bishop appointed was 200-58) c. ( Cyprian St.

the Jews” the

249: St. Cyprian appointed bishop; writes “Three Books of Testimonies Against Against Testimonies of Books “Three writes bishop; appointed Cyprian St. 249:

Reference: 230.1 Reference:

on all generations of Jews up to the end of the world.” world.” the of end the to up Jews of generations all on

“And therefore the blood of Jesus falls not only on the Jews of that time, but but time, that of Jews the on only not falls Jesus of blood the therefore “And

), Origen writes: writes: Origen ), origins its know you if us contact

original source is still needed — please please — needed still is source original ( Origen, to attributed and quoted Widely

230: Origen 230:

Reference: 220.2 Reference:

not national Israel. Israel. national not

allowing him to claim that the word Israel in the Bible can mean the Church, Church, the mean can Bible the in Israel word the that claim to him allowing

37 200–299 Century: rd 3 . 38 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Like Tertullian (see entry above, 200), he interpreted God’s statements to Rebekah concerning the twins in her womb (Genesis 25:23) allegorically, with Esau representing the Jews and Jacob representing the Christians. The implication is that Christians have inherited the birthright that the Jewish people have forfeited, declaring:

“The Gentiles rather than the Jews attain to the kingdom of heaven.”

Reference: 249.1

250: Jews expelled from Carthage, Tunisia

No details available.

Reference: 250.1

c. 275-339: Eusebius of Caesarea

Eusebius of Caesarea was bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, and is often referred to as the father of Church history because of his work in recording the history of the early Christian church. Eusebius was involved in the further development of the Arian controversies, an ancient heresy which denies the divinity of Jesus Christ.

Eusebius argued that the biblical promises were meant for the Church and the curses for the Jews, thus saying that the Church was now the true Israel, and therefore the beneficiary of all the promises to Israel.

Reference: 275.1 qr .

4th Century: 300–399

4th Century: Summary of the history of the Jews

The following summation of the history of the Jews comes from an anonymous fourth Century writer (if you know the source, please let us know): “Moses they cursed because he proclaimed Christ, Dathan they loved because he did not proclaim Him; Aaron they rejected because he offered the image of Christ, Abiram they set up because he opposed Him; David they hated because he sang of Christ, Saul they magnified because he did not speak of Him; Samuel they cast out because he spoke of Christ, Ham they served because he said nothing of Christ; Jeremiah they stoned while he was hymning Christ, Ananias they loved while he was opposing Him; Isaiah they sawed asunder shouting His glories, Manasseh they glorified persecuting Him; John they slew revealing Christ, Zechariah they slaughtered loving Christ, Judas they loved betraying Him.”

Reference: 300.1 40 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

c. 300–60: Eusebius of Emesa

Eusebius of Emesa was a learned ecclesiastic of the Greek church, and a pupil of Eusebius of Caesarea (see entry above, 275-339). His theological sympathies were with the semi-Arian party, which modified the teachings of Arianism, but still rejected the doctrine that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are co-eternal, and of the same substance, or con-substantial.

Only a few fragments of his writings survive, but Jerome mentions his writings against the Jews. In his homily “On the Sufferings and Death of Our Lord”, he writes:

“Pilate grew weary of denying the Jews their request; but he was overcome by those shameless miscreants... While they prevailed in their impious intreaties, while they raged in their savage fury, and the judge refused to give way to their wickedness, they brought to pass and fulfilled the truth of the prophet’s words who, because he knew beforehand the malice of the Jews, foretold that the Anointed of the Lord should suffer at their hands. Pilate wished to stop their evil deeds, but he could not.”

Reference: 300.2

303–13: Diocletian spares the Jews (while persecuting Christians)

Diocletian’s persecution was the last and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Jews had been exempted from persecution because of the antiquity of their faith, something denied to Christians because their faith was new and unfamiliar, and because Christians had always been distancing themselves from their Jewish heritage.

Reference: 303.1

Jewish. Jewish.

hymns, or madrashe, that he wrote for liturgical use, many of which were anti- were which of many use, liturgical for wrote he that madrashe, or hymns,

promoted an ‘orthodox’ understanding of Christian faith through the many many the through faith Christian of understanding ‘orthodox’ an promoted

etc. Judaism also presented a strong attraction to local Christians. Ephrem Ephrem Christians. local to attraction strong a presented also Judaism etc.

heretical, including Bardaisanites, Arians, Marcionites, Manicheans, Gnostics Gnostics Manicheans, Marcionites, Arians, Bardaisanites, including heretical,

) was threatened by other groups and beliefs regarded as as regarded beliefs and groups other by threatened was ) below entry see ( 325 in

In this region, Christian “orthodoxy” as defined by the Church Council of Nicaea Nicaea of Council Church the by defined as “orthodoxy” Christian region, this In

Church in 1920. 1920. in Church

Orthodox Church. He was declared a Doctor of the Church in the Catholic Catholic the in Church the of Doctor a declared was He Church. Orthodox

Church, and counted as a Venerable Father (i.e., a sainted Monk) in the Eastern Eastern the in Monk) sainted a (i.e., Father Venerable a as counted and Church,

references to the Jews. Ephrem is especially beloved in the Syriac Orthodox Orthodox Syriac the in beloved especially is Ephrem Jews. the to references

writer of liturgical hymns ( hymns liturgical of writer ), a number of which carry maligning maligning carry which of number a ), below entries see

Ephrem the Syrian was a Syriac Christian deacon, theologian, and a prolific prolific a and theologian, deacon, Christian Syriac a was Syrian the Ephrem

306–73: St. Ephrem the Syrian the Ephrem St. 306–73: c.

Reference: 306.1 Reference:

must complete five years’ penance before receiving the Sunday communion.” communion.” Sunday the receiving before penance years’ five complete must

he is denied communion for some time. If his sin is exposed by someone else, he he else, someone by exposed is sin his If time. some for communion denied is he

“Canon 78: If a Christian confesses adultery with a Jewish or pagan woman, woman, pagan or Jewish a with adultery confesses Christian a If 78: “Canon

from communion as a way of correction.” of way a as communion from

“Canon 50: If any cleric or layperson eats with Jews, he or she shall be kept kept be shall she or he Jews, with eats layperson or cleric any If 50: “Canon

this practice is to be expelled completely from the church.” the from completely expelled be to is practice this

would make our blessing invalid and meaningless. Anyone who continues continues who Anyone meaningless. and invalid blessing our make would

received from God and for which they have offered thanks. Such an action action an Such thanks. offered have they which for and God from received

“Canon 49: Landlords are not to allow Jews to bless the crops they have have they crops the bless to Jews allow to not are Landlords 49: “Canon

communion for five years.” five for communion

unfaithful are joined. Parents who allow this to happen shall not receive receive not shall happen to this allow who Parents joined. are unfaithful

or heretics, because they cannot find a unity when the faithful and the the and faithful the when unity a find cannot they because heretics, or

unless they accept the Catholic faith. Catholic girls may not marry Jews Jews marry not may girls Catholic faith. Catholic the accept they unless

“Canon 16: Heretics shall not be joined in marriage with Catholic girls girls Catholic with marriage in joined be not shall Heretics 16: “Canon

verbatim:

in the Christian community. The following concern Jews and are quoted quoted are and Jews concern following The community. Christian the in

The Synod of Elvira issues 81 canons concerning order, discipline and conduct conduct and discipline order, concerning canons 81 issues Elvira of Synod The

306: Synod of Elvira of Synod 306:

41 300–399 Century: th 4 . 42 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

He must have perceived the Jewish celebration of Passover as a threat to Christian worship, otherwise he would not have gone to such lengths to argue that the temple was permanently destroyed, that Christian worship replaced Jewish worship, and that “the people” ( Jews) were dispersed so that the church from “the peoples” (Christians) could be assembled.

It is clear from Ephrem, and from other writers of the period such as St John Chrysostom in Antioch in Syria (see entries below, 386-87), that Christians found participation in Jewish festivals attractive, with Passover being a great favourite. Ephrem used the strongest possible language to deter his congregants from eating matza with their Jewish neighbours. He also used Old Testament Scripture very selectively and out of context, to support his argument that God has rejected the Jewish Chosen “People”, in favour of the “Peoples” (i.e., Gentile Christians). Ephrem’s goal was to get local Christians to accept the superior spiritual significance of Easter over Passover, and of Eucharistic bread (as symbol of the Body of Christ) over Jewish unleavened bread.

Reference: 306.2

c. 306–73: St. Ephrem the Syrian: The hymn of Crucifixion IV

The cycle of hymns on Easter, which consist of four smaller collections, were composed by Ephrem during his early period in Nisibis (modern-day Turkey), thus before 363 CE.

In the fourth hymn of the liturgical collection of madrashe on the crucifixion, consisting of 18 stanzas, he interprets the tearing of the veil as the divine response to the high priest’s tearing of his tunic. By tearing his frock without proper justification for such a drastic action, the high priest unwittingly signified the end of the priestly service in the Temple. Christ, the ‘true priest’, had come to ‘put on’ the priestly service, and the temple thus decommissioned itself justifiably through the tearing of the veil, whilst Christ commissioned his own ‘altar’, namely, worship in the church. The tearing of the veil was consequently also a lament about the ‘final’ destruction of the temple (a reference to the devastation in 70 CE), and a signal that the church from the ‘peoples’ had replaced the one ‘people’ of God, the Jews:

“6. Subsequently they delivered him to the judge, without noticing that they were themselves being found guilty by him. The curtain (or veil) proclaimed, with the sound of its tearing, the final devastation.

events surrounding Jesus’ crucifixion and death. Through the polemic against against polemic the Through death. and crucifixion Jesus’ surrounding events

the hymn and increases their honour and pride with his description of the actual actual the of description his with pride and honour their increases and hymn the

are handled with more sympathy; he calls them them calls he sympathy; more with handled are at the beginning of of beginning the at brothers” “my

describing their actual shame in what they perceive to be their honour. Christians Christians honour. their be to perceive they what in shame actual their describing

Christians. He describes and handles the Jews with antagonism, time and again again and time antagonism, with Jews the handles and describes He Christians.

In this hymn, Ephrem identifies two distinct groups — the Jews, and the the and Jews, the — groups distinct two identifies Ephrem hymn, this In

306–73: St. Ephrem the Syrian: Hymn on Unleavened Bread XIII Bread Unleavened on Hymn Syrian: the Ephrem St. 306–73: c.

Reference: 306.3 Reference:

the temple was uprooted and our sanctuary (church) was built.” built.” was (church) sanctuary our and uprooted was temple the

could be assembled; be could

The people who was dispersed (Jews) so that the peoples (Christians) (Christians) peoples the that so (Jews) dispersed was who people The

dispersed ones in wrath. in ones dispersed

it cast them out in the four directions (of heaven), and made them them made and heaven), (of directions four the in out them cast it

And that it shook their foot: To displace (them) she rejected them (Jews); them rejected she (them) displace To foot: their shook it that And

dwellings.

The earth, which trembled pointed towards the destruction of their their of destruction the towards pointed trembled which earth, The “13.

prepared) also the holy altar for his service.” his for altar holy the also prepared)

The sanctuary tore its veil. It is a symbol, for behold, he clothed (he (he clothed he behold, for symbol, a is It veil. its tore sanctuary The

priesthood which the true priest (Christ) came and put on. put and came (Christ) priest true the which priesthood

The temporary priest ( Jewish high priest) tore his frock, a symbol of the the of symbol a frock, his tore priest) high Jewish ( priest temporary The

it was a voice of lament that it would be uprooted and become desolate desolate become and uprooted be would it that lament of voice a was it

sanctuary, sanctuary,

The veil which was torn (became) a voice of mourning against the the against mourning of voice a (became) torn was which veil The “12.

and writes (a title), puts it up and (in doing so) proclaims his kingship!” his proclaims so) doing (in and up it puts title), (a writes and

him

Who has (after all) seen a master whose servant sits in judgement over over judgement in sits servant whose master a seen all) (after has Who

Their guilt was the reason for the devastation. the for reason the was guilt Their

Since they conquered the conqueror, they were conquered excessively. conquered were they conqueror, the conquered they Since

43 300–399 Century: th 4 . 44 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History the Jews, Ephrem is hoping to strengthen the identity of his fellow Christians and to defend the honour and Godliness of Christ:

“1. Come, let us celebrate, my brothers, in the month of Nisan the feast of the triumphs of the true lamb.

Refrain: Our congregation gives thanks to the Passover Lamb whom the greedy wolves have slaughtered in Nisan!

2. He was bound in the house of Annas and hidden was in him the power that was unbound within the oven.

3. He was silent in the house of judgment and hidden was in him the mouths of wisdom sayings that conquer all.

4. He quieted within himself the thunder of his voice that confounded the people on the Mount of Sinai.

5. They held him and brought him and it was withholding within him that power that holds all created things.

6. He kissed him, Judas, and it remained inactive in him the stopping up of the mouth that he gave that demon that shouted.

7. Herod questioned him and scorned him, and he kept silent while all languages dwelled in him.

8. He rode on the cross while unnoticeably he was riding on that chariot of Cherubs.

9. They gave him gall while there was hidden in him the sweetness through which the bitterness is sweetened.

10. He became thirsty and asked for water, and hidden was in him that fountain of life that gives life to all.

11. Pilate washed and cleaned his hands so that the people who defiled their hands would become guilty.

12. The clay from his spittle opened the eyes of the blind; so that the people could be questioned why they dishonoured him.

13. He received the spittle, the Lord of all, in whose brightness a Seraph cannot gaze.

Since their hands were defiled with precious blood! precious with defiled were hands their Since

Blessed is he who rejected the People and their matza their and People the rejected who he is Blessed Refrain:

ol o eieteae epe(Jews). ( People aged the revive not could

Nisan that renews every plant every renews that Nisan “1.

notice the opposition of People (the Jews) to the Peoples (Gentile Christians): (Gentile Peoples the to Jews) (the People of opposition the notice

new, earthly/heavenly (or spiritual), manna/Eucharistic bread. In this hymn, hymn, this In bread. manna/Eucharistic spiritual), (or earthly/heavenly new,

Ephrem frequently used paradox and contrast for effect, e.g. heavy/light, old/ heavy/light, e.g. effect, for contrast and paradox used frequently Ephrem

306–73: St. Ephrem the Syrian: Hymn on Unleavened Bread XVII Bread Unleavened on Hymn Syrian: the Ephrem St. 306–73: c.

Reference: 306.4 Reference:

and whose hands were defiled with the blood that inherits all.” inherits that blood the with defiled were hands whose and

to put the daughter of Zion to shame whose head was uncovered was head whose shame to Zion of daughter the put to 23.

she spread it out over her totality and inclined her head her inclined and totality her over out it spread she

Creation asked for a garment of lament, of garment a for asked Creation 22.

tore the covering of the entrance because of her beloved. her of because entrance the of covering the tore

The Shekinah of the temple, like her garment, her like temple, the of Shekinah The 21.

girdled herself with darkness over the Son of her her of Son the over darkness with herself girdled . L ord

Creation shrouded itself with a garment of lament; of garment a with itself shrouded Creation 20.

she tore the covering of the entrance because of the terrible event. terrible the of because entrance the of covering the tore she

When she heard that he inclined his head and called out, called and head his inclined he that heard she When 19.

his voice — in the temple expanded much. expanded temple the in — voice his

When he then called out, the Spirit — in relation to relation in — Spirit the out, called then he When 18.

L pure her of shame the see to not order in . ord

she spread out darkness like Shem and Japheth and Shem like darkness out spread she 17.

to hide her face as with a shroud. a with as face her hide to

Since creation had no covering no had creation Since 16.

stupefied, astounded and confounded was Gabriel also. Gabriel was confounded and astounded stupefied,

While they were insulting him, Michael trembled; Michael him, insulting were they While 15.

hid their faces while they were afraid to look. to afraid were they while faces their hid

Cherubs and Seraphs, when he was treated shamefully treated was he when Seraphs, and Cherubs 14.

45 300–399 Century: th 4 . 46 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

2. For when the People went forth they bore leaven of idolatry along with matza.

3. In Egypt Moses forbade them to knead yeasted dough together with his matza.

4. By this means he taught them not to hide Egyptian leaven within their mind.

5. Matza is a symbol of the bread of life; those of old ate the new mystery.

6. Moses disclosed the symbol of the One who renews all and gave it to gluttons who craved flesh.

7. Meat from the earth weighed them down — their mind stooped to greed.

8. The earthly ones ate heavenly manna They became dust on the earth through their sins

9. Spiritual bread flew lightly away The Gentiles soared up and settled in the midst of Paradise...

14. Matza’s nature is heavy Symbolising the People that cannot fly.

15. Elijah ate from the pitcher and jug the light symbol that flew through the air

16. It was not a Daughter of Jacob who provided the symbol: Elijah ate it through that Daughter of the Gentiles (i.e. the widow of Zarephath)

17. If the (mere) symbol of (Christ’s) bread made (Elijah) fly like that How much more may it transport Gentiles to Eden?”

Reference: 306.5

and leaven alike make the fresh stale! fresh the make alike leaven and

O aged People who by matza by who People aged O 12.

To become a deadly drug within us. within drug deadly a become To

For see, they offer us some of their matza their of some us offer they see, For 11.

Who deceived us by giving us deadly fruit. deadly us giving by us deceived Who

For [the People] resembles the first serpent first the resembles People] [the For 10.

While in their heart dwells deadly poison. deadly dwells heart their in While

See how the People refresh their outward appearance outward their refresh People the how See 9.

however often the People sheds its exterior, inside they grow old. grow they inside exterior, its sheds People the often however

A serpent sheds its skin and is made new; made is and skin its sheds serpent A 8.

Unlike it, they do not know their master their know not do they it, Unlike

A beast is superior to them too, because they are reproached through it: through reproached are they because too, them to superior is beast A 7.

a beast is better than that People! that than better is beast a

If fresh food really brings benefit brings really food fresh If 6.

Like it the People ‘waxed fat and kicked’. and fat ‘waxed People the it Like

In new pasture the ass grows fat grows ass the pasture new In 5.

They gored the Son with a spear in Nisan in spear a with Son the gored They

And when the People ate that matza that ate People the when And 4.

— the ox prone to goring eats it eats goring to prone ox the —

For see, there is fresh pasture in Nisan in pasture fresh is there see, For 3.

In place of that matza that he gave the People... People... the gave he that matza that of place In

Give thanks to the Son who gave us his body his us gave who Son the to thanks Give Refrain: “

is now deadly, whereas the Eucharistic bread is the medicine of life: of medicine the is bread Eucharistic the whereas deadly, now is

marked the end of Passover as a salvific feast. It has no more utility, and in fact fact in and utility, more no has It feast. salvific a as Passover of end the marked

(stanza 16), but he argues that by giving it to his betrayer, Judas Iscariot, Jesus Jesus Iscariot, Judas betrayer, his to it giving by that argues he but 16), (stanza

not deny that Jesus himself ate matza at the Last Supper before his crucifixion crucifixion his before Supper Last the at matza ate himself Jesus that deny not

in Eden (Genesis 3), the origin of evil and death in the world. Ephrem does does Ephrem world. the in death and evil of origin the 3), (Genesis Eden in

a domestic animal that does not know its Master, and finally to the serpent serpent the to finally and Master, its know not does that animal domestic a

to animals in Scripture: to a goring ox, a complacent and recalcitrant ass, to to ass, recalcitrant and complacent a ox, goring a to Scripture: in animals to

In the excerpts below, the People, Ephrem’s Jewish contemporaries are compared compared are contemporaries Jewish Ephrem’s People, the below, excerpts the In

306–73: St. Ephrem the Syrian: Hymn on Unleavened Bread XVIII Bread Unleavened on Hymn Syrian: the Ephrem St. 306–73: c.

47 300–399 Century: th 4 . 48 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

13. O matza that little by little draws those who eat it towards the infidels!

14. In fresh matza they secretly offer the old leaven of unbelief.

15. Moses hid a sign of the Son Within that matza, like an elixir of life.

16. [Christ] rinsed the elixir from the matza and gave it to Judas [Iscariot] as a deadly drug

17. So whoever takes some of that matza takes the lethal drug of [ Judas] Iscariot!”

Reference: 306.6

c. 306–73: St. Ephrem the Syrian: Hymn on Unleavened Bread XIX

In the excerpts below, “People” refers to the Jews, while “Peoples” refers to Christians. In this hymn, Ephrem states clearly that the Jews carry the blood- guilt of Christ’s death and that those Christians who associate with them become defiled too.

Stanza 18 refers to the early Christian prohibition on eating meat sacrificed to idols (compare Acts 15:28-29 with the allusions to anxieties over eating meat in Romans 14).

Stanza 27 invokes two of the greatest sources of religious pollution, from a Jewish point of view: pigs and blood. The crude imagery ends the hymn with an exhortation to keep one’s distance from Jews in order not to share that pollution:

“1. The True Lamb rose and broke his body for the perfect ones who ate the Passover Lamb.

Refrain: Glory to Christ who by his body Brought an end to the People’s matza along with the People...

5. The wicked People who desire our death enticingly offer us death through food.

6. The tree that Eve saw was desirable And matza is just as desirable.

utterly defiled with the prophets’ blood? prophets’ the with defiled utterly

Who would take anything from the hand the from anything take would Who 21.

from a hand defiled with animal blood. animal with defiled hand a from

It’s an abomination to take food take to abomination an It’s 20.

kneaded by hands that killed the Son! the killed that hands by kneaded

How much more unclean is matza, is unclean more much How 19.

from what’s been sacrificed, since it’s defiled. it’s since sacrificed, been what’s from

Even if meat is clean, no one eats one no clean, is meat if Even 18.

should cling to that unleavened bread. unleavened that to cling should

Lest some of that filth in which their hands are steeped are hands their which in filth that of some Lest 17.

from the People with blood-spattered hands blood-spattered with People the from

Don’t take that matza, brethren, matza, that take Don’t 16.

Because he knew that it was pure. was it that knew he Because

Elijah took bread from unclean ravens unclean from bread took Elijah 15.

their matza reeks along with their food. their with along reeks matza their

The People craved garlic and onions and garlic craved People The 14.

lies in matza’s wholesomeness matza’s in lies

For the ‘putrid name’ that Moses wrote Moses that name’ ‘putrid the For 13.

Its purity harbours a stench. a harbours purity Its

Again, flee from matza, brethren! matza, from flee Again, 12.

It signifies Iscariot. signifies It

Loathe matza, brethren! matza, Loathe 11.

that Sarah baked, because it symbolised [Christ]. symbolised it because baked, Sarah that

Angels longed for that unleavened bread unleavened that for longed Angels 10.

In sweet matza, a deadly poison! deadly a matza, sweet In

In a bitter lion there was fine honey fine was there lion bitter a In 9.

its bitterness offered sweetness offered bitterness its

Although the dead lion was very unclean very was lion dead the Although 8.

death is concealed in fine matza. fine in concealed is death

But from that lovely tree was revealed death: revealed was tree lovely that from But 7.

49 300–399 Century: th 4 . 50 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

22. My brethren, don’t eat the matza of the People — deadly poison — together with the elixir of life

23. For the blood of the Messiah is present, mixed into the People’s matza and our Eucharist

24. Anyone who takes it in the Eucharist takes the elixir of life: Anyone who eats it with the People takes a lethal drug

25. For that blood of which they cried, ‘Let it be upon us!’ is mixed into their feasts and their Sabbaths.

26. Whoever joins in their feasts he too becomes spattered with the blood.

27. The People that did not eat pork is a blood-stained pig.

28. Flee from it, keep your distance as it shakes itself lest it stain you with a spattering of the blood.”

Reference: 306.7

c. 306–73: St. Ephrem the Syrian: Hymn Carmina Nisibena LXVII

In this hymn, his allusions to episodes in Scripture where the people of Israel are idolatrous, violent, cruel, rejecting the prophets, etc. are taken as paradigmatic of the character of contemporary Jews. Even Death cannot stomach them. The ribaldry and pantomimic nature of this hymn was probably especially effective in denigrating their Jewish neighbours in the sight of the congregation, thus enforcing religious boundaries:

“1. Come, let us hear Death rebuking the People ( Jews) whose sword was even crueller to the righteous than Death!

Refrain: Praise to you, who by your sacrifice made amends for our reproach

Your death was substituted for all our own deaths, that he might raise all alive!

from Sheol, for they make the place stink! place the make they for Sheol, from

‘If only there was a way I could get rid of their bones their of rid get could I way a was there only ‘If 15.

I loathe their bones in Sheol. in bones their loathe I

‘I hate the Jewish dead! Jewish the hate ‘I 14.

since there are many things more hateful than she? than hateful more things many are there since

‘So why is Sheol alone hated, alone Sheol is why ‘So 13.

Were drowned in these two abysses. two these in drowned Were

‘The prophets and righteous in Judah and Israel and Judah in righteous and prophets ‘The 12.

and Zion and Jerusalem her sister, the house of Judah. of house the sister, her Jerusalem and Zion and

‘Samaria and Jezreel her daughter, the house of Israel, of house the daughter, her Jezreel and ‘Samaria 11.

How many Sheols for the one that was there? was that one the for Sheols many How

‘How many deaths were there among the people for one death? one for people the among there were deaths many ‘How 10.

Elijah fled to heaven from her frenzy frenzy her from heaven to fled Elijah

‘She killed the prophets and sons of the prophets, and threw them aside them threw and prophets, the of sons and prophets the killed ‘She 9.

Jezebel who devoured the righteous is the true Sheol: true the is righteous the devoured who Jezebel

‘Sheol is not really Sheol, but just an image. an just but Sheol, really not is ‘Sheol 8.

Sheol yielded up the dead and learned to fast decently! fast to learned and dead the up yielded Sheol

‘The greedy Hebrew women ate their children; their ate women Hebrew greedy ‘The 7.

and the Shulamite’s darling through Elisha through darling Shulamite’s the and

‘She gave back the widow’s son through Elijah through son widow’s the back gave ‘She 6.

Sheol is better because she delivered them back painlessly. back them delivered she because better is Sheol

The Hebrew women ate their children during famine during children their ate women Hebrew The 5.

how much better am I, who have never battered even a dog! a even battered never have who I, am better much how

They hurled stones at Naboth like a dog, a like Naboth at stones hurled They 4.

but I honoured his bones in Sheol. in bones his honoured I but

They threw Jeremiah into that muddy pit muddy that into Jeremiah threw They 3.

than I did! I than

How much hatred, then, the People showed, since they hated more hated they since showed, People the then, hatred, much How

(Death speaks:) It wasn’t Death who crucified Jesus, but the People! the but Jesus, crucified who Death wasn’t It speaks:) (Death 2.

51 300–399 Century: th 4 . 52 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

16. ‘By the Holy Spirit, I’m astonished at how long I’ve dwelt among a People who smell as rank as their way of life!

17. ‘Onions and garlic are the heralds of their deeds — The mind of that filthy People resembles their food.’

18. By the prayer of all who knelt and worshipped your Father, have mercy on your worshipper who abused your love!

19. From Hebrews and heathens as well as from angels, be there glory to you, and glory through you to your Father!

20. Instead of me being a mouthpiece for Death who has no mouth, May the Son whose whole being is mouth, take my voice to his Father!”

Reference: 306.8

c. 310–67: St. Hilary of Poitiers

Hilary of Poitiers was Bishop of Poitiers and is a Doctor of the Church. It is related of Hilary that his orthodoxy was such that he would not eat with a Jew or even answer Jewish salutations in the street, writing that:

“before the Law was given, the Jews were possessed of an unclean devil, which the Law for a time drove out, but which returned immediately after their rejection of Christ.”

In another passage, commenting on Psalm 51, Hilary writes that the strong man who scoffs at the righteous is to be applied to the Jews, who are that wicked people which has always persisted in iniquity and has gloried in wickedness:

“For Israel was mighty when in slavery it was visited by God; when on its account Egypt was struck by so many plagues; when in three days of darkness it did not feel the dark; when it left Egypt to its fate despoiled of gold and silver ornaments; when it was accompanied day and night by a column of smoke and fire . . . In all these things it was mighty. But ever it was mighty in wickedness; when it longed for the flesh-pots of Egypt; when through its wickedness it preferred an unholy slavery to a holy liberty; when it worshipped the calf; when it cursed Moses; when it hated God; when it vowed its sons as offerings to demons; when it killed the prophets, and finally when it betrayed to the praetor and crucified our God Himself and Lord, who for its sake became man. And so, glorying throughout all its

Reference: 321.1 Reference:

one of privileged citizenship in the Roman Empire to that of outcast. outcast. of that to Empire Roman the in citizenship privileged of one

hatred which would change the role of the Jew in a little over 100 years, from from years, 100 over little a in Jew the of role the change would which hatred

their privileges and immunities. Already in this first law there is evidence of that that of evidence is there law first this in Already immunities. and privileges their

see entry below, 439 below, entry see ( ) dealing with the Jews; it begins the process of reducing reducing of process the begins it Jews; the with dealing )

Constantine promulgated the earliest law recorded in the Codex Theodosianus Theodosianus Codex the in recorded law earliest the promulgated Constantine

321: Emperor Constantine I Constantine Emperor 321:

Reference: 315.1 Reference:

Christians from converting to Judaism. Judaism. to converting from Christians

relatives or friends who converted to Christianity. The other was to discourage discourage to was other The Christianity. to converted who friends or relatives

This law had two purposes. One was to prevent Jews from interfering with with interfering from Jews prevent to was One purposes. two had law This

attend their meetings, he will bear with them the deserved penalties.” deserved the them with bear will he meetings, their attend

Moreover, if any one of the population should join their abominable sect and and sect abominable their join should population the of one any if Moreover,

must speedily be given to flames and burn — together with all his accomplices. accomplices. his all with together — burn and flames to given be speedily must

dangerous sect and attached himself to the worship of God [Christianity], he he [Christianity], God of worship the to himself attached and sect dangerous

with stones or some other manifestation of anger another who has fled their their fled has who another anger of manifestation other some or stones with

that if, after the enactment of this law, any one of them dares to attack attack to dares them of one any law, this of enactment the after if, that

“We wish to make it known to the Jews and their elders and their patriarchs patriarchs their and elders their and Jews the to known it make to wish “We

Christian proselyte: proselyte: Christian

Constantine enacted a law that imposed death on any Jew who harassed a a harassed who Jew any on death imposed that law a enacted Constantine

315: Constantine’s first anti-Jewish decrees anti-Jewish first Constantine’s 315:

Reference: 310.1 Reference:

might.” its showed it where

existence in Iniquity when it was mighty, it was persistently in iniquity iniquity in persistently was it mighty, was it when Iniquity in existence

53 300–399 Century: th 4 . 54 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

321: Emperor Constantine I: Sol Invictus

Sol Invictus (“Unconquered Sun”) was the official sun god of the later Roman Empire and a patron of soldiers. In 274 CE, Aurelian had made Sol Invictus an official cult alongside traditional Roman cults. Constantine decreed dies Solis — day of the Sun, “Sunday” — as the Roman day of rest (Codex Justinianus 3.12.2):

“On the venerable Day of the Sun let the magistrates and people residing in cities rest, and let all workshops be closed. In the country, however, persons engaged in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits; because it often happens that another day is not so suitable for grain-sowing or vine-planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment for such operations the bounty of heaven should be lost.”

This was another step that made Christianity separate, and distinct, from Judaism.

Reference: 321.2

pre–325: Adversus Judaeos (“Against the Jews”) writings from the ante-Nicene Fathers

The book “Adversus Judaeos — A Birds-Eye View of Christian Apologiae until the Renaissance” contains chapter headings of all treatises written against the Jews. The Table of Contents listing those written prior to 325 is listed here (see entry below for those written after 325). The Syriac Writers are included in this section for continuity as they appear in the book’s Table of Contents, with their writers’ respective dates shown in brackets:

Book I. The Anti-Nicene [sic] Fathers: 1. The earliest Books of Testimonies 2. The Epistle of Barnabas 3. The Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus 4. Justin Martyr: The Dialogue with Trypho [see entry at 155] 5. Tertullian: In Answer to the Jews [see entry at 200] 6. Hippolytus: A Demonstration against the Jews 7. Cyprian: Ad Quirinum (Liber Testimoniorum) 8. The Dialogue of Timothy and Aquila

: : Easter concerning

At the conclusion of the Council, Constantine issued a letter to the churches churches the to letter a issued Constantine Council, the of conclusion the At

beginning.” the from Easter observed

at the same time with the Romans and yourselves and all those who have have who those all and yourselves and Romans the with time same the at

of the Jews are henceforth to celebrate the said most sacred feast of Easter Easter of feast sacred most said the celebrate to henceforth are Jews the of

settled; so that all our brethren in the East who formerly followed the custom custom the followed formerly who East the in brethren our all that so settled;

Holy Easter, that this particular also has through your prayers been rightly rightly been prayers your through has also particular this that Easter, Holy

“We further proclaim to you the good news of the agreement concerning the the concerning agreement the of news good the you to proclaim further “We

In the Synodal Letter regarding Easter: Easter: regarding Letter Synodal the In

Eusebius of Caesarea, by the council itself, and by Constantine. Constantine. by and itself, council the by Caesarea, of Eusebius

the promulgation of 20 Canon Laws. Additionally there were letters issued by by issued letters were there Additionally Laws. Canon 20 of promulgation the

the Nicene Creed, establishing uniform observance of the date of Easter, and and Easter, of date the of observance uniform establishing Creed, Nicene the

Son and his relationship to God the Father, the construction of the first part of of part first the of construction the Father, the God to relationship his and Son

were the settlement of the Christological issue of the divine nature of God the the God of nature divine the of issue Christological the of settlement the were

through an assembly representing all of Christendom. Its main accomplishments accomplishments main Its Christendom. of all representing assembly an through

The first Council of Nicaea was the first effort to attain consensus in the Church Church the in consensus attain to effort first the was Nicaea of Council first The

325: Council of Nicaea of Council 325:

Reference: 325.2 Reference:

year to pray at the Western Wall on Tisha B’Av, the 9 the B’Av, Tisha on Wall Western the at pray to year of Av. Av. of th

Jews were also banned from entering the city except once a a once except city the entering from banned also were Jews

325: Jews expelled from Jerusalem from expelled Jews 325:

Reference: 325.1 Reference:

Dionysius Bar Salibi: Commentaries Against the Jews [died 1171] 1171] [died Jews the Against Commentaries Salibi: Bar Dionysius 12.

Century] th [7 etc. Pseudo-Ephraim, 11.

280-345] c. [ Homilies Aphrahat: 10.

Book II. The Syriac Writers: Syriac The II. Book

Celsus and Origen and Celsus 9.

55 300–399 Century: th 4 . 56 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

“... At the council we also considered the issue of our holiest day, Easter, and it was determined by common consent that everyone, everywhere should celebrate it on one and the same day... it seemed very unworthy for us to keep this most sacred feast following the custom of the Jews, a people who have soiled their hands in a most terrible outrage, and have thus polluted their souls, and are now deservedly blind. Since we have cast aside their way of calculating the date of the festival, we can ensure that future generations can celebrate this observance at the more accurate time which we have kept from the first day of the passion until the present time. Therefore have nothing in common with that most hostile people, the Jews. We have received another way from the Savior. In our holy religion we have set before us a course which is both valid and accurate. Let us unanimously pursue this. Let us, most honored brothers, withdraw ourselves from that detestable association. It is truly most absurd for them to boast that we are incapable of rightly observing these things without their instruction. On what subject are they competent to form a correct judgment, who, after that murder of their Lord lost their senses, and are led not by any rational motive, but by an uncontrollable impulsiveness to wherever their innate fury may drive them? This is why even in this matter they do not perceive the truth, so that they constantly err in the utmost degree, and will celebrate the Feast of Passover a second time in the same year instead of making a suitable correction. Why then should we follow the example of those who are acknowledged to be infected with serious error? Surely we should never allow Easter to be kept twice in one and the same year! But even if these considerations were not laid before you, you should still be careful, both by diligence and prayer, that your pure souls should have nothing in common, or even seem to do so, with the customs of men so utterly depraved... So first, it was desirable to change the situation so that we have nothing in common with that nation of father-killers who slew their Lord... but also that we all have a most sacred obligation, to unite in desiring whatever common sense seems to demand, and what has no association with the perjury of the Jews.”

Reference: 325.3

post–325: Adversus Judaeos (“Against the Jews”) writings from the post-Nicene Fathers

The book “Adversus Judaeos — A Birds-Eye View of Christian Apologiae until the Renaissance” contains chapter headings of all treatises written against the Jews. The Table of Contents listing those written after 325 is listed here (see entry above for writings before 325):

Pseudo-Augustine: A Treatise in answer to Five Heresies Five to answer in Treatise A Pseudo-Augustine: 35.

[see entry at 415] at entry [see Jews the to answer in Discourse A Augustine: 34.

Bishop of Hippo of Bishop

An Arian Treatise against the Jews, by Maximinus the Arian Arian the Maximinus by Jews, the against Treatise Arian An 33.

Jew and Theophilus a Christian a Theophilus and Jew

Evagrius: The Discussion concerning the Law between Simon a a Simon between Law the concerning Discussion The Evagrius: 32.

Philosopher

The Discussions of Zacchaeus the Christian and Apollonius the the Apollonius and Christian the Zacchaeus of Discussions The 31.

Book V. Latin Writers, Writers, Latin V. Book AD 384–1349: AD c.

Alphonso de Spina: Fortalitium Fidei Fortalitium Spina: de Alphonso 30.

Paul of Burgos: Scrutinium Scripturarum Scrutinium Burgos: of Paul 29.

Geronimo de Santa Fé and his so-called ‘Hebraeomastix’ so-called his and Fé Santa de Geronimo 28.

Abner of Burgos (= Alphonso of Valladolid) of Alphonso (= Burgos of Abner 27.

Raymund Lull Raymund 26.

Raymond de Peñaforte, Paulus Christiani and Raymund Martini Raymund and Christiani Paulus Peñaforte, de Raymond 25.

Peter Alphonsi and his Dialogue his and Alphonsi Peter 24.

The Letter of R. Samuel R. of Letter The 23.

Alvaro and Bodo and Alvaro 22.

Early Spain to the Mohammedan Conquest Mohammedan the to Spain Early 21.

Book IV. Spanish Writers Spanish IV. Book

Gennadius: A Refutation of the Error of the Jews the of Error the of Refutation A Gennadius: 20.

Andronicus of Constantinople: A Dialogue against the Jews the against Dialogue A Constantinople: of Andronicus 19.

eleventh centuries eleventh

Some monkish theses of the Nearer East in the seventh to the the to seventh the in East Nearer the of theses monkish Some 18.

The Teaching of Jacob (Sargis d’Aberga) (Sargis Jacob of Teaching The 17.

The Discussion of Archbishop Gregentius with the Jew Herban Jew the with Gregentius Archbishop of Discussion The 16.

Chrysostom: Homilies against the Jews Jews the against Homilies Chrysostom: 15. [see entries at 386-87] at entries [see

Testament against the Jews the against Testament

Pseudo-Gregory of Nyssa: Selected Testimonies from the Old Old the from Testimonies Selected Nyssa: of Pseudo-Gregory 14.

The Dialogue of Athanasius and Zacchaeus and Athanasius of Dialogue The 13.

Book III. Greek Writers, AD 325–1455 AD Writers, Greek III. Book

57 300–399 Century: th 4 . 58 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

36. Pseudo-Augustine: Against the Jews, the Heathen, and the Arians: a Discourse on the Creed 37. Pseudo-Augustine: Concerning the Dispute between the Church and the Synagoge — a Dialogue 38. The Discussion of St Silvester with the Jews at Rome, in the presence of Constantine and the Empress Helena 39. Agobard: Letters 40. Amulo, Archbishop of Lyons, AD 841–52: The Letter of Amulo, or a Treatise against the Jews, addressed to King Charles. Rabanus Maurus, Archbishop of Mainz 41. Peter Damiani. 42. Gilbert Crispin, Abbot of Westminster: A Discussion of a Jew with a Christian concerning the Christian Faith 43. Pseudo-Gilbert Crispin: A Discussion between the Church and the Synagogue 44. Peter the Venerable, ninth Abbot of Cluny: A Treatise against the chronic obstinacy of the Jews 45. An Anonymous Treatise against the Jews 46. Peter of Blois: Against the unbelief of the Jews 47. Nicolas de Lyra: Two Treatises

Reference: 325.4

328–73: St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria

St. Athanasius, who was honored as the Father of Orthodoxy, insisted that Rome deal with the Jews by the use of the sword, and that tolerance was like treason against Christ. He also asserted that:

“the Jews were no longer the people of God but were lords over Sodom and Gomorrah.”

Reference: 328.1

Reference: 329.2 Reference:

himself. himself.

more accentuated under Constantine’s sons, thus owed its origin to Constantine Constantine to origin its owed thus sons, Constantine’s under accentuated more

The hostile attitude of the Christianized state, which later became more and and more became later which state, Christianized the of attitude hostile The

is spoken of as an ignominious or as a bestial sect ( sect bestial a as or ignominious an as of spoken is ). ). “feralis” or nefaria” “secta

Noteworthy is the hostile language of several of these laws, in which Judaism Judaism which in laws, these of several of language hostile the is Noteworthy

see entry below entry see ( 335 in ).

any Jew who should transgress this law. Some of these enactments were affirmed affirmed were enactments these of Some law. this transgress should who Jew any

marriages between Jews and Christians, and imposing the death penalty upon upon penalty death the imposing and Christians, and Jews between marriages

former coreligionists. Simultaneously with this an edict was issued forbidding forbidding issued was edict an this with Simultaneously coreligionists. former

Jewish converts to Christianity were protected against the fanaticism of their their of fanaticism the against protected were Christianity to converts Jewish

as well as for Jews versed in the Law who aided them. On the other hand, hand, other the On them. aided who Law the in versed Jews for as well as

slaves; the death penalty was ordained for those who embraced the Jewish faith, faith, Jewish the embraced who those for ordained was penalty death the slaves;

were forbidden to perform the rite of circumcision on slaves or to own Christian Christian own to or slaves on circumcision of rite the perform to forbidden were

inaugurated a more and more hostile policy toward the Jews. In 329 the Jews Jews the 329 In Jews. the toward policy hostile more and more a inaugurated

control, becoming its sole ruler. After his victory over Licinius, Constantine Constantine Licinius, over victory his After ruler. sole its becoming control,

of the East (323), Constantine united the Empire and brought it under his his under it brought and Empire the united Constantine (323), East the of

After defeating Maxentius, his rival in Italy, in 312, and Licinius, Emperor Emperor Licinius, and 312, in Italy, in rival his Maxentius, defeating After

329: Emperor Constantine I Constantine Emperor 329:

Reference: 329.1 Reference:

Christ and emphasized monotheism. monotheism. emphasized and Christ

Arianism, he closely identified the Jews with the Arian heresy because it denied denied it because heresy Arian the with Jews the identified closely he Arianism,

Although he defended many Christian doctrines and spent a few years combating combating years few a spent and doctrines Christian many defended he Although

the Great and John Chrysostom. Chrysostom. John and Great the

Churches he is revered as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs, along with Basil Basil with along Hierarchs, Holy Three the of one as revered is he Churches

of the Church; in the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Catholic Eastern the and Church Orthodox Eastern the in Church; the of

Christianity. In the Roman Catholic Church he is numbered among the Doctors Doctors the among numbered is he Church Catholic Roman the In Christianity.

the “Trinitarian Theologian”. Gregory is a saint in both Eastern and Western Western and Eastern both in saint a is Gregory Theologian”. “Trinitarian the

among both Greek—and Latin—speaking theologians, and is remembered as as remembered is and theologians, Latin—speaking Greek—and both among

theologian. He made a significant impact on the shape of Trinitarian theology theology Trinitarian of shape the on impact significant a made He theologian.

Gregory of Nazianzus was a fourth Century Archbishop of Constantinople, and and Constantinople, of Archbishop Century fourth a was Nazianzus of Gregory

329–90: Gregory of Nazianzus of Gregory 329–90: c.

59 300–399 Century: th 4 . 60 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

335: Emperor Constantine I

Emperor Constantine enacted new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavorable, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors. In 335 he enacted a law stating:

“If one of the Jews shall unlock for himself the door of eternal life, shall bind himself to the holy cults and choose to be Christian, he shall not suffer harassment or molestation at the hands of the Jews. For if anyone of the Jews shall consider that a Jew who became Christian should be attacked and injured, we want the instigator …to be subjected to avenging punishments commensurate with the nature of the crime committed. If one of the Jews shall buy and circumcise a Christian slave or of any other sect, he shall on no account retain the circumcised in slavery; rather, he who suffered this [i.e., the circumcised slave] shall acquire the privileges of liberty.”

Reference: 335.1

c. 335–95: Gregory of Nyssa

Gregory of Nyssa was bishop from 372 to 376, and from 378 until his death. He is venerated as a saint in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches.

Widely quoted and attributed to his famous “Prayer for the Resurrection of Christ” (if you know the original source please contact us) he wrote:

“Murderers of the Lord, killers of the prophets, enemies and slanderers of God, violators of the law, adversaries of grace, aliens to the faith of their fathers, advocates of the devil, progeny of poison snakes... whose minds are held in darkness, filled with the anger of the Pharisees, a sanhedrin of satans. Criminals, degenerates... enemies of all that is decent and beautiful...”

Reference: 335.2

Reference: 339.1 Reference:

Christians.”

occasioned, but he is to be deprived of the possession of those men who are are who men those of possession the of deprived be to is he but occasioned,

who are found in his possession shall at once be removed. No delay shall be be shall delay No removed. be once at shall possession his in found are who

of the faith that is worthy of respect [Christianity] then all these slaves slaves these all then [Christianity] respect of worthy is that faith the of

If, indeed, a Jew does not hesitate to purchase slaves-those who are members members are who slaves-those purchase to hesitate not does Jew a indeed, If,

receive capital punishment. capital receive

will not only be fined for the damage done to that slave but he will also also will he but slave that to done damage the for fined be only not will

If, indeed, he shall have circumcised the slave whom he has purchased, he he purchased, has he whom slave the circumcised have shall he indeed, If,

that slave shall at once be appropriated for the imperial treasury. imperial the for appropriated be once at shall slave that

If any one among the Jews has purchased a slave of another sect or nation, nation, or sect another of slave a purchased has Jews the among one any If

A Jew Shall Not Possess A Christian Slave Christian A Possess Not Shall Jew A

to be punished with death.] death.] with punished be to

they will subject themselves to a sentence of death. [The Jewish husbands are are husbands Jewish [The death. of sentence a to themselves subject will they

Jews induce Christian women to share their shameful lives. If they do this this do they If lives. shameful their share to women Christian induce Jews

This prohibition [of intermarriage] is to be preserved for the future lest the the lest future the for preserved be to is intermarriage] [of prohibition This

Christian women of the imperial weaving factory are to be dissolved.] dissolved.] be to are factory weaving imperial the of women Christian

are to be restored to the weaving factories. [Marriages between Jews and and Jews between [Marriages factories. weaving the to restored be to are

Jews, in their foulness, take in marriage. It is decreed that these women women these that decreed is It marriage. in take foulness, their in Jews,

“This pertains to women, who live in our weaving factories and whom whom and factories weaving our in live who women, to pertains “This

such marriages were to be dissolved: be to were marriages such

who had been working in imperial weaving factories (called gynaeceum). Any Any gynaeceum). (called factories weaving imperial in working been had who

in that order; Jews were specifically prohibited from marrying Christian women women Christian marrying from prohibited specifically were Jews order; that in

male, had him circumcised, was to lose the slave and also be executed, presumably presumably executed, be also and slave the lose to was circumcised, him had male,

owning Christian slaves; any Jew who had owned a slave and, in the case of a a of case the in and, slave a owned had who Jew any slaves; Christian owning

imposed by his father, Constantine the Great. Jews were now prohibited from from prohibited now were Jews Great. the Constantine father, his by imposed

Jews in the Roman Empire even more than under the anti-Jewish legislation legislation anti-Jewish the under than more even Empire Roman the in Jews

Emperor Constantius II enacted a series of new laws restricting the freedom of of freedom the restricting laws new of series a enacted II Constantius Emperor

339: Emperor Constantius II Constantius Emperor 339:

61 300–399 Century: th 4 . 62 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

353: Emperor Constantius II

Constantius II enacted legislation that became part of the Codex Theodosianus (see entry below, 439) stating: “If someone established in the venerable law shall become Jew from Christian [i.e., if a Christian converts to Judaism] and shall be joined to sacrilegious assemblies, we decree that his property shall be vindicated to the fisc’s dominion [i.e., confiscated] once the accusation has been proven.”

Reference: 353.1

361-63: Julian the Apostate

Although Julian the Apostate had been raised a Christian, he converted to paganism around age 20 (hence the title “the Apostate”). By the time he became Emperor he was hostile to both Christians and Christianity. His promise to rebuild the Temple did not stem from his support of the Jews, but rather a desire to demoralize Christians who were using its destruction as evidence of the superiority of Christianity.

Reference: 361.1

363–64: Council of Laodicea: regarding Jews

The major concerns of the Council involved regulating the conduct of church members, which expressed its decrees in 60 Canons, several of which concern Jews: “Canon 29: Christians must not judaize by resting on the Sabbath, but must work on that day, rather honouring the Lord’s Day; and, if they can, resting then as Christians. But if any shall be found to be judaizers, let them be anathema from Christ.” “Canon 37: It is not lawful to receive portions sent from the feasts of Jews or heretics, nor to feast together with them.” “Canon 38: It is not lawful to receive unleavened bread from the Jews, nor to be partakers of their impiety.”

Reference: 363.1

them.”

forever. God always hated the Jews. It is essential that all Christians hate hate Christians all that essential is It Jews. the hated always God forever.

Christians may never cease vengeance, and the Jew must live in servitude servitude in live must Jew the and vengeance, cease never may Christians

for killing God there is no expiation possible, no indulgence or pardon. pardon. or indulgence no possible, expiation no is there God killing for

Their religion is a sickness. The Jews are the odious assassins of Christ and and Christ of assassins odious the are Jews The sickness. a is religion Their

rapacious. They are perfidious murderers of Christ. They worship the Devil. Devil. the worship They Christ. of murderers perfidious are They rapacious.

“The Jews are the most worthless of all men. They are lecherous, greedy, greedy, lecherous, are They men. all of worthless most the are Jews “The

Known as the “Bishop with the Golden Tongue”, Ambrose said: said: Ambrose Tongue”, Golden the with “Bishop the as Known

see entry below for full details, 388 details, full for below entry see ( ). ).

condemned.” has Himself God which folly, of

burning of a synagogue, a home of unbelief, a house of impiety, a receptacle receptacle a impiety, of house a unbelief, of home a synagogue, a of burning

severely punished for the burning of a building, and much less since it is the the is it since less much and building, a of burning the for punished severely

is, then, no adequate cause for such a commotion, that the people should be so so be should people the that commotion, a such for cause adequate no then, is,

to be burnt by the judgment of God, and my work came to an end... There There end... an to came work my and God, of judgment the by burnt be to

objected to me that I did not set the synagogue on fire here, I answer, it began began it answer, I here, fire on synagogue the set not did I that me to objected

who did it, that there might not be a place where Christ was denied. If it be be it If denied. was Christ where place a be not might there that it, did who

“I declare that I set fire to the synagogue, or at least that I ordered those those ordered I that least at or synagogue, the to fire set I that declare “I

which he said in his letter to Emperor Theodosius: Theodosius: Emperor to letter his in said he which

preached against the Jews, leading Christians to burn down a synagogue, about about synagogue, a down burn to Christians leading Jews, the against preached

its patron saint), and was one of the four original Doctors of the Church. He He Church. the of Doctors original four the of one was and saint), patron its

340-97) was appointed bishop of Milan in 374 (and became became (and 374 in Milan of bishop appointed was 340-97) c. ( Ambrose St.

374: St. Ambrose on Jews on Ambrose St. 374:

Reference: 367.1 Reference:

). ). below entry see ( 397 in Carthage of Council

New Testament with all 27 books as we know it today, and later defined at the the at defined later and today, it know we as books 27 all with Testament New

Letter (written annually after Epiphany), he became the first to define the the define to first the became he Epiphany), after annually (written Letter

Bishop of Alexandria (on-again-off-again) from 328-73. In his 39 his In 328-73. from (on-again-off-again) Alexandria of Bishop Festal Festal th

defender of Trinitarianism (the doctrine of the Trinity) against Arianism, and and Arianism, against Trinity) the of doctrine (the Trinitarianism of defender

296-373) was a Christian theologian, a Church Father, the chief chief the Father, Church a theologian, Christian a was 296-373) c. ( Athanasius

367: Athanasius: first mention of all 27 New Testament books Testament New 27 all of mention first Athanasius: 367:

63 300–399 Century: th 4 . 64 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

In an address to young Christians he warned them against intermarriage with Jews (De Abrahamo — “From Abraham”, ix. 84, xiv. 451).

He did, however, write a somewhat backhanded compliment to them in his Enarratio in Psalmos (“Commentary on Psalms”, i. 41, xiv. 943), saying:

“Virtues without faith are leaves, flourishing in appearance, but unproductive... Some Jews exhibit purity of life and much diligence and love of study, but bear no fruit and live like leaves.”

Reference: 374.1

383: Emperor Gratian

Gratian, Roman emperor from 367-83, enacted a law that became part of the Codex Theodosianus (see entry below, 439) stating:

“We punish the crime of Christians who pass over to [i.e., worship at] altars and temples [of the pagans] by abrogating their power to bequeath in testament. Also those who despised the dignity of the Christian religion and name and polluted themselves with the Jewish contagions shall be punished for their disgraceful acts.”

The punishment for the latter is unspecified.

Reference: 383.1

386–87: St. John Chrysostom writes Adversus Judaeos (“Against the Jews”)

St. John Chrysostom (c. 349-407) is considered a Doctor of the Church, and one of the four Great Greek Fathers. During his first two years as a presbyter in Antioch (386-87), he denounced Jews and Judaizing Christians in Adversus Judaeos, a series of eight homilies directed to members of the church of Antioch, who continued to observe Jewish feasts and fasts. Critical of this, he cast Judaism and the synagogues in a critical and negative light. He pictured the Jews as a demon-possessed people who could never be forgiven, concluding it was therefore the responsibility of Christians to hate Jews. In everything he wrote he used Scripture to try to justify the points he was making!

yoke, the reins, nor the hand of the charioteer. Just so the Jewish people were were people Jewish the so Just charioteer. the of hand the nor reins, the yoke,

become more obstinate and hard to hold in check; they endure neither the the neither endure they check; in hold to hard and obstinate more become

“... When brute animals feed from a full manger, they grow plump and and plump grow they manger, full a from feed animals brute When “...

Homily I, ii (5): (5): ii I, Homily

we became the children.” the became we

“But see how thereafter the order was changed about: they became dogs, and and dogs, became they about: changed was order the thereafter how see “But

Homily I, ii (2): (2): ii I, Homily

kinship with dogs...” with kinship

Although those Jews had been called to the adoption of sons, they fell to to fell they sons, of adoption the to called been had Jews those Although

their hands, they thrust them aside and were at great pains to reject them... them... reject to pains great at were and aside them thrust they hands, their

pitiable and miserable. When so many blessings from heaven came into into came heaven from blessings many so When miserable. and pitiable

“But do not be surprised that I called the Jews pitiable. They really are are really They pitiable. Jews the called I that surprised be not do “But

Homily I, ii: ii: I, Homily

The sections below are as they appear in wikipedia for ease of reference: of ease for wikipedia in appear they as are below sections The

Jews”): Homily I Homily Jews”):

Adversus Judaeos Adversus Chrysostom’s John St. from Quotes 386–87: (“Against the the (“Against

Reference: 386.1 Reference:

support their virulent antisemitic views. views. antisemitic virulent their support

that all neo-Nazi websites today appear in web searches using his quotes to to quotes his using searches web in appear today websites neo-Nazi all that

Holocaust in the eyes of German and Austrian Christians. It is also noteworthy noteworthy also is It Christians. Austrian and German of eyes the in Holocaust

witness for the prosecution by the Nazi Party, in an attempt to legitimize the the legitimize to attempt an in Party, Nazi the by prosecution the for witness

During World War II, his works were frequently quoted and reprinted as a a as reprinted and quoted frequently were works his II, War World During

). below excerpted (

celebrated eloquence. The power of his words can be read in his eight Homilies Homilies eight his in read be can words his of power The eloquence. celebrated

Curiously, Chrysostomos means “golden-mouthed” in Greek, and denotes his his denotes and Greek, in “golden-mouthed” means Chrysostomos Curiously,

the early Church. early the

different branches of Christendom, and is one of the most prolific authors in in authors prolific most the of one is and Christendom, of branches different

. He is honoured as a saint and has various feast days in in days feast various has and saint a as honoured is He . heart” sensitive a soul;

brought to men the divine tidings of truth and love” and truth of tidings divine the men to brought “bright, cheerful, gentle gentle cheerful, “bright, a and ,

“one of the most eloquent preachers who ever since apostolic times have have times apostolic since ever who preachers eloquent most the of “one as to referred

Catechism of the Catholic Church, citing him in 18 sections. He has been been has He sections. 18 in him citing Church, Catholic the of Catechism

His influence on church teachings is interwoven throughout the current current the throughout interwoven is teachings church on influence His

65 300–399 Century: th 4 . 66 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

driven by their drunkenness and plumpness to the ultimate evil; they kicked about, they failed to accept the yoke of Christ, nor did they pull the plow of his teaching. Another prophet hinted at this when he said: ‘Israel is as obstinate as a stubborn heifer’. And still another called the Jews ‘an untamed calf ’”.

Homily I, ii (6): “Although such beasts are unfit for work, they are fit for killing. And this is what happened to the Jews: while they were making themselves unfit for work, they grew fit for slaughter... The man who fasts should be properly restrained, contrite, humbled­—not drunk with anger... now when [they] fast, they go in for excesses and the ultimate licentiousness, dancing with bare feet in the marketplace... But these Jews are gathering choruses of effeminates and a great rubbish heap of harlots; they drag into the synagogue the whole theater, actors and all. For there is no difference between the theater and the synagogue.”

Homily I, iii: “Many, I know, respect the Jews and think that their present way of life is a venerable one. This is why I hasten to uproot and tear out this deadly opinion. I said that the synagogue is not only a brothel and a theater... it also is a den of robbers and a lodging for wild beasts.”

Homily I, iv: “But the Jews... live for their bellies, they gape for the things of this world, their condition is not better than that of pigs or goats because of their wanton ways and excessive gluttony. They know but one thing: to fill their bellies and be drunk, to get all cut and bruised, to be hurt and wounded while fighting for their favorite charioteers.”

Homily I, iv (2): “... Indeed the synagogue is less deserving of honor than any inn. It is not merely a lodging place for robbers and cheats but also for demons. This is true not only of the synagogues but also of the souls of the Jews...”

Homily I, iv (5): “Let me get the start on you by saying this now, so that each of you may win over his brother. Even if you must impose restraint, even if you must use force, even if you must treat him ill and obstinately, do everything to save him from the devil’s snare and to free him from fellowship with those who slew Christ.”

souls of men.” of souls

invisible altar of deceit on which they sacrifice not sheep and calves but the the but calves and sheep not sacrifice they which on deceit of altar invisible

practice a deceit which is more dangerous. In their synagogue stands an an stands synagogue their In dangerous. more is which deceit a practice

“So the godlessness of the Jews and the pagans is on a par. But the Jews Jews the But par. a on is pagans the and Jews the of godlessness the “So

Homily I, vi (4): (4): vi I, Homily

are so foolish as to be caught off guard.” off caught be to as foolish so are

make ready an abundance of bait to catch in their nets the simpler souls who who souls simpler the nets their in catch to bait of abundance an ready make

who say they have prophets and pay them honor. But by their words they they words their by But honor. them pay and prophets have they say who

synagogue there are men who say they worship God and abhor idols, men men idols, abhor and God worship they say who men are there synagogue

harm come from this place since the Jews themselves are demons? In the... the... In demons? are themselves Jews the since place this from come harm

Son is outraged, here the grace of the Spirit is rejected. Does not greater greater not Does rejected. is Spirit the of grace the here outraged, is Son

is driven out, here God is blasphemed, here the Father is ignored, here the the here ignored, is Father the here blasphemed, is God here out, driven is

statue stands there? Here the slayers of Christ gather together, here the cross cross the here together, gather Christ of slayers the Here there? stands statue

dwelling place of demons [synagogues] a place of impiety even if no god’s god’s no if even impiety of place a [synagogues] demons of place dwelling

“But heaven forbid that I call these people faithful... For, tell me, is not the the not is me, tell For, faithful... people these call I that forbid heaven “But

Homily I, vi (3): (3): vi I, Homily

believe their words, because they accuse them of the ultimate impiety.” ultimate the of them accuse they because words, their believe

because the Jews outrage and maltreat the holy ones, because they refuse to to refuse they because ones, holy the maltreat and outrage Jews the because

venerate the synagogue because of the holy books; let him hate and avoid it it avoid and hate him let books; holy the of because synagogue the venerate

“Therefore, flee the gatherings and holy places of the Jews. Let no man man no Let Jews. the of places holy and gatherings the flee “Therefore,

Homily I, v (8): (8): v I, Homily

because of their offensive treatment of those holy men.” men.” holy those of treatment offensive their of because

And so it is that we must hate both them and their synagogue all the more more the all synagogue their and them both hate must we that is it so And

into the synagogue, not to honor them but to outrage them with dishonor... dishonor... with them outrage to but them honor to not synagogue, the into

“... For they brought the books of Moses and the prophets along with them them with along prophets the and Moses of books the brought they For “...

Homily I, v (4): (4): v I, Homily

men guilty of the greatest outrage.” outrage.” greatest the of guilty men

­ witness— their reject but writings sacred the read they and this is a mark of of mark a is this and

the synagogue and abhor it. They have the prophets but not believe them; them; believe not but prophets the have They it. abhor and synagogue the

be a holy place? By no means! This is the reason above all others why I hate hate I why others all above reason the is This means! no By place? holy a be

prophets are kept there. What is this? Will any place where these books are are books these where place any Will this? is What there. kept are prophets

say a few words to them... They answer that the Law and the books of the the of books the and Law the that answer They them... to words few a say

“Since there are some who think of the synagogue as a holy place, I must must I place, holy a as synagogue the of think who some are there “Since

Homily I, v (2): (2): v I, Homily

67 300–399 Century: th 4 . 68 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Homily I, vi (6): “Certainly it is the time for me to show that demons dwell in the synagogue, not only in the place itself but also in the souls of the Jews...”

Homily I, vi (7): “Do you see that demons dwell in their souls and that these demons are more dangerous than the ones of old? And this is very reasonable. In the old days the Jews acted impiously toward the prophets; now they outrage the Master of the prophets. Tell me this. Do you not shudder to come into the same place with men possessed, who have so many unclean spirits, who have been reared amid slaughter and bloodshed?... Must you not turn away from them since they are the common disgrace and infection of the whole world?... They sacrificed their own sons and daughters to demons... they became more savage than any wild beast.” Homily I, vii: “What else do you wish me to tell you? Shall I tell you of their plundering, their covetousness, their abandonment of the poor, their thefts, their cheating in trade? The whole day long will not be enough to give you an account of these things. But do their festivals have something solemn and great about them? They have shown that these, too, are impure. Listen to the prophets; rather, listen to God and with how strong a statement he turns his back on them: ‘I have found your festivals hateful, I have thrust them away from myself ’.” Homily i, vii (5): “... For I am persuaded to call the fasting of the Jews a table of demons because they slew God. If the Jews are acting against God, must they not be serving the demons?...” Homily i, viii (7): “Do not regard my words lightly. Be scrupulous in hunting out those who suffer from this sickness. Let the women search for the women, the men for the men, the slaves for the slaves, the freemen for the freemen, and the children for the children...”

Reference: 386.2

soul?... Tell me, then. How do you Judaizers have the boldness, after dancing dancing after boldness, the have Judaizers you do How then. me, Tell soul?...

that your wife may not come back from there after a demon has possessed her her possessed has demon a after there from back come not may wife your that

“And why do I speak of the immorality that goes on there? Are you not afraid afraid not you Are there? on goes that immorality the of speak I do why “And

Homily II, iii (5): (5): iii II, Homily

the whole chorus from the theater who rush to that festival.” festival.” that to rush who theater the from chorus whole the

off into licentious ways. For, as a rule, it is the harlots, the effeminates, and and effeminates, the harlots, the is it rule, a as For, ways. licentious into off

entangle themselves in accusations of ungodliness, you let them be dragged dragged be them let you ungodliness, of accusations in themselves entangle

and they turn a ready ear to this call, you do not restrain them. You let them them let You them. restrain not do you call, this to ear ready a turn they and

“... But now that the devil summons your wives to the feast of the Trumpets Trumpets the of feast the to wives your summons devil the that now But “...

Homily II, iii (4): (4): iii II, Homily

all the error of the Jews...” the of error the all

am sure that they will easily fall into the nets of salvation and will put aside aside put will and salvation of nets the into fall easily will they that sure am

in what I might call the thicket of Judaism. If they hear the shout of Paul, I I Paul, of shout the hear they If Judaism. of thicket the call might I what in

the shout of the hunter, they leap up in fear... So, too, your brothers are hiding hiding are brothers your too, So, fear... in up leap they hunter, the of shout the

“When wild beasts and savage animals are hiding under a thicket and hear hear and thicket a under hiding are animals savage and beasts wild “When

Homily II, i (5): (5): i II, Homily

are suffering from this disease and restore them to health.” to them restore and disease this from suffering are

many days you might be able to track down with all fearlessness those who who those fearlessness all with down track to able be might you days many

to stop you from hunting out your brothers; I hoped that with the span of of span the with that hoped I brothers; your out hunting from you stop to

just before the days of fasting to exhort you. I did not want the lack of time time of lack the want not did I you. exhort to fasting of days the before just

measures before the evil attacked. This was my reason for not waiting until until waiting not for reason my was This attacked. evil the before measures

beforehand I gave you solemn warning so that you might apply corrective corrective apply might you that so warning solemn you gave I beforehand

“Since I, too, see that a very serious disease is going to come upon you, long long you, upon come to going is disease serious very a that see too, I, “Since

Homily II, i (2): (2): i II, Homily

of all things.” things.” all of

done contrary to God’s purpose, be it sacrifice or fast, is the most abominable abominable most the is fast, or sacrifice it be purpose, God’s to contrary done

Though it is a fast, do not wonder that I have called it unclean. What is is What unclean. it called have I that wonder not do fast, a is it Though

“THE WICKED AND UNCLEAN FAST of the Jews is now at our doors. doors. our at now is Jews the of FAST UNCLEAN AND WICKED “THE

Homily II, i: i: II, Homily

The sections below are as they appear in wikipedia for ease of reference: of ease for wikipedia in appear they as are below sections The

before the Jewish fast. fast. Jewish the before

themselves. It was delivered after the previous Homily was given, and five days days five and given, was Homily previous the after delivered was It themselves.

Homily II was against those who fast the fast of the Jews and against the Jews Jews the against and Jews the of fast the fast who those against was II Homily

Jews”): Homily II Homily Jews”):

(“Against the the (“Against Judaeos Adversus Chrysostom’s John St. from Quotes 386–87:

69 300–399 Century: th 4 . 70 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

with demons, to come back to the assembly of the apostles? After you have gone off and shared with those who shed the blood of Christ, how is it that you do not shudder to come back and share in his sacred banquet, to partake of his precious blood? Do you not shiver, are you not afraid when you commit such outrages? Have you so little respect for that very banquet?”

Homily II, iii (9): “So speak these words to them, read aloud to them these texts. Show all your zeal in saving them. When you have snatched them from the devil’s jaws, bring them to me on the day of the Jewish fast... Therefore, whenever they sacrifice the Passover [lamb] either here or elsewhere, they are manifestly murderers. For if, when someone does not bring his sacrifice to the doors of the Tent of Witness, the sacrifice is reckoned as blood and murder, and if these people make their sacrifices not only outside the temple, but even outside the city, indeed everywhere on earth, then it is quite obvious that they are enmeshed in the pollution [of murder] to an enormous degree. In the same way, when they celebrate the Feast of Tabernacles and their other festivals, they are again impure and defiled... Indeed, their Passover and Feast of Tabernacles, and whatever else they do, are profane and abominable; what they carry out is not worship, but lawlessness and transgression and outrage committed on God.”

Reference: 386.3

386–87: Quotes from St. John Chrysostom’s Adversus Judaeos (“Against the Jews”): Homily III

Homily III was against those who keep the first Passover (Pasch) Fast.

The sections below are as they appear in wikipedia for ease of reference:

Homily III, i: “... But the untimely obstinacy of those who wish to keep the first paschal fast forces me to devote my entire instruction to their cure. For the good shepherd does more than drive away the wolves; he also is most diligent in caring for his sheep who are sick. What does he gain if the flocks escape the jaws of the wild beasts but are then devoured by disease?”

Homily III, i (4): “I know that, by God’s grace, most members of my flock are free from this disease and that the sickness involves only a few. But this is no reason for me

quick to throw down the flute and pick up their slingshots; they cast aside aside cast they slingshots; their up pick and flute the down throw to quick

freedom. But when the shepherds feel that the wolves will raid, they are are they raid, will wolves the that feel shepherds the when But freedom.

oak or pine tree and play their flutes, let their sheep go off to graze with full full with graze to off go sheep their let flutes, their play and tree pine or oak

as no wild beast disturbs the flock, shepherds, as they stretch out under an an under out stretch they as shepherds, flock, the disturbs beast wild no as

going to fast, and again we must make secure the flock of Christ. As long long As Christ. of flock the secure make must we again and fast, to going

“AGAIN THE JEWS, the most miserable and wretched of all men, are are men, all of wretched and miserable most the JEWS, THE “AGAIN

Homily IV, i: i: IV, Homily

The sections below are as they appear in wikipedia for ease of reference: of ease for wikipedia in appear they as are below sections The

Antioch in the Great Church. Great the in Antioch

Homily IV was against the Jews and the trumpets of their Passover, delivered at at delivered Passover, their of trumpets the and Jews the against was IV Homily

Jews”): Homily IV Homily Jews”):

(“Against the the (“Against Judaeos Adversus Chrysostom’s John St. from Quotes 386–87:

Reference: 386.4 Reference:

pray that they be set free from this observance of days...” days...” of observance this from free set be they that pray

sluggish spirit of theirs and find a great and lofty understanding. Let us us Let understanding. lofty and great a find and theirs of spirit sluggish

and stand apart from untimely rivalry. Let us pray that they scorn this this scorn they that pray us Let rivalry. untimely from apart stand and

that our brothers come back to us. Let us pray that they cling fondly to peace peace to fondly cling they that pray us Let us. to back come brothers our that

“...So let me finish my discourse at this point. and let us all pray together together pray all us let and point. this at discourse my finish me let “...So

Homily III, vi (14): (14): vi III, Homily

gather to celebrate the mysteries?...” the celebrate to gather

does their Pasch come once each year; why do we celebrate ours each time we we time each ours celebrate we do why year; each once come Pasch their does

the Pasch; what is Lent? What belongs to the Jews: what belongs to us? Why Why us? to belongs what Jews: the to belongs What Lent? is what Pasch; the

“...I would be glad to ask those of us who are sick with this illness: What is is What illness: this with sick are who us of those ask to glad be would “...I

Homily III, ii (5): (5): ii III, Homily

apart?...”

rip. Are not all the other heresies enough without our tearing each other other each tearing our without enough heresies other the all not Are rip.

and rending into many parts the robe which the robbers did not dare to to dare not did robbers the which robe the parts many into rending and

worse than contentiousness and fighting, than tearing the Church asunder asunder Church the tearing than fighting, and contentiousness than worse

“Moreover, the first thing I have to say to the Judaizers is that nothing is is nothing that is Judaizers the to say to have I thing first the “Moreover,

Homily III, i (6): (6): i III, Homily

brother...” a is he still outcast, worthless one only is there If neglected. be not

to relax my care. If only ten, or five, or two, or even one were sick, he must must he sick, were one even or two, or five, or ten, only If care. my relax to

71 300–399 Century: th 4 . 72 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

the pipe of reeds and arm themselves with clubs and stones. They take their stand in front of the flock, raise a loud and piercing shout, and oftentimes the sound of their shout drives the wolf away before he strikes.”

Homily IV, i (2): “I, too, in the past, frolicked about in explicating the Scriptures, as if I were sporting in some meadow... But today the Jews, who are more dangerous than any wolves, are bent on surrounding my sheep; so I must spar with them and fight with them so that no sheep of mine may fall victim to those wolves.”

Homily IV, i (3): “That fast will not be upon us for ten days or more. But do not be surprised that from today on I am taking up my tools and building a fence around your souls.”

Homily IV, iii (4): “But before I draw up my battle line against the Jews, I will be glad to talk to those who are members of our own body, those who seem to belong to our ranks although they observe the Jewish rites and make every effort to defend them. Because they do this, as I see it, they deserve a stronger condemnation than any Jew.”

Homily IV, iii (8): “Let me also say this to those who are our own—­if I must call our own those who side with the Jews. Go to the synagogues and see if the Jews have changed their fast; see if they kept the pre-Paschal­ fast with us; see if they have taken food on that day. But theirs is not a fast; it is a transgression of the law, it is a sin, it is trespassing.”

Homily IV, iii (9): “Did the Jews ever observe our pre-Paschal­ fast? Did they ever join us in keeping the feast of the martyrs? Did they ever share with us the day of the Epiphanies? They do not run to the truth, but you rush to transgression. I call it a transgression because their observances do not occur at the proper time.”

Homily IV, iv (2): “I have said enough against those who say they are on our side but are eager to follow the Jewish rites. Since it is against the Jews that I wish to draw up my battle line, let me extend my instruction further. Let me show that, by fasting now, the Jews dishonor the law and trample underfoot God’s

do everything to win these brothers back. Since these are sick brothers who who brothers sick are these Since back. brothers these win to everything do

must be beaten, even if we must endure any other pain whatsoever, let us us let whatsoever, pain other any endure must we if even beaten, be must

who have wandered away. Even if we must suffer revilement, even if we we if even revilement, suffer must we if Even away. wandered have who

valuable than any others, because we are bringing back the souls of those those of souls the back bringing are we because others, any than valuable

tomorrow’s service with great confidence, because we are bringing gifts more more gifts bringing are we because confidence, great with service tomorrow’s

you interfere and meddle in your brother’s affairs so that we may come to to come may we that so affairs brother’s your in meddle and interfere you

you bring back for me one of your brothers to salvation. Let each one of of one each Let salvation. to brothers your of one me for back bring you

“Is it some great burden I am asking of you, my beloved? Let each one of of one each Let beloved? my you, of asking am I burden great some it “Is

Homily IV, vii (9): (9): vii IV, Homily

but are unwilling to do so.” do to unwilling are but

the synagogues but also those of you who have the power to stop the Judaizers Judaizers the stop to power the have who you of those also but synagogues the

more for going along with the lawbreakers, not only those of you who run to to run who you of those only not lawbreakers, the with along going for more

“I blame the Jews for violating the Law. But I blame you [Christians] much much [Christians] you blame I But Law. the violating for Jews the blame “I

Homily IV, vii (7): (7): vii IV, Homily

synagogue.” the from away them keep to careful more the all

wife] go to the theater, for the theater is wicked; I say it so that you will be be will you that so it say I wicked; is theater the for theater, the to go wife]

godlessness. When I say this I do not mean that you let them [a servant, or or servant, [a them let you that mean not do I this say I When godlessness.

goes on in the theater is, to be sure, sinful; what goes on in the synagogue is is synagogue the in on goes what sinful; sure, be to is, theater the in on goes

“To go to the synagogue is a greater crime than going to the theater. What What theater. the to going than crime greater a is synagogue the to go “To

Homily IV, vii (3): (3): vii IV, Homily

because they were pursuing the lustful habits of those animals.” those of habits lustful the pursuing were they because

This was not because they suddenly changed natures with those beasts but but beasts those with natures changed suddenly they because not was This

­ them called Jeremiah and dogs Jews the called Isaiah fact “In mad horses. horses. mad

Homily IV, vi (3): (3): vi IV, Homily

that sacrifice has to be offered.” offered.” be to has sacrifice that

he should have made that one city impregnable, because it was there alone alone there was it because impregnable, city one that made have should he

Jerusalem, he was obliged not to scatter you to every corner of the world and and world the of corner every to you scatter to not obliged was he Jerusalem,

to every corner of the world; or, if he wished you to offer sacrifice only in in only sacrifice offer to you wished he if or, world; the of corner every to

command you not to sacrifice in one place, since he intended to scatter you you scatter to intended he since place, one in sacrifice to not you command

things if he wished these prescriptions to remain in force: either he had to to had he either force: in remain to prescriptions these wished he if things

why, then, did he destroy your city? God had to do one or the other of two two of other the or one do to had God city? your destroy he did then, why,

did not wish them observed?” And I say to you: If he wished them observed, observed, them wished he If you: to say I And observed?” them wish not did

“You Jews will say: “Why, then, did God impose these prescriptions if he he if prescriptions these impose God did then, “Why, say: will Jews “You

Homily IV, vi: vi: IV, Homily

celebrate the feast days, they are all eager to observe them.” observe to eager all are they days, feast the celebrate

to offer sacrifices, they rushed off to idols; when he does not wish them to to them wish not does he when idols; to off rushed they sacrifices, offer to

not wish them to fast, they get obstinate and do fast; when he wished them them wished he when fast; do and obstinate get they fast, to them wish not

When God wished them to fast, they got fat and flabby? When God does does God When flabby? and fat got they fast, to them wished God When

commands because they are always doing everything contrary to his decrees. decrees. his to contrary everything doing always are they because commands

73 300–399 Century: th 4 . 74 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

trample us underfoot, revile us, and rail against us, we are not stung by their insults; we want to see one thing and only one thing: the return to health of him who behaved in this outrageous way.”

Reference: 386.5

386–87: Quotes from St. John Chrysostom’s Adversus Judaeos (“Against the Jews”): Homily V

The sections below are as they appear in wikipedia for ease of reference:

Homily V, iv (15): “Suppose a mere ten, twenty, thirty, or fifty years were to have passed since the capture of Jerusalem. Even then you would have absolutely no right to show your impudence by rejecting his [Christ’s] prediction, but if you wished to be obstinate, you might have had some pretext for protest left to you. But not only fifty years but many more than one, two, or three centuries have passed since Jerusalem was captured. And never has there been seen a single trace or shadow of the change for which you are waiting. Why, then, are you so rash and foolish as to keep up your shameless objections?”

Homily V, v (9): “Do you now please consider the virtue of the just man and the arrogance of the Jews. He who is conscious of no evil in himself pronounces a most severe judgment on himself when he says: ‘We have sinned, acted lawlessly, done evil.’ But those who were fulfilled with ten thousand evils did quite the opposite when they said: ‘We kept your commandments; and now we call strangers blessed and evildoers are exalted.’ Just men usually act modestly after they have done just deeds; the wicked generally exalt themselves after they have sinned. The man who was conscious of no wickedness in himself said: ‘We have acted lawlessly, we have departed from your laws’; those who are aware of the burden of ten thousand sins say: ‘We have kept your commandments.’ I tell you this so that we may shun the sinner and emulate the just.”

Homily V, x (7): “What is there for me to say to you now that has not already been said? When the prophets predicted the other captivities, they spoke not only of the captivity but also of the length of time it was appointed for each bondage to last [Egypt: 400 yrs; Babylon: 70 yrs; Antiochus Epiphanes: 3 1/2 yrs]; for

Homily VI. VI. Homily

day, and had become hoarse from the length of his Sermon, he now delivered delivered now he Sermon, his of length the from hoarse become had and day,

Although he had delivered a long homily against the Jews on the previous previous the on Jews the against homily long a delivered had he Although

Jews”): Homily VI Homily Jews”):

386–87: Quotes from St. John Chrysostom’s Chrysostom’s John St. from Quotes 386–87: (“Against the the (“Against Judaeos Adversus

Reference: 386.6 Reference:

busybodies, but bring the sick ones to Christ.” Christ.” to ones sick the bring but busybodies,

“So then, do not neglect the salvation of those brothers. Be meddlesome, be be meddlesome, Be brothers. those of salvation the neglect not do then, “So

Homily V, xii (13): (13): xii V, Homily

dens and dwellings of demons.” demons.” of dwellings and dens

synagogues, both in the city and in the suburbs, because these are robbers’ robbers’ are these because suburbs, the in and city the in both synagogues,

Christians. I want them to shun the evil gatherings of the Jews and their their and Jews the of gatherings evil the shun to them want I Christians.

with the Jews. I want them then to show themselves sincere and genuine genuine and sincere themselves show to then them want I Jews. the with

these facts from you and to free themselves from their wicked association association wicked their from themselves free to and you from facts these

not for your sakes but for the sake of those who are sick. I want them to learn learn to them want I sick. are who those of sake the for but sakes your for not

me unless the example of your deeds will match my words. What I said was was said I What words. my match will deeds your of example the unless me

error, and to bring them back to the truth. There is no benefit in listening to to listening in benefit no is There truth. the to back them bring to and error,

“Meanwhile, I ask you to rescue your brothers, to set them free from their their from free them set to brothers, your rescue to you ask I “Meanwhile,

Homily V, xii (12): (12): xii V, Homily

change what God had decreed...” had God what change

“...But it was God who destroyed their city, and no human power could ever ever could power human no and city, their destroyed who God was it “...But

Homily V, xi (6): (6): xi V, Homily

be no dispute or question but that the Church has won the victory crown.” victory the won has Church the that but question or dispute no be

Emperor Julian’s offer to rebuild the Temple: 361-63]. Therefore there can can there Therefore 361-63]. Temple: the rebuild to offer Julian’s Emperor

Kokhba revolt 132-35; Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus 351-52; 351-52; Gallus Constantius against revolt Jewish 132-35; revolt Kokhba

like wrestlers in the Olympic games, they were thrown to the ground [Bar [Bar ground the to thrown were they games, Olympic the in wrestlers like

not once, nor twice, but three times they did attempt it and three times, times, three and it attempt did they times three but twice, nor once, not

could by all means have completed the task.” But now I shall show that that show shall I now But task.” the completed have means all by could

we had wished to set our hands to the task and to begin to rebuild it, we we it, rebuild to begin to and task the to hands our set to wished had we

If the Jews had never attempted to rebuild the temple, they could say: “If “If say: could they temple, the rebuild to attempted never had Jews the If

said is true, come now and let me offer as witnesses the events themselves. themselves. events the witnesses as offer me let and now come true, is said

that the desolation would endure until the end. And to prove that what they they what that prove to And end. the until endure would desolation the that

this present captivity, however, they set no time but, to the contrary, said said contrary, the to but, time no set they however, captivity, present this

75 300–399 Century: th 4 . 76 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

The sections below are as they appear in wikipedia for ease of reference:

Homily VI, i (2): “... Once I took up my fight against the Jews and rushed to meet their shameless assaults, ‘I destroyed their reasoning and every lofty thing that exalts itself against the knowledge of God, and I brought their minds into captivity to the obedience of Christ. And after that I somehow acquired a stronger yearning to do battle against them.’”

Homily VI, ii (5): “Is it because of your sins that you Jews have been living for so long a time outside Jerusalem? What is strange and unusual about that? It is not only now that your people are living sin-filled lives...”

Homily VI, ii (10): “You did slay Christ, you did lift violent hands against the Master, you did spill his precious blood. This is why you have no chance for atonement, excuse, or defense... Your mad rage against Christ, the Anointed One, left no way for anyone to surpass your sin. This is why the penalty you now pay is greater than that paid by your fathers. If this is not the reason for your present disgrace, why is it that God put up with you in the old days when you sacrificed your children to idols, but turns himself away from you now when you are not so bold as to commit such a crime? Is it not clear that you dared a deed much worse and much greater than any sacrifice of children or transgression of the Law when you slew Christ?”

Homily VI, iii (7): “...So also now, if God had not deserted you once and for all, your enemies would not have had the power to destroy your city and leave your temple desolate. If God had not abandoned you, the ruin of desolation would not have lasted so long a time, nor would your frequent efforts to rebuild the temple have been in vain.”

Homily VI, iv (3): “... To keep the Jews from continuing their shameless ways and attributing their desolation to men, God not only permitted the city to fall and the temple to be destroyed but he also removed the things which had their source from heaven above: the fire, the voice, the flashing of the stones, and all other such things.”

did this reckless deed but also those who were seen simply standing there there standing simply seen were who those also but deed reckless this did

our midst tore down the statues? You remember how not only those who who those only not how remember You statues? the down tore midst our

“Surely you all know and remember the time when some evil tricksters in in tricksters evil some when time the remember and know all you “Surely

Homily VI, vi (7): (7): vi VI, Homily

crimes?” their and robbers

the same penalty as they. You do know this, do you not? But why talk about about talk why But not? you do this, know do You they. as penalty same the

Even if a man is not a thief himself but is seen in a den of robbers, he pays pays he robbers, of den a in seen is but himself thief a not is man a if Even

that a bolt of lightning may come down from above and consume your head? head? your consume and above from down come may lightning of bolt a that

every word and deed? Do you rush to their synagogues? Are you not afraid afraid not you Are synagogues? their to rush you Do deed? and word every

let yourself be led by these men who stubbornly oppose God’s laws in their their in laws God’s oppose stubbornly who men these by led be yourself let

trading in shame, filled with outrages beyond number. Tell me, then. Do you you Do then. me, Tell number. beyond outrages with filled shame, in trading

“... But everything that goes on among the Jews today is a ridiculous sport, a a sport, ridiculous a is today Jews the among on goes that everything But “...

Homily VI, vi (6): (6): vi VI, Homily

foolish and unavailing impudence?” impudence?” unavailing and foolish

the facts shout out and prophecy has been fulfilled, why do you keep up your your up keep you do why fulfilled, been has prophecy and out shout facts the

surpassed every tragedy, then you Jews should refuse to believe me. But if if But me. believe to refuse should Jews you then tragedy, every surpassed

your city did not fall, if your temple is not in ruins, if your disaster has not not has disaster your if ruins, in not is temple your if fall, not did city your

in dishonor, if you are not now bereft of everything your fathers had, if if had, fathers your everything of bereft now not are you if dishonor, in

“If these prophecies have not been fulfilled, if you Jews are not now held held now not are Jews you if fulfilled, been not have prophecies these “If

Homily VI, v (5): (5): v VI, Homily

have none of your former blessings.” blessings.” former your of none have

seem to be living a more moderate life, you endure a greater vengeance and and vengeance greater a endure you life, moderate more a living be to seem

of ungodliness before, you got everything; now, after the cross, although you you although cross, the after now, everything; got you before, ungodliness of

makes this so obvious? It is obvious from this: when you Jews lived the life life the lived Jews you when this: from obvious is It obvious? so this makes

crucified and because of your recklessness in committing that outrage. What What outrage. that committing in recklessness your of because and crucified

back on you? It is again obvious that he did so because of him whom you you whom him of because so did he that obvious again is It you? on back

it is because God has turned his back on your religion? Why did he turn his his turn he did Why religion? your on back his turned has God because is it

“Tell me this. Why is it that you have no prophets now? Is it not clear that that clear not it Is now? prophets no have you that it is Why this. me “Tell

Homily VI, iv (7): (7): iv VI, Homily

they worshipped the calf.” the worshipped they

anger now, because of the Jews’ mad rage against Christ, than he was when when was he than Christ, against rage mad Jews’ the of because now, anger

The real reason was the wrath of God. And he is much more provoked to to provoked more much is he And God. of wrath the was reason real The

temple was not the reason for destroying the ritual given to the prophets. prophets. the to given ritual the destroying for reason the not was temple

this, let me prove from the Scriptures themselves that the destruction of the the of destruction the that themselves Scriptures the from prove me let this,

“Let us, rather, stop their shameless mouths with still more proof. To do do To proof. more still with mouths shameless their stop rather, us, “Let

Homily VI, iv (5): (5): iv VI, Homily

77 300–399 Century: th 4 . 78 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

when it happened were all arrested and dragged off to court together. And you remember that they all paid the supreme penalty. Tell me, then. Are you all agog to run off to a place where they outrage the Father, blaspheme the Son, and reject the Holy Spirit, the giver of life? Are you not afraid, do you not shudder to set foot inside those profane and unclean places? Tell me. What defense or excuse will you have since it is you who have thrust yourself into ruin and perdition, since it is you who have hurled yourself from the precipice?”

Homily VI, vi (9): “If spoken words do not make the mouth holy, does the presence of the Scriptures make a place holy? But how could this be right? This is my strongest reason for hating the synagogue: it does have the Law and the prophets. And now I hate it more than if it had none of these. Why is this? Because in the Law and the prophets they have a great allurement and many a snare to attract the more simple­minded sort of men.”

Homily VI, vi (11): “This is why I hate the Jews. Although they possess the Law, they put it to outrageous use. For it is by means of the Law that they try to entice and catch the more simpleminded sort of men.”

Homily VI, vii (6): “The temple was already a den of thieves when the Jewish commonwealth and way of life still prevailed. Now you give it a name more worthy than it deserves if you call it a brothel, a stronghold of sin, a lodging place­ for demons, a fortress of the devil, the destruction of the soul, the precipice and pit of all perdition, or whatever other name you give it.”

Reference: 386.7

386–87: Quotes from St. John Chrysostom’s Adversus Judaeos (“Against the Jews”): Homily VII

The sections below are as they appear in wikipedia for ease of reference:

Homily VII, VI (7): “Knowing, then, what we now know, let us not be roused to fervor only for the present hour; fan the fire you now have, go forth, and spread salvation over the city; even if you do not know them, get busy and find those who have

he has no awareness of his unseemly behavior. This, in fact, is the special special the is fact, in This, behavior. unseemly his of awareness no has he

of his condition. And this is the characteristic which most marks a drunkard: drunkard: a marks most which characteristic the is this And condition. his of

mad, and much worse of than insane revelers, even if he does not seem aware aware seem not does he if even revelers, insane than of worse much and mad,

and never is willing to renounce his untimely obstinacy. This man is drunk, drunk, is man This obstinacy. untimely his renounce to willing is never and

true of the impious man who blasphemes God, who goes against his laws laws his against goes who God, blasphemes who man impious the of true

“But if the man in the grip of passion or anger is drunk, this is all more more all is this drunk, is anger or passion of grip the in man the if “But

Homily VIII, i, (4): (4): i, VIII, Homily

The sections below are as they appear in wikipedia for ease of reference: of ease for wikipedia in appear they as are below sections The

Jews”): Homily VIII Homily Jews”):

386–87: Quotes from St. John Chrysostom’s Chrysostom’s John St. from Quotes 386–87: (“Against the the (“Against Judaeos Adversus

Reference: 386.8 Reference:

of the Church will be unsullied and pure.” pure.” and unsullied be will Church the of

say, there will be no one hereafter who will dare to flee to them, and the body body the and them, to flee to dare will who hereafter one no be will there say,

who thrust out those of our number who frequent their synagogue. I should should I synagogue. their frequent who number our of those out thrust who

Jewish side. When the Jews find this out, it will be they, rather than we, we, than rather they, be will it out, this find Jews the When side. Jewish

eager and vigilant concern for our brothers who have deserted over [to] the the [to] over deserted have who brothers our for concern vigilant and eager

with the Jews, even though they pretend to be ranked with us. We have an an have We us. with ranked be to pretend they though even Jews, the with

“Let the Jews learn how we feel. Let it also become known to those who side side who those to known become also it Let feel. we how learn Jews the “Let

Homily VII, VI (10): (10): VI VII, Homily

words...” our reject

have done everything in our power to rescue them, whether they heed or or heed they whether them, rescue to power our in everything done have

those whom he has made captive to his will. And let us not stop until we we until stop not us let And will. his to captive made has he whom those

after this game and quarry. Let us [rescue?] from the snares of the devil devil the of snares the from [rescue?] us Let quarry. and game this after

sins... To do this, let us take our wives, children, and households and go out out go and households and children, wives, our take us let this, do To sins...

“Let us, then, rescue our brothers and store up beforehand pardon for our our for pardon beforehand up store and brothers our rescue then, us, “Let

Homily VII, VI (8): (8): VI VII, Homily

deeds.” good other undertake will he that

encouragement and motivation from doing this right action. The result is is result The action. right this doing from motivation and encouragement

matter of virtue. The man who has succeeded in doing a good deed gets some some gets deed good a doing in succeeded has who man The virtue. of matter

collect and amass a profit of ten or twenty pieces. This happens, too, in the the in too, happens, This pieces. twenty or ten of profit a amass and collect

man who has made a profit of two gold pieces gets a greater enthusiasm to to enthusiasm greater a gets pieces gold two of profit a made has who man

you yourselves will be more eager to practice virtue. In money matters, the the matters, money In virtue. practice to eager more be will yourselves you

out from your very deeds that I did not scatter my seed on rocky ground. And And ground. rocky on seed my scatter not did I that deeds very your from out

this sickness. I shall be all the more eager to speak to you when I have found found have I when you to speak to eager more the all be shall I sickness. this

79 300–399 Century: th 4 . 80 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

danger of madness: those who suffer from it do not know they are sick. So, too, the Jews are drunk but do not know they are drunk.”

Homily VIII, i, (5): “Indeed, the fasting of the Jews, which is more disgraceful than any drunkenness, is over and gone. But let us not stop thinking ahead for our brothers, let us not consider that our concern for them is now no longer timely...”

Homily VIII, i, (6): “...By God’s grace, we made the prophets our warriors against the Jews and routed them. As we return from pursuing our foes, let us look all around to see if any of our brothers have fallen, if the fast has swept some of them off, if any of them have shared in the festival of the Jews. Let us bury no one; let us, however, pick up every fallen man and give him the treatment he needs...”

Homily VIII, viii, (7): “But how will you go into the synagogue? If you make the sign of the cross on your forehead, the evil power that dwells in the synagogue immediately takes to flight. If you fail to sign your forehead, you have immediately thrown away your weapon at the doors. Then the devil will lay hold of you, naked and unarmed as you are, and he will overwhelm you with ten thousand terrible wounds.”

Reference: 386.9

388: The legend of Ambrose and Theodosius: Assessment

It appears that fifth Century historians have conflated the events of Callinicum with Thessalonica (which are 2,000 km apart from each other). Separately the two versions of events that make up the legend of Ambrose and Theodosius are contradictory in content and result, and each is well sourced. The enactment of the three pro-Jewish laws in 390-95 (see entry below) suggests a connection with version one, yet Ambrose’s letter to Theodosius specifically mentions Thessalonica, without mentioning any specific information, so both versions of events are listed below.

While it is a remarkable story of the power of the gospel to transform the hearts of men, both versions speak more powerfully of the struggle between Church

serious matter to endanger your salvation for the Jews.” the for salvation your endanger to matter serious

in this address, O Emperor, out of love and zeal for you... And yet... it is a a is it yet... And you... for zeal and love of out Emperor, O address, this in

which God Himself has condemned... I have brought these matters together together matters these brought have I condemned... has Himself God which

of a synagogue, a home of unbelief, a house of impiety, a receptacle of folly, folly, of receptacle a impiety, of house a unbelief, of home a synagogue, a of

punished for the burning of a building, and much less since it is the burning burning the is it since less much and building, a of burning the for punished

“no adequate cause for such a commotion, that the people should be so severely severely so be should people the that commotion, a such for cause adequate “no

the case, concluding there is: is: there concluding case, the

the time of Julian the Apostate) — although there is no evidence that this was was this that evidence no is there although — Apostate) the Julian of time the

the Christian basilicas in Damascus, Gaza, Ashkelon and Alexandria (during (during Alexandria and Ashkelon Gaza, Damascus, in basilicas Christian the

Ambrose then reminded the Emperor that it was the Jews who had destroyed destroyed had who Jews the was it that Emperor the reminded then Ambrose

of impiety, erected from the plunder of Christians’?” of plunder the from erected impiety, of

the Jews write this inscription on the front of their synagogue: ‘The temple temple ‘The synagogue: their of front the on inscription this write Jews the

gained for Christians, be transferred to the treasuries of unbelievers?... Shall Shall unbelievers?... of treasuries the to transferred be Christians, for gained

the Church, and shall the patrimony, which by the favour of Christ has been been has Christ of favour the by which patrimony, the shall and Church, the

“Shall, then, a place be made for the unbelief of the Jews out of the spoils of of spoils the of out Jews the of unbelief the for made be place a then, “Shall,

As to the suggestion he pay for reconstruction with his own funds, he said: said: he funds, own his with reconstruction for pay he suggestion the to As

to be burnt by the judgment of God, and my work came to an end.” an to came work my and God, of judgment the by burnt be to

objected to me that I did not set the synagogue on fire here, I answer, it began began it answer, I here, fire on synagogue the set not did I that me to objected

who did it, that there might not be a place where Christ was denied. If it be be it If denied. was Christ where place a be not might there that it, did who

“I declare that I set fire to the synagogue, or at least that I ordered those those ordered I that least at or synagogue, the to fire set I that declare “I

Emperor defending the burning, saying: saying: burning, the defending Emperor

but Ambrose, the bishop of Milan (and mentor of St. Augustine), wrote to the the to wrote Augustine), St. of mentor (and Milan of bishop the Ambrose, but

for reconstruction with his own funds, which Emperor Theodosius confirmed, confirmed, Theodosius Emperor which funds, own his with reconstruction for

burned a synagogue to the ground. The Roman governor asked the bishop to pay pay to bishop the asked governor Roman The ground. the to synagogue a burned

As a result of preaching against the Jews by the bishop of Callinicum, Christians Christians Callinicum, of bishop the by Jews the against preaching of result a As

) Syria

in Callinicum, in the Roman province of Osroene ( Osroene of province Roman the in Callinicum, in today part of Iraq, Turkey and and Turkey Iraq, of part today

388: The legend of Ambrose and Theodosius, version 1: Burning of synagogue synagogue of Burning 1: version Theodosius, and Ambrose of legend The 388:

Reference: 388.1 Reference:

civilisation. The issue common to both events was not faith, but power. power. but faith, not was events both to common issue The civilisation.

and State which has been one of Christianity’s lasting marks on Western Western on marks lasting Christianity’s of one been has which State and

81 300–399 Century: th 4 . 82 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Theodosius didn’t respond, so Ambrose addressed him publicly from the altar, refusing to offer him communion, and threatening him (and his sons) with excommunication unless he rescinded his order. The Emperor canceled the order to rebuild the synagogue, thus revealing how fairness to the Jews was incompatible with Christianity, and the control the Church could wield over secular authorities, including the Emperor himself (see entry below, 390-95).

Reference: 388.2

390: The legend of Ambrose and Theodosius, version 2: Riots and massacre in Thessalonica

People affected / deaths: 7,000

Butheric, a Roman general of Gothic descent, arrested a popular homosexual charioteer. The populace demanded the charioteer’s release and, as Butheric refused, a general revolt ensued which cost Butheric and several other Roman authorities their lives. As soon as Theodosius heard of the uprising, he was enraged and ordered an immediate retaliation. The army units sent to Thessalonica massacred 7,000 inhabitants. Church historian Theodoretus said:

“The anger of the Emperor rose to the highest pitch, and he gratified his vindictive desire for vengeance by unsheathing the sword most unjustly and tyrannically against all, slaying the innocent and guilty alike. It is said seven thousand perished without any forms of law, and without even having judicial sentence passed upon them; but that, like ears of wheat in the time of harvest, they were alike cut down.”

Although the Emperor changed his mind and sent another messenger to cancel his previous order and to prevent the troops from massacring the inhabitants of the city, it was too late.

Ambrose, the bishop of Milan, after hearing about the massacre, left Milan (which was the residence of Theodosius at that time) and refused to celebrate a Mass in the Emperor’s presence until Theodosius repented. In a letter to the emperor, now known as Letter 51, Ambrose explained his position and gave reasons for his resolution:

“What could I do? Should I not hear? But I could not clog my ears with wax, as old fables tell. Should I then speak about what I heard? But I was

forced reinstatement by Roman authorities (legitimate or otherwise). otherwise). or (legitimate authorities Roman by reinstatement forced

in their communities, particularly the right to banish apostates without fear of of fear without apostates banish to right the particularly communities, their in

The second law (392) gave the Jewish patriarchs the right to judicial autonomy autonomy judicial to right the patriarchs Jewish the gave (392) law second The

destitute. destitute.

shipmasters over goods being transported. The law exempted the financially financially the exempted law The transported. being goods over shipmasters

The first law (390) dealt with the obligation of Jews and Samaritans to acts as as acts to Samaritans and Jews of obligation the with dealt (390) law first The

laws to undermine Ambrose’s authority within his kingdom. his within authority Ambrose’s undermine to laws

challenge to imperial authority that could not be tolerated, so he enacted three three enacted he so tolerated, be not could that authority imperial to challenge

to have mass performed in his presence ( presence his in performed mass have to ) was a a was ) above 390 388, at entries see

from 392 until his death in 395. The refusal of Ambrose Ambrose of refusal The 395. in death his until 392 from

379-392, and then the Emperor of a united Roman empire empire Roman united a of Emperor the then and 379-392,

Theodosius was the Emperor of the Byzantine Empire from from Empire Byzantine the of Emperor the was Theodosius

pro–Jewish laws pro–Jewish

390–95: Theodosius I, I, Theodosius 390–95: Theodosius the Great, enacts three three enacts Great, the Theodosius aka

Reference: 390.1 Reference:

The Emperor ordered the law to be drawn up, and signed the document. document. the signed and up, drawn be to law the ordered Emperor The

be calmed [and you can justly decide the issue].” issue].” the decide justly can you [and calmed be

time the case is to be brought again before you, for your resentment will then then will resentment your for you, before again brought be to is case the time

one, thirty days are to elapse before execution, and on the expiration of that that of expiration the on and execution, before elapse to are days thirty one,

“that when sentence of death or of proscription has been signed against any any against signed been has proscription of or death of sentence when “that

recalling his unjust decrees, specifically by ordering: by specifically decrees, unjust his recalling

celebrate Mass, and stipulated that the Emperor should prove his repentance by by repentance his prove should Emperor the that stipulated and Mass, celebrate

When Theodosius went to Milan, Ambrose at first refused to allow him to to him allow to refused first at Ambrose Milan, to went Theodosius When

kingdom, for you will do it away by humbling your soul before God.” God.” before soul your humbling by away it do will you for kingdom,

quoted previously in letter] may stir you up to put away this sin from your your from sin this away put to up you stir may letter] in previously quoted

but that the examples of these kings [examples of Kings David and Saul Saul and David Kings of [examples kings these of examples the that but

failed to correct him... I have written this, not in order to confound you, you, confound to order in not this, written have I him... correct to failed

then the sinner will die in his sin, and the priest will be guilty because he he because guilty be will priest the and sin, his in die will sinner the then

And where would they be then? When a priest does not talk to a sinner, sinner, a to talk not does priest a When then? be they would where And

would happen as my conscience would be bound and my words taken away. away. taken words my and bound be would conscience my as happen would

orders, that is, a bloodshed. Should I remain silent? But then the worst thing thing worst the then But silent? remain I Should bloodshed. a is, that orders,

obliged to avoid precisely what I feared could be brought about by your your by about brought be could feared I what precisely avoid to obliged

83 300–399 Century: th 4 . 84 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

The third law (393) prohibited any public non-Christian religious customs, but directly forbade the destruction of Jewish synagogues, noting that the Jews had a right to congregate in their houses of prayer, that the Jewish sect was legal, and declared:

“those who presume to commit illegal deeds under the name of the Christian religion and attempt to destroy and despoil synagogues” will be severely punished.

Reference: 390.2

392: Emperor Theodosius

Theodosius enacted legislation that became part of the Codex Theodosianus (see entry below, 439) stating:

“In the complaints of the Jews it was affirmed, that some people are received in their sect on the authority of the judges, against the opposition of the Primates of their Law, who had cast them out by their judgement and will. We order that this injury should be utterly removed, and that a tenacious group in their superstition shall not earn aid for their undue readmission through the authority of judges…against the will of their Primates, who are manifestly authorized to pass judgement concerning their religion, under the authority of the most renowned and illustrious patriarchs.”

Reference: 392.1

393: Emperor Theodosius

Theodosius enacted legislation that became part of the Codex Theodosianus (see entry below, 439) stating:

“It is sufficiently established that the sect of the Jews is prohibited by no law. We are therefore gravely disturbed by the interdiction imposed in some places on their assemblies. Your Sublime Magnitude [the

Reference: 395.1 Reference:

copies our witnesses.” witnesses.” our copies

be helped; in their books our supporters, in their hearts our enemies, in their their in enemies, our hearts their in supporters, our books their in helped; be

might be saved; yet they should retain in their memory, whence we might might we whence memory, their in retain should they yet saved; be might

abroad; in order that, although they should not have in faith, whence they they whence faith, in have not should they although that, order in abroad;

Your might.’ [Psalm 59:11]... Therefore they were not slain, but scattered scattered but slain, not were they Therefore 59:11]... [Psalm might.’ Your

says He, ‘lest at any time they forget Your law, but scatter them abroad in in abroad them scatter but law, Your forget they time any at ‘lest He, says

themselves are disapproved... it was prophesied of [them]: ‘Slay them not,’ not,’ them ‘Slay [them]: of prophesied was it disapproved... are themselves

darkened, that by their means those testimonies may be proved, wherein they they wherein proved, be may testimonies those means their by that darkened,

them the clearest testimonies of our cause, they walk round about with eyes eyes with about round walk they cause, our of testimonies clearest the them

“...examine carefully the copies of our enemies the Jews... Thus, having with with having Thus, Jews... the enemies our of copies the carefully “...examine

Chapter 9: 9: Chapter

example” for Christians to learn from: learn to Christians for example”

but scattered (as judgment) — and that they are a sort of ever-living “negative “negative ever-living of sort a are they that and — judgment) (as scattered but

enemies, quoting Psalm 59:11 against them — saying they should be not killed, killed, not be should they saying — them against 59:11 Psalm quoting enemies,

He wrote in “Concerning Faith of Things Not Seen” that the Jews are our our are Jews the that Seen” Not Things of Faith “Concerning in wrote He

430. in death

famous preacher. In 395 he was made Bishop of Hippo, a title he held until his his until held he title a Hippo, of Bishop made was he 395 In preacher. famous

and Western philosophy. He was ordained as a priest in 391 and became a a became and 391 in priest a as ordained was He philosophy. Western and

Algeria), whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity Christianity Western of development the influenced writings whose Algeria),

Church, an early Christian theologian and philosopher from Numidia (NE (NE Numidia from philosopher and theologian Christian early an Church,

Saint Augustine of Hippo was a Roman African, one of the Doctors of the the of Doctors the of one African, Roman a was Hippo of Augustine Saint

395–430: St. Augustine of Hippo of Augustine St. 395–430:

Reference: 393.1 Reference:

synagogues.”

under the name of the Christian religion and attempt to destroy and despoil despoil and destroy to attempt and religion Christian the of name the under

with due severity the excess of those who presume to commit illegal deeds deeds illegal commit to presume who those of excess the severity due with

master of the soldiers in the east] shall, upon reception of this order, repress repress order, this of reception upon shall, east] the in soldiers the of master

85 300–399 Century: th 4 . 86 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

397: Council of Carthage: 27 books of the New Testament

In response to the controversy and debate regarding which books are scripture, the Council of Carthage issued a canon of the Bible, which included all 27 books of the New Testament as we know it today (see entries above at 144, 367).

Reference: 397.1

397: Emperor Arcadius

Arcadius, Eastern Roman emperor from 395-408, enacted legislation that became part of the Codex Theodosianus (see entry below, 439) stating: “Your Excellent Authority [the authority being addressed was a prefect in the east] shall order the governors to assemble, in order that they shall learn and know, that it is necessary to repel the assaults of those who attack Jews, and that their synagogues should remain in their accustomed peace.”

Reference: 397.2 qr .

5th Century: 400–499

406: Jerome’s Commentary on Amos

Jerome was a priest, confessor, theologian and historian. In his commentary on Amos he accurately reflects the general opinion of Jewish anti-Christian hostility when he says:

“... holding fast to their ancient anger and violence, still today under the name of Nazarenes, the Jews in their synagogues blaspheme the Christian flock: and while they slay us, they will their own destruction in the eternal fire.”

Reference: 406.1

412: Emperor Honorius

Honorius, Western Roman emperor from 395-423, enacted legislation that became part of the Codex Theodosianus (see entry below, 439) stating:

“No one shall dare to violate or seize and occupy what are known by the names of synagogues and are assuredly frequented by the conventicles of the Jews, for all must retain what is theirs with unmolested right and without harm to religion and cult. Furthermore, since the ancient custom and usage preserved the day of Sabbath, sacred to the said people of the Jews, we decree that this too must be avoided, that no summons shall constrain a man of the said custom under pretext of public or private business, for it would seem that all the remaining time [i.e., the rest of the week] suffices for the public laws, and it would be most worthy of the government of our time that 88 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

former privileges shall not be violated; although it would seem that enough had been legislated on this matter in general constitutions by past emperors.”

Reference: 412.1

414–15: Jews expelled from Alexandria, Egypt

People affected / deaths: up to 100,000

Alexandria had the largest Jewish community in the world at that time. Pogrom in 414 results in Jews being expelled in 415 and their synagogues destroyed. Up to 100,000 Jews were expelled by Cyril of Alexandria, who is counted among the Church Fathers and the Doctors of the Church. He assembled the Christian mob, incited them against the Jews by his excessive fanaticism, forced his way into the synagogues, of which he took possession for the Christian, and handed over the Jews’ property to be pillaged by the mob, ever greedy of plunder.

Reference: 414.1

418: Severus of Menorca

People affected / deaths: 540

According to his Epistula Severi (“Letter on the Conversion of the Jews”), Severus was at the forefront of a mass conversion where most of the Jewish population on the island converted to Christianity in 418. The Epistula Severi explains that the relationship between the Jews and the Christians on the island grew tense when relics of St. Stephen arrived on the island approximately a year before the conversion began. It took eight days to convert the Jewish population to Christianity and, in that time, the synagogue on the island was burnt to the ground and 540 Jews were converted.

Reference: 418.1

which became the predominant position of the Church from then on, and and on, then from Church the of position predominant the became which

“The City of God” thus popularised and promulgated Replacement Theology, Theology, Replacement promulgated and popularised thus God” of City “The

of heaven. Accordingly, even now His saints reign with Him.” Him.” with reign saints His now even Accordingly, heaven. of

“Therefore the Church even now is the kingdom of Christ, and the kingdom kingdom the and Christ, of kingdom the is now even Church the “Therefore

Millennium began with the first coming of Christ: of coming first the with began Millennium

teach that the organized catholic church is the Messianic kingdom and that the the that and kingdom Messianic the is church catholic organized the that teach

omniscience, and the doctrine of original sin. Augustine was the first person to to person first the was Augustine sin. original of doctrine the and omniscience,

the righteous, the existence of evil, the conflict between free will and divine divine and will free between conflict the evil, of existence the righteous, the

expounding on many profound questions of theology, such as the suffering of of suffering the as such theology, of questions profound many on expounding

of Augustine’s most important works. It is a cornerstone of Western thought, thought, Western of cornerstone a is It works. important most Augustine’s of

“The City of God”, published 426, is a book of Christian philosophy and one one and philosophy Christian of book a is 426, published God”, of City “The

Revelation 20. 20. Revelation

the church is the kingdom of God foretold in such Scriptures as Daniel 2; 7 and and 7 2; Daniel as Scriptures such in foretold God of kingdom the is church the

20 as salvation of the soul at the new birth. Augustine developed the idea that that idea the developed Augustine birth. new the at soul the of salvation as 20

Revelation. He interpreted the first resurrection and millennium of Revelation Revelation of millennium and resurrection first the interpreted He Revelation.

Augustine applied the allegorical method of interpretation to the prophets and and prophets the to interpretation of method allegorical the applied Augustine

426: St. Augustine publishes “The City of God” of City “The publishes Augustine St. 426:

Reference: 423.1 Reference:

be constructed from now on, and the old ones shall remain in their state.” state.” their in remain shall ones old the and on, now from constructed be

build, that is, to the measure of the synagogues taken….No synagogue shall shall synagogue taken….No synagogues the of measure the to is, that build,

they [the Jews] shall be given in exchange new places, on which they could could they which on places, new exchange in given be shall Jews] [the they

after the law [of 393 protecting synagogues, see entry above] was passed, passed, was above] entry see synagogues, protecting 393 [of law the after

that were seized or vindicated to [i.e., appropriated to be used as] churches… as] used be to appropriated [i.e., to vindicated or seized were that

either be indiscriminately seized or put on fire. If there are some synagogues synagogues some are there If fire. on put or seized indiscriminately be either

“It seems right that in the future none of the synagogues of the Jews shall shall Jews the of synagogues the of none future the in that right seems “It

) stating: stating: ) 439 below, entry

Codex Theodosianus Codex the of part became that legislation see see (

Theodosius, Easter Roman emperor from 402-50, enacted enacted 402-50, from emperor Roman Easter Theodosius,

423: Emperor Theodosius II Theodosius Emperor 423:

89 400–499 Century: th 5 . 90 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History played a key role in the persecution of Jews by the Roman Catholic Church and Roman Catholic political rulers for centuries to come.

Reference: 426.1

429: Patriarchate of Israel abolished

The Patriarchate was the governing legalistic body of Judean and Galilean Jewry after the destruction of the Second Temple until 429. Being a member of the house of Hillel and thus a descendant of King David, the Patriarch, known in Hebrew as the Nasi (prince), had almost royal authority.

In 415, an edict issued by the Emperors Honorius and Theodosius II deposed Gamaliel VI as Nasi. Theodosius did not allow the appointment of a successor and in 429 terminated the Jewish patriarchate, after which he seized its tax, which formerly went to the patriarch, for the imperial treasury. It is still known as the patriarchal funds.

Reference: 429.1

429–30: St. Augustine’s Tractatus adversus Judaeos: “Treatise Against the Jews”

This treatise presents an argument of the scriptures to defend Christianity’s understanding of them, but which later became an argument for the case of antisemitism. That it wasn’t intended to stir up hatred against Jews is evident from the final chapter, Chapter 10.

“Chapter 9: Lastly, O Jews, if you try to distort these prophetic words [previously discussed scriptures] into another meaning according to the dictates of your heart, you resist the Son of God against your own salvation. If you, I say, choose to understand by these testimonies that the house of Jacob or Israel is the same people, both called and cast off... what are you going to say and how will you interpret another Prophet who cuts this reply away entirely, shouting with unmistakable manifestation: ‘I have no pleasure in you says the Lord Almighty: and I will not receive a gift of your hand. For from the rising of the sun even to the going down, my name is great among the Gentiles, and in every place sacrifice is offered to my name, a clean oblation: for my name is great among the Gentiles, says the Lord Almighty.’ [Malachi 1:10-11]...”

tightened restrictions on Jews. on restrictions tightened

In Byzantium, the Codex was superseded in 529 by the Justinian Code, which which Code, Justinian the by 529 in superseded was Codex the Byzantium, In

not the repair of existing ones. ones. existing of repair the not

Jews of the same opportunity. Construction of new synagogues was banned, but but banned, was synagogues new of Construction opportunity. same the of Jews

give Christians the opportunity to convert their pagan slaves and to deprive deprive to and slaves pagan their convert to opportunity the Christians give

holding them (slaves could be inherited), a restriction apparently designed to to designed apparently restriction a inherited), be could (slaves them holding

own pocket. Jews were also prohibited from buying slaves, although not from from not although slaves, buying from prohibited also were Jews pocket. own

Byzantine law, was required to make up any shortfall in tax revenues out of his his of out revenues tax in shortfall any up make to required was law, Byzantine

the only exception being the office of decurion (tax collector), whose holder, by by holder, whose collector), (tax decurion of office the being exception only the

The Codex barred Jews from holding positions in the military and civil service, service, civil and military the in positions holding from Jews barred Codex The

power of the Church. Church. the of power

status that became entrenched in Europe for more than 1,000 years under the the under years 1,000 than more for Europe in entrenched became that status

and repressed Judaism as a religion. Jews thus became second-class citizens, a a citizens, second-class became thus Jews religion. a as Judaism repressed and

religion, and systematized the process that stripped Jews of citizenship rights rights citizenship of Jews stripped that process the systematized and religion,

fifth centuries in the Roman Empire, established Christianity as the official official the as Christianity established Empire, Roman the in centuries fifth

covers political, socioeconomic, cultural and religious subjects of the fourth and and fourth the of subjects religious and cultural socioeconomic, political, covers

in 438, and went into force in the Roman Empire on January 1, 439. The code code The 439. 1, January on Empire Roman the in force into went and 438, in

the Roman Empire under the Christian emperors since 312 that was published published was that 312 since emperors Christian the under Empire Roman the

(“Theodosian Code”) was a compilation of the laws of of laws the of compilation a was Code”) (“Theodosian Theodosianus Codex The

Codex Theodosianus Codex 439:

Reference: 429.2 Reference:

mercy of God for ever, yea for ever and ever.’” and ever for yea ever, for God of mercy

says to Christ, ‘as a fruitful olive tree in the house of God, have hoped in the the in hoped have God, of house the in tree olive fruitful a ‘as Christ, to says

angry, he shall gnash with his teeth and pine away.’ ‘But I,’ the Church Church the I,’ ‘But away.’ pine and teeth his with gnash shall he angry,

among them of whom the psalm says: ‘The wicked shall see, and shall be be shall and see, shall wicked ‘The says: psalm the whom of them among

If, however, they hear and do not obey, if they see and are jealous, they are are they jealous, are and see they if obey, not do and hear they however, If,

‘Come you to him and be enlightened: and your faces shall not be confounded.’ confounded.’ be not shall faces your and enlightened: be and him to you ‘Come

hear Him and obey Him, they will be among them to whom Scripture says: says: Scripture whom to them among be will they Him, obey and Him hear

,’ because His ‘name is great among the Gentiles.’ If they they If Gentiles.’ the among great is ‘name His because ,’ L the of light ord

but rejoicing with trembling, let us say: ‘Come you and let us walk in the the in walk us let and you ‘Come say: us let trembling, with rejoicing but

pride, but with a deep sense of humility, not insulting with presumption, presumption, with insulting not humility, of sense deep a with but pride,

mercy, and on what root, we have been ingrafted. Then, not savoring of of savoring not Then, ingrafted. been have we root, what on and mercy,

the broken branches; let us rather reflect by whose grace it is, and by much much by and is, it grace whose by reflect rather us let branches; broken the

proclaim them with great love for the Jews. Let us not proudly glory against against glory proudly not us Let Jews. the for love great with them proclaim

testimonies with joy or with indignation, nevertheless, when we can, let us us let can, we when nevertheless, indignation, with or joy with testimonies

“Chapter 10: Dearly beloved, whether the Jews receive these divine divine these receive Jews the whether beloved, Dearly 10: “Chapter

91 400–499 Century: th 5 . 92 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Excerpts from the Codex:

“He who misleads a slave or a freeman against his will or by punishable advice, from the service of the Christian religion to that of an abominable sect and ritual, is to be punished by loss of property and life.”

“Any Jew who stones a Jewish convert to Christianity shall be burned, and no one is allowed to join Judaism.”

“Persons who join Judaism from Christianity shall have their property confiscated.”

“Jews may not burn crosses at the feast of Purim, and shall lose their rights if they disobey the law, but shall otherwise be allowed to practice their religion.”

“Jews may not construct new synagogues, but old ones will not be torn down. Other prohibitions are upheld.”

“No Jew . . . shall obtain offices and dignities; to none shall the administration of city service be permitted; . . . Indeed, we believe it sinful that the enemies of the heavenly majesty and of the Roman laws should become the executors of our laws — the administration of which they have slyly obtained and that they, fortified by the authority of the acquired rank, should have the power to judge or decide as they wish against Christians, yes, frequently even over bishops of our holy religion themselves, and thus, as it were, insult our faith.”

There were some protections for Jews, such as:

“The Jewish sect is protected by law. No regulation may be passed to ban Judaism, even in the name of Christianity.”

“Jewish synagogues may not be taken by non-Jews, and Jewish observation of the Sabbath is to be protected.”

“Jews may not be persecuted for their religion or have their property taken without cause. They are cautioned, however, that they still may not disrespect Christianity.”

“Jews may not enter imperial service. Jews who have already taken the oath for service may remain, except those in the armed service. Jews are not prohibited from becoming advocates or decurions.”

Reference: 465.1 Reference:

and partaking in meals with Jews. with meals in partaking and

The Council of Vannes prohibited priests from participating in Jewish feasts feasts Jewish in participating from priests prohibited Vannes of Council The

465: Council of Vannes, Brittany Vannes, of Council 465:

Reference: 444.1 Reference:

in the fifth or sixth century wrote these sermons. sermons. these wrote century sixth or fifth the in

Although his existence/location are in dispute it seems someone in Alexandria Alexandria in someone seems it dispute in are existence/location his Although

father the devil.” the father

have loved Hell and its eternal fires... Hell ... shall imprison you with your your with you imprison shall ... Hell fires... eternal its and Hell loved have

You are estranged from His Glory; woe to you, ungrateful wretches, who who wretches, ungrateful you, to woe Glory; His from estranged are You

God you became wolves, and sharpened your teeth upon the Lamb of God. God. of Lamb the upon teeth your sharpened and wolves, became you God

circumcised only in the flesh, but not in the spirit], from being the Elect of of Elect the being from spirit], the in not but flesh, the in only circumcised

stiff-necked and uncircumcised [ Jews were commonly accused of being being of accused commonly were Jews [ uncircumcised and stiff-necked

“Woe to you wretches, ... you were called sons and became dogs. Woe to you, you, to Woe dogs. became and sons called were you ... wretches, you to “Woe

in the first half of his sermon on the Resurrection in this way: way: this in Resurrection the on sermon his of half first the in

Coupling the devil and the Jews, Eusebius of Alexandria began every paragraph paragraph every began Alexandria of Eusebius Jews, the and devil the Coupling

elected his successor, and consecrated him bishop, though much against his will. his against much though bishop, him consecrated and successor, his elected

of Alexandria, who visited him with his clergy, and in 444, when dying, had him him had dying, when 444, in and clergy, his with him visited who Alexandria, of

near Alexandria. The fame of his virtues attracted the attention of Cyril, Bishop Bishop Cyril, of attention the attracted virtues his of fame The Alexandria. near

attributed. Very little is known about him, except that he led a monastic life life monastic a led he that except him, about known is little Very attributed.

Eusebius of Alexandria is an author to whom certain extant homilies are are homilies extant certain whom to author an is Alexandria of Eusebius

444: Eusebius of Alexandria of Eusebius 444:

Reference: 439.1 Reference:

new synagogues, and existing ones may not be improved.” be not may ones existing and synagogues, new

incident does occur, they will be compensated. However, they may not build build not may they However, compensated. be will they occur, does incident

“Jewish synagogues may not be taken or burned indiscriminately. If such an an such If indiscriminately. burned or taken be not may synagogues “Jewish

93 400–499 Century: th 5 . 94 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

474–91: Emperor Zeno reigned

Emperor Zeno (c. 425-91) was Eastern Roman Emperor from 474 to 475 and again from 476 to 491. During his reign, tensions between the Christian community and the Samaritans in Neapolis (Shechem) grew dramatically. The Emperor went to Neapolis, gathered the elders and asked them to convert; when they refused, Zeno had many Samaritans killed, and rebuilt the synagogue into a church. Zeno then took for himself Mount Gerizim, where the Samaritans worshipped God, and built several edifices, among them a tomb for his recently deceased son, on which he put a cross, so that the Samaritans, worshipping God, would prostrate in front of the tomb.

His feelings towards the Jews is illustrated by a remark he made at the races of Antioch in 489. Factions of the upper class “Orthodox” (the Blues) fought the lower class “Monophysites” (the Greens — those who believe that in the person of Jesus Christ there is only one nature (wholly divine or only subordinately human), not two), who were led by the charioteer, Porphyrius (see entry below, 507). The Jews in general supported the ruling class Blues, which resulted in many attacks by the Greens. The synagogue in Daphne, near Antioch, was razed, many Jews were murdered, and their corpses, together with the bones from the Jewish cemetery, were thrown into the fire. When asked about it, Zeno responded:

“Why did they not burn the living Jews along with the dead? And then the affair would be over.”

Reference: 474.1

493–518: King Theodoric (also Theoderic): Edictum Theodorici

The Edictum Theodorici (“The Edict of Theodoric”) is a set of laws by Germanic kings to settle issues between Romans and Germans in their kingdoms. Regarding the Jews it states:

“Since the Jews live according to their own code of laws, therefore they have to have for their litigation their own judges, who happen to be their religious mentors.”

Reference: 493.1 Reference:

repair their places of worship, ownership of which was guaranteed. guaranteed. was which of ownership worship, of places their repair

synagogues or the embellishment of existing ones, the Jews were allowed to to allowed were Jews the ones, existing of embellishment the or synagogues

attention was paid to enforcing the Imperial ban on the construction of new new of construction the on ban Imperial the enforcing to paid was attention

government which was fully aware of the needs of its citizens. So, although although So, citizens. its of needs the of aware fully was which government

for existence, but should consider themselves active elements of a system of of system a of elements active themselves consider should but existence, for

It was Theoderic’s intention that the Jews should not feel forced to struggle struggle to forced feel not should Jews the that intention Theoderic’s was It

to believe against his will.” his against believe to

“We cannot command the religion of our subjects, since no-one can be forced forced be can no-one since subjects, our of religion the command cannot “We

And to the Jews of Genoa: Genoa: of Jews the to And

“he readily consents to the preservation of the ancient rights.” rights.” ancient the of preservation the to consents readily “he

It goes on to confirm their ancient privileges, with the king declaring: king the with privileges, ancient their confirm to on goes It

95 400–499 Century: th 5 . 96 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

6th Century: 500–599

507: Porphyrius the Charioteer

Porphyrius the Charioteer (also known as Calliopas) was a renowned Roman charioteer in the fifth and sixth centuries. In the time of Porphyrius, Roman chariot-racing was at its height. Charioteers were celebrities, and Porphyrius is famous for having seven monuments built in his honor in the Hippodrome.

In 507, when he was about 40 years old and at the height of his career, a chariot race was held between two parties: the Greens (the Monophysites—see entry above, 474-91) of which he had become leader; and the Whites, led by Constantine the charioteer. After some victories by Porphyrius, violence broke out during the celebration of the games in Daphne (near Antioch, Syria) in 507, which had appropriated the name “Olympic Games” and equalled their splendour.

Porphyrius and the Greens plundered and burned the synagogue, and massacred Jews (who supported the Blues, and who had been previously attacked in 489) (see entry for Emperor Zeno above, 474-91). They then set up a cross and turned the site into a martyrium, a building or chamber used by the early Christians as a burial place.

This violence between the Greens and the Blues caused the Byzantine emperor to finally end these games.

Reference: 507.1 98 . The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

517: Council of Epaone, Gaul

Canon 15 prohibited Christians from sharing a meal with Jews, repeating the prohibition enacted at Vannes in 465 (see entry above, 465).

Reference: 517.1

529–34: Emperor Justinian: Code of Justinian, parts 1-3

The Codex Justinianus (Code of Justinian) was the first part of the Corpus Juris Civilis (“Body of Civil Law”), a collection of fundamental works in jurisprudence that was issued from 529 to 534 CE by order of Justinian I, Eastern Roman Emperor, who achieved lasting influence for his judicial reforms via the summation of all Roman law. This code compiled in Latin all of the existing imperial constitutiones (imperial pronouncements having the force of law), back to the time of emperor Hadrian in the second Century. It remains influential to this day. By way of the Napoleonic Code (1804 CE), the Justinian Code reached Canada in the Province of Quebec, and was later introduced by French immigrants to Louisiana in the United States.

Parts 1-3 were issued from 529-34. A fourth part (Novellae) was added after 534 (see entry below):

1. “Codex Justinianus” (529) compiled all of the extant imperial constitutiones from the time of Hadrian. It used both the Codex Theodosianus (438) and private collections such as the Codex Gregorianus (c. 291-4) and Codex Hermogenianus (293-4). 2. “Digesta” (533), or Pandectae (“Encyclopedic Work”), was a compilation of passages from juristic books and law commentaries of the great Roman jurists of the classical period, mostly dating back to the second and third Centuries, along with current edicts. It constituted both the current law of the time, and a turning point in Roman Law: from then on the sometimes contradictory case law of the past was subsumed into an ordered legal system. 3. “Institutiones” (533), or ‘Elements’, was a modified codification of the celebrated Roman jurist Gaius’ legislation. The Institutes were intended as a sort of legal textbook for law schools and included extracts from the two major works.

Reference: 529.1

the subsequent development of the Byzantine Church. Byzantine the of development subsequent the

things made imperial control of the Church legal and thus deeply influenced influenced deeply thus and legal Church the of control imperial made things

Europe. The Code’s underlying claim that the emperor’s will was supreme in all all in supreme was will emperor’s the that claim underlying Code’s The Europe.

influenced the Canon Law of the Western Church and the civil law of Medieval Medieval of law civil the and Church Western the of Law Canon the influenced

All four of these together formed Justinian’s Corpus of Civil Law which deeply deeply which Law Civil of Corpus Justinian’s formed together these of four All

572–77.

lawyer’s edition, by the Byzantine jurist Athanasios of Emesa during the years years the during Emesa of Athanasios jurist Byzantine the by edition, lawyer’s

issued mostly in Greek. They were later reworked into the the into reworked later were They Greek. in mostly issued , a practical practical a , Syntagma

on Parts 1-3 above, 529-34 above, 1-3 Parts on ), and consisted of a number of new constitutions constitutions new of number a of consisted and ),

Justinian’s Novellae was added to the Code of Justinian after 534 ( 534 after Justinian of Code the to added was Novellae Justinian’s see entry entry see

they could testify either for or against heretics. heretics. against or for either testify could they

that they could give evidence only for (not against) Orthodox Christians, while while Christians, Orthodox against) (not for only evidence give could they that

retain heretical and pagan slaves who converted to Orthodox Christianity, and and Christianity, Orthodox to converted who slaves pagan and heretical retain

disabilities imposed by Theodosius, Justinian declared that Jews could not not could Jews that declared Justinian Theodosius, by imposed disabilities

Jew in Byzantine society for the next 700 years. Adding to the restrictions and and restrictions the to Adding years. 700 next the for society Byzantine in Jew

amended that of Theodosius II (408–50) and virtually fixed the status of the the of status the fixed virtually and (408–50) II Theodosius of that amended

on specific subjects) included legislation on the Jews which confirmed or or confirmed which Jews the on legislation included subjects) specific on

and his his and Civilis Juris Corpus famous Justinian’s (imperial instructions instructions (imperial Novellae

534–77: Emperor Justinian: Code of Justinian, part four four part Justinian, of Code Justinian: Emperor 534–77: “Novellae”

Reference: 531.1 Reference:

Christian against someone who is not orthodox.]” not is who someone against Christian

Christian. [But a Jew may offer testimony on behalf of an orthodox orthodox an of behalf on testimony offer may Jew a [But Christian.

engaged in litigation, whether one or the other of the parties is an orthodox orthodox an is parties the of other the or one whether litigation, in engaged

superstition, may offer testimony against orthodox Christians who are are who Christians orthodox against testimony offer may superstition,

we therefore ordain that no heretic, nor even they who cherish the Jewish Jewish the cherish who they even nor heretic, no that ordain therefore we

who are heretics, whether their testimony ought to be received or rejected, rejected, or received be to ought testimony their whether heretics, are who

decision, asking that they be informed what ought to be done with witnesses witnesses with done be to ought what informed be they that asking decision,

“Since many judges, in deciding cases, have addressed us in need of our our of need in us addressed have cases, deciding in judges, many “Since

Christians: Christians:

Justinian I passed a law prohibiting heretics or Jews from testifying against against testifying from Jews or heretics prohibiting law a passed I Justinian

531: Emperor Justinian Emperor 531:

99 500–599 Century: th 6 . 100. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Laws Against Judaism

The principle of Servitus Judaeorum (“Servitude of the Jews”) was established by the new laws, and determined the status of Jews throughout the Empire for hundreds of years. The Jews were disadvantaged in a number of ways. They could not testify against Christians and were disqualified from holding a public office. Jewish civil and religious rights were restricted: “they shall enjoy no honors”. The use of the Hebrew language in worship was forbidden. Shema Yisrael, sometimes considered the most important prayer in Judaism (“Hear, O Israel, YHWH our God, YHWH is one”) was banned, as a denial of the Trinity. A Jew who converted to Christianity was entitled to inherit his or her father’s estate, to the exclusion of the still-Jewish brothers and sisters. The Emperor became an arbiter in internal Jewish affairs. Similar laws applied to the Samaritans. Besides the novellae, Justinian allegedly prohibited the celebration of Passover (in 543) if its date fell before the date of Easter.

NOVELLA 37 (535), forbade Jews and heretics in the newly conquered province of North Africa to practice their religious rites. Synagogues and the meeting places of heretics were to be confiscated and, suitably consecrated, put to ecclesiastical use.

NOVELLA 45 (537), prohibited Jews, Samaritans, and heretics any exemption from service on local municipal bodies (the decurionate), a service which entailed heavy financial burdens. It was stated that “Jews must never enjoy the fruits of office but only suffer its pains and penalties.” If a Jew was found holding a higher office than a Christian, he had to pay a fine.

NOVELLA 131 (545), prohibited sales of ecclesiastical property to Jews, Samaritans, pagans, and heretics, and declared synagogues built on land subsequently shown to be ecclesiastical property was subject to confiscation.

NOVELLA 146 (553), supposedly in response to a Jewish request, forbade the insistence that the readings from the Pentateuch be exclusively in Hebrew from the Scrolls of the Law (Torah). They could be in Greek, Latin, or any other tongue, and the Greek could be either that of the Septuagint or the translation of Aquila, which had rabbinic sanction. Use of the Mishnah (the oral tradition of Jewish law) was forbidden.

Reference: 534.1

Reference: 561.1 Reference:

received baptism returned to Judaism. Judaism. to returned baptism received

from his diocese. After his death in 581 many who had had who many 581 in death his After diocese. his from

Christianity, but those who resisted conversion were expelled expelled were conversion resisted who those but Christianity,

converting Jews by persuasion or by force. Many embraced embraced Many force. by or persuasion by Jews converting

Bishop Ferréol of Uzès convoked a synod for the purpose of of purpose the for synod a convoked Uzès of Ferréol Bishop

561: Jews expelled from diocese in Uzès, France Uzès, in diocese from expelled Jews 561:

Reference: 538.1 Reference:

Christians.” among appear not must Jews onwards, days

“Canon 30: From Maundy Thursday [Thursday before Easter] for four four for Easter] before [Thursday Thursday Maundy From 30: “Canon

Christians must not marry with Jews, nor even eat with them.” with eat even nor Jews, with marry not must Christians

in question is paid down (as a pledge that no harm shall be done him). him). done be shall harm no that pledge a (as down paid is question in

to the church, the bishop is not to give them up unless the value of the slave slave the of value the unless up them give to not is bishop the church, the to

them on account of any act allowed by the Church, and they flee repeatedly repeatedly flee they and Church, the by allowed act any of account on them

to the Christian religion, or if their masters venture to attempt to strike strike to attempt to venture masters their if or religion, Christian the to

“Canon 13: If Christians are slaves to Jews, and shall do anything contrary contrary anything do shall and Jews, to slaves are Christians If 13: “Canon

Jews and are quoted verbatim: verbatim: quoted are and Jews

33 canons were issued at the third Council of Orléans. The following affected affected following The Orléans. of Council third the at issued were canons 33

538: Third Council of Orléans of Council Third 538:

Reference: 535.1 Reference:

administrative positions. positions. administrative

Canon 9: forbade Jewish judges, and prohibited Jews from holding holding from Jews prohibited and judges, Jewish forbade 9: Canon

Canon 6: forbade marriages between Christians and Jews and Christians between marriages forbade 6: Canon

Jews:

become laws of the universal Catholic Church. The following canons affected affected canons following The Church. Catholic universal the of laws become

12th Century as a legal textbook by the jurist known as Gratian), and have have and Gratian), as known jurist the by textbook legal a as Century 12th

of Gratian (a collection of Canon law compiled and written in the the in written and compiled law Canon of collection (a Gratian of Decretum

17 canons were drawn up by the Council, the first 16 are contained in the the in contained are 16 first the Council, the by up drawn were canons 17

535: Council of Clermont of Council 535:

101 500–599 Century: th 6 . 102. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

581 or 583: Second Council of Mâcon, Gaul

The second Council of Mâcon expanded the edicts of the Council of Clermont (535), and decreed the following canons regarding the Jews, with the words “since, by the grace of God, we live under the rule of Catholic kings”: Canon 2. Jewish conversation with nuns prohibited. Canon 13. Jews not to be judges or tax collectors. Canon 14. Jews not to mix with Christians between Maundy Thursday and Easter. Canon 15. Christians not to take part in Jewish festivities. Canon 16. Christian slaves to be redeemed. Canon 17. Attempted conversion of slave to Judaism to be punished.

Reference: 581.1

587: Reccared I, Spain

Reccared I renounces Arianism in favour of Catholicism. Jews were prevented from owning slaves, intermarrying and holding positions of authority. He also decreed that children of mixed marriages were to be raised as Christians.

Reference: 587.1

589: Council of Narbonne, France

Jews were prevented from chanting Psalms while burying their dead. Anyone violating this was fined six ounces of gold. Additionally all Jews married to Christian women had to have their children baptised.

Reference: 589.1

Reference: 591.1 Reference:

again.” born been having from worse the

preaching but by compulsion, he returns to his former superstition, and dies dies and superstition, former his to returns he compulsion, by but preaching

“For, when any one is brought to the font of baptism, not by the sweetness of of sweetness the by not baptism, of font the to brought is one any when “For,

Pope Gregory is against forced baptisms for pragmatic reasons: reasons: pragmatic for baptisms forced against is Gregory Pope

591: Pope Gregory the Great the Gregory Pope 591:

Reference: 590.1 Reference:

to celebrate their events freely. events their celebrate to

the framework of local laws, and that Jews should be allowed allowed be should Jews that and laws, local of framework the

believed that Jews should have freedom of occupation within within occupation of freedom have should Jews that believed

Pope Gregory formed official policy of tolerating Jews, Jews, tolerating of policy official formed Gregory Pope

590–604: Papacy of Pope Gregory the Great the Gregory Pope of Papacy 590–604:

103 500–599 Century: th 6 . 104. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

7th Century: 600–699

7th Century: Jewish expulsions

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of expulsions. Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities.

612-21: Visigoth

624: Hejaz, Saudi Arabia

629: Galilee, Judea; Kingdom of Franks

c. 640: Arabia

642: Visigothic Empire

Reference: 600.1

612–21: During reign of Sisebut, Jews expelled from Visigoth (Spain)

King Sisebut (565-621) was known for his devout piety to Chalcedonian Christianity. Soon after ascending the throne, Sisebut ordered the Jews of his kingdom either to convert to Christianity or leave Spain. Those who refused were to be punished with the lash. Some fled to Gaul and North Africa, while as many as 90,000 converted. Many of these conversos, as did those of later periods, maintained their Jewish identities in secret. In 615 he ordered the forced baptism of Jews. 106. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

He further decreed that Jews who converted Christians to Judaism were to be executed and their property was to go to the royal treasury. In addition, Christian slaves owned by Jews were either to be sold to Christians or set free. Jews were not allowed to own land, to be farmers or enter certain trades. The cruelty of Sisebut against the Jews excited such a horror, that even many among the fanatical clergy disapproved of it.

Reference: 612.1

614: Fifth Council of Paris: Edict of Paris

The Council decided that Jews who were in the military or held public office must convert to Christianity. The Edict of Paris, issued by Chlothar II, followed shortly after. But despite the exclusion of Jews from high office, their right to bring legal actions against Christians was preserved. Similarly, the right of a woman not to be married against her will was affirmed. The Edict remained in force until Chlothar’s successor, Dagobert.

Reference: 614.1

614: Emperor Heraclius: forbids Judaism

Emperor Heraclius forbade the practice of Judaism in the Byzantine Empire, resulting in a wave of forced conversions spreading throughout Europe in the seventh Century. He is said to have summoned his fellow sovereigns to follow his example; and similar steps were taken in Gaul in 626 by King Dagobert; in Italy in 661 by the Lombard sovereign Perctarit; and in Spain from 616 under successive Visigothic rulers. In the Byzantine possessions, including southern Italy, Heraclius’ example was imitated in 873-4 under Basil I. The Jewish revolt against Heraclius was part of the Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-28 and is considered the last serious Jewish attempt for gaining autonomy in Palestine prior to modern times.

Reference: 614.2

Reference: 629.1 Reference:

the Jews, Copts today still observe a yearly fast, called the Fast of Heraclius. Heraclius. of Fast the called fast, yearly a observe still today Copts Jews, the

Judea came to an end. In atonement for the violation of the emperor’s oath to to oath emperor’s the of violation the for atonement In end. an to came Judea

thousands fled to Egypt. Thus, much of the rich Jewish life in the Galilee and and Galilee the in life Jewish rich the of much Thus, Egypt. to fled thousands

synagogues destroyed. Hundreds were killed in the subsequent massacre, and and massacre, subsequent the in killed were Hundreds destroyed. synagogues

week of fasting would atone for any possible sins, ordered all Jews killed and all all and killed Jews all ordered sins, possible any for atone would fasting of week

Heraclius, assured by the Christian clergy that it was God’s will and that a a that and will God’s was it that clergy Christian the by assured Heraclius,

gained control of Judea, the Jews went to him reminding him of his promises. promises. his of him reminding him to went Jews the Judea, of control gained

decided to support Heraclius in return for a promise of amnesty. When he he When amnesty. of promise a for return in Heraclius support to decided

The Jews who had previously fought with the Persians against Byzantine rule rule Byzantine against Persians the with fought previously had who Jews The

expelled, following the Jewish rebellion against Byzantium. Byzantium. against rebellion Jewish the following expelled,

The entire Jewish population of Galilee is massacred or or massacred is Galilee of population Jewish entire The

hundreds deaths: / affected People

629: Jews expelled from Galilee from expelled Jews 629:

Reference: 624.1 Reference:

condition that they leave, leaving all their property in the hands of the Moslems. Moslems. the of hands the in property their all leaving leave, they that condition

Mohammed first wished to have all the men executed but spared them on on them spared but executed men the all have to wished first Mohammed

and besieged in their strongholds, and were forced to surrender after 15 days. days. 15 after surrender to forced were and strongholds, their in besieged and

Muhammed after his failure to win the Jews over to Islam. They were attacked attacked were They Islam. to over Jews the win to failure his after Muhammed

goldsmiths. They were the first to suffer from the hostile attitude adopted by by adopted attitude hostile the from suffer to first the were They goldsmiths.

Possessing no land, they lived from commerce and as as and commerce from lived they land, no Possessing

all of whom previously had a peace treaty with Mohammed. Mohammed. with treaty peace a had previously whom of all

Banu Kainuka was one of the three Jewish tribes in Medina, Medina, in tribes Jewish three the of one was Kainuka Banu

) Muslims

Expulsion by by Expulsion ( Arabia Saudi Hejaz, from expelled Jews 624:

107 600–699 Century: th 7 . 108. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

629: Jews expelled from the Kingdom of the Franks

Frankish King Dagobert I, encouraged by Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, expels all Jews from the kingdom.

Reference: 629.2

633: Fourth Council of Toledo, Spain

The fourth Council passed 75 Canons, of which Canons 57-65 deal with Jews, and to Christians who had apostatised to Judaism.

Canon 57: the work of Isidore of Seville, is a criticism of King Sisebut’s decision in 615 ordering the forced baptism of Jews (see entry above, 612-21), although it compelled those who had been forcibly baptised to remain as Christians.

Canons 59 and 60: required that Jewish children be removed from their families for their salvation and education by Christians.

Canon 65: forbids Jews and Christians of Jewish origin from holding public office.

Reference: 633.1 c. 640: Jews expelled from Arabia (Expulsion by Muslims)

Upon the ascension of Omar as caliph, most

Jews were expelled from Arabia around the year 640.

Reference: 640.1

642: Jews expelled from Visigothic Empire (Spain)

No details available.

Reference: 642.1

“Jewish parents who circumcised their children were to have have to were children their circumcised who parents “Jewish that and kingdom, the

Synod of Toledo. He declared they were a plague on on plague a were they declared He Toledo. of Synod th 12 the of support the with

King Erwig, a king of the Visigoths in Spain, issued 28 laws condemning Jews Jews condemning laws 28 issued Spain, in Visigoths the of king a Erwig, King

681: King Erwig enacts anti-Jewish Laws anti-Jewish enacts Erwig King 681:

Reference: 653.2 Reference:

seizure of one quarter of their property and excommunication. excommunication. and property their of quarter one of seizure

— found to have aided Jews in the practice of Judaism were to be punished by by punished be to were Judaism of practice the in Jews aided have to found —

authorities on the local level: therefore, anyone — including nobles and clergy clergy and nobles including — anyone therefore, level: local the on authorities

was aware that prior efforts had been frustrated by lack of compliance among among compliance of lack by frustrated been had efforts prior that aware was

stoning, any of their brethren known to have relapsed to Judaism. The Council Council The Judaism. to relapsed have to known brethren their of any stoning,

and all converted Jews had to promise to put to death, either by burning or by by or burning by either death, to put to promise to had Jews converted all and

of all Jewish rites (including circumcision and the observation of the Shabbat), Shabbat), the of observation the and circumcision (including rites Jewish all of

of Jews within the realm. Further measures at this time included the forbidding forbidding the included time this at measures Further realm. the within Jews of

Apostles in Toledo. It was attended by 52 bishops, and again tackled the issue issue the tackled again and bishops, 52 by attended was It Toledo. in Apostles

The eighth Council commenced on December 16, 653 in the church of the Holy Holy the of church the in 653 16, December on commenced Council eighth The

653: Eighth Council of Toledo, Spain Toledo, of Council Eighth 653:

Reference: 653.1 Reference:

and other infidels”), the “other infidels” being in fact Judaizing Christians. Christians. Judaizing fact in being infidels” “other the infidels”), other and

Quaestiones adversus Judaeos et caeteros infideles caeteros et Judaeos adversus Quaestiones and “Questions against the Jews Jews the against “Questions (

however, the testimonies are drawn from both the Old and New Testaments), Testaments), New and Old the both from drawn are testimonies the however,

(similar to the model already furnished by Cyprian, mentioned above; here, here, above; mentioned Cyprian, by furnished already model the to (similar

Testament against the Jews”), consisting of a collection of scriptural testimonies testimonies scriptural of collection a of consisting Jews”), the against Testament

(“The faith of the Old and New New and Old the of faith (“The Judaeos contra Testamento Novo et Vetere ex

Church Fathers. He wrote two important antisemitic treatises: treatises: antisemitic important two wrote He Fathers. Church De fide catholica catholica fide De

three decades, and is widely regarded by the Catholic Church as the last of the the of last the as Church Catholic the by regarded widely is and decades, three

556-636) is canonised. He was a scholar, the Archbishop of Seville for over over for Seville of Archbishop the scholar, a was He canonised. is 556-636)

see entry below entry see ( Toledo of Council eighth the at 653 In c. ( Seville of Isidore )

653: Isidore of Seville canonised Seville of Isidore 653:

109 600–699 Century: th 7 . 110. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History their property confiscated and their noses cut off ”. He issued a decree requiring they become Christians, or leave. The Talmud and other Jewish books were burned.

Reference: 681.1

692: Trullo Ecumenical Council

The Quinisext Council was a church council held at Constantinople under Justinian II. It is often known as the Council in Trullo, because like the Sixth Ecumenical Council it was held in a domed hall in the Imperial Palace (troulos meaning a cup or dome). Many of the council’s canons were aimed at settling differences in ritual observance and clerical discipline in different parts of the Christian Church. 102 Canons were issued, of which the following affected the Jews, and is quoted verbatim:

“Canon XI: Let no one in the priestly order nor any layman eat the unleavened bread of the Jews, nor have any familiar intercourse with them, nor summon them in illness, nor receive medicine from them, nor bathe with them; but if anyone shall take in hand to do so, if he is a cleric, let him be deposed, but if a layman, let him be cut off.”

Reference: 692.1

694: 17th Church Council of Toledo, Spain

The Seventeenth Council of Toledo met under King Egica, the Visigoth Catholic King of Hispania (roughly what we think of as the Iberian peninsula) and Septimia (the southeastern corner of France). He had a profound distrust of, and dislike for, the Jews. The king opened the synod by claiming that he had heard news of Jews overthrowing their Christian rulers overseas and that Iberian Jews were conspiring with these cousins to end the Christian religion once and for all. The solution to the problem was enslavement. Of the eight canons issued by the Council, the eighth concerned the Jews. The only Jews who were excepted from these rules, at the king’s request, were those from the territory of Gallia Narbonensis, on the French side of the Pyrenees; this was apparently because of an epidemic in that region, and a desire to isolate it and its residents from the rest of the kingdom:

Reference: 694.1 Reference:

married with Christians.” with married

be separated from them, when they are seven years of age, and subsequently subsequently and age, of years seven are they when them, from separated be

watch that they may no longer practise Jewish usages, and their children must must children their and usages, Jewish practise longer no may they that watch

be made slaves forever. Those to whom the King sends them as slaves must must slaves as them sends King the whom to Those forever. slaves made be

shall be deprived of their property for the benefit of the exchequer, and shall shall and exchequer, the of benefit the for property their of deprived be shall

baptism, which, however, by faithlessness they have again stained. They They stained. again have they faithlessness by however, which, baptism,

punished. They have done this after they had (in appearance) received received appearance) (in had they after this done have They punished.

endeavoured to overthrow the country and the people, they must be severely severely be must they people, the and country the overthrow to endeavoured

“Canon 8: As the Jews have added to their other crimes this that they they that this crimes other their to added have Jews the As 8: “Canon

111 600–699 Century: th 7 . 112. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

8th Century: 700–799

th 8 Century

The authors of this document note the remarkable reduction of Jewish persecution in the eighth Century. What might be the reason? Europe had an existential threat on its doorstep: Islam. It is often said that Europe would be Islamic today were it not for the Battle of Tours in 732 (see entry below).

722: Leo III

Leo III the Isaurian was Byzantine Emperor from 717 until his death in 741. In 722 he forced Jews and Montanists (considered heretical for their belief in prophetic revelations) in the empire to be baptised.

Reference: 722.1

October 10, 732: Battle of Tours, France

This entry is for historical context.

The Battle of Tours (also called the Battle of the Highway of the Martyrs by Arab sources) was fought on October 10, 732 between forces under the Frankish leader Charles Martel and a massive invading Islamic army led by Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd al Rahman, near the city of Tours, France. This battle stopped the northward advance of Islam from the Iberian peninsula, and is 114. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History considered by most historians to be of major historical importance, in that it halted the Islamic conquests, and preserved Christianity as the controlling faith in Europe, during a period in which Islam was overrunning the remains of the old Roman and Persian Empires.

Reference: 732.1 qr .

9th Century: 800–899

807: Harun Al Rashid forced Jews to wear yellow badge; Christians to wear a blue badge

Here, Christians and Jews were persecuted together. While the Muslims seem to have invented the yellow badge for Jews, Christians invented many forms of persecution including the ghetto, which was first used in Venice in 1516.

Reference: 807.1

820-27: Agobard of Lyon

Agobard of Lyon (c. 779-840) was a Spanish-born priest and archbishop of Lyon. He is best known for his critiques of Jewish religious practices and political power in the Frankish realm. Jewish communities in the Frankish realm (today’s France) had been granted considerable freedoms under King Louis I, son of Charlemagne, including a prohibition on Christian proselytizing.

In 820 Agobard attempted to forcibly convert Jewish children in Lyon as well as in Chalon-sur-Saône, Mâcon, and Vienne. He assembled the children who had not been sent into safety by their parents and baptized all those who, to his mind, appeared to show some desire for conversion. King Louis I, also known as Louis the Pious, appointed a magister Judaeorum (“Master of the Jews”) to ensure Jewish legal protection, and did not force Jews to allow baptism for their slaves. For the rest of the decade, Agobard campaigned against what he saw as the dangerous growth in power and influence of Jews in the kingdom that was contrary to canon law. His rhetoric, which included describing Jews as filii diaboli (“sons of the devil”), was indicative of the developing anti-Jewish strain of medieval Christian thought. He was a prolific writer, but six of his pamphlets were about the Jews (see entries below for details on some of them): 116. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Epistola de baptismo Judaicorum (“On the Baptism [of the children] of Jews”, 820)

De Baptismo Judaicorum Mancipiorum (“On the Baptism of Jewish- owned Slaves”, c. 823)

Contra Praeceptum Impium de baptismo judaicorum mancipiorum (“Against an Impious Precept Concerning the Baptism of Jewish- owned Slaves”, c. 826)

De Insolentia Judeorum (“On the Insolence of the Jews”, c. 827)

De Judaicis Superstitionibus (“On the Superstition of the Jews”, c. 827)

De Cavendo Convictu et Societate Judaica (“On Avoiding the Fellowship and Society of the Jews”, c. 827).

Reference: 820.1

c. 823: Agobard of Lyon: De Baptismo Judaicorum Mancipiorum (“On the Baptism of Jewish Slaves”)

“On the Baptism of Jewish Slaves” was directed to three high-ranking members of the imperial court, whose help he sought in protecting prelates’ ability to baptize pagans who were the property of Jews and their intervention in cases where the Jews refuse to sell the individual or charge an excessive price for their freedom. Like his other writings on the Jews, this plea attests to the status of Jews in the Carolingian world (the Frankish dynasty, founded by Charlemagne’s father, Pepin III) at this time and the complex cultural conditions which Agobard believed to foster or compromise Christian conversion:

“The Jews use a law; as given to them by the Emperor, to boast that without the consent of the owner no one can baptise a Jewish slave. That is not believed by us; as Christians, at all, as that is to claim that from the court of the most Christian of Christians came forth a decree which is un-Christian in nature...

The Jews cannot be trusted not to use their influence in the palace to attack our efforts on behalf of Christ. Do not count on their meekness as doing so will bring problems and persecution for ourselves and also those who we have been able to convert to the faith as it will throw an impediment in the way of the spread of Christianity among the Jews...

God Christ and his Christians, we should not be joined to them through the the through them to joined be not should we Christians, his and Christ God

L the speak, to so curse, who men and blasphemers are Jews the that ord

they should not drink their wine or other things like this... since we know know we since this... like things other or wine their drink not should they

sacrificed and butchered by Jews and sell them to other Christians; and that that and Christians; other to them sell and Jews by butchered and sacrificed

servants eat meat on these days; and that no Christian should buy meats meats buy should Christian no that and days; these on meat eat servants

with them, work on Sundays, eat with them during Lent, and their paid paid their and Lent, during them with eat Sundays, on work them, with

to possess them as paid domestics lest Christian women celebrate the Sabbath Sabbath the celebrate women Christian lest domestics paid as them possess to

to them; that they should not allow these Jews to sell Christians to Spain nor nor Spain to Christians sell to Jews these allow not should they that them; to

but that we preached to Christians that they should not sell Christian slaves slaves Christian sell not should they that Christians to preached we that but

We suffered these things from the Jews’ supporters and for no other reason reason other no for and supporters Jews’ the from things these suffered We

by the agents whom they had obtained to take vengeance upon Christians... upon vengeance take to obtained had they whom agents the by

insolence, threatening that we would be afflicted with every sort of injury injury of sort every with afflicted be would we that threatening insolence,

“When the Jews first arrived, they... began to rage with a certain odious odious certain a with rage to began they... arrived, first Jews the “When

from one another in all aspects of life: of aspects all in another one from

problems was an enforced stricter segregation of members of the two faiths faiths two the of members of segregation stricter enforced an was problems

servants to adhere to the rhythms of Jewish life. His solution to many of these these of many to solution His life. Jewish of rhythms the to adhere to servants

slavery, cursing Christians and Christ (i.e. blasphemy), or forcing their domestic domestic their forcing or blasphemy), (i.e. Christ and Christians cursing slavery,

against the Christian community, whether it was in selling Christians into into Christians selling in was it whether community, Christian the against

make known the subtle and not-so-subtle ways in which the Jews were working working were Jews the which in ways not-so-subtle and subtle the known make

to this religious minority. To argue against such a policy, Agobard claims to to claims Agobard policy, a such against argue To minority. religious this to

of protest against a Jewish policy under Louis that was fundamentally favorable favorable fundamentally was that Louis under policy Jewish a against protest of

encouragement of the Jewish population in Lyon. In other words, it is a letter letter a is it words, other In Lyon. in population Jewish the of encouragement

towards the Christian community of Lyon and their un-Christian support and and support un-Christian their and Lyon of community Christian the towards

Master of the Jews, and the royal commissioners, Gerric and Frederick, Frederick, and Gerric commissioners, royal the and Jews, the of Master

as Louis the Pious, where he complains bitterly of the agitations of Eberard, Eberard, of agitations the of bitterly complains he where Pious, the Louis as

was written directly to King Louis I, also known known also I, Louis King to directly written was Jews” the of Insolence “The

De Insolentia Judeorum Insolentia De Lyon: of Agobard 827: c. (“The Insolence of the Jews”) the of Insolence (“The

Reference: 823.1 Reference:

the faith as unbelievers should.” should.” unbelievers as faith the

that sons of Christ are no longer slaves in spirit so that they might come to to come might they that so spirit in slaves longer no are Christ of sons that

shouldn’t be taken as removing their material status as slaves, but rather rather but slaves, as status material their removing as taken be shouldn’t

we do willingly admit is that this only requires them to come to faith. This This faith. to come to them requires only this that is admit willingly do we

other of the faithful should have jurisdiction and not the Emperor. What What Emperor. the not and jurisdiction have should faithful the of other

Jews wish to be baptised, the bishop, if he wishes, to redeem them or any any or them redeem to wishes, he if bishop, the baptised, be to wish Jews

In all events we have established from the sacred canons that if any of the the of any if that canons sacred the from established have we events all In

117 800–899 Century: th 9 . 118. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

sharing of food or drink in accordance with the rule (modus) that was given long ago and commanded by the holy fathers in their words and examples...

Now then, if it should please your most benign kindness to listen, let us say what the Churches of the Gauls and their rectors, kings as well as bishops, should hold to regarding the separation of the two religions, namely that of the Church and that of the Jews, and what they should pass down in writing and leave to posterity to be maintained, and how it is consonant with authority, that is the Acts of the Apostles and takes its origin from the Old Testament. From these it is shown how detestable enemies of the truth should be considered and how they are worse than all unbelievers, as divine Scripture teaches, and what unworthy things they think about God and heavenly matters. We have discussed all of these things with our brethren and have sent [these writings] to be presented to your most expansive excellence.

After the preceding note had been dictated, a certain man from Cordoba arrived, fleeing from Spain. He said that he had been stolen as a little boy by a certain Jew of Lyon 24 years before and sold, and that he had fled this year with another boy from Arles who had been likewise stolen by a Jew six years earlier. When we sought out those known to the man who was from Lyon and found them, some said that others had been stolen by this same Jew, others bought and sold, and that this year another boy was stolen and sold by a Jew. At that moment it was discovered that many Christians are sold by Christians and bought by Jews and that many unspeakable things are perpetrated by them which are too foul to write.”

Reference: 827.1

c. 827: Agobard of Lyon: De Judaicis Superstitionibus (“The Jewish Superstition”)

In this letter, countersigned by the bishops of Vienne and Châlons, are recounted the judgments that the Fathers of the Church have passed upon the Jews, the restrictive measures taken against them by different councils, their false superstitions, and their refusal to believe in the divinity of Jesus. By citing numerous Biblical texts, endeavors are made to demonstrate that the society of Jews should be avoided still more than that of pagans, as Jews are the opponents of Christianity.

Reference: 827.2

they.” than sooner

dwellings; in the Day of Judgment, Sodom and Gomorrah will be pardoned pardoned be will Gomorrah and Sodom Judgment, of Day the in dwellings;

want to accept the apostolic preaching, but should shake off the dust of their their of dust the off shake should but preaching, apostolic the accept to want

“You know that one should not only not make use of those who do not not do who those of use make not only not should one that know “You

the royal commissioners, he adds: adds: he commissioners, royal the

between Jews and Christians, notwithstanding the opposition of Eberard and and Eberard of opposition the notwithstanding Christians, and Jews between

And after having recalled to him all his efforts to prevent every intercourse intercourse every prevent to efforts his all him to recalled having after And

and ‘an evil, wicked, perverse, and adulterous generation’”. adulterous and perverse, wicked, evil, ‘an and

a ‘seedbed of vipers’, and the the and vipers’, of ‘seedbed a Himself frequently called them ‘serpents’ ‘serpents’ them called frequently Himself L ord

But they also do not know that John the Forerunner of the the of Forerunner the John that know not do also they But called them them called L ord

Amoreus’, ‘their mother Cethea’, ‘princes of Sodom’, and ‘people of Gomorrah’. Gomorrah’. of ‘people and Sodom’, of ‘princes Cethea’, mother ‘their Amoreus’,

weighed down with iniquity’, ‘iniquitous and wicked children’, ‘their father father ‘their children’, wicked and ‘iniquitous iniquity’, with down weighed

know that their own prophets usually call them ‘the sinning nation’, a ‘people ‘people a nation’, sinning ‘the them call usually prophets own their that know

and the offspring of the prophets. The wretches who hear such things do not not do things such hear who wretches The prophets. the of offspring the and

mouths that they are the descendants of the patriarchs, the race of the just, just, the of race the patriarchs, the of descendants the are they that mouths

this with hateful treachery and false flattery. For they proclaim with proud proud with proclaim they For flattery. false and treachery hateful with this

to their domination, lust, or deception, since the sons of the devil strive for for strive devil the of sons the since deception, or lust, domination, their to

some are also corrupted, but all such persons are prostituted in the same way way same the in prostituted are persons such all but corrupted, also are some

“Many young women are kept by [the Jews] as slaves, others as paid servants, servants, paid as others slaves, as Jews] [the by kept are women young “Many

He goes on to say: say: to on goes He

repudiated Synagogue.” Synagogue.” repudiated

blemish and without wrinkle, be disgraced by contact with the defiled and and defiled the with contact by disgraced be wrinkle, without and blemish

which ought to present herself for the kisses of her celestial spouse without without spouse celestial her of kisses the for herself present to ought which

associate with the children of darkness, and that the Church of Christ, Christ, of Church the that and darkness, of children the with associate

“It seems to me to be unworthy of our faith that the sons of light should should light of sons the that faith our of unworthy be to me to seems “It

He wrote to him: him: to wrote He

him to break off all intercourse with them. them. with intercourse all off break to him

invited them to his table. Therefore Agobard considered it his duty to induce induce to duty his it considered Agobard Therefore table. his to them invited

Narbonne, did not hesitate to maintain cordial relations with the Jews, and even even and Jews, the with relations cordial maintain to hesitate not did Narbonne,

Not all prelates of that time shared Agobard’s sentiments. Nibridius, bishop of of bishop Nibridius, sentiments. Agobard’s shared time that of prelates all Not

the Fellowship and Society of the Jews”) the of Society and Fellowship the

De Cavendo Convictu et Societate Judaica Societate et Convictu Cavendo De Lyon: of Agobard 827: c. (“On Avoiding Avoiding (“On

119 800–899 Century: th 9 . 120. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

He concludes by requesting Nibridius not to allow any of the faithful to communicate with such accursed ones, and to exhort all the neighboring bishops to concur in that work.

Reference: 827.3

855: Paper expulsion of Jews issued in Italy

Emperor Ludwig II issues edict to expel Jews from Italy, but the order was not carried out.

Reference: 855.1

898: Charles III, France

Charles III, also known as Charles the Simple, king from 898-923, tried to dispossess the Jews of Narbonne of their estates, at first those that had been recently acquired from Christians, and later all others. These measures did not remain in force for long, and a short while later Jews again owned property, including mills which they also worked.

Reference: 898.1 qr .

10th Century: 900–999

932–36: Romanus I Lecapenus: forced baptisms

Romanus I Lecapenus, Byzantine Emperor from 920-44 and co-ruler with Constantine VII, suppresses Judaism in his dominions. He decreed that the Jews in the realm should be forcibly baptized, partly to demonstrate that, although he had come to the throne by usurpation, he was following the traditions set by the emperors Basil I and Leo VI. Romanus was also exhorted to take this step by the patriarch of Jerusalem in 932. A number of Jewish leaders died rather than submit to forced baptisms.

Reference: 932.1

936–39: Papacy of Pope Leo VII

Leo encouraged reform of the German clergy and appointed Frederick, Archbishop of Mainz, as a reformer in Germany. But while he allowed Frederick to expel Jews that refused to be baptized, he did not endorse their forced baptism.

Reference: 936.1 122. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

985: Jews expelled from Sparta, Greece

The entire Jewish population of Sparta is expelled after Nikon the Metanoeite says it will rid the city of a plague.

Reference: 985.1 qr .

11th Century: 1000–1099

11th Century: Jewish expulsions

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of expulsions. Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities.

1012: Mainz, Germany

1013: Córdoba, Spain

1026: Limoges, France

Reference: 1000.1

1010: Forced conversions

By 1010, local Jewish populations were being routinely massacred or expelled in Europe unless they converted, notably in Rome, Orléans, Rouen, Limoges, and throughout the Rhineland.

Reference: 1010.1 124. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1012: Jews expelled from Mainz, Germany

Emperor Henry II of Germany expels Jews from Mainz, the beginning of persecutions against Jews in Germany. After a few months, however, the exiles returned to the city, and most of the converts to Judaism.

Reference: 1012.1

1013: Jews expelled from Córdoba, Spain (Expulsion by Muslims)

Jews are expelled from the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba, then ruled by Suleiman II.

Reference: 1013.1

1020: Pope Benedict VIII

An earthquake and hurricane struck Rome on Good Friday, killing many. This was seen as punishment sent by God, and the Jews were blamed for insulting the host while Christians were paying their adoration to the Cross. Pope Benedict VIII ordered the execution of the guilty Jews.

Reference: 1020.1

1026: Jews expelled from Limoges, France

Jews were expelled from Limoges, with its bishop ordering them to be baptised or leave, after the French chronicler Raoul Glaber blamed the Jews for the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1009. When only a few converted the rest were forced to flee to neighbouring cities.

Reference: 1026.1

which was a commentary on the book of Romans. In it he he it In Romans. of book the on commentary a was which

, , Christianum et Judaeum, Philosophum, inter Dialogus wrote

A well regarded logician and theologian of his era Abelard Abelard era his of theologian and logician regarded well A

1079-1142: Peter Abelard, theologian sympathizes with Jews with sympathizes theologian Abelard, Peter 1079-1142:

Reference: 1078.2 Reference:

Synod forces Jews to pay church taxes. taxes. church pay to Jews forces Synod

1078: Synod of Gerona of Synod 1078:

Reference: 1078.1 Reference:

Christians. Christians.

Pope Gregory VII decrees that Jews could not hold office or be superior to to superior be or office hold not could Jews that decrees VII Gregory Pope

1078: Pope Gregory VII Gregory Pope 1078:

Reference: 1074.1 Reference:

reward for their support in his fight with the Pope. Pope. the with fight his in support their for reward

ports of Frankfort, Boppard, Dortmund, Goslar, etc. as a a as etc. Goslar, Dortmund, Boppard, Frankfort, of ports

Worms” exemption from customs duties in the royal-customs royal-customs the in duties customs from exemption Worms”

Emperor Henry IV grants the “Jews and other citizens of of citizens other and “Jews the grants IV Henry Emperor

1074: Emperor Henry IV Henry Emperor 1074:

Reference: 1050.1 Reference:

Christians were forbidden to live in Jewish homes. homes. Jewish in live to forbidden were Christians

1050: Council of Narbonne, France Narbonne, of Council 1050:

125 1000–1099 Century: th 11 . 126. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History rejected the view that Jews were Christ killers and was sympathetic to Jews. He was excommunicated in 1140, but in the end reinstated into good standing in the Church.

Reference: 1079.1

1081: Pope Gregory VII

Pope Gregory VII, the great reformer and organiser of the Church, wrote in a letter to King Alfonse VI of Castile:

“We exhort your Royal Majesty not to further tolerate that the Jews rule Christians and have power over them. For to allow, that Christians are subordinated to Jews and are delivered to their whims, means to oppress the Church of God, means to revile Christ himself.”

Reference: 1081.1

1084: Bishop Rudiger

Bishop Rudiger goes against the current of the times and tries to assist Jews by offering them a legal status superior to what would be offered them elsewhere in Germany. It read, in part:

“Desiring to make a city out of our village of Speyer, I have admitted the Jews.....I have thought to multiply one thousand times the honor of our city by gathering the Jews within its walls.”

He provided them with their own protected area and their own cemetery. In return they paid 3 1/2 pounds silver to the Church and agreed to defend the city. Local rulers were entitled to offer legal “privileges” although for the most part it was in the hands of the Emperor. Unfortunately the good times for Jews did not last: Twelve years later Speyer became one of the first cities savaged by the Crusades (see entry below for May 3, 1096).

Reference: 1084.1

I term his understanding ‘ox-like’… ‘The ox,’ he says, ‘knows his owner, owner, his ‘knows says, he ox,’ ‘The ‘ox-like’… understanding his term I

“A Jew might complain, perhaps, that I go too far in baiting him when when him baiting in far too go I that perhaps, complain, might Jew “A

In a sermon to the monks of Clairvaux he preached: preached: he Clairvaux of monks the to sermon a In

. “avaricious” and , “bestial”

their rites [with] which they worship God.” worship they which [with] rites their , , “disingenuous” as them regarded He

whether we consider their occupations, their inclinations, their understanding, or even even or understanding, their inclinations, their occupations, their consider we whether

; and said there was nothing in them that was was that them in nothing was there said and ; seed” “evil “not crude and coarse, coarse, and crude “not

and were murderers as he was a murderer from the beginning” the from murderer a was he as murderers were and ; he called them an an them called he ;

“a race who had not God for their father, but were of the devil, devil, the of were but father, their for God not had who race “a them considered

But while he was against killing Jews, he was no friend to them either. He He either. them to friend no was he Jews, killing against was he while But

massacres of the Jews throughout the Rhine valley ( valley Rhine the throughout Jews the of massacres ). ). 1146-47 below, entry see

preaching the crusade. One of the consequences of this was a succession of of succession a was this of consequences the of One crusade. the preaching

see entry below entry see ( 46 ), during which he traveled through France and Germany, Germany, and France through traveled he which during ),

He is distinguished for his activity in forming the Second Crusade in 1145- in Crusade Second the forming in activity his for distinguished is He

The Last of the Fathers”. the of Last The “ him labeled

encyclical on him called Doctor Mellifluus (“Mellifluous Doctor”), in which he he which in Doctor”), (“Mellifluous Mellifluus Doctor called him on encyclical

anniversary of his death in 1953, Pope Pius XII issued an an issued XII Pius Pope 1953, in death his of anniversary th 800 the At . Church”

18, 1174. In 1830 Pope Pius VIII bestowed upon him the title title the him upon bestowed VIII Pius Pope 1830 In 1174. 18, “Doctor of the the of “Doctor

Benedictine monasticism. He was canonized by Pope Alexander III on January January on III Alexander Pope by canonized was He monasticism. Benedictine

Bernard of Clairvaux was a French abbot and a major leader in the reform of of reform the in leader major a and abbot French a was Clairvaux of Bernard

1090–1153: Bernard of Clairvaux of Bernard 1090–1153:

Reference: 1090.1 Reference:

and Frederick II (about 1236). 1236). (about II Frederick and

emperor. These privileges were renewed by the emperors Frederick I (1157), (1157), I Frederick emperors the by renewed were privileges These emperor.

of the Jews, appointed by themselves, and confirmed in his office by the the by office his in confirmed and themselves, by appointed Jews, the of

could exercise any jurisdiction over them, their only authority being the Bishop Bishop the being authority only their them, over jurisdiction any exercise could

under his immediate protection, so that neither royal nor episcopal functionaries functionaries episcopal nor royal neither that so protection, immediate his under

designated the Jews as “subjects of his treasury,” placing them them placing treasury,” his of “subjects as Jews the designated

confirmed their right to live anywhere in the city; and and city; the in anywhere live to right their confirmed

the privileges of free commerce and exemption from taxation; taxation; from exemption and commerce free of privileges the

Henry IV grants the Jewish community in Worms, Germany, Germany, Worms, in community Jewish the grants IV Henry

1090: Emperor Henry IV Henry Emperor 1090:

127 1000–1099 Century: th 11 . 128. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

and the ass his master’s crib; Israel has not known Me, My people had no understanding.’ You see, O Jew, I am milder than your own prophet: I put you on a par with the beasts, he puts you beneath them!”

In a letter to England to summon the Second Crusade, 1146, he wrote:

“The Jews are not to be persecuted, killed or even put to flight. Ask anyone who knows the Sacred Scriptures what he finds foretold of the Jews in the psalm. ‘Not for their destruction do I pray,’ it says. The Jews are for us the living words of Scripture, for they remind us always of what our Lord suffered. They are dispersed all over the world so that by expiating their crime they may be everywhere the living witnesses of our redemption. Hence the same psalm adds, ‘only let thy power disperse them.’ And so it is: dispersed they are. Under Christian princes they endure a hard captivity, but ‘they only wait for the time of their deliverance.’”

In a letter to Suger, Abbot of S. Denis, he wrote:

“The Saviour once reproached certain persons because they made the house of prayer a den of thieves (S. Matt. xxi. 13). He will doubtless then have in commendation the man who has accomplished the task of freeing His holy place from the dogs, of rescuing His pearl from the swine; by whose ardour and zeal the workshop of Vulcan is restored to holy studies, or rather the house of God is restored to Him from being a synagogue of Satan to be that which it was before.”

In a letter to German Emperor Lothair regarding Antipope Anacletus II (a Jew who converted to Christianity), he wrote:

“It is a disgrace for Christ that a Jew sits on the throne of St. Peter’s.”

He also approved of the papal policy which declared that all usury on debts due by Crusaders should lapse during their absence in the Holy Land.

Reference: 1090.2

Reference: 1095.1 Reference:

in 1881. 1881. in

call to march on Jerusalem. He was beatified by the Roman Catholic Church Church Catholic Roman the by beatified was He Jerusalem. on march to call

officially began in August 1096. Between 60,000 and 100,000 responded to his his to responded 100,000 and 60,000 Between 1096. August in began officially

the overwhelming response that became known as the First Crusade which which Crusade First the as known became that response overwhelming the

Christ. A combination of religious, economic and social motives resulted in in resulted motives social and economic religious, of combination A Christ.

promised absolution and remission of sins for all who died in the service of of service the in died who all for sins of remission and absolution promised

Moslems, alleging that Moslems destroyed Christian holy places. In return, he he return, In places. holy Christian destroyed Moslems that alleging Moslems,

“Deus vult!” “Deus of cry a , or “God wills it!”, to retake the Holy Land from the the from Land Holy the retake to it!”, wills “God or ,

At the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II summoned Christians with with Christians summoned II Urban Pope Clermont, of Council the At

1095: Pope Urban II Urban Pope 1095:

Reference: 1092.2 Reference:

brute beast, in the sight of all men.” men.” all of sight the in beast, brute

the world, in the sight of all the people. I bring thee forward, thou Jew, thou thou Jew, thou forward, thee bring I people. the all of sight the in world, the

monstrous animal, and show it as a laughing stock in the amphitheater of of amphitheater the in stock laughing a as it show and animal, monstrous

I doubt whether a Jew can be really human… I lead out from its den a a den its from out lead I human… really be can Jew a whether doubt I

Son of God. How long, poor wretches, will ye not believe the truth? Truly Truly truth? the believe not ye will wretches, poor long, How God. of Son

“Yes, you Jews. I say, do I address you; you, who till this very day, deny the the deny day, very this till who you, you; address I do say, I Jews. you “Yes,

, writes: writes: , charity”

“the most peace-loving man of his time. A man of boundless boundless of man A time. his of man peace-loving most “the considered and , charity”

“the meekest of men and a model of Christian Christian of model a and men of meekest “the as known Venerable, the Peter

1092–1156: Peter the Venerable the Peter 1092–1156:

Reference: 1092.1 Reference:

punished by having their tools confiscated. confiscated. tools their having by punished

festivals, and purchasing slaves. Those who did work on Sundays were to be be to were Sundays on work did who Those slaves. purchasing and festivals,

The Church prohibited Jews marrying Christians, working on Christian Christian on working Christians, marrying Jews prohibited Church The

1092: Council of Szabolcs, Hungary Szabolcs, of Council 1092:

129 1000–1099 Century: th 11 . 130. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1096–1291: The Crusades

People affected / deaths: thousands

The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims, started primarily to secure control of holy sites considered sacred by both groups. In all, eight major Crusade expeditions occurred, and ended with the fall of Acre in 1291. The call for the First Crusade touched off new persecutions of the Jews that would continue on and off for centuries, and in contrast to previous anti-Jewish outbreaks, in which the primary aim was plunder, the Crusades introduced a new element to Christian anti-Jewish assaults: the ideology of total annihilation.

Reference: 1096.1

1096: 9th of Av: Pope Urban II declares the start of the First Crusade

People affected / deaths: 10,000

10,000 Jews were killed in the first month of the Crusade, and Jewish communities were destroyed in France and the Rhineland.

Reference: 1096.2

1096–99: First Crusade

The first crusaders were undisciplined French and German peasants, known as the People’s Crusade. They reached Constantinople before being annihilated by the Turks. The main crusading force, known as the Princes’ Crusade, crossed over into Asia Minor in 1097, finally reaching the Holy Land in 1099. Jerusalem was taken by the Crusaders following a siege that lasted a few weeks. Tens of thousands of Jews and Muslims (who had joined forces and were fighting against the Christians) were massacred. Jews who had taken refuge in the synagogue died when it was burnt down. The Jewish community of Jerusalem

Reference: 1096.4 Reference:

the first Crusade. Crusade. first the

The Jewish Encyclopedia shows 14 sites with dates of anti-Jewish outbreaks in in outbreaks anti-Jewish of dates with sites 14 shows Encyclopedia Jewish The

of their Catholic mission. Catholic their of

usury. The Crusaders therefore rationalized the killing of Jews as an extension extension an as Jews of killing the rationalized therefore Crusaders The usury.

so found themselves indebted to Jewish moneylenders, as Catholicism forbade forbade Catholicism as moneylenders, Jewish to indebted themselves found so

to finance weaponry and equipment for the expedition to free the Holy Land, Land, Holy the free to expedition the for equipment and weaponry finance to

Jews were held responsible for the crucifixion, and the Crusaders needed money money needed Crusaders the and crucifixion, the for responsible held were Jews

The preaching of the First Crusade inspired an outbreak of anti-Jewish violence. violence. anti-Jewish of outbreak an inspired Crusade First the of preaching The

Valley alone, 12,000 Jews were killed. were Jews 12,000 alone, Valley

of Jews were challenged: challenged: were Jews of In the Rhine Rhine the In die!” or Cross the embrace “Christ-killers,

soldiers passed through Europe on the way to the Holy Land, large numbers numbers large Land, Holy the to way the on Europe through passed soldiers

prior to the First Crusade, there were approximately 20,000 Jews. As the the As Jews. 20,000 approximately were there Crusade, First the to prior

mostly during the months of April-June. It was estimated that in Germany, Germany, in that estimated was It April-June. of months the during mostly

quarter of the Jewish population of Germany and northern France were killed killed were France northern and Germany of population Jewish the of quarter

see entry below, May 27, 1096 27, May below, entry see ( Emicho Count and Hermit the Peter ). Over one one Over ).

Jewish communities). Prominent leaders involved in the massacres included included massacres the in involved leaders Prominent communities). Jewish

People’s Crusade (peasant crusaders from France and Germany who attacked attacked who Germany and France from crusaders (peasant Crusade People’s

of mass murders of Jews perpetrated by mobs of German Christians of the the of Christians German of mobs by perpetrated Jews of murders mass of

The Rhineland massacres, also known as the Persecutions of 1096, were a series series a were 1096, of Persecutions the as known also massacres, Rhineland The

thousands deaths: / affected People

1096: The Rhineland Massacres Rhineland The 1096:

Reference: 1096.3 Reference:

boundaries.”

great emotional stress degenerated into mass psychosis transcending national national transcending psychosis mass into degenerated stress emotional great

persecutions exercised a dangerously contagious appeal, which in periods of of periods in which appeal, contagious dangerously a exercised persecutions

position in the western world… from the First Crusade on, anti-Jewish anti-Jewish on, Crusade First the from world… western the in position

to the Jewish people, its foes and friends, the utter instability of the Jewish Jewish the of instability utter the friends, and foes its people, Jewish the to

communities from France to Palestine… for the first time brought home home brought time first the for Palestine… to France from communities

“The trail of blood and smoldering ruins left behind in the Jewish Jewish the in behind left ruins smoldering and blood of trail “The

historian Salo Baron: Salo historian

came to an end and was not reconstituted for many years. In the words of the the of words the In years. many for reconstituted not was and end an to came

131 1000–1099 Century: th 11 . 132. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1096: Rouen, France

In 1066 numerous Jews of Rouen had emigrated to England, having been induced to settle there by William the Conqueror, who, while still in Normandy, had always protected them. His son, William Rufus, allowed Jews to return to their faith after a complaint from the Jews that some of them had been forced to embrace Christianity.

But in 1096, the Rouen community was totally destroyed by the Crusaders.

Reference: 1096.5

April 10, 1096: Trier, Germany

After the burghers of the city rose against the Jews and desecrated their Torah scrolls, the Jews sought refuge from Archbishop Egelbert, who did his best to protect them. A number of Jews were murdered and others committed suicide; the archbishop and his retinue were themselves attacked for shielding the Jews. Under increasing pressure from a mob outside the palace, the archbishop prevailed upon the remaining Jews to convert to Christianity. One year later, however, with the return of Emperor Henry IV to Germany, all of them were permitted to return to Judaism.

Reference: 1096.6

May 3, 1096: Speyer, Germany

People affected / deaths: 11

The crusaders surrounded the synagogue of Speyer. Unable to break into it, they attacked any Jews they could find outside the synagogue, killing 11 of them. One of the victims, a woman, preferring death to conversion, the only choice left open by the crusaders, inaugurated the tradition of freely accepted martyrdom. Kiddush ha-Shem, martyrdom for the glory of God, thus became the exemplary answer of Jews threatened in their life and faith by the crusaders. Of the Jews

open.” ripped he women pregnant their

like dust to be trampled. Their young men he put to the sword, and and sword, the to put he men young Their trampled. be to dust like L the ord

young women, on infants or sucklings, nor on the ill. He made the people of of people the made He ill. the on nor sucklings, or infants on women, young

“was our chief persecutor. He had no mercy on the elderly, on young men and and men young on elderly, the on mercy no had He persecutor. chief our “was

soon thereafter by an anonymous Jewish source, Emicho: Emicho: source, Jewish anonymous an by thereafter soon

According to the Mainz Anonymous, an account of the first Crusade written written Crusade first the of account an Anonymous, Mainz the to According

forcibly converted by the Crusaders. the by converted forcibly

to convert to Christianity. Many Jews chose suicide rather than be killed or or killed be than rather suicide chose Jews Many Christianity. to convert to

survivors who either managed to escape the massacre or agreed under duress duress under agreed or massacre the escape to managed either who survivors

to protect them. Approximately 1,100 Jews were killed, leaving only a few few a only leaving killed, were Jews 1,100 Approximately them. protect to

within Mainz and the Jews were attacked despite the archbishop’s best attempts attempts best archbishop’s the despite attacked were Jews the and Mainz within

them. Ultimately, however, the city gates were opened by sympathetic burghers burghers sympathetic by opened were gates city the however, Ultimately, them.

Ruthard to protect them, who closed the city’s gates and attempted to hide hide to attempted and gates city’s the closed who them, protect to Ruthard

largest European Jewish communities at the time. They appealed to Archbishop Archbishop to appealed They time. the at communities Jewish European largest

Count Emicho led the forces that massacred the Jews of Mainz, one of the the of one Mainz, of Jews the massacred that forces the led Emicho Count

1,100 c. : deaths / affected People

May 27, 1096: Count Emicho: Mainz, Germany Mainz, Emicho: Count 1096: 27, May

Reference: 1096.8 Reference:

those within it were put to death. The total slain was about 800. 800. about was slain total The death. to put were it within those

of the mob. The bishop’s palace was stormed a week later on May 25, and all all and 25, May on later week a stormed was palace bishop’s The mob. the of

even the corpses denuded. Many slew themselves rather than fall into the hands hands the into fall than rather themselves slew Many denuded. corpses the even

baptized or who took refuge with the bishop. Their houses were destroyed, and and destroyed, were houses Their bishop. the with refuge took who or baptized

On May 18 the Jews of Worms were all slain except a few who were forcibly forcibly were who few a except slain all were Worms of Jews the 18 May On

800 c. deaths: / affected People

May 18 & 25, 1096: Worms, Germany Worms, 1096: 25, & 18 May

Reference: 1096.7 Reference:

Bishop John (bishop between 1090-1104) in the cathedral. cathedral. the in 1090-1104) between (bishop John Bishop

who escaped some sought refuge in the king’s palace; others were protected by by protected were others palace; king’s the in refuge sought some escaped who

133 1000–1099 Century: th 11 . 134. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

A Crusader’s supposed remark to a Jew was recorded by the chronicler Bar- Simson:

“You are the children of those who killed the object of our veneration, hanging him on a tree. And he himself had said, ‘there will yet come a day when my children will come and avenge my blood.’ We are his children and it is, therefore, our duty to avenge him against you who disbelieve in him.”

Reference: 1096.9

May 30 – June 3, 1096: Cologne, Germany People affected / deaths: hundreds

Though the archbishop and Christian citizens tried to protect the Jews of the diocese, many were massacred; the Jewish quarter and synagogue were sacked and burned down.

On June 3, Archbishop Hermann sent them for safety to seven neighboring villages: Neuss, Wevelinghofen, Altenahr, Xanten, Geldern, Mörs, and Kerpen. The Crusaders followed them, killing 200 in Neuss and Altenahr. Many chose suicide: in Altenahr, the 300 Jews from Cologne selected five men to slay the rest.

Reference: 1096.10

June 27, 1096: Xanten, Germany

People affected / deaths: c. 60

The Crusaders reached Xanten, and some 60 Jews were either killed or committed suicide, the second massacre there in a month.

Reference: 1096.11

Reference: 1099.1 Reference:

synagogue singing, singing, synagogue . . thee” adore we “Christ,

all the Jews into the synagogue and set them afire while he marched around the the around marched he while afire them set and synagogue the into Jews the all

unable to confirm or find an original source for source original an find or confirm to unable , is that he entered Jerusalem, drove drove Jerusalem, entered he that is ,

Widely quoted and attributed to Godfrey de Bouillon, Bouillon, de Godfrey to attributed and quoted Widely but which we have been been have we which but

assuaging his own burning wrath.” burning own his assuaging

completely eradicating any trace of those bearing the name ‘Jew,’ thus thus ‘Jew,’ name the bearing those of trace any eradicating completely

avenging the blood of the crucified one by shedding Jewish blood and and blood Jewish shedding by one crucified the of blood the avenging

journeying to the profane shrine, vowing to go on this journey only after after only journey this on go to vowing shrine, profane the to journeying

arose in the hardness of his spirit, driven by a wantoness to go with those those with go to wantoness a by driven spirit, his of hardness the in arose

“It was at this time that Duke Godfrey, may his bones be ground to dust, dust, to ground be bones his may Godfrey, Duke that time this at was “It

which seems to have been written more than 50 years after the events, says: events, the after years 50 than more written been have to seems which

A Hebrew text known to modern scholars as the Solomon bar Simson Chronicle, Chronicle, Simson bar Solomon the as scholars modern to known text Hebrew A

overall Jewish community in the Holy Land was greatly diminished. greatly was Land Holy the in community Jewish overall

Jerusalem came to an end and was not reconstituted for many years, and the the and years, many for reconstituted not was and end an to came Jerusalem

(“advocate” or “defender of the Holy Sepulchre”). The Jewish community of of community Jewish The Sepulchre”). Holy the of “defender or (“advocate”

. He was instead made Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri Sepulchri Sancti Advocatus made instead was He . Thorns” of Crown the with place

“through respect for Him who had been crowned in that that in crowned been had who Him for respect “through crowned be to refused he

Godfrey agreed to become ruler, but according to the chronicles of those times, times, those of chronicles the to according but ruler, become to agreed Godfrey

destroyed, and thousands were killed. Some survivors were sold as slaves in Italy. Italy. in slaves as sold were survivors Some killed. were thousands and destroyed,

The final assault on Jerusalem was successful, the city was sacked, the synagogue synagogue the sacked, was city the successful, was Jerusalem on assault final The

The first Crusade ends with the Siege of Jerusalem, led by Godfrey de Bouillon. Bouillon. de Godfrey by led Jerusalem, of Siege the with ends Crusade first The

thousands deaths: / affected People

1099: Siege of Jerusalem: Godfrey de Bouillon de Godfrey Jerusalem: of Siege 1099:

135 1000–1099 Century: th 11 . 136. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

12th Century: 1100–1199

12th Century: Jewish expulsions

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of expulsions. Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities.

1107: Morocco 1121: Flanders 1171: Bologna, Italy 1182: France

Reference: 1100.1

12th Century: Blood libel accusations

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of blood libel accusations. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below for details:

1144: Norwich (St. William)* 1168: Gloucester (Harold) 1171: Blois (31 burned; 17 Jewesses, singing ‘Alenu) 1181: Bury St. Edmunds (St. Robert) 1192: Winchester (boy) 1199(?): Erfurt (3 Jews hanged, 3 burned [2 women])

Reference: 1100.2 138. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1100: Haifa Massacre

A year after the Crusaders captured Jerusalem, they turned to conquer Israel’s coastal cities, including Haifa. Albert of Aachen, historian of the First Crusade and author of Historia Hierosolymitanae expeditionis (“History of the Expedition to Jerusalem”), writes how Tancred, the Norman leader of the Crusades, together with Venetian forces, surrounded Haifa from sea and land and put the town under siege. Jewish residents joined with the Fatimids of Egypt in defending the city. After a month-long battle, the Jews of Haifa lost the battle and the city was conquered by the Crusaders. The Jewish and Muslim defenders tried to flee, but nearly all were caught and killed. Once the city fell, the remaining Jews were massacred by the crusading forces.

Reference: 1100.3

1107: Jews expelled from Morocco (Expulsion by Muslims)

Yoseph ibn Tashifin, the Almoravide ruler, ordered all Jews to convert or leave Morocco. He based this on limiting Mohammed’s “tolerance” of the Jews to 500 years after the Hejira.

Reference: 1107.1

1113: Kiev Revolt

Rebellion sparked by the death of the Grand Prince of Kiev, in which Jews connected to the prince’s economic affairs were among the victims.

Reference: 1113.1

Reference: 1143.1 Reference:

end were wiped out too. too. out wiped were end

150 Jews were murdered. In Carenton the Jews defended themselves, but in the the in but themselves, defended Jews the Carenton In murdered. were Jews 150

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 150

1143: Ham, France Ham, 1143:

Reference: 1130.1 Reference:

discharge the Crown’s debt to the Jewish financiers. financiers. Jewish the to debt Crown’s the discharge

pay the then enormous fine of £2,000, which was “coincidentally” sufficient to to sufficient “coincidentally” was which £2,000, of fine enormous then the pay

of killing a sick man — possibly some sort of blood libel — and were forced to to forced were and — libel blood of sort some possibly — man sick a killing of

Jews in London, headed by Rabbi Joseph (known as Rubi Gotsce), were accused accused were Gotsce), Rubi as (known Joseph Rabbi by headed London, in Jews

1130: London 1130:

Reference: 1121.1 Reference:

killing Jesus Christ. Christ. Jesus killing

return nor to be tolerated until they repented of the guilt of of guilt the of repented they until tolerated be to nor return

Flanders is present day Belgium. Jews were told neither to to neither told were Jews Belgium. day present is Flanders

1121: Jews expelled from Flanders from expelled Jews 1121:

Reference: 1120.1 Reference:

from the hands of the participants in the First Crusade. Crusade. First the in participants the of hands the from

Jews”) which provided protection for the Jews who suffered suffered who Jews the for protection provided which Jews”)

Sicut Jueaeis Jueaeis Sicut bull papal issued II Callixtus Pope (“Thus to the the to (“Thus

1120: Pope Callixtus II Callixtus Pope 1120: c.

139 1100–1199 Century: th 12 . 140. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1144: First Ritual Murder Libel: St. William in Norwich, England

The first medieval ritual murder libel — which set the pattern for subsequent accusations in England and France — arose against the background of the Civil War in England and Normandy between 1135-53.

A 12-year-old boy, William, was found dead on Easter Eve and the Jews were accused of killing him in a mock crucifixion. They were not, however, accused of using his blood for the making of matzos (matzot), although this would become a standard feature of later libels. (The idea behind the blood libel was to accuse Jews of killing Christians in order to obtain their blood. In almost all cases it was linked to the baking of matzos for Passover — Christians alleged that blood was an essential ingredient in matzos.) It was later presumed by scholars that the boy either died during a cataleptic fit or was killed by a sexual pervert. After Easter a synod convened and summoned the Jews to the Church court. The Jews refused on the grounds that only the king had jurisdiction over them and they feared that they would be subjected to “trial by ordeal”. William was regarded as a martyred saint and a shrine was erected in his memory. In spite of this episode there was no immediate violence against the Jews.

The origins of the ritual murder accusation go as far back as Apion (1st Century CE) an anti-Jewish Greek propagandist who accused the Jews of preparing a human sacrifice in the Temple, who was saved by King Antiochus Epiphanes. Over the years ritual murder libels continued, (even if in popular literature such as Geoffrey Chaucer’s “Prioress’ Tale” — see entry below, 1387) despite denunciations by various Popes. Possession of a saint’s shrine bestowed great economic benefits on a town because sacred relics drew pilgrims, who spent money on offerings, board and lodging. For bones to be considered sacred relics they had to be killed by a heretic (i.e. a Jew). Such charges were used as an excuse to murder Jews as late as 1900 (see entry below for the Konitz Affair, 1900).

Reference: 1144.1

December 1, 1145: Pope Eugene III

Pope Eugene III issued papal bull Quantum praedecessores (“As their predecessors”) calling for a Second Crusade. It was the first papal bull issued with a crusade as its subject, and was issued in response to the fall of Edessa, in December 1144. The bull was addressed directly to Louis VII of France and his subjects, and promised the remission of sins for all those who took the Cross, as well as ecclesiastical protection for their families and possessions, just

and shall accomplish it, or shall die during it, shall obtain absolution for all all for absolution obtain shall it, during die shall or it, accomplish shall and

and absolution of sins, that he who shall devoutly begin so sacred a journey journey a sacred so begin devoutly shall who he that sins, of absolution and

Peter the chief of the apostles, conceded to us by God, we grant such remission remission such grant we God, by us to conceded apostles, the of chief the Peter

aforesaid predecessor, by the authority of almighty God and by that of St. St. of that by and God almighty of authority the by predecessor, aforesaid

persons, or to any other of the faithful. According to the institution of our our of institution the to According faithful. the of other any to or persons,

any reclamation, their lands or other possessions to churches, or ecclesiastical ecclesiastical or churches, to possessions other or lands their reclamation, any

unwilling or unable to advance them the money, to freely pledge without without pledge freely to money, the them advance to unable or unwilling

relations, being warned, or the lords to whose fee they belong, are either either are belong, they fee whose to lords the or warned, being relations,

absolve them by apostolic authority. It is allowed to them also when their their when also them to allowed is It authority. apostolic by them absolve

others for them are bound by an oath or pledge in the matter of interest, we we interest, of matter the in pledge or oath an by bound are them for others

with a pure heart, shall not pay interest for the time past, and if they or not not or they if and past, time the for interest pay not shall heart, pure a with

the infidels. But those who are oppressed by debt and begin so holy a journey journey a holy so begin and debt by oppressed are who those But infidels. the

in the matter of arms, horses and other things with which they may fight fight may they which with things other and horses arms, of matter the in

after these things, but shall show zeal and diligence with all their strength strength their all with diligence and zeal show shall but things, these after

that those who have decided to undertake so holy a work shall not strive strive not shall work a holy so undertake to decided have who those that

things which portend licentiousness: we exhort your prudence in the the in prudence your exhort we licentiousness: portend which things L ord

with provision for their personal appearance, nor with dogs or hawks, other other hawks, or dogs with nor appearance, personal their for provision with

should by no means prepare themselves with precious garments, nor nor garments, precious with themselves prepare means no by should L ord

concerning their return or their death. Moreover since those who war for the the for war who those since Moreover death. their or return their concerning

any suit be brought hereafter until most certain news has been obtained obtained been has news certain most until hereafter brought be suit any

the case of any thing, which they possessed in peace, when they took the cross, cross, the took they when peace, in possessed they which thing, any of case the

the church of God. By the apostolic authority, moreover, we forbid that, in in that, forbid we moreover, authority, apostolic the By God. of church the

protection of our selves and of the archbishops, bishops and other prelates of of prelates other and bishops archbishops, the of and selves our of protection

wives and sons, their goods also and possessions shall remain under the the under remain shall possessions and also goods their sons, and wives

our aforesaid predecessor pope Urban did institute; and do decree that their their that decree do and institute; did Urban pope predecessor aforesaid our

so holy and so necessary a work and labour, that remission of sins which which sins of remission that labour, and work a necessary so and holy so

by the promptings of devotion do decide to undertake and to carry through through carry to and undertake to decide do devotion of promptings the by

do grant and confirm by the authority conceded to us of God, to those who who those to God, of us to conceded authority the by confirm and grant do

solicitude for your tranquillity and for the destitution of that same church, church, same that of destitution the for and tranquillity your for solicitude

may remain intact and unshaken... We, moreover, providing with paternal paternal with providing moreover, We, unshaken... and intact remain may

time, and that your valour which is praised throughout the whole world, world, whole the throughout praised is which valour your that and time,

hands, — that the dignity of the Christian name may be increased in your your in increased be may name Christian the of dignity the that — hands,

said, — and to snatch many thousands of your captive brothers from their their from brothers captive your of thousands many snatch to and — said,

tyranny by so great an outpouring of the blood of your fathers, as we have have we as fathers, your of blood the of outpouring an great so by tyranny

gained over us, and so to defend the oriental church — freed from their their from freed — church oriental the defend to so and us, over gained

so to oppose the multitude of the infidels, who rejoice at the time in a victory victory a in time the at rejoice who infidels, the of multitude the oppose to so

greater men and the nobles do manfully gird themselves; and that you strive strive you that and themselves; gird manfully do nobles the and men greater

remission of sins enjoin: that those who are of God, and, above all, the the all, above and, God, of are who those that enjoin: sins of remission

“We exhort therefore all of you in God, we ask and command, and, for the the for and, command, and ask we God, in you of all therefore exhort “We

Crusade, or died along the way, were offered full absolution, which reads in part: in reads which absolution, full offered were way, the along died or Crusade,

as Pope Urban II had done before the First Crusade. Those who completed the the completed who Those Crusade. First the before done had II Urban Pope as

141 1100–1199 Century: th 12 . 142. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

his sins which with a humble and contrite heart he shall confess, and shall receive the fruit of eternal retribution from the Remunerator of all.”

Reference: 1145.1

1145–49: Second Crusade

The Second Crusade was summoned by the Pope to defeat the Muslims who were still threatening to retake the Holy Lands. The fall of the County of Edessa the previous year marked the need for more military reinforcements so the Pope, along with many of the Christian rulers, deemed a crusade necessary. Within months, large armies from England, France, Germany and other smaller nations marched to Constantinople. These armies were led by kings for the first time, namely Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany. Upon reaching Anatolia, both kings were soundly defeated separately giving the Turks a victory they badly needed. The Second Crusade was a failure, despite some success in the Mediterranean, namely the acquisition of Lisbon and other small settlements. After their defeat, Jerusalem was weakly protected, but this only resulted in the call for the Third Crusade. The Second Crusade gave rise to the great Muslim leader Saladin, who united Muslim armies, conquered Egypt, and recaptured Jerusalem in 1149.

Reference: 1145.2

1146: Radulphe

Radulphe was a French monk who, without permission from his superiors, left his monastery in France and travelled to the Rhine Valley during the Second Crusade (1147–49) where he preached “that the Jews should be slain as the enemies of the Christian religion”. Arnold I, Archbishop of Cologne from 1137 to 1151, tried to protect them. He made available to them the castle of Wolkenburg, near Königswinter, and permitted the Jews to arm themselves. He also wrote to Bernard of Clairvaux, the influential head of the Cistercians, appealing for his help. Bernard replied with a strong denunciation of Radulphe, and demanded an end to violence against the Jews. When Radulphe continued his campaign Bernard came in person to Germany, “protested energetically against the unchristian behavior of Radulph”, and forced the monk to return to his monastery.

Reference: 1146.1

Reference: 1147.1 Reference:

. . ha-Yashar Sefer

Two years later he completed his famous treatise on Jewish ritual and ethics, ethics, and ritual Jewish on treatise famous his completed he later years Two

escaped. His house was ransacked, and a Torah scroll destroyed. destroyed. scroll Torah a and ransacked, was house His escaped.

place him in their power again on the following day. The next day however, he he however, day next The day. following the on again power their in him place

into his keeping, promising that he would either persuade him to be baptized or or baptized be to him persuade either would he that promising keeping, his into

five marks in return. The prince thereupon bade the crusaders give the rabbi rabbi the give crusaders the bade thereupon prince The return. in marks five

pass, and Jacob called upon him for protection, promising him a horse worth worth horse a him promising protection, for him upon called Jacob and pass,

the five wounds of Jesus). At that moment a prince of high rank happened to to happened rank high of prince a moment that At Jesus). of wounds five the

of the age, was one of the mob’s victims. He was stabbed five times (to match match (to times five stabbed was He victims. mob’s the of one was age, the of

day of Shavuot (Pentecost). Rabbenu Tam, one of the greatest Talmud scholars scholars Talmud greatest the of one Tam, Rabbenu (Pentecost). Shavuot of day

Inspired by stories of Peter the Hermit, a mob attacked the Jews on the second second the on Jews the attacked mob a Hermit, the Peter of stories by Inspired

1147: Attack in Rameru, France Rameru, in Attack 1147:

Reference: 1146.2 Reference:

was far less extensive in the Second Crusade. Crusade. Second the in extensive less far was

Although many Jews were killed, compared to the First Crusade, the loss of life life of loss the Crusade, First the to compared killed, were Jews many Although

of Jesus, when they will supposedly serve as witnesses to their own crimes. crimes. own their to witnesses as serve supposedly will they when Jesus, of

the Church’s traditional view that the Jews must be preserved until the return return the until preserved be must Jews the that view traditional Church’s the

preacher, (assigned that role by the Pope), tried to stop the killings by citing citing by killings the stop to tried Pope), the by role that (assigned preacher,

or an armed enemy who could fight back. St. Bernard, the Crusade’s official official Crusade’s the Bernard, St. back. fight could who enemy armed an or

an “infidel” without having to face the expense and danger of a long journey, journey, long a of danger and expense the face to having without “infidel” an

them safe and snug at home. It also insured that they had the virtue of fighting fighting of virtue the had they that insured also It home. at snug and safe them

make sense to go all the way to the Holy Land to kill the infidel while leaving leaving while infidel the kill to Land Holy the to way the all go to sense make

financially to the rescue of the Holy Land, and using the rationale that it didn’t didn’t it that rationale the using and Land, Holy the of rescue the to financially

Cologne, Mainz, Worms and Speyer, claiming Jews were not contributing contributing not were Jews claiming Speyer, and Worms Mainz, Cologne,

) inspiring massacres of Jews in the Rhineland, Rhineland, the in Jews of massacres inspiring ) 1146 above, entry see ( Radulphe

inadvertently led to attacks on Jews, with a fanatical French monk named named monk French fanatical a with Jews, on attacks to led inadvertently

II had accorded to the First Crusade. As in the First Crusade, the preaching preaching the Crusade, First the in As Crusade. First the to accorded had II

Second Crusade, and granted the same indulgences for it which Pope Urban Urban Pope which it for indulgences same the granted and Crusade, Second

The Pope commissioned French abbot Bernard of Clairvaux to preach the the preach to Clairvaux of Bernard abbot French commissioned Pope The

Germany

1146–47: France; the Rhineland, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, and Speyer in in Speyer and Worms, Mainz, Cologne, Rhineland, the France; 1146–47:

143 1100–1199 Century: th 12 . 144. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1157: Worms, Germany

Emperor Frederick I, aka Frederick Barbarossa, renewed the privileges granted the Jews by Emperor Henry IV in 1090. He also introduced the idea that Jews were ad cameram attineant (“belonging to our chamber”). It was enacted partly to exclude any competing legal claims by the church or nobles to Jewish property and revenues, and partly to strengthen the relationship of the Jews to the king. This was soon to develop into servi camerae regis (“servants of the royal chamber”) which made the Jews the actual property of the king (see entry below, 1236).

Reference: 1157.1

1160: Béziers, France

Bishop William of Béziers, France, who was appalled by the custom of beating of Jews during Palm Sunday, issued an order excommunicating priests who did so. The Jews pledged in return to pay four pounds of silver every year on Palm Sunday. The payment helped the bishop justify the kind treatment towards Jews in the face of those who wanted their treatment to be much worse, as it was in the surrounding region.

Reference: 1160.1

1171: Jews expelled from Bologna, Italy

The Jews were expelled from Bologna for unknown reasons.

Reference: 1171.1

in exile as slaves in a foreign land... the chief men and Rabbis of the Jews Jews the of Rabbis and men chief the land... foreign a in slaves as exile in

Christ’s death that they had been shut out from their own country, and were were and country, own their from out shut been had they that death Christ’s

they might avenge their sufferings on Him; inasmuch as it was because of of because was it as inasmuch Him; on sufferings their avenge might they

of the world to the Most High God in scorn and contempt of Christ, that so so that Christ, of contempt and scorn in God High Most the to world the of

ancient times that every year they must sacrifice a Christian in some part part some in Christian a sacrifice must they year every that times ancient

statement in Jewish law or literature.] Hence it was laid down by them in in them by down laid was it Hence literature.] or law Jewish in statement

freedom, nor could they ever return to their fatherland. [There is no such such no is [There fatherland. their to return ever they could nor freedom,

the Jews, without the shedding of human blood, could neither obtain their their obtain neither could blood, human of shedding the without Jews, the

verily told us that in the ancient writings of his fathers it was written that that written was it fathers his of writings ancient the in that us told verily

from the lips of Theobald, who was once a Jew, and afterwards a monk. He He monk. a afterwards and Jew, a once was who Theobald, of lips the from

and subsequent miracles] we now adduce something which we have heard heard have we which something adduce now we miracles] subsequent and

“As a proof of the truth and credibility of the matter [of William’s death death William’s [of matter the of credibility and truth the of proof a “As

writes:

of a martyr and pilgrims bringing offerings to the local church. In the book he he book the In church. local the to offerings bringing pilgrims and martyr a of

William. The legend was turned into a cult, with William acquiring the status status the acquiring William with cult, a into turned was legend The William.

the Jews of Norwich to perform the killing. They then abducted and crucified crucified and abducted then They killing. the perform to Norwich of Jews the

1144, England was chosen, and the leaders of the Jewish community delegated delegated community Jewish the of leaders the and chosen, was England 1144,

child each year will ensure that the Jews will be restored to the Holy Land. In In Land. Holy the to restored be will Jews the that ensure will year each child

Jewish “prophecy” (there isn’t one) that states that the killing of a Christian Christian a of killing the that states that one) isn’t (there “prophecy” Jewish

country in which a child will be killed during Easter, because of an alleged alleged an of because Easter, during killed be will child a which in country

every year there is an international council of Jews at which they choose the the choose they which at Jews of council international an is there year every

as a saint, Thomas managed to create a cult around him, by claiming that that claiming by him, around cult a create to managed Thomas saint, a as

been martyred by the Jews in a ritual murder. While William was not canonised canonised not was William While murder. ritual a in Jews the by martyred been

sainthood, by collecting evidence of his holiness and by arguing that he had had he that arguing by and holiness his of evidence collecting by sainthood,

). In the book he promotes William’s claims to to claims William’s promotes he book the In ). 1144 above, entry see ( Norwich

Life and Miracles of St. William of Norwich”, a hagiography of William of of William of hagiography a Norwich”, of William St. of Miracles and Life

Thomas of Monmouth lived in Norwich, England, and was the author of “The “The of author the was and England, Norwich, in lived Monmouth of Thomas

1173: Thomas of Monmouth of Thomas 1173: c.

Reference: 1171.2 Reference:

murder accusation in continental Europe. Europe. continental in accusation murder

committed, and no reports of a missing Christian child. It was the first ritual ritual first the was It child. Christian missing a of reports no and committed,

the ritual murder of a Christian child, despite no proof that a crime had been been had crime a that proof no despite child, Christian a of murder ritual the

The Jewish community of Blois, France, was massacred after it was accused of of accused was it after massacred was France, Blois, of community Jewish The

33 deaths: / affected People

1171: Blois, France Blois, 1171:

145 1100–1199 Century: th 12 . 146. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

who dwell in Spain... cast lots for all the countries which the Jews inhabit; and whatever country the lot falls upon, its metropolis has to carry out the same method with the other towns and cities... it happened that the lot fell upon the Norwich Jews, and all the synagogues in England signified, by letter or by message, their consent that the wickedness should be carried out at Norwich.”

Reference: 1173.1

1179: Third Lateran Council

The third Lateran Council enacted 27 canons. Canon 26 affected the Jews, and is quoted verbatim:

“Canon 26: Jews and Saracens are not to be allowed to have christian servants in their houses, either under pretence of nourishing their children or for service or any other reason. Let those be excommunicated who presume to live with them. We declare that the evidence of Christians is to be accepted against Jews in every case, since Jews employ their own witnesses against Christians, and that those who prefer Jews to Christians in this matter are to lie under anathema, since Jews ought to be subject to Christians and to be supported by them on grounds of humanity alone. If any by the inspiration of God are converted to the christian faith, they are in no way to be excluded from their possessions, since the condition of converts ought to be better than before their conversion. If this is not done, we enjoin on the princes and rulers of these places, under penalty of excommunication, the duty to restore fully to these converts the share of their inheritance and goods.”

Reference: 1179.1

1182: Jews expelled from France

In 1180, four months after King Philip Augustus came to power, he imprisoned Jews and released them only after paying a heavy ransom. In 1181 he annulled all loans made to Christians by Jews, taking instead 20% for himself. And then in 1182 he confiscated their land and buildings and expelled them, allowing them three months to sell their personal belongings first. Their synagogues were

the lay authorities to receive their animadversio debita (“due penalty”). All those those All penalty”). (“due debita animadversio their receive to authorities lay the

their errors, or if they backslid into error subsequently, were to be handed over to to over handed be to were subsequently, error into backslid they if or errors, their

Those accused of heresy, if they could not prove their innocence or forswear forswear or innocence their prove not could they if heresy, of accused Those

haeresium pravitatem haeresium , which means “To abolish diverse malignant heresies”. heresies”. malignant diverse abolish “To means which ,

abolition of Christian heresy. Its first line reads reads line first Its heresy. Christian of abolition Ad abolendam diversam diversam abolendam Ad

in the Albigensian Crusade and the Inquisitions. Its chief aim was the complete complete the was aim chief Its Inquisitions. the and Crusade Albigensian the in

prescribed measures to uproot heresy and sparked the efforts which culminated culminated which efforts the sparked and heresy uproot to measures prescribed

Pope Lucius III issued papal bull bull papal issued III Lucius Pope ), which which ), abolition” (“On abolendam Ad

1184: Pope Lucius III Lucius Pope 1184:

Reference: 1182.2 Reference:

stipulated that they might be brought before judges of their own choosing only. only. choosing own their of judges before brought be might they that stipulated

When this privilege was renewed by King Henry in 1230, a further provision provision further a 1230, in Henry King by renewed was privilege this When

custom”. custom”.

merchandise of any sort, and also to buy them, according to their ancient ancient their to according them, buy to also and sort, any of merchandise

“they be allowed to sell gold, silver, and any other kinds of metals and and metals of kinds other any and silver, gold, sell to allowed be “they

Jews in trade with Slav countries, detailing that: detailing countries, Slav with trade in Jews

The economic clauses of this charter relate to the functions of Regensburg Regensburg of functions the to relate charter this of clauses economic The

of our predecessors until our time.” time.” our until predecessors our of

their good customs which their ancestors secured through the grace and favor favor and grace the through secured ancestors their which customs good their

“We concede to our Ratisbon Jews and confirm with our imperial authority authority imperial our with confirm and Jews Ratisbon our to concede “We

preamble: preamble:

his attitude, as emperor, toward the Jews and added in the the in added and Jews the toward emperor, as attitude, his

Regensburg community by Henry IV, stated the principles of of principles the stated IV, Henry by community Regensburg

Barbarossa renewed a charter originally granted to the the to granted originally charter a renewed Barbarossa

Frederick Barbarossa Frederick aka I, Frederick Emperor 1182:

Reference: 1182.1 Reference:

) ) duties. and taxes through himself to profits large reserve to as so banking

See 1198 below, when he re-admitted them to regulate regulate to them re-admitted he when below, 1198 See ( churches. into converted

147 1100–1199 Century: th 12 . 148. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History who supported heresy were deprived of many rights: the right to hold public office, the right to trial, the right to draft a will, and the heritability of their fiefs and offices. The bull was incorporated as Canon 3 of the fourth Council of the Lateran of 1215 under Pope Innocent III.

Reference: 1184.1

1184: Medieval Inquisition: Episcopal Inquisition

The Medieval Inquisition was established in response to movements considered apostate or heretical to Christianity, in particular Catharism and Waldensians in Southern France and Northern Italy. These were the first inquisition movements of many that would follow. The Medieval Inquisition included the Episcopal Inquisition (1184–1230s), and later the Papal Inquisition (1230s), which arose in response to large popular movements in Europe that were considered to be heretical by the Catholic Church.

The first Medieval Inquisition was called the Episcopal Inquisition because it was administered by local bishops, who were obliged to visit their diocese twice a year in search of heretics.

Reference: 1184.2

1188: Saladin Tithe, England: Tithe for the Third Crusade

The Saladin Tithe was a tax levied in England to pay for the Crusade to retake Jerusalem. Anyone who joined the Crusade was exempt, which of course encouraged people to sign up. If anyone disagreed with the assessment of their property, they were imprisoned or excommunicated. But while the tithe amounted to 10% of revenues and properties:

“Each person will give in charity one tenth of his rents and movable goods for the taking of the land of Jerusalem...”,

King Henry II demanded that Jews pay 25% of their income and personal property worth.

Reference: 1188.1

abbey was coincidentally in debt to Jewish money lenders, obtained permission permission obtained lenders, money Jewish to debt in coincidentally was abbey

57 Jews were killed in a massacre. Shortly after, the local abbot, Samson, whose whose Samson, abbot, local the after, Shortly massacre. a in killed were Jews 57

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 57

1190: Palm Sunday Massacre, Bury St. Edmunds, England Edmunds, St. Bury Massacre, Sunday Palm 1190:

Reference: 1189.2 Reference:

the Crusade’s chief victims there. there. victims chief Crusade’s the

Richard succeeded only in capturing Acre and Jaffa. The Jews of England were were England of Jews The Jaffa. and Acre capturing in only succeeded Richard

Roman Emperor) was accidentally drowned, Philip II of France gave up, and and up, gave France of II Philip drowned, accidentally was Emperor) Roman

Jerusalem (taken in 1187). However, Frederick Barbarossa (Frederick I, Holy Holy I, (Frederick Barbarossa Frederick However, 1187). in (taken Jerusalem

a crusade that was joined by France and Germany. Its goal was to recapture recapture to was goal Its Germany. and France by joined was that crusade a

which had taken no real part in the first 2 Crusades, decided to sponsor sponsor to decided Crusades, 2 first the in part real no taken had which

victims, and began in England under the patronage of King Richard. England, England, Richard. King of patronage the under England in began and victims,

Jewish dignitaries, riots ensued in many cities. Jews in England were the main main the were England in Jews cities. many in ensued riots dignitaries, Jewish

King Richard is crowned, and because he was convinced to burn gifts from from gifts burn to convinced was he because and crowned, is Richard King

1189: King Richard the Lionhearted and Third Crusade Third and Lionhearted the Richard King 1189:

Reference: 1189.1 Reference:

). ). 1190 1189;

The Third Crusade greatly affected the Jews of England ( England of Jews the affected greatly Crusade Third The see entries below for for below entries see

it failed to re-capture Jerusalem. Jerusalem. re-capture to failed it

important cities of Acre and Jaffa, and reversing most of Saladin’s conquests, but but conquests, Saladin’s of most reversing and Jaffa, and Acre of cities important

and Philip II of France, the campaign was largely successful in capturing the the capturing in successful largely was campaign the France, of II Philip and

Crusade for its main leaders, kings Richard I of England England of I Richard kings leaders, main its for Crusade

of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187. Also known as the Kings’ Kings’ the as known Also 1187. in Saladin by Jerusalem of

leaders to reconquer the Holy Land following the capture capture the following Land Holy the reconquer to leaders

The Third Crusade was an attempt by European Christian Christian European by attempt an was Crusade Third The

1189–92: Third Crusade Third 1189–92:

149 1100–1199 Century: th 12 . 150. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History to expel all the Jewish residents of the town. In exactly 100 years the Jews would be expelled from the entire nation on the 9th of Av (see entry below, 1290).

Reference: 1190.1

1190: York, England

People affected / deaths: 150

Antisemitic riots culminate in the massacre of 150 Jews — the entire Jewish community of York — who had taken refuge in the royal castle where Clifford’s Tower now stands.

Reference: 1190.2

1191: Massacre at Bray, France

People affected / deaths: 80–plus

More than 80 Jews are burnt at the stake after trying to execute a murderer who had killed a Jew.

Reference: 1191.1

1195: Ritual Murder Libel in Speyer, Germany

People affected / deaths: 9

In the wake of the Third Crusade the Jewish community of Speyer was subject to new persecutions. Although there was no proof of any wrongdoing, the Rabbi’s daughter was accused of ritual murder, killed, and displayed in the market place for a few days. The Rabbi himself was killed when he tried to interfere and recover his daughter’s body from the mob. The Jews fled, their homes were plundered and burned, the synagogue in Altspeyer was destroyed, and nine were killed.

Reference: 1195.1

Reference: 1198.2 Reference:

Since many did not return, the debt was effectively cancelled. cancelled. effectively was debt the return, not did many Since

suspended payment of interest and principal to Jewish lenders for crusaders. crusaders. for lenders Jewish to principal and interest of payment suspended

Post miserabile Post bull papal issued III Innocent Pope (“Post miserable”) that that miserable”) (“Post

1198: Pope Innocent III Innocent Pope 1198:

Reference: 1198.1 Reference:

lucrative income. income. lucrative

himself through a variety of taxes and duties, thus securing a a securing thus duties, and taxes of variety a through himself

regulate their banking business so as to reserve large profits to to profits large reserve to as so business banking their regulate

King Phillip Augustus readmitted Jews (expelled in 1182) to to 1182) in (expelled Jews readmitted Augustus Phillip King

1198: Jews allowed to return to France to return to allowed Jews 1198:

151 1100–1199 Century: th 12 . 152. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

13th Century: 1200–1299

13th Century: Jewish expulsions

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of expulsions. Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities.

1206: Halle, Germany

1231: Leicester, England

1240: Brittany, France

1249: Poitou, France (paper expulsion)

1253: Vienna, Austria

1254: France

1271: Moissac, France

1275: Gloucester, Worcester, and Guildford, England

1276: Upper Bavaria

1288: Naples, Italy

1289: Gascony and Anjou, France

1290: England

1293 or 1294: Bern, Switzerland

Reference: 1200.1 154. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

13th Century: Blood libel accusations

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of blood libel accusations. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below for details:

1235: Wolfsheim (18 Jews killed); Fulda* (34 Jews killed)

1247: Valréas*

1255: Lincoln (Little St. Hugh)

1267: Pforzheim

1270: Weissenburg, Alsace*

1283: Mayence (10 Jews killed)

1285: Munich (90 Jews killed)*

1286: Friesland

1287: Oberwesel and Boppard (St. Werner, 40 Jews killed)*; Salzburg

1288: Troyes

1290: Laibach

1292: Colmar; Krems (2 Jews broken on wheel)

1294: Bern (Rudolf)

Reference: 1200.2

13th Century: Host desecration accusations

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of host desecration accusations. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below for details:

1243: Berlitz (near Berlin), Germany*

1260: Flanders, Belgium

killing Jesus, and advised the king of France to put an end to such evil: evil: such to end an put to France of king the advised and Jesus, killing

murder. He also claimed Jews were punished with “perpetual servitude” for for servitude” “perpetual with punished were Jews claimed also He murder.

accusing Jews of usury, blasphemy, arrogance, employing Christian slaves and and slaves Christian employing arrogance, blasphemy, usury, of Jews accusing

Pope Innocent III issued papal bull bull papal issued III Innocent Pope (“Though I should not”) not”) should I (“Though displaceat non Etsi

1205: Pope Innocent III Innocent Pope 1205:

Reference: 1205.1 Reference:

forbidden to eat with Christians or own Christian slaves. slaves. Christian own or Christians with eat to forbidden

Jews their own houses of worship and would not be forced to convert. Jews were were Jews convert. to forced be not would and worship of houses own their Jews

Pope Innocent III issued papal bull bull papal issued III Innocent Pope (“Although Jews”) allowing allowing Jews”) (“Although Judaeos Esti

1205: Pope Innocent III Innocent Pope 1205:

Reference: 1202.1 Reference:

decline of the Empire and of Christianity in the Near East. East. Near the in Christianity of and Empire the of decline

Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church, and a key turning point in the the in point turning key a and Church, Catholic Roman and Church Orthodox

This is seen as one of the final acts in the Great Schism between the Eastern Eastern the between Schism Great the in acts final the of one as seen is This

of Constantinople, capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire). Empire). (Byzantine Empire Roman Eastern the of capital Constantinople, of

invaded and sacked the Christian (Eastern Orthodox) city city Orthodox) (Eastern Christian the sacked and invaded

Jerusalem. Instead, the Crusaders of Western Europe Europe Western of Crusaders the Instead, Jerusalem.

called by Pope Innocent III to recapture Muslim-controlled Muslim-controlled recapture to III Innocent Pope by called

The Fourth Crusade was a Latin Christian armed expedition expedition armed Christian Latin a was Crusade Fourth The

1202–04: Fourth Crusade Fourth 1202–04:

Reference: 1200.3 Reference:

100,000 Jews said to have been killed been have to said Jews 100,000 ( Germany Röttingen, 1298: )*

1297: Meissen, Germany Meissen, 1297:

several slain, the remainder fled remainder the slain, several ( Austria Laa, 1292: )

1266: Santarém, Portugal Santarém, 1266:

155 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 156. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

“God is not displeased, but, rather, finds it acceptable that the Jewish dispersion shall live under Catholic kings and Christian priests. Because of the Jews’ intolerable sin I will be your [ Jews] lord since imperialist authority opposed everlasting servitude on the Jews from ancient times as punishment for the Christ-killing... The Jews’ guilt of the crucifixion of Jesus consigned them to perpetual servitude, and, like Cain, they are to be wanderers and fugitives... The Jews will not dare to raise their necks, bowed under the yoke of perpetual slavery, against the reverence of the Christian faith.”

Reference: 1205.2

1206: Jews expelled from Halle, Germany

Jewish homes are burned and looted, Jews are killed and the remaining Jewish population of Halle is expelled.

Reference: 1206.1

1207: Pope Innocent III

Pope Innocent III issued papal bull requiring Jews of Spain to pay tithes on possessions obtained from Christians.

Reference: 1207.1

1208: Pope Innocent III

Pope Innocent III wrote to archbishops of Sens and Paris that the Jews by their own guilt are consigned to perpetual servitude because they crucified the Lord:

“Although they ought not to be killed, lest the Christian forget the Divine Law, yet as wanderers ought they remain upon the Earth, until their countenances be filled with shame.”

Reference: 1208.1

Reference: 1210.1 Reference:

started on his eighth tooth. tooth. eighth his on started

the 1,000 marks. He stood it for seven days, but paid the ransom when they they when ransom the paid but days, seven for it stood He marks. 1,000 the

ordered his torturers to pull out one of his molar teeth every day until he paid paid he until day every teeth molar his of one out pull to torturers his ordered

66,000 marks from the Jews. One Jew from Bristol refused to pay, so the king king the so pay, to refused Bristol from Jew One Jews. the from marks 66,000

the sum of no less than £100,000 from the religious houses of England, and and England, of houses religious the from £100,000 than less no of sum the

seems to have come over John’s attitude to the Jews, and in 1210 he demanded demanded he 1210 in and Jews, the to attitude John’s over come have to seems

of forbearance. But with the loss of Normandy in 1205 to France, a new spirit spirit new a France, to 1205 in Normandy of loss the with But forbearance. of

to the Jewish community while in Ireland, so at first treated Jews with a show show a with Jews treated first at so Ireland, in while community Jewish the to

King John, the brother of King Richard the Lionheart, had become indebted indebted become had Lionheart, the Richard King of brother the John, King

1210: King John, England John, King 1210:

Reference: 1209.2 Reference:

away as slaves. slaves. as away

20,000 Christians and 200 Jews were massacred, and many others were carried carried were others many and massacred, were Jews 200 and Christians 20,000

sack of Béziers, the first major military action of the Albigensian Crusade. Crusade. Albigensian the of action military major first the Béziers, of sack

The Massacre at Béziers refers to the slaughter of the inhabitants during the the during inhabitants the of slaughter the to refers Béziers at Massacre The

Jews: 200 Jews: 20,000 Christians: deaths: / affected People l

1209: Massacre at Béziers, France Béziers, at Massacre 1209:

Reference: 1209.1 Reference:

sake. sake.

, we include it for completeness’ completeness’ for it include we , se per Jews against persecution

movement) in southern France. While not a Christian Christian a not While France. southern in movement)

Innocent III to eliminate Catharism (a Christian dualist dualist Christian (a Catharism eliminate to III Innocent

This was a 20-year military campaign initiated by Pope Pope by initiated campaign military 20-year a was This

1209–29: Albigensian Crusade, southern France southern Crusade, Albigensian 1209–29:

157 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 158. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1215: Pope Innocent III, fourth Lateran Council

The fourth Lateran Council, also called the Great Council, is where the Catholic doctrine on transubstantiation (where the bread and wine become the actual blood and body of Christ) was defined. Constantine’s Sword calls this the most important Council because it systematised anti-Jewish practices at the same time that the Church achieved universal authority, instituting the yellow “badge of shame” for the Jews, which was copied from legislation by Caliph Omar II (634-44) who decreed that Christians were to wear blue belts and Jews yellow belts. Seventy canons and Holy Land Decrees were issued. Four canons affected the Jews, as did the Holy Land Decrees, and are quoted verbatim below:

“Canon 67: The more the Christians are restrained from the practice of usury, the more are they oppressed in this matter by the treachery of the Jews, so that in a short time they exhaust the resources of the Christians. Wishing, therefore, in this matter to protect the Christians against cruel oppression by the Jews, we ordain in this decree that if in the future under any pretext Jews extort from Christians oppressive and immoderate interest, the partnership of the Christians shall be denied them till they have made suitable satisfaction for their excesses. The Christians also, every appeal being set aside, shall, if necessary, be compelled by ecclesiastical censure to abstain from all commercial intercourse with them. We command the princes not to be hostile to the Christians on this account, but rather to strive to hinder the Jews from practicing such excesses. Lastly, we decree that the Jews be compelled by the same punishment (avoidance of commercial intercourse) to make satisfaction for the tithes and offerings due to the churches, which the Christians were accustomed to supply from their houses and other possessions before these properties, under whatever title, fell into the hands of the Jews, that thus the churches may be safeguarded against loss.”

“Canon 68: In some provinces a difference in dress distinguishes the Jews or Saracens from the Christians, but in certain others such a confusion has grown up that they cannot be distinguished by any difference. Thus it happens at times that through error Christians have relations with the women of Jews or Saracens, and Jews and Saracens with Christian women. Therefore, that they may not, under pretext of error of this sort, excuse themselves in the future for the excesses of such prohibited intercourse, we decree that such Jews and Saracens of both sexes in every Christian province and at all times shall be marked off in the eyes of the public from other peoples through the character of their dress. Particularly, since it may be read in the writings of Moses [Numbers 15:37-41], that this very law has been enjoined upon them.

is known. “ known. is

is a lesser evil than to retrace one’s steps after it it after steps one’s retrace to than evil lesser a is L the of way the know ord

salutary coercive action may preserve them in its observance, since not to to not since observance, its in them preserve may action coercive salutary

having given themselves of their own free will to the Christian religion, religion, Christian the to will free own their of themselves given having

way restrained by the prelates from the observance of the former rite, that, that, rite, former the of observance the from prelates the by restrained way

(Deut. 22: ii) ought not to be put on, we decree that such persons be in every every in be persons such that decree we on, put be to not ought ii) 22: (Deut.

(Ecclus. 2:14), and “a garment that is woven together of woolen and linen” linen” and woolen of together woven is that garment “a and 2:14), (Ecclus.

But since it is written: “Accursed is the man that goeth on the two ways” ways” two the on goeth that man the is “Accursed written: is it since But

rite, they obscure by such a mixture the beauty of the Christian religion. religion. Christian the of beauty the mixture a such by obscure they rite,

more perfectly put on the new one, because, retaining remnants of the former former the of remnants retaining because, one, new the on put perfectly more

waters of holy baptism, do not entirely cast off the old man that they may may they that man old the off cast entirely not do baptism, holy of waters

“Canon 70: Some ( Jews), we understand, who voluntarily approached the the approached voluntarily who understand, we Jews), ( Some 70: “Canon

extend also to pagans.” to also extend

the office that he irreverently assumed let him lose with shame. The same we we same The shame. with lose him let assumed irreverently he that office the

the time he assumed office be restored for the needs of the Christian poor, and and poor, Christian the of needs the for restored be office assumed he time the

in the judgment of the bishop all that he acquired from the Christians from from Christians the from acquired he that all bishop the of judgment the in

shall be denied the commercial and other intercourse of the Christians, till till Christians, the of intercourse other and commercial the denied be shall

synod which we command to be celebrated every year. The official, however, however, official, The year. every celebrated be to command we which synod

warning, be restrained by such punishment as seems proper by the provincial provincial the by proper seems as punishment such by restrained be warning,

But if anyone should commit such an office to them, let him, after previous previous after him, let them, to office an such commit should anyone if But

offices, since in such capacity they are most troublesome to the Christians. Christians. the to troublesome most are they capacity such in since offices,

matter, prohibiting Jews from being given preference in the matter of public public of matter the in preference given being from Jews prohibiting matter,

this general council what the Synod of Toledo (589) wisely enacted in this this in enacted wisely (589) Toledo of Synod the what council general this

over Christians, we on account of the boldness of transgressors renew in in renew transgressors of boldness the of account on we Christians, over

“Canon 69: Since it is absurd that a blasphemer of Christ exercise authority authority exercise Christ of blasphemer a that absurd is it Since 69: “Canon

crucified for us.” us.” for crucified

punishment so that they shall not at all presume to blaspheme Him who was was who Him blaspheme to presume all at not shall they that so punishment

impudent fellows be checked by the secular princes by imposing them proper proper them imposing by princes secular the by checked be fellows impudent

insult to Him who blotted out our disgraceful deeds, we command that such such that command we deeds, disgraceful our out blotted who Him to insult

break forth in insult to the Redeemer. And since we ought not to ignore any any ignore to not ought we since And Redeemer. the to insult in forth break

This, however, we forbid most severely, that any one should presume at all to to all at presume should one any that severely, most forbid we however, This,

most holy Passion by wearing signs of mourning. of signs wearing by Passion holy most

and are not afraid to mock the Christians who maintain the memory of the the of memory the maintain who Christians the mock to afraid not are and

them on these very days, as we hear, do not blush to go forth better dressed dressed better forth go to blush not do hear, we as days, very these on them

Friday, they shall not go forth in public at all, for the reason that some of of some that reason the for all, at public in forth go not shall they Friday,

Moreover, during the last three days before Easter and especially on Good Good on especially and Easter before days three last the during Moreover,

159 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 160. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

“Holy Land Decrees: We command also that Jews be compelled by the secular power to cancel interest, and, till they have done so, intercourse with them must be absolutely denied them by all Christians under penalty of excommunication. For those who cannot be their departure pay their debts to the Jews, the secular princes shall provide such a delay that from the time of their departure till their return or till their death is known, they shall not be embarrassed with the inconvenience of paying interest. If a Jew has received security (for example, a piece of ground) for such a debt, he must, after deducting his own expenses, pay to the owner the income from such security.”

Reference: 1215.1

1217–21: Fifth Crusade

The Fifth Crusade was an attempt by Western Europeans to reacquire Jerusalem and the rest of the Holy Land by first conquering the powerful Ayyubid state in Egypt. They failed in their attempt to take Cairo, and were forced to surrender. The Fifth Crusade marked the last Crusade that was organised by the Church in which different nations came together to fight to recover the Holy Land.

Reference: 1217.1

1217: Pope Honorius III

Pope Honorius III issued papal bull Sicut judaeis non debet esse licentia (“As the Jews should not be a license”) forbidding forced baptism of Jews or molestation.

Reference: 1217.2

Reference: 1221.2 Reference:

forcibly converted. converted. forcibly

26 Jews were killed, while others threw themselves into the fire rather than be be than rather fire the into themselves threw others while killed, were Jews 26

to the Holy Land attacked the Jewish quarter, burning two synagogues. Some Some synagogues. two burning quarter, Jewish the attacked Land Holy the to

crusaders, they continued unabated. A group of religious religious of group A unabated. continued they crusaders, pilgrims” on their way way their on pilgrims” “

Although the Archbishop of Canterbury forbade anti-Jewish riots by English English by riots anti-Jewish forbade Canterbury of Archbishop the Although

People affected / deaths: / affected People 26

1221: Erfurt, Germany Erfurt, 1221:

Reference: 1221.1 Reference:

forbidding them to hold public office. office. public hold to them forbidding

people may know our boldness”) obliging Jews to carry a distinctive badge and and badge distinctive a carry to Jews obliging boldness”) our know may people

Ad nostram Noveritis audientiam Noveritis nostram Ad bull papal issued III Honorius Pope (“So that that (“So

1221: Pope Honorius III Honorius Pope 1221:

Reference: 1219.1 Reference:

the wearing of the badge by Jews. Jews. by badge the of wearing the

Pope Honorius III issued papal bull permitting the King of Castile to suspend suspend to Castile of King the permitting bull papal issued III Honorius Pope

1219: Pope Honorius III Honorius Pope 1219:

Reference: 1218.1 Reference:

local churches. churches. local

clothing to distinguish themselves and that Jews be made to pay the tithe to to tithe the pay to made be Jews that and themselves distinguish to clothing

demanding the enforcement of the fourth Lateran Council that Jews wear wear Jews that Council Lateran fourth the of enforcement the demanding

In generali concilio generali In bull papal issued III Honorius Pope (“In general council”) council”) general (“In

1218: Pope Honorius III Honorius Pope 1218:

161 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 162. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1222: Council of Oxford

Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury and one of the prime movers behind the fourth Lateran Council of 1215, held a provincial church council at Oxford, where he composed and passed 50 canons in conformity with those of the Council of Lateran of 1215. Canons 39 and 40 forbade the building of new synagogues, owning slaves, and denied Jews entrance into churches.

Reference: 1222.1

1222: Anonymous deacon convert to Judaism executed, Oxford, England

Archbishop of Canterbury Stephen Langton convened a provincial council that ordered the immediate execution (by being burnt) of a Christian deacon who had circumcised himself and married a Jewish woman. This case is commonly conflated with that of Robert of Reading, half a century later (see entry below, 1275). In the 1930s, the mixed story of these two heretics was commemorated on a plaque at Osney Abbey in Oxford, which reads:

NEAR THIS STONE IN OSNEY ABBEY, ROBERT OF READING, OTHERWISE HAGGAI OF OXFORD, SUFFERED FOR HIS FAITH ON SUNDAY 17 APRIL 1222 A.D. CORRESPONDING TO 4 IYYAR 4982 A.M.

Reference: 1222.2

1227: Council of Narbonne, France

Twenty canons were published by the Council of Narbonne. Canon 4 orders Jews to pay yearly at Easter a certain sum for each family, as an offering to the parish church. Canon 3 requires them to wear an oval badge, the first such instance, and forbids them from working on Sundays and festivals:

Reference: 1228.2 Reference:

Crusade with the aim of maintaining Christian rule in the Holy Lands. Lands. Holy the in rule Christian maintaining of aim the with Crusade

Once the 10-year treaty expired in 1239, Pope Gregory IX called for a new new a for called IX Gregory Pope 1239, in expired treaty 10-year the Once

Jerusalem.

city remained under Muslim control. Jews were once again forbidden to live in in live to forbidden again once were Jews control. Muslim under remained city

Crusaders gained control of Jerusalem, the Temple Mount and holy sites in the the in sites holy and Mount Temple the Jerusalem, of control gained Crusaders

Sidon, Jaffa, Bethlehem and Nazareth under Christian control, but although although but control, Christian under Nazareth and Bethlehem Jaffa, Sidon,

treaty between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders, which brought Jerusalem, Jerusalem, brought which Crusaders, the and Ayyubids the between treaty

the matter diplomatically. The result was the Treaty of Jaffa, a 10-year peace peace 10-year a Jaffa, of Treaty the was result The diplomatically. matter the

to amass a sufficient party to defeat the Muslims, so they decided to resolve resolve to decided they so Muslims, the defeat to party sufficient a amass to

the Papacy. But because Frederick II had been excommunicated, he was unable unable was he excommunicated, been had II Frederick because But Papacy. the

Europe to have been launched without the direct support of of support direct the without launched been have to Europe

Roman Emperor Frederick II. It was the first Crusade in in Crusade first the was It II. Frederick Emperor Roman

and was a military campaign organised mainly by the Holy Holy the by mainly organised campaign military a was and

The Sixth Crusade was an attempt to regain Jerusalem, Jerusalem, regain to attempt an was Crusade Sixth The

1228-29: Sixth Crusade Sixth 1228-29:

Reference: 1228.1 Reference:

moratorium” for repayment. repayment. for moratorium” “ a granting and Jews

Pope Gregory IX issued papal bull remitting interest on Crusaders’ debts to to debts Crusaders’ on interest remitting bull papal issued IX Gregory Pope

1228: Pope Gregory IX Gregory Pope 1228:

Reference: 1227.1 Reference:

Christians.” Christians.”

shall during that week especially have them guarded from vexation by the the by vexation from guarded them have especially week that during shall

leave their houses at all except in case of urgent necessity, and the prelates prelates the and necessity, urgent of case in except all at houses their leave

Christians, we wish and ordain that during Holy Week they shall not not shall they Week Holy during that ordain and wish we Christians,

and on festivals. And lest they scandalize Christians or be scandalized by by scandalized be or Christians scandalize they lest And festivals. on and

half a palm in height. We forbid them moreover, to work publicly on Sundays Sundays on publicly work to moreover, them forbid We height. in palm a half

they shall wear an oval badge, the measure of one finger in width and one one and width in finger one of measure the badge, oval an wear shall they

emphatically command that in the center of the breast (of their garments) garments) their (of breast the of center the in that command emphatically

“Canon 3: That Jews may be distinguished from others, we decree and and decree we others, from distinguished be may Jews That 3: “Canon

163 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 164. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1229: Spanish Inquisition

Some sources say this was when the Spanish Inquisition started.

Reference: 1229.1

1230: Earliest Judensau (Jew–Pig)

The Judensau erected in the Cathedral of Brandenberg, Brandenberg, Germany in 1230, is the earliest extant example of a Jew-Pig sculpture on a church building.

Reference: 1230.1

1231: Medieval Inquisition: Papal Inquisition

Pope Gregory IX shifted the power to punish heretics away from the local bishops by appointing a number of Papal Inquisitors (Inquisitores haereticae pravitatis), mostly Dominicans and Franciscans, for the various regions of Europe. Unlike the haphazard episcopal methods, the Papal Inquisition was thorough and systematic, keeping detailed records. Some of the few documents from the Middle Ages involving first-person speech by medieval peasants come from Papal Inquisition records. This tribunal or court functioned in France, Italy and parts of Germany and had virtually ceased operation by the early 14th Century.

Reference: 1231.1

1231: Jews expelled from Leicester, England

Simon de Montfort, the Earl of Leicester, expelled the small Jewish community from the city, banishing them “in my time or in the time of any of my heirs to the end of the world”. He justified his action as being “for the good of my soul, and for the souls of my ancestors and successors”.

Reference: 1231.2

Reference: 1233.1 Reference:

eternal servitude, in order to revile the Redeemer.” Redeemer.” the revile to order in servitude, eternal

and communities, so that they do not dare to raise their necks bent under under bent necks their raise to dare not do they that so communities, and

mentioned and similar blaspheming of the Jews in your dioceses, churches churches dioceses, your in Jews the of blaspheming similar and mentioned

“we order for all our brothers in the Bishopric, absolutely to suppress the the suppress to absolutely Bishopric, the in brothers our all for order “we

employ Christian servants, saying: saying: servants, Christian employ

(“Perfidious Jews should be sufficient perfidiousness”) forbidding Jews to to Jews forbidding perfidiousness”) sufficient be should Jews (“Perfidious

Pope Gregory IX issued papal bull bull papal issued IX Gregory Pope Sufficere debuerat perfidioe judoerum perfidia judoerum perfidioe debuerat Sufficere

1233: Pope Gregory IX Gregory Pope 1233:

Reference: 1231.3 Reference:

Anthonie’s in London.” in Anthonie’s

to our Blessed Lady; and since a hospital being there built, was called St. St. called was built, there being hospital a since and Lady; Blessed our to

1231; but the Christians obtained of the king that it should be dedicated dedicated be should it that king the of obtained Christians the but 1231;

was sometime their synagogue, and had been built by them about the year year the about them by built been had and synagogue, their sometime was

brotherhood of St. Anthonie of Vienna, a place amongst the Jews, which which Jews, the amongst place a Vienna, of Anthonie St. of brotherhood

St. Anthonie’s of Vienna. For I read that King Henry III granted to the the to granted III Henry King that read I For Vienna. of Anthonie’s St.

large houses till ye come to the hospital of St. Anthonie, sometime a cell to to cell a sometime Anthonie, St. of hospital the to come ye till houses large

the east corner of St. Martin’s Oteswich church, have ye divers fair and and fair divers ye have church, Oteswich Martin’s St. of corner east the

“On the north side of this street [Threadneedle Street], from over against against over from Street], [Threadneedle street this of side north the “On

Hospital: Hospital:

John Stow (1524–1605), in his 1598 Survey of London wrote of St Anthony’s Anthony’s St of wrote London of Survey 1598 his in (1524–1605), Stow John

house on some land given to them by King Henry III. Henry King by them to given land some on house

medieval disease of St. Anthony’s fire, or ergotism) established a charitable charitable a established ergotism) or fire, Anthony’s St. of disease medieval

in France, with the purpose of caring for those suffering from the common common the from suffering those for caring of purpose the with France, in

of St. Anthony” of Vienne (a Roman Catholic congregation founded in in founded congregation Catholic Roman (a Vienne of Anthony” St. of 1095 1095 c.

In a place previously occupied by a Jewish synagogue, the “Hospital Brothers Brothers “Hospital the synagogue, Jewish a by occupied previously place a In

1231: St. Anthony’s Hospital, London, England London, Hospital, Anthony’s St. 1231:

165 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 166. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1233: Pope Gregory IX

Pope Gregory IX issued papal bull Etsi Judaeorum (“Even if the Jews”) demanding that Jews in Christian countries be treated with the same humanity with which Christians wish to be treated in heathen lands, and urging prevention of physical violence against Jews in France.

Reference: 1233.2

1233: Pope Gregory IX

Pope Gregory IX issued papal bull Sufficere debuerat (“Should be enough”) forbidding Christians to dispute on matters of faith with Jews.

Reference: 1233.3

1234: The Decretals of Pope Gregory IX

Also called the Liber extra, these are an important source of medieval Canon Law, which invested the doctrine of perpetua servitus iudaeorum — “perpetual servitude of the Jews” — with the force of canonical law. According to this, the followers of the Talmud would have to remain in a condition of political servitude until Judgment Day. The doctrine then found its way into the doctrine of servitus camerae imperialis, or servitude immediately subject to the Emperor’s authority, promulgated by Frederick II (the king of Prussia from 1740-86). The second-class status of Jews thereby established would last until well into the 19th Century.

Reference: 1234.1

1229-35: Archdeacon of Leicester, England

Robert Grosseteste, English statesman, scholastic philosopher, theologian, scientist and Bishop of Lincoln (1235-53), reveals his feelings about the Jews in

to what is more commonly called today the blood libel. libel. blood the today called commonly more is what to

of a charge of “blood cannibalism”, as contemporary historians sometimes refer refer sometimes historians contemporary as cannibalism”, “blood of charge a of

consuming the blood of the five children, making this the first recorded instance instance recorded first the this making children, five the of blood the consuming

historical note was the fact that “the Jews” were also accused of draining and and draining of accused also were Jews” “the that fact the was note historical

enjoyed a trial, and no evidence existed to support the charges. Of particular particular Of charges. the support to existed evidence no and trial, a enjoyed

Day deaths of five Gentile brothers from the town, but none of the accused accused the of none but town, the from brothers Gentile five of deaths Day

death. The killings were meant to be revenge or punishment for the Christmas Christmas the for punishment or revenge be to meant were killings The death.

central Germany, rose up against their Jewish neighbors, burning 34 of them to to them of 34 burning neighbors, Jewish their against up rose Germany, central

On December 28 the residents of the town of Fulda, today in Hesse state in in state Hesse in today Fulda, of town the of residents the 28 December On

People affected / deaths: / affected People 34

December 28, 1235: Ritual Murder (Blood Libel) Charge in Fulda, Germany Fulda, in Charge Libel) (Blood Murder Ritual 1235: 28, December

Reference: 1235.1 Reference:

for the same offense, tortured, convicted, and executed. executed. and convicted, tortured, offense, same the for

children are slaughtered. Eight Jewish leaders from both towns were put on trial trial on put were towns both from leaders Jewish Eight slaughtered. are children

Jewish community in both towns is attacked by mobs, and men, women and and women men, and mobs, by attacked is towns both in community Jewish

Suspicion falls on the Jews, and before a judicial inquiry can be carried out, the the out, carried be can inquiry judicial a before and Jews, the on falls Suspicion

A Christian corpse is found on the road between Lauda and Tauberbischofsheim. Tauberbischofsheim. and Lauda between road the on found is corpse Christian A

8 deaths: / affected People

1235: Lauda and Tauberbischofsheim, Germany Tauberbischofsheim, and Lauda 1235:

Reference: 1229.1 Reference:

Whoever protected them might share in the guilt of their usuries.” their of guilt the in share might them protected Whoever

de Montfort had expelled them from Leicester [1231 - see entry above]. above]. entry see - [1231 Leicester from them expelled had Montfort de

not oppress Christrian subjects by usury. It was for this reason that Simon Simon that reason this for was It usury. by subjects Christrian oppress not

But those who favored or harboured them were to take care that they did did they that care take to were them harboured or favored who those But

so were they to have the privilege of Cain, that no one was to kill them. them. kill to was one no that Cain, of privilege the have to they were so

the brand of Cain, and are condemned to wander over the face of the earth, earth, the of face the over wander to condemned are and Cain, of brand the

Passion, they were to be in captivity to the princes of the earth. As they have have they As earth. the of princes the to captivity in be to were they Passion,

, as still blaspheming Christ and mocking His His mocking and Christ blaspheming still as , L the of murderers “As ord

a letter to the Countess of Winchester while Archdeacon of Leicester: Leicester: of Archdeacon while Winchester of Countess the to letter a

167 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 168. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Some sources call this the first blood libel case rather than the event in 1144 (see entry above).

Reference: 1235.2

1236: Emperor Frederick II

Emperor Frederick II extended the privilege of Worms (1090; renewed 1157) to all Jews in his jurisdiction, thus introducing enslavement as a legal status for all Jews, declaring them servi camerae nostrae (“servants of our treasury”), or Kammerknechtschaft. While this assured them protection, it also meant that all Jews and their possessions now belonged to the king, and could therefore be bought, sold, or traded. This concept spread to France, England and Spain.

Reference: 1236.1

1236: Anjou, France

People affected / deaths: Conversion: 500 l Massacred: 3,000

Jewish communities in Anjou and Poitou, particularly Bordeaux and Angoulême were attacked by crusaders. 500 Jews chose conversion and over 3,000 were massacred. Pope Gregory IX, who originally had called the crusade, was outraged about this brutality and criticized the clergy for not preventing it.

Reference: 1236.2

1239: Pope Gregory IX

Pope Gregory IX issued papal bull Si vera sunt (“If they are true”) ordering the seizure and examination of Jewish writings, especially the Talmud, suspected of blasphemies against Christ and the Church.

Reference: 1239.1

Reference: 1240.2 Reference:

helpless against their onslaught. onslaught. their against helpless

many Jews did not prepare a proper defense against the Crusaders and were were and Crusaders the against defense proper a prepare not did Jews many

swept over the Jews of Central Europe. Believed to be the age of the Messiah, Messiah, the of age the be to Believed Europe. Central of Jews the over swept

As the year 1240 (5000 in the Jewish calendar) approached, messianic excitement excitement messianic approached, calendar) Jewish the in (5000 1240 year the As

1240: Jewish year: 5000 year: Jewish 1240:

Reference: 1240.1 Reference:

decree in perpetuity. perpetuity. in decree

The duke bound himself and his successors to uphold the the uphold to successors his and himself bound duke The

ordered them to return all pledges of chattels or real estate. estate. real or chattels of pledges all return to them ordered

who declared a moratorium on all debts owed to Jews and and Jews to owed debts all on moratorium a declared who

Jews were expelled from Brittany by the duke Jean le Roux Roux le Jean duke the by Brittany from expelled were Jews

1240: Jews expelled from Brittany, France Brittany, from expelled Jews 1240:

Reference: 1239.2 Reference:

and Al-Kamil. Al-Kamil. and

existence past the 1239 expiration date for the treaty signed between Frederick Frederick between signed treaty the for date expiration 1239 the past existence

nothing more than guarantee five more years to the Christian Crusader State’s State’s Crusader Christian the to years more five guarantee than more nothing

, because while successful, it did did it successful, while because , se per Crusade numbered a as counted not is

Crusade returned the Kingdom of Jerusalem to its largest size since 1187. It It 1187. since size largest its to Jerusalem of Kingdom the returned Crusade

universal Christian undertaking”. For a few years, the Barons’ Barons’ the years, few a For undertaking”. Christian universal

the highest point of papal endeavor “to make crusading a a crusading make “to endeavor papal of point highest the

successful crusade since the First Crusade. It embodied embodied It Crusade. First the since crusade successful

The Barons’ Crusade was in territorial terms the most most the terms territorial in was Crusade Barons’ The

1239–41: Barons’ Crusade Barons’ 1239–41:

169 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 170. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1240: Inquisition: the Disputation of Paris

Nicholas Donin, a Jewish convert to Christianity, brought 35 charges against the Talmud to Pope Gregory IX, alleging it contained blasphemies of Jesus and Mary, attacks on the Church, and obscene folklore, such as a passage of someone named Jesus who was sent to hell to be boiled in excrement for eternity, Adam copulating with each of the animals before finding Eve, and Noah being castrated by his son Ham. He also asserted that the Jews had elevated the Talmud to the level of divinely inspired Scripture, which impeded the possibility of their conversion to Christianity. The Talmud was condemned.

Reference: 1240.3

1240: Pope Gregory IX

Ordered all Jewish books in Castile to be seized on first Saturday in Lent while Jews were in synagogue.

Reference: 1240.4

1241: Pogrom in Frankfurt, Germany

People affected / deaths: Baptised: 24 l Killed: 180

The Judenschlacht (“Slaughter of the Jews”) was sparked by the refusal of a Jew to convert to Christianity, resulting in the deaths of 180 Jews. 24 avoided death by accepting baptism. The synagogue was plundered and the Torah scrolls destroyed.

Reference: 1241.1

Reference: 1243.2 Reference:

in the street for a fortnight before they were allowed to be buried. buried. be to allowed were they before fortnight a for street the in

Ritual murder accusation. Fifteen Jews were tortured to death. Their corpses lay lay corpses Their death. to tortured were Jews Fifteen accusation. murder Ritual

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 15

1243: Kitzingen (Bavaria), Germany (Bavaria), Kitzingen 1243:

Reference: 1243.1 Reference:

accusations were as recent as 1836 (Romania). (Romania). 1836 as recent as were accusations

wiped out the entire Jewish population of Berlitz. Incidents of Host desecration desecration Host of Incidents Berlitz. of population Jewish entire the out wiped

pins into, or burning, the Host. In this case, the response to this accusation accusation this to response the case, this In Host. the burning, or into, pins

times that the Jews were accused of “killing” Christ or torturing him by sticking sticking by him torturing or Christ “killing” of accused were Jews the that times

was considered a direct attack on the body of Jesus. This was the first of many many of first the was This Jesus. of body the on attack direct a considered was

as a substitute for Christ’s body and blood. Therefore, an attack on the Host Host the on attack an Therefore, blood. and body Christ’s for substitute a as

(officially recognized in 1215), the wafer and wine is viewed by the Church Church the by viewed is wine and wafer the 1215), in recognized (officially

during Mass) is based on the doctrine of transubstantiation. In this doctrine doctrine this In transubstantiation. of doctrine the on based is Mass) during

Host (the wafer and wine distributed as part of the ceremony of the Eucharist Eucharist the of ceremony the of part as distributed wine and wafer (the Host

This is the first accusation of the desecration of the Host. The sanctity of the the of sanctity The Host. the of desecration the of accusation first the is This

1243: Berlitz (near Berlin), Germany: Desecration of the Host the of Desecration Germany: Berlin), (near Berlitz 1243:

Reference: 1242.1 Reference:

thousands of volumes. volumes. of thousands

The Inquisition burns 24 wagons of Jewish books totaling totaling books Jewish of wagons 24 burns Inquisition The

1242: Inquisition: Paris Paris Inquisition: 1242:

171 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 172. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1244: Ritual murder in London, England

In St. Benedict’s churchyard in London, the corpse of a boy was found which bore cuts and scratches and, in several places, Jewish characters. He had been drained. Baptized jews, forced to interpret the Jewish signs, found the name of the child’s parents and read that the child had been sold to the Jews when he was very young. Jews were fined the enormous sum of 60,000 marks (about £40,000), and distinguished Jews left the city in secret. The Catholic church venerated the Martyr under the name of St. Paul.

Reference: 1244.1

1244: Pope Innocent IV

Pope Innocent IV issued papal bull Impia judeorum perfidia (“Deadly perfidious Jews”) stating that Jews could not hire Christian nurses, and ordering the Talmud to be burnt “in order to confuse the false Jews”. It also says:

“The divine falsity of the Jews, from whose hearts our Saviour did not tear the veil on account of their enormous crimes, but caused them to still go blind, as is just, do not pay heed that Christian pity only accepts them out of mercy and patiently bears coexistence with them, and commit acts of shame, which set those who hear of them, in astonishment, and fill those with terror, who receive report of it.”

Reference: 1244.2

1246: Church Conference of Béziers, France

The Council of Béziers forbade Christians to resort to the care of Jews, “for it is better to die than to owe one’s life to a Jew”. The Council also forbade the sale of meat by Jews, forbade all commerce between Jews and Christians, prohibited Jews from practising medicine under threat of excommunication, and reiterated the instructions for Jews to wear a badge in the shape of the rota (“wheel”) on their outer garments. But Christians were also obliged expressly to protect the Jews against ill treatment during Holy Week.

Reference: 1246.1

Reference: 1247.3 Reference:

and was a strong supporter of Columbus. of supporter strong a was and

Alfonso de la Caballeria, a “new Christian”, served as vice-chancellor of Aragon Aragon of vice-chancellor as served Christian”, “new a Caballeria, la de Alfonso

king and judicial matters. A little over 210 years later one of his descendents, descendents, his of one later years 210 over little A matters. judicial and king

from 1257 to 1276, was in charge of the administration of the property of the the of property the of administration the of charge in was 1276, to 1257 from

One of those who held high office was Judah ben Lavi de la Caballeria, who who Caballeria, la de Lavi ben Judah was office high held who those of One

participation within his realm. realm. his within participation

kingdoms was provided by the Jews. This led to a flowering of culture and and culture of flowering a to led This Jews. the by provided was kingdoms

Economically, an estimated 30-65% of the income in every one of the Iberian Iberian the of one every in income the of 30-65% estimated an Economically,

and offered financial inducements for them to settle there. there. settle to them for inducements financial offered and

his kingdom he granted many privileges specifically to Jews Jews to specifically privileges many granted he kingdom his

and privileges in many areas of his country. In consolidating consolidating In country. his of areas many in privileges and

King James I of Aragon (1208-76) offered the Jews protection protection Jews the offered (1208-76) Aragon of I James King

1247: Proclamation of Protection (Kingdom Of Aragon) Of (Kingdom Protection of Proclamation 1247:

Reference: 1247.2 Reference:

). ). 1240 below, Paris of Disputation

rather than burned, a policy continued by subsequent popes ( popes subsequent by continued policy a burned, than rather see entry for the the for entry see

censored (by expunging the passages that seemed objectionable to the church) church) the to objectionable seemed that passages the expunging (by censored

The Pope wrote letters to King Louis IX urging that the Talmud should be be should Talmud the that urging IX Louis King to letters wrote Pope The

1247: Pope Innocent IV IV Innocent Pope 1247:

Reference: 1247.1 Reference:

their breasts removed. removed. breasts their

led to Jews being quartered, burnt alive, men being castrated, and women having having women and castrated, being men alive, burnt quartered, being Jews to led

and confessed to the charges. More Jews were imprisoned and tortured, which which tortured, and imprisoned were Jews More charges. the to confessed and

suspicion on the Jews of the town. Three Jews were imprisoned and tortured, tortured, and imprisoned were Jews Three town. the of Jews the on suspicion

A blood libel charge of a 2-year-old child who died just before Passover brought brought Passover before just died who child 2-year-old a of charge libel blood A

1247: Blood libel in Valréas, France Valréas, in libel Blood 1247:

173 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 174. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1247: Pope Innocent IV

Pope Innocent IV issued papal bull Lachrymabilem Judaeorum urging end of persecution of the Jews based on the blood libel.

Reference: 1247.4

1248-54: Seventh Crusade

The Seventh Crusade was led by Louis IX of France. It failed to reclaim the Holy Lands.

Reference: 1248.1

1249: Paper expulsion of Jews issued in Poitou, France

Alphonse, Count of Poitiers, the brother of Kings Louis IX of France and Charles I of Sicily, ordered the expulsion of the Jews from Poitou. Though his decree remained mostly on paper, it does mark the first recorded local expulsion of Jews.

Reference: 1249.1

1250: Pope Innocent IV

Refused permission to Jews of Cordova to build a new synagogue.

Reference: 1250.1

Reference: 1252.1 Reference:

the penalty. penalty. the

from convicted heretics. The State in return assumed the burden of carrying out out carrying of burden the assumed return in State The heretics. convicted from

The bull also conceded to the State a portion of the property to be confiscated confiscated be to property the of portion a State the to conceded also bull The

virtually certain. virtually

3. that the Inquisitor deemed the evidence against the accused to be be to accused the against evidence the deemed Inquisitor the that

2. that it was used only once; only used was it that

1. that it did not cause loss of life or limb; or life of loss cause not did it that

The following parameters were placed on the use of torture: of use the on placed were parameters following The

accusing others, although one must stop short of danger to life or limb.” limb.” or life to danger of short stop must one although others, accusing

“to be coerced—as are thieves and bandits—into confessing their errors and and errors their confessing bandits—into and thieves are coerced—as be “to

they are are they

Christian faith ...”, ...”, faith Christian

“murderers of souls as well as robbers of God’s sacraments and of the the of and sacraments God’s of robbers as well as souls of “murderers

from heretics. The bull argued that as heretics are: are: heretics as that argued bull The heretics. from

authorized the limited use of torture by inquisitors for eliciting confessions confessions eliciting for inquisitors by torture of use limited the authorized

Ad extirpanda Ad bull papal issued IV Innocent Pope (“In uprooting”), which which uprooting”), (“In

1252: Pope Innocent IV Innocent Pope 1252:

Reference: 1251.1 Reference:

). ). 1320 below, 2 No. Crusade Shepherds’ see ( way

Paris, indulging in pogroms against Jews and lepers on the the on lepers and Jews against pogroms in indulging Paris,

IX during the Seventh Crusade. 40,000 people converged on on converged people 40,000 Crusade. Seventh the during IX

movement in northern France aimed at rescuing King Louis Louis King rescuing at aimed France northern in movement

The Shepherds’ Crusade of 1251 was a popular crusading crusading popular a was 1251 of Crusade Shepherds’ The

1251: Shepherds’ Crusade No. 1 No. Crusade Shepherds’ 1251:

175 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 176. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1253: King Henry III, England: Statute of Jewry

King Henry III extracted huge sums of money from the Jews in England, ultimately crippling their ability to do business. As attitudes towards the Jews hardened and in response to antisemitic feelings in medieval England, he introduced the Statute of Jewry, which attempted to segregate the Jews.

The statute had thirteen articles, containing the following provisions:

• Article One provided that any Jew could remain in England only if he or she would “serve Us in some way”

• Article Two deemed that Synagogues could not be constructed, and only those that existed in the time of King John could stand

• Article Three demanded that Jews lower their voices in Synagogues, so that Christians could not hear them

• Article Four placed a duty on Jews to pay to their local Christian church

• Article Five banned Christian (wet) nurses and servants working for Jews, and banned all Christians from eating with Jews or ‘”abiding” with them in their houses

• Article Six banned Jews from buying and eating meat in Lent • Article Seven banned Jews from disparaging or publicly disputing the Christian faith

• Article Eight banned “secret familiarity” between Jewish men and Christian women, and Christian men, and Jewish women • Article Nine commanded that “every Jew wear his badge conspicuously on his breast” • Article Ten banned Jews from Churches, except for ‘transit’ • Article Eleven barred Jews from hindering another’s conversion

Reference: 1255.1 Reference:

to the Jews for one year to his brother, Richard of Cornwall, for 5,000 marks. marks. 5,000 for Cornwall, of Richard brother, his to year one for Jews the to

King Henry III, who saw himself as “master of the Jews”, transferred his rights rights his transferred Jews”, the of “master as himself saw who III, Henry King

1255: King Henry III, England III, Henry King 1255:

Reference: 1254.1 Reference:

then further east. east. further then

the end of the Tosafists period. Most left for Germany and and Germany for left Most period. Tosafists the of end the

King Louis IX expelled the Jews from France. This signaled signaled This France. from Jews the expelled IX Louis King

1254: Jews expelled from France from expelled Jews 1254:

Reference: 1253.2 Reference:

expulsion of the Jews. Jews. the of expulsion

Pope Innocent IV approves the arch-bishop of Vienna’s Vienna’s of arch-bishop the approves IV Innocent Pope

1253: Jews expelled from Vienna, Austria Vienna, from expelled Jews 1253:

Reference: 1253.1 Reference:

pain of forfeiture of the chattels of the said Jews” said the of chattels the of forfeiture of pain

enforce the articles, and that they were to be be to were they that and articles, the enforce “rigorously observed on on observed “rigorously

• set out that the “justices of the Jews” were to to were Jews” the of “justices the that out set Thirteen Article

town other than those with established Jewish communities Jewish established with those than other town

• required Jews to obtain a licence to live in any any in live to licence a obtain to Jews required Twelve Article

177 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 178. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1255: Little St. Hugh of Lincoln, England

People affected / deaths: 18

An infamous ritual murder libel of Little St. Hugh alleged that Jews enticed the 9-year-old boy and while starving him, invited Jews to Lincoln to murder him ritually. (Jews did come to Lincoln at that time to attend a wedding.) His body was cast into a well and a month later “miracles” followed the discovery of his corpse. On the basis of the alleged “confession” by Jopin ( Jacob), the secular authorities (for the first time) and the Church sent 91 Jews to the Tower of London. 18 were executed before Richard, the Earl of Cornwall (King Henry’s brother), and the friars stopped the killings. This incident later provided Chaucer with the idea for his Prioress’s Tale (from The Canterbury Tales, 1387 — see entry below) and the hero of the popular ballad, “Little Sir Hugh”. His birthday (August 27) was celebrated until the Reformation.

The chronicler Matthew Paris described the supposed murder, implicating all the Jews in England. While his account is important as the most famous and influential version of the myth, it is also thought to be the least reliable of the contemporary accounts of what had actually taken place:

“This year [1255] about the feast of the apostles Peter and Paul [27 July], the Jews of Lincoln stole a boy called Hugh, who was about eight years old. After shutting him up in a secret chamber, where they fed him on milk and other childish food, they sent to almost all the cities of England in which there were Jews, and summoned some of their sect from each city to be present at a sacrifice to take place at Lincoln, in contumely [insolent or insulting language or treatment] and insult of Jesus Christ. For, as they said, they had a boy concealed for the purpose of being crucified; so a great number of them assembled at Lincoln, and then they appointed a Jew of Lincoln judge, to take the place of Pilate, by whose sentence, and with the concurrence of all, the boy was subjected to various tortures. They scourged him till the blood flowed, they crowned him with thorns, mocked him, and spat upon him; each of them also pierced him with a knife, and they made him drink gall, and scoffed at him with blasphemous insults, and kept gnashing their teeth and calling him Jesus, the false prophet. And after tormenting him in diverse ways they crucified him, and pierced him to the heart with a spear. When the boy was dead, they took the body down from the cross, and for some reason disemboweled it; it is said for the purpose of their magic arts.”

Reference: 1255.2

Reference: 1261.1 Reference:

be encouraged to make a living from other occupations than money lending. lending. money than occupations other from living a make to encouraged be

the Jews”). According to Thomas Aquinas’s reply to Adelheid, the Jews should should Jews the Adelheid, to reply Aquinas’s Thomas to According Jews”). the

response in a tractate later known as as known later tractate a in response (“On the status of of status the (“On Judaeorum regimine De

Catholic theologian of the time, Thomas of Aquinas, who formulated his his formulated who Aquinas, of Thomas time, the of theologian Catholic

Adelheid, took a more practical view and asked for the advise of the greatest greatest the of advise the for asked and view practical more a took Adelheid,

Apparently their expulsion was not implemented. His widow, the Duchess Duchess the widow, His implemented. not was expulsion their Apparently

their practice of moneylending and usury.” and moneylending of practice their

engage in commerce after the fashion of other merchants and agree to cease cease to agree and merchants other of fashion the after commerce in engage

be totally extirpated until not even one remains, unless they undertake to to undertake they unless remains, one even not until extirpated totally be

“all Jews and usurers be expelled from the province of Brabant. They are to to are They Brabant. of province the from expelled be usurers and Jews “all

In his will Duke Henry III of Brabant ordered that: that: ordered Brabant of III Henry Duke will his In

1261: Duke Henry III, Brabant (in the Netherlands) the (in Brabant III, Henry Duke 1261:

Reference: 1259.1 Reference:

A synod of archdiocese in Mainz ordered Jews to wear yellow badges. badges. yellow wear to Jews ordered Mainz in archdiocese of synod A

1259: Mainz, Germany Mainz, 1259:

Reference: 1257.1 Reference:

were initiated both in color and in the actual apparel. apparel. actual the in and color in both initiated were

Alexander IV enforced it on all Papal States. Over the years different variations variations different years the Over States. Papal all on it enforced IV Alexander

of shame was imposed locally and infrequently in Italy until the Bull of Pope Pope of Bull the until Italy in infrequently and locally imposed was shame of

Although first proscribed in the fourth Lateran Council in 1215, the badge badge the 1215, in Council Lateran fourth the in proscribed first Although

1257: Badge of Shame, Italy Shame, of Badge 1257:

179 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 180. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1262: Riots in London, England

People affected / deaths: 700

Amidst allegations of excessive interest being charged by Jews, a London mob destroyed a synagogue in Lothbury Street, killing 700 inhabitants. King Henry III ordered the synagogue to be rebuilt as a chapel for a group of friars.

Reference: 1262.1

1263: Disputation of Barcelona in Aragon, Spain

The Disputation of Barcelona was a formal ordered medieval debate between representatives of Christianity and Judaism regarding whether or not Jesus was the Messiah. Disputations between Christians and Jews during the Middle Ages were connected with burnings of the Talmud and violence against the Jews, but this disputation was unique in that Jews and Christians were given absolute freedom to speak. The disputation took place in front of the royal court of King James of Aragon between Dominican Friar Pablo Christiani, a convert from Judaism to Christianity, and Nachmanides (Moshe Ben Nachman), a leading medieval Jewish scholar, philosopher, physician, kabbalist, and biblical commentator.

At the end of the disputation, James I awarded Nachmanides a prize of 300 gold coins and declared that never before had he heard “an unjust cause so nobly defended”. Since the Dominicans claimed victory, Nachmanides left Aragon never to return again, and in 1267 he settled in Palestine. There he founded a synagogue in the Old City of Jerusalem, the Ramban Synagogue, which is the oldest synagogue in Jerusalem.

King James I ordered the removal of passages deemed offensive from the Talmud.

Reference: 1263.1

however, the position of the Jews in Anjou was favorable. They were exempted exempted were They favorable. was Anjou in Jews the of position the however,

persons, represented by Moses, their “syndic and commissioner” and “syndic their Moses, by represented persons, . On the whole, whole, the On .

money from the Anjou communities, at that time numbering less than 1,000 1,000 than less numbering time that at communities, Anjou the from money

In 1269 and later, Charles I, count of Anjou, exacted considerable sums of of sums considerable exacted Anjou, of count I, Charles later, and 1269 In

1266–85: Reign of Charles of Anjou, southern Italy southern Anjou, of Charles of Reign 1266–85:

Reference: 1265.1 Reference:

pogrom in which 61 other Jews were slain together with him. him. with together slain were Jews other 61 which in pogrom

confrontation between the Jews and Catholics of Sinzig, resulting in a regional regional a in resulting Sinzig, of Catholics and Jews the between confrontation

the saints. He was arrested, tortured and sentenced to death. This resulted in a a in resulted This death. to sentenced and tortured arrested, was He saints. the

such enthusiasm that he publicly assailed Christianity and attacked images of of images attacked and Christianity assailed publicly he that enthusiasm such

Abraham of Augsburg was a convert to Judaism, who preached Judaism with with Judaism preached who Judaism, to convert a was Augsburg of Abraham

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 62

1265: Abraham of Augsburg of Abraham 1265:

Reference: 1264.2 Reference:

persecution in Germany, encouraged immigration to Poland. Poland. to immigration encouraged Germany, in persecution

The statute, being issued soon after the expulsion of Jews from France and and France from Jews of expulsion the after soon issued being statute, The

their position as belonging to the prince’s treasury and under his protection. protection. his under and treasury prince’s the to belonging as position their

position of Jews in Poland and subsequent charters established established charters subsequent and Poland in Jews of position

Poland in 1257. The statute served as the basis for the legal legal the for basis the as served statute The 1257. in Poland

Pious (1221-79). Boleslav had extended his rule over all of of all over rule his extended had Boleslav (1221-79). Pious

The Statute of Kalisz was issued by Prince Boleslav V The The V Boleslav Prince by issued was Kalisz of Statute The

1264: Statute of Kalisz (Statut Kaliski), Poland Kaliski), (Statut Kalisz of Statute 1264:

Reference: 1264.1 Reference:

see entry above, 1231 above, entry see ( elsewhere done had supporters ). ).

Hertford led a massacre of the Jews at Canterbury, as Simon de Montfort’s Montfort’s de Simon as Canterbury, at Jews the of massacre a led Hertford

During the Second Barons’ War (1264-67), Gilbert de Clare, sixth Earl of of Earl sixth Clare, de Gilbert (1264-67), War Barons’ Second the During

1264: Gilbert de Clare de Gilbert 1264:

181 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 182. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History from wearing the Jewish badge, permitted to live in any place with more than 120 households, to engage in commerce, and to give loans on interest, using deeds stamped with the court seal.

Reference: 1266.1

1267: Synod of Breslau, Poland

Regulations were introduced restricting Jewish liberties, and assigning them special settlement zones (ghettos). The following restrictions are especially noteworthy:

1. Jews and Christians were forbidden to associate at the dance- halls, in the inns, or at the baths; 2. Jews were enjoined to wear a special cap when appearing in public; 3. a ditch or a fence was to separate the dwelling of a Jew from that of his Christian neighbor; 4. Christian nurses or day-laborers were forbidden to stay at night with their Jewish employers; 5. Jews were prohibited from dealing in provisions, especially in meat, “in order that they might not poison their Christian customers”; 6. Jews were ordered to keep their doors and windows closed on the occasion of every Christian procession; 7. only one Jewish house of worship was allowed in each town.

Reference: 1267.1

1267: Synod of Vienna, Austria

At a special session of the city council it was decided to force all Jews to wear a cone shaped headdress — “horned hats” — in addition to a badge. This was called the Pileum Cornutum, and it became a distinctive attire which is prevalent in many medieval woodcuts illustrating Jews. Jews were also forbidden to frequent Christian inns or baths, and ordered to stay home with closed doors and windows when the host was carried past.

Reference: 1267.2

victories for Edward over Baibars, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria. Ultimately Ultimately Syria. and Egypt of Sultan the Baibars, over Edward for victories

to Acre in what is known as the Ninth Crusade, which saw several impressive impressive several saw which Crusade, Ninth the as known is what in Acre to

Europe shortly afterwards. This led Henry III of England’s son Edward to sail sail to Edward son England’s of III Henry led This afterwards. shortly Europe

on the shores of Tunisia, with his disease-ridden army dispersing back to to back dispersing army disease-ridden his with Tunisia, of shores the on

Tunis in 1270, but is considered a failure after Louis died shortly after arriving arriving after shortly died Louis after failure a considered is but 1270, in Tunis

The Eighth Crusade was launched by Louis IX of France against the city of of city the against France of IX Louis by launched was Crusade Eighth The

1270-72: Eighth & Ninth Crusades Ninth & Eighth 1270-72:

Reference: 1270.1 Reference:

for five days afterward. afterward. days five for

body in order to obtain all the blood. The child’s wounds were said to have bled bled have to said were wounds child’s The blood. the all obtain to order in body

was found in the Lauter river) by the feet, and had opened every artery in its its in artery every opened had and feet, the by river) Lauter the in found was

According to a blood libel accusation, the Jews suspended a child (whose body body (whose child a suspended Jews the accusation, libel blood a to According

1270: Weissenburg, Germany Weissenburg, 1270:

Reference: 1269.1 Reference:

chest or back. Those who failed to comply had to pay the heavy fine of ten livres. livres. ten of fine heavy the pay to had comply to failed who Those back. or chest

fingers in circumference, which had to be attached to the outer garment at the the at garment outer the to attached be to had which circumference, in fingers

consisted of a piece of red or yellow felt or cloth cut in the form of a wheel, four four wheel, a of form the in cut cloth or felt yellow or red of piece a of consisted

(“wheel”) on their outer garment. This This garment. outer their on (“wheel”) rouelle or rota a badge, Jewish the wear

On June 19 King Louis IX issued an edict in France compelling the Jews to to Jews the compelling France in edict an issued IX Louis King 19 June On

June 19, 1269: King Louis IX, France IX, Louis King 1269: 19, June

Reference: 1267.3 Reference:

Christians. Christians.

Christians to embrace Judaism, and extending the Inquisition to Jewish Jewish to Inquisition the extending and Judaism, embrace to Christians

Turbato corde Turbato bull papal issued IV Clement Pope (“Troubled ropes”) forbidding forbidding ropes”) (“Troubled

1267: Pope Clement IV Clement Pope 1267:

183 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 184. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History the Crusaders were forced to withdraw, since Edward had pressing concerns at home and felt unable to resolve the internal conflicts within the remnant Outremer (Crusader State) territories.

Reference: 1270.2

1271: Thomas Aquinas, Dominican Friar: “Letter on the Treatment of Jews”

Thomas Aquinas (1225-74) was a Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. He was an immensely influential philosopher, theologian and jurist. His influence on Western thought is considerable. The Catholic Church honors him as a saint and regards him as the model teacher for those studying for the priesthood. His treatise Summa de veritate catholicae fidei contra gentiles (“Treatise on the Truth of the Catholic Faith, against Unbelievers”) was used against the Jews and Moors in Spain.

In 1271 he wrote “Letter on the Treatment of Jews” which deals with how a ruler should deal with Jews living in a land during the 1200s:

“First Response...the Jews by reason of their fault are sentenced to perpetual servitude and thus the lords of the lands in which they dwell may take things from them as though they were their own — with, nonetheless, this restraint observed that the necessary subsidies of life in no way be taken from them, because it still is necessary that we “walk honestly even in the presence of those who are outsiders (I Thes. 4:11)... the Jews may not licitly keep those things which they have extorted from others through usury...”

“Second Response... if a Jew should sin... it is expeditious that he be punished with a financial penalty, in order that he might not accrue some benefit from his iniquity...”

“Eighth Response. Finally you ask whether it is good that Jews throughout your province are compelled to wear a sign distinguishing them from Christians. The reply to this is plain: that, according to a statute of the general Council, Jews of each sex in all Christian provinces, and all the time, should be distinguished from other people by some clothing. This is also mandated to them by their own law, namely that they make for themselves fringes on the four corners of their cloaks, through which they are distinguished from others.”

His words set the stage for later claims of ritual murder, host desecration, and well poisoning. Aquinas reintroduced St. Chrysostom’s conception of Jews as a “deliberate unbeliever, one who knew the truth of Christianity, who maliciously

the words of their prophets and the mysteries of the Scriptures, and thus thus and Scriptures, the of mysteries the and prophets their of words the

Although they prefer to persist in their stubbornness rather than to recognize recognize to than rather stubbornness their in persist to prefer they Although

have been granted them. granted been have

even so they ought not to suffer any disadvantage in those [privileges] which which [privileges] those in disadvantage any suffer to not ought they so even

undertake for themselves more than that which is permitted them by law, law, by them permitted is which that than more themselves for undertake

Even as it is not allowed to the Jews in their assemblies presumptuously to to presumptuously assemblies their in Jews the to allowed not is it as Even

to those here now and to those in the future. the in those to and now here those to

apostolic benediction to the beloved sons in Christ, the faithful Christians, Christians, faithful the Christ, in sons beloved the to benediction apostolic

“Gregory, bishop, servant of the servants of God, extends greetings and the the and greetings extends God, of servants the of servant bishop, “Gregory,

The Letter in its entirety: its in Letter The

(1243-54).

earlier letters of Innocent III (1198-1216) and Innocent IV IV Innocent and (1198-1216) III Innocent of letters earlier

accusation against them. He also incorporated material from from material incorporated also He them. against accusation

Papal protection of the Jews, and opposing the blood libel libel blood the opposing and Jews, the of protection Papal

On October 7, Pope Gregory X wrote a letter advocating advocating letter a wrote X Gregory Pope 7, October On

October 7, 1272: Pope Gregory X Gregory Pope 1272: 7, October

Reference: 1271.2 Reference:

claiming his authorization, expelled the Jews from Moissac, a town near Toulouse. Toulouse. near town a Moissac, from Jews the expelled authorization, his claiming

In July 1271, during his absence, his vice administrators (“vices gerentes”), gerentes”), (“vices administrators vice his absence, his during 1271, July In

Marquisate of Provence. Provence. of Marquisate

from 1249-71. As Count of Toulouse, he also governed the the governed also he Toulouse, of Count As 1249-71. from

from 1225-71, and the Count of Toulouse (as Alphonse II) II) Alphonse (as Toulouse of Count the and 1225-71, from

Alphonse (1220 - August 21, 1271) was the Count of Poitiers Poitiers of Count the was 1271) 21, August - (1220 Alphonse

July 1271: Jews expelled from Moissac, France Moissac, from expelled Jews 1271: July

Reference: 1271.1 Reference:

and as Christianity’s greatest spiritual and physical enemies.” enemies.” physical and spiritual greatest Christianity’s as and

ideological basis of the Christian assault on the Jews as heretics, as the devil’s disciples, disciples, devil’s the as heretics, as Jews the on assault Christian the of basis ideological

refused to accept it, and who should therefore be punished for it. His ideas became the the became ideas His it. for punished be therefore should who and it, accept to refused

185 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 186. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

to arrive at a knowledge of Christian faith and salvation; nevertheless, inasmuch as they have made an appeal for our protection and help, we therefore admit their petition and offer them the shield of our protection through the clemency of Christian piety. In so doing we follow in the footsteps of our predecessors of blessed memory, the popes of Rome—Calixtus, Eugene, Alexander, Clement, Innocent, and Honorius.

We decree moreover that no Christian shall compel them or any one of their group to come to baptism unwillingly. But if any one of them shall take refuge of his own accord with Christians, because of conviction, then, after his intention will have been manifest, he shall be made a Christian without any intrigue. For, indeed, that person who is known to have come to Christian baptism not freely, but unwillingly, is not believed to posses the Christian faith.

Moreover no Christian shall presume to seize, imprison, wound, torture, mutilate, kill or inflict violence on them; furthermore no one shall presume, except by judicial action of the authorities of the country, to change the good customs in the land where they live for the purpose of taking their money or goods from them or from others.

In addition, no one shall disturb them in any way during the celebration of their festivals, whether by day or by night, with clubs or stones or anything else. Also no one shall exact any compulsory service of them unless it be that which they have been accustomed to render in previous times.

Inasmuch as the Jews are not able to bear witness against the Christians, we decree furthermore that the testimony of Christians against Jews shall not be valid unless there is among these Christians some Jew who is there for the purpose of offering testimony.

Since it happens occasionally that some Christians lose their children, the Jews are accused by their enemies of secretly carrying off and killing these same Christian children and of making sacrifices of the heart and blood of these very children. It happens, too, that the parents of these very children, or some other Christian enemies of these Jews, secretly hide these very children in order that they may be able to injure these Jews, and in order that they may be able to extort from them a certain amount of money by redeeming them from their straits.

And most falsely do these Christians claim that the Jews have secretly and furtively carried away these children and killed them, and that the Jews offer sacrifices from the heart and the blood of these children, since their

Reference: 1274.1 Reference:

Jewish Christians. Christians. Jewish

forbidding Christians to embrace Judaism, and extending the Inquisition to to Inquisition the extending and Judaism, embrace to Christians forbidding

Pope Gregory X re-issued papal bull bull papal re-issued X Gregory Pope (“Troubled ropes”) of 1267 1267 of ropes”) (“Troubled corde Turbato

1274: Pope Gregory X Gregory Pope 1274:

Reference: 1272.1 Reference:

of the pontificate of our master, the Pope Gregory X.” Gregory Pope the master, our of pontificate the of

of fifteen years], in the year 1272 of the divine incarnation, in the first year year first the in incarnation, divine the of 1272 year the in years], fifteen of

of the Holy Roman Church, on the 7 the on Church, Roman Holy the of of October, in the first indiction [cycle [cycle indiction first the in October, of th

Given at Orvieto by the hand of the Magister John Lectator, vice-chancellor vice-chancellor Lectator, John Magister the of hand the by Orvieto at Given

faith be fortified by support of such protection. such of support by fortified be faith

attempted to contrive anything toward the destruction of the Christian Christian the of destruction the toward anything contrive to attempted

proper recompense. Moreover, we wish that only those Jews who have not not have who Jews those only that wish we Moreover, recompense. proper

penalty of excommunication, unless he makes amends for his boldness by by boldness his for amends makes he unless excommunication, of penalty

suffer punishment in his rank and position, or let him be punished by the the by punished be him let or position, and rank his in punishment suffer

will not happen—attempt audaciously to act contrary to it, then let him him let then it, to contrary act to audaciously happen—attempt not will

after having known the content of this decree, should—which we hope hope we should—which decree, this of content the known having after

dig up human bodies for the sake of getting money. Moreover, if any one, one, any if Moreover, money. getting of sake the for bodies human up dig

no one shall dare to devastate or to destroy a cemetery of the Jews or to to or Jews the of cemetery a destroy to or devastate to dare shall one no

We decree in order to stop the wickedness and avarice of bad men, that that men, bad of avarice and wickedness the stop to order in decree We

predecessors, from antiquity till now. till antiquity from predecessors,

maintained in that status and position in which they were in the time of our our of time the in were they which in position and status that in maintained

Christian shall stir up anything new against them, but that they should be be should they that but them, against new anything up stir shall Christian

believe—they be caught in the commission of the crime. We decree that no no that decree We crime. the of commission the in caught be believe—they

arrested henceforth on such a miserable pretext, unless—which we do not not do we unless—which pretext, miserable a such on henceforth arrested

a silly pretext be freed from imprisonment, and that they shall not be be not shall they that and imprisonment, from freed be pretext silly a

a case or situation of this type, and we order that Jews seized under such such under seized Jews that order we and type, this of situation or case a

We decree, therefore, that Christians need not be obeyed against Jews in in Jews against obeyed be not need Christians that therefore, decree, We

because of this. of because

faith: nevertheless very many Jews are often seized and detained unjustly unjustly detained and seized often are Jews many very nevertheless faith:

demonstrated many times at our court by Jews converted to the Christian Christian the to converted Jews by court our at times many demonstrated

drink the blood, or to eat the flesh of animals having claws. This has been been has This claws. having animals of flesh the eat to or blood, the drink

law in this matter precisely and expressly forbids Jews to sacrifice, eat, or or eat, sacrifice, to Jews forbids expressly and precisely matter this in law

187 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 188. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1275: Statute of the Jewry (Statutum de Judaismo), England

People affected / deaths: hundreds

The Statute of the Jewry was a statute issued by Edward I, which placed a number of restrictions on the Jews of England, most notably outlawing the practice of usury. Other restrictions: Jews were not allowed to live outside certain cities and towns; any Jew over the age of seven had to wear a yellow badge; Jews over the age of 12 had to pay a special tax of three pence annually; Christians were forbidden to live among Jews; Jews could only make a living in England as merchants, farmers, craftsmen or soldiers. The Jews became poor and the king could no longer collect taxes from them, so many hundreds were arrested, hanged or imprisoned.

After 15 years had passed, it was discovered that Jews widely but secretly continued to practice usury, leading Edward I to issue the Edict of Expulsion in 1290 (see entry below).

Reference: 1275.1

c. 1275: Deacon Robert of Reading, England

Robert was a Dominican friar and a student of Hebrew at Oxford University who circumcised himself, married a Jewish woman, and named himself Haggai. When investigated by the Church, he was reported to have said: “I renounce the newfangled Law and the comments of Jesus, the false prophet.”

So far as is known, he did not suffer in consequence, though some chroniclers seem to suggest that the episode was partially responsible for the expulsion of the Jews in 1290. He is often confused with an anonymous Oxford deacon who converted to Judaism and was burned in 1222 (see entry above).

Reference: 1275.2

Reference: 1278.1 Reference:

equivalent to 10 percent of the crown’s annual income at the time. time. the at income annual crown’s the of percent 10 to equivalent

accounts with the crown by paying a fine. This brought in an estimated £16,500, £16,500, estimated an in brought This fine. a paying by crown the with accounts

violations who had not by then been convicted and executed could settle settle could executed and convicted been then by not had who violations

By May 6, 1279, King Edward announced that anyone suspected of currency currency of suspected anyone that announced Edward King 1279, 6, May By

alone, and more than another 50 in other towns and cities. cities. and towns other in 50 another than more and alone,

the kingdom. 269 Jews — and 29 Christians — were put to death, in London London in death, to put were — Christians 29 and — Jews 269 kingdom. the

which both Jews and Christians indulged, and which led to a financial crisis in in crisis financial a to led which and indulged, Christians and Jews both which

3,000, or 1% of the English population. It was a widespread practice, one in in one practice, widespread a was It population. English the of 1% or 3,000,

At the time, the Jewish population of England was believed to have been about about been have to believed was England of population Jewish the time, the At

imprisoned in the Tower of London. London. of Tower the in imprisoned

goldsmith, or used to make counterfeit coins. Eventually, 680 people were were people 680 Eventually, coins. counterfeit make to used or goldsmith,

be made of gold or silver), which were then melted into a bar and sold to a a to sold and bar a into melted then were which silver), or gold of made be

clipping was the practice of cutting small pieces from coins (which used to to used (which coins from pieces small cutting of practice the was clipping

search of their homes on suspicion of coin clipping and counterfeiting. Coin Coin counterfeiting. and clipping coin of suspicion on homes their of search

On November 17, 1278, all the Jews of England were subjected to arrest and and arrest to subjected were England of Jews the all 1278, 17, November On

plus 269– deaths: / affected People

November 17, 1278: Counterfeiting, England Counterfeiting, 1278: 17, November

Reference: 1276.1 Reference:

Louis the Strict expelled the Jews. Jews. the expelled Strict the Louis

1276: Jews expelled from Upper Bavaria Upper from expelled Jews 1276:

Reference: 1275.3 Reference:

Worcester. Worcester.

in January 1275, which included Gloucester, Guildford and and Guildford Gloucester, included which 1275, January in

Jews were expelled from the lands of Queen Dowager Eleanor Eleanor Dowager Queen of lands the from expelled were Jews

Worcester, England Worcester,

1275: Jews expelled from Gloucester, Guildford and and Guildford Gloucester, from expelled Jews 1275:

189 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 190. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1278: Pope Nicholas III

Pope Nicholas III issued papal bull Vineam sorce (“The Vineyard Sorce”) ordering conversion sermons to Jews.

Reference: 1278.2

1279: Synod of Ofen, Hungary

Jews must wear a red cloth on their left side. Christians living in a house with a Jew were prohibited from participating in Church services. Christians were prohibited from selling real estate to Jews.

Reference: 1279.1

1282: Archbishop of Canterbury, John Peckham

In a letter to the Bishop of London, the Archbishop, a notable antisemite, orders him to compel the Jews of London, using every instrument of ecclesiastical censure, to destroy all their synagogues except one within a brief time period to be determined by the Bishop. In a second letter he congratulates the Bishop because the Judaica perfidia (“Jewish perfidy”) is being overcome by the bishop’s attention and vigilance.

Reference: 1282.1

1285: Munich, Germany

People affected / deaths: 248

A blood libel results in the deaths of 68 Jews. The 180 survivors were burned alive in a synagogue. The names of 68 of the victims are listed in the Nuremberg

Reference: 1288.1 Reference:

Naples issues the first expulsion of Jews in Southern Italy. Italy. Southern in Jews of expulsion first the issues Naples

1288: Jews expelled from Naples, Italy Naples, from expelled Jews 1288:

Reference: 1287.2 Reference:

asking for forgiveness for for forgiveness for asking “the curse that we unrightfully affixed to the Jews’ name.” name.” Jews’ the to affixed unrightfully we that curse “the

Pope John XXIII, recognizing the brotherhood of Christians and Jews, and and Jews, and Christians of brotherhood the recognizing XXIII, John Pope

In recent years a plaque was added to the chapel, along with a quotation from from quotation a with along chapel, the to added was plaque a years recent In

murder. murder.

prompted other allegations against Jews, such as Host desecration and ritual ritual and desecration Host as such Jews, against allegations other prompted

Saint Werner’s Chapel, and became a popular pilgrimage site. His veneration veneration His site. pilgrimage popular a became and Chapel, Werner’s Saint

Cunibert Chapel in Bacharach was expanded in 1289 to become the present present the become to 1289 in expanded was Bacharach in Chapel Cunibert

venerated as a Christian saint until 1963, and his feast day was April 19. The The 19. April was day feast his and 1963, until saint Christian a as venerated

Passover (blood libel), leading to revenge killings of Jews across Europe. He was was He Europe. across Jews of killings revenge to leading libel), (blood Passover

blamed on Jews, claiming that they had used his blood for the Jewish ritual of of ritual Jewish the for blood his used had they that claiming Jews, on blamed

Werner of Oberwesel was a 16-year-old boy whose unexplained death was was death unexplained whose boy 16-year-old a was Oberwesel of Werner

40 deaths: / affected People

1287: Werner of Oberwesel, Germany Oberwesel, of Werner 1287:

Reference: 1287.1 Reference:

). ). below

Jews were reenacted, which aided the expulsion of the Jews in 1290 ( 1290 in Jews the of expulsion the aided which reenacted, were Jews see entry entry see

At an ecclesiastical synod held at Exeter, the church restrictions regarding the the regarding restrictions church the Exeter, at held synod ecclesiastical an At

1287: Exeter, England Exeter, 1287:

Reference: 1285.1 Reference:

throughout Central Europe), which dates from 1296. 1296. from dates which Europe), Central throughout

(a community prayer book once common in Jewish communities communities Jewish in common once book prayer community (a Memorbuch

191 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 192. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1288: Pope Nicholas IV

Pope Nicholas IV issued papal bull Turbato corde (“Troubled ropes”) demanding that Christians who embrace Judaism be treated as heretics:

“With troubled heart we hear and bring to mind that many of those converted from the error of Jewish blindness to the light of Christian faith, have fallen back into their former falsehood. Also many Christians have denied the Catholic faith and exchanged it for the Jewish rite, which must be condemned … proceed with emphasis against all who make themselves guilty of this crime, against the heretics and their promoters, protectors and defenders. As far as the Jews are concerned, who have occasioned Christians of both sexes to their revolting rite or draw them over, they must be punished as they deserve.”

Reference: 1288.2

1288: Ritual murder accusation in Bonn, Germany

People affected / deaths: 104

Riots, after a ritual murder accusation, left 104 Jews dead.

Reference: 1288.3

1288: Ritual murder accusation in Troyes, France

People affected / deaths: 13

The Jewish inhabitants of Troyes were accused of a ritual murder. Thirteen Jews sacrificed themselves to spare the remainder of the community, and were burnt at the stake.

Reference: 1288.4

or be exiled. Most chose the latter, but about 100 converted. converted. 100 about but latter, the chose Most exiled. be or

(November 1) that year. Jews were given the option to convert, convert, to option the given were Jews year. that 1) (November

Expulsion required that all Jews be expelled by All Saints’ Day Day Saints’ All by expelled be Jews all that required Expulsion

and partly because Jews were widely hated. His Edict of of Edict His hated. widely were Jews because partly and

banished, their possessions became the property of the crown; crown; the of property the became possessions their banished,

I, whose motivation was partly financial: once they were were they once financial: partly was motivation whose I,

The Jews were expelled from England by King Edward Edward King by England from expelled were Jews The

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 2,000

of Av: Jews expelled from England from expelled Jews Av: of 9 1290:

th

Reference: 1290.1 Reference:

populace as faithless heretics. heretics. faithless as populace

were frequently forced to live in special quarters. They were regarded by the the by regarded were They quarters. special in live to forced frequently were

with accordingly by the authorities. To facilitate their supervision the the supervision their facilitate To authorities. the by accordingly with neofiti neofiti

(neophytes, or Crypto-Jews), officially recognized as a distinct group and dealt dealt and group distinct a as recognized officially Crypto-Jews), or (neophytes,

to the Jewish beliefs and practices in secret; they became known as the the as known became they secret; in practices and beliefs Jewish the to neofiti

A considerable number of the converts led the existence of of existence the led converts the of number considerable A , adhering adhering , anusim

into churches, and the schools were closed down. down. closed were schools the and churches, into

while a large number accepted baptism. Most of the synagogues were converted converted were synagogues the of Most baptism. accepted number large a while

Many fled from this persecution to the Orient; others who resisted were killed, killed, were resisted who others Orient; the to persecution this from fled Many

of Naples gave orders that all the Jews in his realm were to be forcibly baptized. baptized. forcibly be to were realm his in Jews the all that orders gave Naples of

Apulian Jewry was all but annihilated between 1290 and 1294 after Charles II II Charles after 1294 and 1290 between annihilated but all was Jewry Apulian

1290–94: Charles II of Naples of II Charles 1290–94:

Reference: 1289.1 Reference:

Expulsion of Jews” from England. England. from Jews” of Expulsion

their property confiscated. In 1290 he issued the “Edict of of “Edict the issued he 1290 In confiscated. property their

was deeply in debt, so the Jews of Gascony were expelled and and expelled were Gascony of Jews the so debt, in deeply was

By the time he returned to England in 1289, King Edward Edward King 1289, in England to returned he time the By

1289: Jews expelled from Gascony and Anjou, France Anjou, and Gascony from expelled Jews 1289:

193 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 194. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

They were only allowed to carry with them their portable property. Apart from a few exceptions, houses and properties were passed to the king. About 2,000 people left; some went to France, and some further east, to Poland. Jews wouldn’t be readmitted to England until Oliver Cromwell officially allowed for their return in 1656.

Reference: 1290.2

1291: Pope Nicholas IV

Pope Nicholas IV issued papal bull Orat mater ecclesia (“Oral Mother Church”) protecting Roman Jews from oppression.

Reference: 1291.1

1291: Crusades end with the fall of Acre, Israel

After a 2-month siege, Acre, one of the few remaining Crusader cities, fell to the Muslim Mamluks. Any Christians or Jews who did not succeed in fleeing were killed. This marked the end of the Crusades.

Reference: 1291.2

1293 or 1294: Jews expelled from Bern, Switzerland

In 1293 or 1294 several Jews were put to death in consequence of a blood libel, and the remainder expelled from the city.

Reference: 1293.1

Reference: 1299.1 Reference:

the name of the accuser revealed. revealed. accuser the of name the

included among persons who might be denounced to the Inquisition without without Inquisition the to denounced be might who persons among included

Pope Boniface VIII issued papal bull bull papal issued VIII Boniface Pope (“To us”) declaring Jews be be Jews declaring us”) (“To nobis Exhibita

1299: Pope Boniface VIII Boniface Pope 1299:

Reference: 1298.1 Reference:

killed about 20,000 Jews. The community of Würzburg was entirely annihilated. annihilated. entirely was Würzburg of community The Jews. 20,000 about killed

from Franconia to Bavaria and Austria, they destroyed 146 communities, and and communities, 146 destroyed they Austria, and Bavaria to Franconia from

that fell under their control, save those who accepted Christianity. Spreading Spreading Christianity. accepted who those save control, their under fell that

stake. Under his leadership the mob went from town to town, killing all the Jews Jews the all killing town, to town from went mob the leadership his Under stake.

gathered a mob around him and burned 21 Jews of Röttingen at the the at Röttingen of Jews 21 burned and him around mob a gathered Jews”, the

from heaven to avenge this desecration and to exterminate exterminate to and desecration this avenge to heaven from “the accursed race of of race accursed “the

Rindfleisch, a nobleman of Röttingen, pretending to have received a mission mission a received have to pretending Röttingen, of nobleman a Rindfleisch,

first large-scale persecution of Jews in Germany since the First Crusade in 1096. 1096. in Crusade First the since Germany in Jews of persecution large-scale first

accusation of desecration of the host in Paris in 1290. This massacre was the the was massacre This 1290. in Paris in host the of desecration of accusation

(1287). In Munich, Jews were burned alive in 1290. Likewise, there was an an was there Likewise, 1290. in alive burned were Jews Munich, In (1287).

a series of blood libels in Mainz (1281, 1283), Munich (1285) and Oberwesel Oberwesel and (1285) Munich 1283), (1281, Mainz in libels blood of series a

The Rintfleisch massacres were a series of massacres against Jews in response to to response in Jews against massacres of series a were massacres Rintfleisch The

20,000 deaths: / affected People

1298: The Rintfleisch massacres Rintfleisch The 1298:

195 1200–1299 Century: th 13 . 196. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

14th Century: 1300–1399

14th Century: Jewish expulsions

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of expulsions. Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities.

1306: France (also 1322, 1394 or 1396) 1319: Breslau, Poland (also 1349, 1360) 1320: Papal States; Milan, Italy 1348: Nauheim, Germany 1348-49: Strasbourg, France (also 1381, 1388) 1349: Hungary (also 1360, 1376); Basel, Switzerland; Heilbronn and Erfurt, Germany; Goerlitz, Germany (also 1389) 1352: Bulgaria 1353: Speyer, Germany 1354: Sopron, Hungary 1365: Lorraine (France) 1370: Belgium 1380: Slovakia 1392: Bern, Switzerland 1394: Germany

Reference: 1300.1 198. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

th 14 Century: Blood libel accusations

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of blood libel accusations:

1302: Remken 1303: Weissensee (boy found hanged) 1305: Prague; Vienna 1308: Thuringia 1317: Chinon 1329: Savoy, Geneva, Romilly, Annecy, etc. 1331: Ueberlingen 1345: Munich (Heinrich) 1387: Strasburg

Reference: 1300.2

14th Century: Host desecration accusations

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of host desecration accusations. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below for details:

1302: Austria 1306: St. Pölten, Austria 1310: Styria, Austria 1312: Fürstenfeld; Styria, Austria (riots in Grätz and Judenburg; expulsion from Styria and Carinthia) 1330: Güstrow; Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Germany 1331: Überlingen, Germany 1334: Constance, Germany

Reference: 1305.1 Reference:

Many Many remain on churches today. today. churches on remain Judensaus

Nicolas Church). Church). Nicolas

Peter), Wittenberg (Town church), Xanten (Cathedral), Zerbst (St. (St. Zerbst (Cathedral), Xanten church), (Town Wittenberg Peter),

(Cathedral), Wiener Neustadt in Austria, Wimpfen (Church of St. St. of (Church Wimpfen Austria, in Neustadt Wiener (Cathedral),

(Gate post), Strasbourg (Cathedral, on capital), Uppsala in Sweden Sweden in Uppsala capital), on (Cathedral, Strasbourg post), (Gate

Nuremberg (St. Sebaldus Church), Regensburg (Cathedral), Remagen Remagen (Cathedral), Regensburg Church), Sebaldus (St. Nuremberg

(St. Marien), Magdeburg (Cathedral), Metz in France (Cathedral), (Cathedral), France in Metz (Cathedral), Magdeburg Marien), (St.

(Cathedral), Heilsbronn (Cathedral), Gniezno (Cathedral), Lemgo Lemgo (Cathedral), Gniezno (Cathedral), Heilsbronn (Cathedral),

earliest example, and in Church of St. Severin), Eberswalde, Erfurt Erfurt Eberswalde, Severin), St. of Church in and example, earliest

Cologne, underside of a choir-stall seat in the Cathedral (probably the the (probably Cathedral the in seat choir-stall a of underside Cologne,

Cadolzburg, Colmar in France, Église Saint-Martin (2 representations), representations), (2 Saint-Martin Église France, in Colmar Cadolzburg,

Basel in Switzerland (Cathedral), Brandenburg (Cathedral), (Cathedral), Brandenburg (Cathedral), Switzerland in Basel

Aarschot in Belgium (Notre Dame Church), Bamberg (Cathedral), (Cathedral), Bamberg Church), Dame (Notre Belgium in Aarschot

sites include: include: sites Judensau Known

in Poland, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, France and Belgium. Belgium. and France Switzerland, Austria, Germany, Poland, in

In this time period Judensaus were sculpted onto a number of church buildings buildings church of number a onto sculpted were Judensaus period time this In

anniversary of the Reformation in 2017, but was rejected ( rejected was but 2017, in Reformation the of anniversary ). 2016 below, entry see

in 1517. A petition to have it removed was begun in 2016 in time for the 500 the for time in 2016 in begun was removed it have to petition A 1517. in

th th

home church of Martin Luther after he founded the Protestant Reformation Reformation Protestant the founded he after Luther Martin of church home

is erected on a Catholic church in 1305, which would become the the become would which 1305, in church Catholic a on erected is Judensau The

(“Jew-Pig”) erected in Wittenberg, Germany Wittenberg, in erected (“Jew-Pig”) Judensau 1305:

Reference: 1300.3 Reference:

Poznań, Poland* Poland* Poznań, 1399:

Prague 1388:

Brussels, Belgium* Brussels, 1370:

Coimbra, Portugal Coimbra, 1361:

Neuburg; Zwettl etc, Germany; Wolfsberg, Austria* Wolfsberg, Germany; etc, Zwettl Neuburg;

Pulka; Linzand; Wernatodorf; Retz; Znaim; Horn; Eggenburg; Eggenburg; Horn; Znaim; Retz; Wernatodorf; Linzand; Pulka; 1338:

Deggendorf, Straubing, and other Bavarian and Austrian towns Austrian and Bavarian other and Straubing, Deggendorf, 1337:

199 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 200. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1306: 10th of Av: Jews expelled from France

People affected / deaths: 100,000

King Philip IV, known as Philip the Fair, expelled the Jews from France after arresting them and confiscating their property. All debts to the Jews were transferred to the King and he received the payments from their Christian debtors. Most Jews went to areas outside the realm: northeast to Flanders, east to Provence, or southwest to the Iberian peninsula. This began a pattern of expulsion and return - in 1315, King Philip’s son, Louis, reversed the decree and readmitted them; 1322 they were banished again; 1359 they were readmitted; and 1394 they were banished yet again.

Reference: 1306.1

1308: John Duns Scotus, Franciscan monk and theologian, dies

Whereas Thomas Aquinas denounced the forcible baptism of Jewish children, John Duns Scotus staunchly advocated it:

“And not only the children, but also the parents themselves should be subjected to forcible baptism. Nor can the words of Isaiah (iv. 22), according to which the remnant of Israel shall be converted in the last days, be cited against such a procedure, since, in order to fulfil this prophecy, it would suffice to transfer a little band of Jews to some island, and to grant them permission to observe the Law.”

Reference: 1308.1

1310: Synod of Mainz, Germany

Defined as heresy the adoption by a Christian of the Jewish religion, or the return by a baptised Jew to the Jewish religion.

Reference: 1310.1

Reference: 1315.1 Reference:

). ). 1322 below, entry see ( warning year one promised the

away their goods. Seven years later however, they were expelled again, without without again, expelled were they however, later years Seven goods. their away

without giving them a year’s time in which to dispose of their property and carry carry and property their of dispose to which in time year’s a them giving without

to their expulsion in 1306. After that the king might not expel the Jews again again Jews the expel not might king the that After 1306. in expulsion their to

They were allowed to return for 12 years to the cities where they had lived prior prior lived had they where cities the to years 12 for return to allowed were They

protecting them and their property from violence, injury and oppression. and injury violence, from property their and them protecting

them, and the king declared that the Jews were under his special protection, protection, special his under were Jews the that declared king the and them,

restored to them, but not the Talmud. Financial restrictions were placed on on placed were restrictions Financial Talmud. the not but them, to restored

of the Law (Torah) that had been confiscated and not yet returned were to be be to were returned yet not and confiscated been had that (Torah) Law the of

the king would give them the necessary sites at a reasonable price. The books books The price. reasonable a at sites necessary the them give would king the

condition that they would refund their value; or, if these could not be restored, restored, be not could these if or, value; their refund would they that condition

laymen. Their synagogues and cemeteries were to be restored to them on on them to restored be to were cemeteries and synagogues Their laymen.

Jews were required to wear the circular badge, and not discuss religion with with religion discuss not and badge, circular the wear to required were Jews

Flanders.

promised the royal treasury the means to bankroll a new campaign against against campaign new a bankroll to means the treasury royal the promised

to Christianity, but the financial arrangement that accompanied their return return their accompanied that arrangement financial the but Christianity, to

explained his decision to readmit them in the hopes of seeing them convert convert them seeing of hopes the in them readmit to decision his explained

specified that 2/3 of any debts owed to Jews should go into the treasury. He He treasury. the into go should Jews to owed debts any of 2/3 that specified

the privilege of returning the Jews paid 122,500 livres, and the decree of return return of decree the and livres, 122,500 paid Jews the returning of privilege the

decree of his father King Philip IV to expel them in 1306 ( 1306 in them expel to IV Philip King father his of decree ). For For ). above entry see

In an edict dated July 28, 1315, King Louis X recalled the Jews, reversing the the reversing Jews, the recalled X Louis King 1315, 28, July dated edict an In

July 28, 1315: France readmits Jews readmits France 1315: 28, July

Reference: 1313.1 Reference:

Courts of the kingdom of Castile, which was convened later that year. year. that later convened was which Castile, of kingdom the of Courts

decisions of the council influenced the decisions of the Cortes de Palencia, the the Palencia, de Cortes the of decisions the influenced council the of decisions

built synagogues to the possession of the state, among other measures. These These measures. other among state, the of possession the to synagogues built

payment of the tithe to the church, the interest rate, and the transfer of newly newly of transfer the and rate, interest the church, the to tithe the of payment

wearing of a distinctive badge were to be maintained, as also those concerning concerning those also as maintained, be to were badge distinctive a of wearing

to the Jews — Jews were excluded from state functions; the edicts enforcing the the enforcing edicts the functions; state from excluded were Jews — Jews the to

In 1313 a Church Council held in Zamora adopted a series of decisions relating relating decisions of series a adopted Zamora in held Council Church a 1313 In

1313: Council of Zamora, Spain Zamora, of Council 1313:

201 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 202. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1317: Pope John XXII

Pope John XXII issued papal bull Ex Parte Vestra (“On the side of your”) which required Jews to wear a badge on their breast, and concerned those who were suspected of heresy, and Jews who had relapsed:

“Heretics, or those suspected of heresy — also Jews, who, when they have been converted to the Catholic faith, thence fell into apostasy — if they fly to a Church, ought to be immediately dragged out from thence by the inquisitor...”

The inquisitors were ordered to:

“Pluck out by the roots… such a noxious and pestiferous weed.”

Reference: 1317.1

1320: Pope John XXII

Pope John XXII issued papal bull Cum sit absurdum (“Since it is absurd”) which said that converted Jews need not be despoiled.

Reference: 1320.1

1320: Shepherds’ Crusade No. 2

People affected / deaths: 500–plus

The Shepherds’ Crusade of 1320 was a popular crusading movement in northern France, initially aiming to help the Reconquista of Iberia, but failing to gain support from the church or nobility, murdered hundreds of Jews in France and Aragon instead. Between 120 and 140 communities were destroyed. At Verdun 500 Jews killed themselves when it seemed they would be overrun (see Shepherds’ Crusade No. 1 in 1251).

Reference: 1320.2

murdered. There were 20 survivors. Those that took part were fined but the the but fined were part took that Those survivors. 20 were There murdered.

Jewish houses were pillaged, then destroyed. Approximately 6,000 Jews were were Jews 6,000 Approximately destroyed. then pillaged, were houses Jewish

Navarre. Local militias tried to defend the Jews but were outnumbered. All All outnumbered. were but Jews the defend to tried militias Local Navarre.

rule. Charles was the last of the French Capet dynasty which had inherited inherited had which dynasty Capet French the of last the was Charles rule.

Pedro Olligoyen, a Franciscan friar, used the Jews as a scapegoat against French French against scapegoat a as Jews the used friar, Franciscan a Olligoyen, Pedro

After the death of Charles the Fair (Charles IV), Philip’s brother and successor, successor, and brother Philip’s IV), (Charles Fair the Charles of death the After

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 6,000

1328: Navarre, Spain ( Spain Navarre, 1328: ) rule French under

Reference: 1322.1 Reference:

see entry above, 1315 above, entry see ( warning year ). ).

King Charles IV expels the Jews without the promised one one promised the without Jews the expels IV Charles King

1322: Jews expelled from France from expelled Jews 1322:

Reference: 1321.1 Reference:

Estella the Friar. Friar. the Estella

Jews were innocent. This was said to have come about from the preaching of of preaching the from about come have to said was This innocent. were Jews

(Island of Jews). Eventually it was determined that the the that determined was it Eventually Jews). of (Island Juifs des Île as known

160 Jews were burned in a pit on an island outside the town, which is still still is which town, the outside island an on pit a in burned were Jews 160

Jews were accused of encouraging lepers to poison Christian wells. At Chinon, Chinon, At wells. Christian poison to lepers encouraging of accused were Jews

160 deaths: / affected People

1321: Chinon, France Chinon, 1321:

Reference: 1320.3 Reference:

of the Jews from the Papal States. States. Papal the from Jews the of

Pope John XXII ordered burning of the Talmud and expulsion expulsion and Talmud the of burning ordered XXII John Pope

1320: Jews expelled from Papal States; Milan, Italy Milan, States; Papal from expelled Jews 1320:

203 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 204. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History fines were later cancelled, and Pedro Olligoyen, the chief instigator, went unpunished.

Reference: 1328.1

1338: Bishop of Strasbourg, France

Disturbed by an ongoing series of murderous attacks on Jews in the Alsace region of France, the Bishop of Strasbourg formed an alliance of prominent Christians, noblemen and magistrates from 12 surrounding towns, to track down the armed band carrying out assaults on Jews, which had begun two years earlier, after a nobleman in Northern Bavaria announced that he had been visited by an angel calling upon him to kill Jews. This nobleman had organized a group of Judenschlaeger (“Jew-beaters”) and began to follow the so-called angel’s orders. The following year, the same mission was adopted by a former innkeeper from Alsace, John Zimberlin, who similarly led a group of marauders from town to town, killing Jews as they went. They carried out attacks in the towns of Thann, Ensisheim and Rouffach. When the people of the city of Colmar offered protection from the gang to their Jewish citizens, Zimberlin laid siege to that city and its surroundings.

The alliance formed by the Bishop of Strasbourg failed to stop Zimberlin, but a year later, in 1339, a knight named Rudolf of Andlau persuaded Zimberlin to sign an agreement, by which, in return for amnesty, he and his fellow combatants promised not to carry out attacks on Jews over the next 10 years — but the Jews of Alsace had to pay for the protection. A document from Strasbourg in 1338 shows that 16 Jewish families of that city had agreed to pay a sum of 1,072 marks in return for a guarantee of safety for the next 5 years. Of that sum, 1,000 marks were to go the authorities in Strasbourg, 60 to Emperor Louis IV, and the remaining 12 marks to the Bishop. The document also granted Jews permission to engage in money-lending, at a rate of 5% or 6% per week, or 43% per annum.

Reference: 1338.1

1338: Passion play, Freiburg

Passion plays started in the 12th Century to re-enact the Gospel account of the suffering of Jesus, both as a tool to teach illiterate Christians His story, and as

around this time the massacres of Jews started rising near the Hansa townships townships Hansa the near rising started Jews of massacres the time this around

By the close of 1349 the worst of the pogroms had ended in the Rhineland. But But Rhineland. the in ended had pogroms the of worst the 1349 of close the By

Jews were among the dead. the among were Jews

international conspiracy of Jewry to poison Christendom, even though many many though even Christendom, poison to Jewry of conspiracy international

By the fall of 1348 the rumor was current that these deaths were due to an an to due were deaths these that current was rumor the 1348 of fall the By

One third of Europe’s population died from the Black Death (Bubonic plague). plague). (Bubonic Death Black the from died population Europe’s of third One

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 25 million 25

1348–51 Black Death, Europe; peak years: 1348-49 years: peak Europe; Death, Black 1348–51

Reference: 1343.1 Reference:

they are invited to Poland by King Casimir the Great. Great. the Casimir King by Poland to invited are they

Western Europe (England, France, Germany, and Spain), Spain), and Germany, France, (England, Europe Western

After persecutions and massive expulsions of Jews from from Jews of expulsions massive and persecutions After

1343: Poland 1343:

Reference: 1338.3 Reference:

Jews were burned at the stake, and the community disappeared. disappeared. community the and stake, the at burned were Jews

the Eucharist, having made it bleed, and having tried to burn it. More than 70 70 than More it. burn to tried having and bleed, it made having Eucharist, the

The Jews of Wolfsberg were accused of having stolen the consecrated bread of of bread consecrated the stolen having of accused were Wolfsberg of Jews The

70 deaths: / affected People

1338: Host desecration in Wolfsberg, Austria Wolfsberg, in desecration Host 1338:

Reference: 1338.2 Reference:

violence against the Jews. Jews. the against violence

churches were prohibited from performing anti-Jewish scenes lest they provoke provoke they lest scenes anti-Jewish performing from prohibited were churches

Christ-killers. This inevitably had consequences for Jews, and in Freiburg the the Freiburg in and Jews, for consequences had inevitably This Christ-killers.

and focused more on the physical suffering of Christ, portraying the Jews as as Jews the portraying Christ, of suffering physical the on more focused and

sheer entertainment. But as time went on the Passion plays grew more serious, serious, more grew plays Passion the on went time as But entertainment. sheer

205 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 206. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History of the Baltic Coast and in Eastern Europe. By 1351 there had been 350 incidents of anti-Jewish pogroms and 60 major and 150 minor Jewish communities had been exterminated.

The plague, which originated in China, was spread for the most part by rats which came aboard ships from Asia to European ports. It is estimated that 25 million people perished within three years.

Reference: 1348.1

1348–49: Black Death: European towns where Jews were attacked

The following list contains the names of all towns in alphabetical order (the first occurrence of each letter in bold) where the Jews were attacked on account of the Black Death, according to the records given in the Nuremberg “Memorbuch” (a community prayer book once common in Jewish communities throughout Central Europe).

The effects on the Jews of Germany were disastrous. The loss of life resulting from the massacres was terrible. Many of the Jews’ debtors died from the pestilence; while others refused acknowledgment of their debts. From this time onward the Jews in all German towns lived in perpetual dread of similar attacks; and the civil authorities adopted the plan of expulsion as the only means of getting rid of the Jewish question in the towns. By the end of the 15th Century there were only three considerable communities left in the whole of Germany.

Aarau, Aarburg, Achenheim, Ahr (Altenahr), Ahrweiler, Aichbach, Ailingen, Aldenhoven, Alken, Alzey, Amorbach, Andernach, Angermünde, Ansbach (town), Ansbach (village), Antwerp, Arnheim, Arnstadt, Aschaffenburg

Babenhausen, Bacharach, Baden in Aargau, Bamberg, Basel, Beilstein, Benfeld, Bensheim, Bentheim, Berching, Berg, Bergheim, Berk, Berlin, Bernkastel, Beuel, Beuthen, Biberach, Bielefeld, Bingen, Bischofsheim-on-the-Tauber, Bischweiler, Blankenberg, Bodensee-Bezirk, Bonn, Bopfingen, Boppard, Bourgogne, Brabant, Brandenburg, Braubach, Breisach, Bretten, Bretzenheim, Broech (Broek), Broich, Bruchsal, Buchen, Büren (dist. Münster), Burgdorf, Burghausen, Butzbach

Camp (Kamp), Carden, Cassel (Hesse), Caub, Coblenz, Coburg, Cochem, Colmar, Cracow

Offenburg, Oppeln, Osnabrück, Osterburg Osnabrück, Oppeln, Offenburg,

Ober-Moschel, Oberwesel, Odernheim, Oehringen, Oels, Offenbach, Offenbach, Oels, Oehringen, Odernheim, Oberwesel, Ober-Moschel,

Nördlingen, Nossen, Nuremberg Nossen, Nördlingen,

Neustadt-on-the-Hardt, Neustadt-on-the-Saale, Neuweiler, Nordhausen, Nordhausen, Neuweiler, Neustadt-on-the-Saale, Neustadt-on-the-Hardt,

Naumburg, Neisse, Neuenburg, Neukastel, Neumagen, Neumarkt, Neuss, Neuss, Neumarkt, Neumagen, Neukastel, Neuenburg, Neisse, Naumburg,

Münster-Mayfeld

(Gregorienthal), Münster (West-Phalia), Münster (village), Münstereifel, Münstereifel, (village), Münster (West-Phalia), Münster (Gregorienthal),

Montabaur, Mosbach (Baden), Müden, Mühldorf, Mühlhausen, Münster Münster Mühlhausen, Mühldorf, Müden, (Baden), Mosbach Montabaur,

Mergentheim, Merseburg (Prussian Saxony), Miltenberg, Minden, Monheim, Monheim, Minden, Miltenberg, Saxony), (Prussian Merseburg Mergentheim,

Maursmünster, Mayen, Mechlin, Mecklenburg, Meiningen, Meissen, Meissen, Meiningen, Mecklenburg, Mechlin, Mayen, Maursmünster,

Magdeburg, Marburg, Mark (Brandenburg), Markolsheim, Marls, Marls, Markolsheim, (Brandenburg), Mark Marburg, Magdeburg,

Neuwied), Löwenstein, Luxemburg Löwenstein, Neuwied),

Laufen, Lauterburg, Lechenich, Leiningen, Leipheim, Lindau, Linz (dist. (dist. Linz Lindau, Leipheim, Leiningen, Lechenich, Lauterburg, Laufen,

La Bresse, Ladenburg, Lahnstein, Lahr, Landau, Landsberg, Landshut, Lauda, Lauda, Landshut, Landsberg, Landau, Lahr, Lahnstein, Ladenburg, Bresse, La

Kosel, Krailsheim, Krems, Kreuznach Krems, Krailsheim, Kosel,

Kirn, Kitzingen, Kobern, Kochenburg, Königsberg, Königshofen-on-the-Saale, Königshofen-on-the-Saale, Königsberg, Kochenburg, Kobern, Kitzingen, Kirn,

Kaiserslautern, Kaysersberg, Kempen, Kenzingen, Keppel, Kerpen, Kestenholz, Kestenholz, Kerpen, Keppel, Kenzingen, Kempen, Kaysersberg, Kaiserslautern,

Ilmenau, Ingolstadt, Innsbruck, Iphofen Innsbruck, Ingolstadt, Ilmenau,

Horstdorpe

Hersfeld, Hildburghausen, Hildesheim, Hohebach, Holzweiler, Homberg, Homberg, Holzweiler, Hohebach, Hildesheim, Hildburghausen, Hersfeld,

Heiligenstadt, Heimbach, Heppenheim, Herford, Herlisheim, Hersbruck, Hersbruck, Herlisheim, Herford, Heppenheim, Heimbach, Heiligenstadt,

Hanau, Harburg, Haslach, Hassfurt, Heideck, Heidelberg, Heilbronn, Heilbronn, Heidelberg, Heideck, Hassfurt, Haslach, Harburg, Hanau,

Hachenburg, Hagenau, Hall (Swabia), Halle-on-the-Saale, Hals, Hammelburg, Hammelburg, Hals, Halle-on-the-Saale, (Swabia), Hall Hagenau, Hachenburg,

Gunzenhausen

Gladbach, Göppingen, Gotha, Graisbach, Greding, Guben, Gundelfingen, Gundelfingen, Guben, Greding, Graisbach, Gotha, Göppingen, Gladbach,

Gebweiler, Geislingen, Gelnhausen, Germersheim, Gerolstein, Giessen, Giessen, Gerolstein, Germersheim, Gelnhausen, Geislingen, Gebweiler,

Frankenhausen, Fratting, Friedberg, Friedrichshafen, Fulda Friedrichshafen, Friedberg, Fratting, Frankenhausen,

Falkenstein, Feldsperg (Veltspurg), Fellendorf, Feuchtwangen, Franken, Franken, Feuchtwangen, Fellendorf, (Veltspurg), Feldsperg Falkenstein,

Ettenheim, Ettenheinweiler, Ettling, Ettlingen, Euskirchen Ettlingen, Ettling, Ettenheinweiler, Ettenheim,

(Ensheim), Eppingen, Erbach, Erkelenz, Erstein, Eschwege, Esslingen, Esslingen, Eschwege, Erstein, Erkelenz, Erbach, Eppingen, (Ensheim),

(dist. Düsseldorf ), Ellrich, Ellwangen, Eltville (Elfeld), Endingen, Ensisheim Ensisheim Endingen, (Elfeld), Eltville Ellwangen, Ellrich, ), Düsseldorf (dist.

Eberbach, Ebern, Echternach, Eger, Ehingen, Ehnheim, Eisenach, Eller Eller Eisenach, Ehnheim, Ehingen, Eger, Echternach, Ebern, Eberbach,

Dinkelsbühl, Dormagen, Dortmund, Dülken, Düren, Dürkheim, Durlach Dürkheim, Düren, Dülken, Dortmund, Dormagen, Dinkelsbühl,

Deidesheim, Deutz, Deventer, Dieburg, Diessenhofen, Diez (Dietz), Dillingen, Dillingen, (Dietz), Diez Diessenhofen, Dieburg, Deventer, Deutz, Deidesheim,

207 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 208. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Paskau (Patschkau), Passau, Pfirt, Pforzheim, Phaley, Prague

Rain, Rapperswell, Rappolsweiler (Ribeauville), Regensburg, Reichweiler, Remagen (Rheinmagen), Reutlingen, Rheinau, Rheinfelden, Rockenhausen, Rödingen, Rosheim, Rothenburg-on-the-Fulda, Rothenburg-on-the-Tauber, Rufach

Säckingen, St. Pilt, Salzburg, Salzungen, Sangerhausen, Schleusingen, Schmalkalden, Schriesheim, Schüttorf, Schweidnitz, Schweinfurt, Seeland, Seligenstadt, Seltz, Sennheim, Siegberg, Sinsheim, Sinzig, Sobernheim, Soest (Zoest), Sooden, Spandau, Steiermark, Steinheim, Stendal, Stolberg, Stommelen, Straubing, Sulm, Sulz, Sursee

Thann, Trarbach, Trent, Treuchtlingen, Treves, Trüdingen, Türkheim

Uerdingen, Ulm, Usseln, Utrecht

Vacha, Vaihingen, Villach

Wachenheim, Waldkirch, Waldshut, Waldürn, Wasserburg, Wattwiller, Weil-die-Stadt, Weilheim, Weimar, Weinheim, Weissensee, Wertheim, Wertingen, Wetzlar, Widdern, Wiesbach, Wimpfen, Windsheim, Winterthur, Wissembourg, Wittlich, Wörth

Xanten

Zabern, Zeil, Zellenberg, Znaim, Zülz (Biala), Zutphen, Zwolle

Reference: 1348.2

April 1348: Black Death massacre in Toulon, France

People affected / deaths: 40

The first massacres directly related to the Black Death began in Toulon, France, in April 1348, where the Jewish quarter was sacked, and 40 Jews were murdered in their homes.

Reference: 1348.3

times, they were used to doing; and that if someone, although knowing the the knowing although someone, if that and doing; to used were they times,

them or require compulsory service, except for the things that, in ancient ancient in that, things the for except service, compulsory require or them

of land or region in which they live, they should not take their money from from money their take not should they live, they which in region or land of

or death of these Jews without receiving the judgment of the lord or official official or lord the of judgment the receiving without Jews these of death or

ordering, among other things, that no Christian can in no way cause injury injury cause way no in can Christian no that things, other among ordering,

mercy of Christian piety... we give them the shield of our protection, protection, our of shield the them give we piety... Christian of mercy

same Jews because of the humanity. As they seek help our protection and and protection our help seek they As humanity. the of because Jews same

“...While we can, rightly hate the treachery of the Jews... we cherish these these cherish we Jews... the of treachery the hate rightly can, we “...While

Excerpt of papal bull (translation: messianicjewishhistory.wordpress.com): (translation: bull papal of Excerpt

Other rulers issued similar denunciations, but to little effect. little to but denunciations, similar issued rulers Other

poisoning by Jews”, and that the Jews were suffering just like the rest of Europe. Europe. of rest the like just suffering were Jews the that and Jews”, by poisoning

“certain Christians, seduced by that liar, the devil, are imputing the pestilence to to pestilence the imputing are devil, the liar, that by seduced Christians, “certain

the allegation that the Jews were responsible by poisoning the wells, stating that that stating wells, the poisoning by responsible were Jews the that allegation the

which condemned the violence erupting throughout Europe, and denounced denounced and Europe, throughout erupting violence the condemned which

Pope Clement VI issued papal bull bull papal issued VI Clement Pope (“Despite the treachery”) treachery”) the (“Despite Perfidiam Quamvis

September 1348: Pope Clement VI Clement Pope 1348: September

Reference: 1348.5 Reference:

and burnt. Cities in Switzerland included Bern, Chillon, and Zurich. Zurich. and Chillon, Bern, included Switzerland in Cities burnt. and

thousands of Jews, in at least two hundred towns and hamlets, were butchered butchered were hamlets, and towns hundred two least at in Jews, of thousands

another in Switzerland and down the Rhine River into Germany, and as a result, result, a as and Germany, into River Rhine the down and Switzerland in another

incriminated others. Records of their confessions were sent from one town to to town one from sent were confessions their of Records others. incriminated

confessed anything their inquisitors suggested. These Jews, under torture, torture, under Jews, These suggested. inquisitors their anything confessed

on the shores of Lake Geneva, having been arrested and tortured, naturally naturally tortured, and arrested been having Geneva, Lake of shores the on

By authority of Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy, a number of the Jews who lived lived who Jews the of number a Savoy, of Count VI, Amadeus of authority By

September 1348: Black Death riots in Switzerland in riots Death Black 1348: September

Reference: 1348.4 Reference:

80% of the Jewish population died of the plague. plague. the of died population Jewish the of 80%

Black Death massacres began in Barcelona, Cervera, and Tarrega. In Saragossa Saragossa In Tarrega. and Cervera, Barcelona, in began massacres Death Black

June 1348: Black Death massacres in Spain in massacres Death Black 1348: June

209 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 210. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

content of such a decree attempts to act against him, he endangers his title and office, or he must be struck by a final sentence of excommunication, unless he takes care to correct his presumption by a worthy satisfaction, as contained in these letters.

However recently a public outcry (or more accurately, a nasty rumor) came to our attention that some Christians mistakenly blame the plague (which God afflicts the Christian people, caused by the sins of the people) come from poisons Jews deceived by the devil... We order you therefore by all these apostolic writings that each of you has been asked about this was to — in your churches for the solemnities of the Mass, while people are gathered for divine services — warn those who are subject to you, clergy and laity, on pain of excommunication (which you will receive from there, if you do not) and you must expressly instruct them not to presume on their own authority (or more accurately, their own recklessness) enter, hit, injure or kill these Jews, or to force them to compulsory service for them... These present letters are no longer in force after one year.”

Reference: 1348.6

November 1348 – August 1349: Black Death riots in Germany

Jews in 80 towns in 1348, including Augsberg, Munich and Wurzburg, were attacked. In 1349 riots spread from city to city up the Rhine, including Strasbourg, Worms and Cologne.

Reference: 1348.7

1348–49: Jews expelled from Strasbourg, France

As a result of the Valentine’s Day massacre (see entry above, February 14, 1349), Strasbourg expelled the remaining Jews, and banished them from entering the city for 100 years, although the order was rescinded 20 years later.

Reference: 1348.8

Reference: 1349.3 Reference:

property of the expelled Jews became the spoil of the citizens. citizens. the of spoil the became Jews expelled the of property

200 years, although this was revoked several decades later. The The later. decades several revoked was this although years, 200

all Jews were banned from settling in the city of Basel for for Basel of city the in settling from banned were Jews all

), it was decreed that that decreed was it ), above entry see ( massacre the Following

January 1349: Jews expelled from Basel, Switzerland Basel, from expelled Jews 1349: January

Reference: 1349.2 Reference:

converted to Catholicism. Catholicism. to converted

locked inside, and burnt alive. Afterwards, 140 Jewish children were forcibly forcibly were children Jewish 140 Afterwards, alive. burnt and inside, locked

brought to a specially-built wooden structure on an island in the Rhine river, river, Rhine the in island an on structure wooden specially-built a to brought

their Jews but to no avail, and 600 Jews, including the community’s rabbi, were were rabbi, community’s the including Jews, 600 and avail, no to but Jews their

the plague than the non-Jews. The City Fathers of Basel attempted to protect protect to attempted Basel of Fathers City The non-Jews. the than plague the

the wells, because they were perceived as having a lower mortality rate from from rate mortality lower a having as perceived were they because wells, the

of Savoy and subsequently Basel, the Jews were accused of having poisoned poisoned having of accused were Jews the Basel, subsequently and Savoy of

Following the spread of the Black Death through the surrounding countryside countryside surrounding the through Death Black the of spread the Following

600 deaths: / affected People

January 1349: Black Death riots in Switzerland: Basel massacre Basel Switzerland: in riots Death Black 1349: January

Reference: 1349.1 Reference:

the city walls. All debts owed to the Jews were annulled. annulled. were Jews the to owed debts All walls. city the

torn down, and together with tombstones from the cemetery were used to repair repair to used were cemetery the from tombstones with together and down, torn

homes. The Jewish cemetery was plowed and sown with corn. The houses were were houses The corn. with sown and plowed was cemetery Jewish The homes.

confiscated or destroyed by the mob in an attempt to find hidden gold in Jewish Jewish in gold hidden find to attempt an in mob the by destroyed or confiscated

collected into empty winecasks and rolled into the Rhine. All their property was was property their All Rhine. the into rolled and winecasks empty into collected

were left in the streets so long that, out of fear of contamination, the corpses were were corpses the contamination, of fear of out that, long so streets the in left were

community’s hospital. The corpses of those who had been burned or murdered murdered or burned been had who those of corpses The hospital. community’s

order to save their lives. Among the martyrs was Rabbi Eliakim, treasurer of the the of treasurer Eliakim, Rabbi was martyrs the Among lives. their save to order

in their homes, while a small number allowed themselves to be baptized in in baptized be to themselves allowed number small a while homes, their in

converting, or fleeing to Heidelberg or Sinzheim. Many chose to be burned burned be to chose Many Sinzheim. or Heidelberg to fleeing or converting,

The Jewish community was destroyed, with the inhabitants either being killed, killed, being either inhabitants the with destroyed, was community Jewish The

January 1349: Black Death riots in Speyer, Germany Speyer, in riots Death Black 1349: January

211 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 212. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

February 1349: Black Death riots in Zurich, Switzerland

Although the town council initially tried to protect the Jews of the town, they were forced to give in to the mob, resulting in the murder of many of the Jewish inhabitants.

Reference: 1349.4

February 14, 1349: Black Death riots in France: Strasbourg massacre

People affected / deaths: hundreds

On Valentine’s Day, Strasbourg’s Jews were arrested and brought to the city’s cemetery. Some chose to be baptised to save their lives, several hundred were placed on a wooden platform in the cemetery and burnt alive by their Christian neighbours. Estimates range from several hundred to 2,000. The Strasbourg massacre was one of a string of pogroms that took place during this period in a number of towns in Western Europe — 30 alone in the Alsace region, bordering the Rhine River, in what is today France. It was one of the first and worst pogroms in pre-modern history.

Reference: 1349.5

March 1349: Black Death riots in Germany: Erfurt massacre

People affected / deaths: 100 – 3,000

The Erfurt massacre refers to the massacre of the Jewish community in Erfurt, Germany, in March, 1349. Accounts of the number of Jews killed in the massacre vary widely from between 100 to up to 3,000. Some victims chose to set fire to their homes and kill themselves and their families rather than fall into the hands of the rioters.

Reference: 1349.6

municipality and the Count of Juelich each fighting over their share. Jews were were Jews share. their over fighting each Juelich of Count the and municipality

were also murdered. Their property was confiscated by the Church, with the the with Church, the by confiscated was property Their murdered. also were

the mob outside. Most of those who had not taken refuge in the synagogue synagogue the in refuge taken not had who those of Most outside. mob the

it was attacked as well, the Jews inside set fire to it rather then be taken by by taken be then rather it to fire set inside Jews the well, as attacked was it

In Cologne, as the riots began, many Jews took shelter in the synagogue. When When synagogue. the in shelter took Jews many began, riots the as Cologne, In

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 6,000

August 1349: Black Death riots in Germany: Cologne, Mainz Cologne, Germany: in riots Death Black 1349: August

Reference: 1349.8 Reference:

be punished, but left it up to the city council to determine the punishment. punishment. the determine to council city the to up it left but punished, be

Less than a year later on February 21, 1350, the king ordered the murderers to to murderers the ordered king the 1350, 21, February on later year a than Less

Charles IV (1316-78) was given the cemetery and all debts owed to the Jews. Jews. the to owed debts all and cemetery the given was (1316-78) IV Charles

city claimed their property and the synagogues, while the Holy Roman Emperor Emperor Roman Holy the while synagogues, the and property their claimed city

60 Jews were murdered by a mob, after a fire in Breslau/Wrocław (Silesia). The The (Silesia). Breslau/Wrocław in fire a after mob, a by murdered were Jews 60

60 deaths: / affected People

May 1349: Breslau, Poland Breslau, 1349: May

Reference: 1349.7 Reference:

to the city. city. the to

In April the Jews were expelled from Heilbronn and their property transferred transferred property their and Heilbronn from expelled were Jews the April In

within the city walls and build a new synagogue. new a build and walls city the within

expelled. Eight years later, in 1357, the city council permitted Jews to settle settle to Jews permitted council city the 1357, in later, years Eight expelled.

In March, those who survived the Erfurt massacre ( massacre Erfurt the survived who those March, In ) were were ) 1349 above, entry see

their synagogue razed. synagogue their

had been cast into dungeons, their houses confiscated, and and confiscated, houses their dungeons, into cast been had

The Jews of Goerlitz were expelled by Duke John, after they they after John, Duke by expelled were Goerlitz of Jews The

Germany

1349: Jews expelled from Goerlitz, Heilbronn, Erfurt; Erfurt; Heilbronn, Goerlitz, from expelled Jews 1349:

213 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 214. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History officially permitted to return to Cologne in 1372, although they were prohibited from making claims on any property that had been in their hands prior to 1349.

In Mainz, after a mob marched into the Jewish quarter carrying a flag with a cross, Jews initially resisted, and killed 200 of the attackers. But rather than be converted, they set their houses on fire. 6,000 Jews died that day.

Reference: 1349.9

1349: Jews expelled from Hungary

During the time of the Black Death the Jews were expelled from the country. Although they were immediately readmitted, they were again persecuted, and were once again expelled in 1360 by King Louis the Great of Anjou.

Reference: 1349.10

1352: Jews expelled from Bulgaria

The church council ordered the expulsion of Jews in Bulgaria for “heretical activity”, although this decree was not rigorously implemented. Physical attacks on Jews followed. In one case, three Jews who had been sentenced to death were killed by a mob despite the sentences having been repealed by the tsar.

Reference: 1352.1

1353: Jews expelled from Speyer, Germany

The Jews were expelled from the city, their houses being distributed among the citizens, and their cemetery planted with corn, but were they readmitted the following year, 1354.

Reference: 1353.1

to pay the ransom for his father King John II, imprisoned in England following following England in imprisoned II, John King father his for ransom the pay to

Charles V of France allowed the Jews to return for a period of 20 years in order order in years 20 of period a for return to Jews the allowed France of V Charles

1359: Charles V, France V, Charles 1359:

Reference: 1356.1 Reference:

accepting them in another. another. in them accepting

practice of expelling them from one district, and due to financial considerations, considerations, financial to due and district, one from them expelling of practice

This had the effect of alienating the rights of Jews, and led to the common common the to led and Jews, of rights the alienating of effect the had This

present day.” present

and all other rights which they or their predecessors have possessed to the the to possessed have predecessors their or they which rights other all and

shall also have authority to tax Jews, the right to collect tolls already in force force in already tolls collect to right the Jews, tax to authority have also shall

the future, situated within their lands, domains, and dependencies. They They dependencies. and domains, lands, their within situated future, the

works, both those already discovered and those which shall be discovered in in discovered be shall which those and discovered already those both works,

all mines of gold, silver, tin, copper iron, lead, or other metals, and all salt salt all and metals, other or lead, iron, copper tin, silver, gold, of mines all

princes, ecclesiastical and secular, shall hold and possess with full rights, rights, full with possess and hold shall secular, and ecclesiastical princes,

present law, that our successors, the kings of Bohemia, and all the electoral electoral the all and Bohemia, of kings the successors, our that law, present

“Chapter IX: Mines of Gold, Silver, and Other Metals. We decree, by this this by decree, We Metals. Other and Silver, Gold, of Mines IX: “Chapter

it carried. Of its 31 Chapters, Chapter IX impacted the Jews: Jews: the impacted IX Chapter Chapters, 31 its Of carried. it

of the Holy Roman Empire. It was named the Golden Bull for the golden seal seal golden the for Bull Golden the named was It Empire. Roman Holy the of

period of more than 400 years, important aspects of the constitutional structure structure constitutional the of aspects important years, 400 than more of period

The Golden Bull was a decree issued by Emperor Charles IV which fixed, for a a for fixed, which IV Charles Emperor by issued decree a was Bull Golden The

1356: Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV, Germany IV, Charles Emperor of Bull Golden 1356:

Reference: 1355.1 Reference:

killed. killed.

pretense of rescuing Queen Blanche from Peter. Twelve hundred Jews were were Jews hundred Twelve Peter. from Blanche Queen rescuing of pretense

Henry de Trastámara, step-brother of Peter the Cruel, invaded Toledo on the the on Toledo invaded Cruel, the Peter of step-brother Trastámara, de Henry

1,200 deaths: / affected People

1355: Toledo, Spain Toledo, 1355:

215 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 216. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History the French defeat at the Battle of Poitiers. The period was later extended beyond the 20 years, until the Jews were expelled again in 1394 (see entry below).

Reference: 1359.1

1360: Jews expelled from Hungary

A general expulsion was decreed in 1360, but around 1364 their return was authorized, though they were subjected to restrictions.

Reference: 1360.1

1365: Pope Urban V

Pope Urban V issued papal bull Sicuti judaeis non debet (“As the Jews were not to be”) which forbade Jews to be molested (as in harassed, persecuted, tormented) or forced to be baptised.

Reference: 1365.1

1365: Jews expelled from Lorraine, France

The Jews of Lorraine were expelled after their presence was cited as the cause of lightning strikes which destroyed 22 houses.

Reference: 1365.2

1368: Synod of Lavour

The Synod of Lavour prohibited the sale or transfer of church articles to Jews.

Reference: 1368.1

Reference: 1370.1 Reference:

cult of the putative miracle survived until after the Second World War. War. World Second the after until survived miracle putative the of cult

been otherwise unharmed. A holiday was declared by the local churches. The The churches. local the by declared was holiday A unharmed. otherwise been

that the desecrated hosts stabbed by a Jew had miraculously shed blood and and blood shed miraculously had Jew a by stabbed hosts desecrated the that

commemorated by local Christians as the Sacrament of Miracle, as it was said said was it as Miracle, of Sacrament the as Christians local by commemorated

death, while the rest of the small community was banished. The event was was event The banished. was community small the of rest the while death,

host desecration at the Brussels synagogue. Between 6-20 Jews were burnt to to burnt were Jews 6-20 Between synagogue. Brussels the at desecration host

The Brussels massacre was an antisemitic episode in connection with an alleged alleged an with connection in episode antisemitic an was massacre Brussels The

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 6 – 20 – 6

1370: Brussels massacre Brussels 1370:

Reference: 1369.1 Reference:

hold public office. office. public hold

before his death Henry declared that Jews should no longer be permitted to to permitted be longer no should Jews that declared Henry death his before

loans Christian debtors should repay only two-thirds of the principal. Shortly Shortly principal. the of two-thirds only repay should debtors Christian loans

and forbade them to use Christian names. He further ordered that for short short for that ordered further He names. Christian use to them forbade and

and immovable, at auction. He ordered the Jews to wear the humiliating badge, badge, humiliating the wear to Jews the ordered He auction. at immovable, and

they still refused to raise this enormous sum, to sell their property, both movable movable both property, their sell to sum, enormous this raise to refused still they

prisoners, to put them on the rack, to give them neither food nor drink, and if if and drink, nor food neither them give to rack, the on them put to prisoners,

community of Toledo, and issued an order to take all the Jews of Toledo as as Toledo of Jews the all take to order an issued and Toledo, of community

contribution of twenty thousand gold doubloons on the already heavily oppressed oppressed heavily already the on doubloons gold thousand twenty of contribution

to pay the mercenaries who had helped him defeat Peter, he imposed a war war a imposed he Peter, defeat him helped had who mercenaries the pay to

and battles, and was as hostile to the Jews as Peter had been friendly. In order order In friendly. been had Peter as Jews the to hostile as was and battles, and

defeating his half-brother, Peter I (Peter the Cruel), after numerous rebellions rebellions numerous after Cruel), the (Peter I Peter half-brother, his defeating

The illegitimate son of Alfonso XI of Castile, Henry became king in 1369 by by 1369 in king became Henry Castile, of XI Alfonso of son illegitimate The

1369–79: Reign of King Henry II, Castile (Spain) Castile II, Henry King of Reign 1369–79:

217 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 218. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1374: Pogroms in Rhine

People affected / deaths: 10,000 (est.)

An epidemic of possession broke out in the Rhine, where people were seen “dancing, jumping and [engaging in] wild raving”, triggered by revelry on St. John’s Day. The dancing mania epidemic, or St. Vitus’ dance, spread throughout the Rhine, and into France and the Netherlands. Crowds of 500 or more dancers would be overcome together, claiming to be possessed. Exorcisms were tried, and failed. Pilgrimages to the shrine of St. Vitus were tried, but seemed to exacerbate the problem.

Finally, the rumour spread that God was angry because Christians had been excessively tolerant towards the Jews, and God had cursed Europe as He did Saul when he showed mercy towards God’s enemies in the Old Testament. Jews “were plundered, tortured and murdered by tens of thousands”.

The epidemic finally burned itself out 200 years later.

Reference: 1374.1

1380: Hugues Aubriot, Provost of Paris

Hugues Aubriot built the Bastille (1370-83), strengthened the City’s fortifications, and built the first sewers in Paris. After the death of King Charles V in 1380, the populace, annoyed by the taxes levied upon them, demanded of King Charles VI that “Jews and usurers should be driven out of the city”. For four days Jews were murdered by a mob shouting “Aux Juifs!” (“To the Jews”), their homes attacked and pillaged, and infants torn from their mothers’ arms and taken to churches to be baptized. Aubriot pleaded on their behalf before the king, and succeeded in obtaining a royal decree, ordering the restoration of the children to their mothers and the restitution of all property taken from them.

Because of this, he incurred the wrath of the Church, who denounced him as secretly being a Jew, and brought false charges against him including heresy, sodomy, and extortion. He was forced to do penance, and sentenced to life imprisonment on bread and water. In subsequent disturbances in Paris a year later, he was released by a mob and fled the city. Fourteen years later, in 1394, the Jews were expelled from France.

Reference: 1380.1

A murderer they found, and thereto hired, thereto and found, they murderer A

Out of the world this innocent to chase; to innocent this world the of Out

“From that time forth the Jewish folk conspired folk Jewish the forth time that “From

Lines 113-126 describe how the Jews kill the choir boy: choir the kill Jews the how describe 113-126 Lines

Hugh of Lincoln. Lincoln. of Hugh

infamous 1255 murder of a boy in Lincoln who became known as Little Saint Saint Little as known became who Lincoln in boy a of murder 1255 infamous

blood libel stories common at the time. One likely influence for the tale was the the was tale the for influence likely One time. the at common stories libel blood

Jews, a common theme in Medieval Christianity. The tale is related to various various to related is tale The Christianity. Medieval in theme common a Jews,

The Prioress’s Tale is about Prioress Madame Eglantine, whose child is killed by by killed is child whose Eglantine, Madame Prioress about is Tale Prioress’s The

Canterbury, and two tales on the way back, but he never finished the project. project. the finished never he but back, way the on tales two and Canterbury,

to Canterbury, Chaucer intended each pilgrim to tell two tales on the way to to way the on tales two tell to pilgrim each intended Chaucer Canterbury, to

Tabard Inn at Southwark on their return. In order to kill time as they traveled traveled they as time kill to order In return. their on Southwark at Inn Tabard

Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. The prize for this contest is a free meal at the the at meal free a is contest this for prize The Cathedral. Canterbury at Becket

travel together from London to Canterbury to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas Thomas Saint of shrine the visit to Canterbury to London from together travel

presented as part of a story-telling contest by a group of 30 pilgrims as they they as pilgrims 30 of group a by contest story-telling a of part as presented

The Canterbury Tales is a collection of 24 stories, mostly written in verse, verse, in written mostly stories, 24 of collection a is Tales Canterbury The

1387: Geoffrey Chaucer: The Canterbury Tales Canterbury The Chaucer: Geoffrey 1387:

Reference: 1384.1 Reference:

During riots 200 Jews were killed, and the community wiped out. out. wiped community the and killed, were Jews 200 riots During

200 deaths: / affected People

1384: Nördlingen, city in Bavaria, Germany Bavaria, in city Nördlingen, 1384:

Reference: 1381.1 Reference:

from various cities in Europe, including Strasbourg in 1381. 1381. in Strasbourg including Europe, in cities various from

In the wake of the Black Death, many Jews were expelled expelled were Jews many Death, Black the of wake the In

1381: Jews expelled from Strasbourg, France Strasbourg, from expelled Jews 1381:

219 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 220. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Who in an alley had a hiding-place; And as the child went by at sober pace, This cursed Jew did seize and hold him fast, And cut his throat, and in a pit him cast.

I say, that in a cesspool him they threw, Wherein these Jews did empty their entrails. O cursed folk of Herod, born anew, How can you think your ill intent avails? Murder will out, ‘tis sure, nor ever fails, And chiefly when God’s honour vengeance needs. The blood cries out upon your cursed deeds.”

Reference: 1387.1

1388: Jews expelled from Strasbourg

The Jews of Strasburg had ceased to pay their taxes regularly, and having adopted a somewhat critical and censorious attitude in regard to a dispute between the city and the Duke of Burgundy, they were sentenced to perpetual banishment and to the payment of a fine of 20,000 florins. This second decree of banishment was so strictly enforced (see entry above, 1381), and the time allowed for preparation so inadequate, that the Jews had to abandon their books as well as the scrolls of the Law and other articles used in religious services. The copies of the Talmud and the scrolls of the Law were preserved in the library of the city, and were destroyed, with many other literary treasures, in the bombardment of 1870. There is no evidence of Jews being present in the city, even as visitors, until 1520.

Reference: 1388.1

various Christian nobles. nobles. Christian various

that day. King Henry III then redistributed the property of the Juderia to to Juderia the of property the redistributed then III Henry King day. that

exits from the quarter, and set it on fire. An estimated 4,000 Jews were killed killed were Jews 4,000 estimated An fire. on it set and quarter, the from exits

1391, rioters re-entered the Juderia, the city’s Jewish section, blocked the two two the blocked section, Jewish city’s the Juderia, the re-entered rioters 1391,

riots broke out in Seville on March 15, 1391. Three months later, on June 6, 6, June on later, months Three 1391. 15, March on Seville in out broke riots

Following years of antisemitic preaching by Ferdinand Martinez, anti-Jewish anti-Jewish Martinez, Ferdinand by preaching antisemitic of years Following

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 54,000

1391: Anti-Jewish riots Seville, Spain Seville, riots Anti-Jewish 1391:

Reference: 1389.2 Reference:

the 1840s. 1840s. the

Jewish settlement existed there for the next 450 years, until until years, 450 next the for there existed settlement Jewish

in Goerlitz only to participate in trade fairs. No permanent permanent No fairs. trade in participate to only Goerlitz in

After their expulsion in 1389, Jews were permitted to stay stay to permitted were Jews 1389, in expulsion their After

1389: Jews expelled from Goerlitz in Silesia, Germany Silesia, in Goerlitz from expelled Jews 1389:

Reference: 1389.1 Reference:

significant sum. sum. significant

to the town hall. Its total value was calculated to reach five barrels of silver, a a silver, of barrels five reach to calculated was value total Its hall. town the to

Week. The council sent out a decree that all confiscated property be brought brought be property confiscated all that decree a out sent council The Week.

that the responsibility rested with the Jews for venturing outside during Holy Holy during outside venturing for Jews the with rested responsibility the that

cemetery were destroyed, and homes were pillaged. King Wenceslaus insisted insisted Wenceslaus King pillaged. were homes and destroyed, were cemetery

(sources vary), in many cases with their limbs cut off, the synagogue and the the and synagogue the off, cut limbs their with cases many in vary), (sources

Pogrom that followed (as it came to be known), 500-3,000 were slaughtered slaughtered were 500-3,000 known), be to came it (as followed that Pogrom

to defend them. A mob was then incited to attack the ghetto. In the Prague Prague the In ghetto. the attack to incited then was mob A them. defend to

plotted against him. The priest’s followers beat up the boys whose parents arrived arrived parents whose boys the up beat followers priest’s The him. against plotted

in the street, became insulted and insisted that the Jewish community purposely purposely community Jewish the that insisted and insulted became street, the in

A priest, hit with a few grains of sand or pebbles by small Jewish boys playing playing boys Jewish small by pebbles or sand of grains few a with hit priest, A

plus 3,000- – 500 deaths: / affected People

1389: Massacre at Prague (Bohemia), Easter (Bohemia), Prague at Massacre 1389:

221 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 222. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

The rioting in Seville spread to other parts of Spain — to Castile, Aragon and Catalonia, followed by the island of Majorca, and continued for three months.

By the time the riots died down, 50,000 Jews were dead, and ancient communities destroyed. During the riots, Jews were offered the option of conversion to Christianity, or death. This led to hundreds of thousands of Jews converting to Catholicism — conversos — who were despised by Jews for forsaking Judaism, and Christians for being insincere. A century later the Jews would be expelled from Spain (see entry below, 1492).

Reference: 1391.1

c. 1392: Jewish Oath in Frankfurt

The Oath More Judaico (“on/by the Jewish custom”), or Jewish Oath, was a special form of oath, rooted in antisemitism and accompanied by certain ceremonies — often intentionally humiliating, painful or dangerous — that Jews were required to take in European courts of law until the 20th Century.

This disability imposed on a Jew engaged in legal contention with a Christian dates back to Byzantine emperor Justinian I (see entry for Justinian Code, 529- 34), who declared that neither Jews nor heretics should be admitted as witnesses against Christians; secular courts, however, did not recognize the disability. Thus, in the safe conducts issued by the Carolingian kings in the 9th century, Jews and Christians were treated as equals, and consequently the testimony of the former, whether given under oath or not, was as admissible as the latter. This was distinctly stated in the charter granted by Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV to the Jews of Speyer in 1090. The law of Duke Frederick II of Austria (1244), which served as a model for much other legislation on the Jews, merely required a Jew to swear “super Rodal” (by the Torah). Similar laws existed in England, Portugal, and Hungary; Hungary waived the requirement to swear on the Torah in trivial cases.

There were, however, some older laws that prescribed certain practices intended to mock Jews in court. These examples illustrate the kinds of humiliating rituals that accompanied the taking of the oath (see also entry below, 1555):

Byzantine Empire, 10th Century: the Jew would wear a girdle of thorns around his loins, stand in water, and swear by “Barase Baraa” (Bereshit Bara), so that if he spoke untruth, he would be swallowed by the earth just like Dathan and Abiram in Numbers 16:1–27.

help you Adonai, you have sworn the truth. the sworn have you Adonai, you help

right. [This refers either to a decent burial or to resurrection.] And so so And resurrection.] to or burial decent a to either refers [This right.

earth in the bosom of Master Abraham if what you say is not true and and true not is say you what if Abraham Master of bosom the in earth

may your dust never join other dust, and your earth never join other other join never earth your and dust, other join never dust your may

earth envelop and swallow you up as it did Dathan and Abiram. And And Abiram. and Dathan did it as up you swallow and envelop earth

over Babylon flow over you, but two hundred times more, and may the the may and more, times hundred two but you, over flow Babylon over

flowed over Sodom and Gomorrah, and the same pitch that flowed flowed that pitch same the and Gomorrah, and Sodom over flowed

And may that sulphur and pitch flow down upon your neck that that neck your upon down flow pitch and sulphur that may And

the King of Babylon. of King the

you may nevermore enjoy a bite without soiling yourself all over as did did as over all yourself soiling without bite a enjoy nevermore may you

Moses on Sinai’s mount. And so help you the five books of Moses that that Moses of books five the you help so And mount. Sinai’s on Moses

which God himself created and wrote with His own hand and gave gave and hand own His with wrote and created himself God which

earth, valley and hill, woods, trees, and grass, and so help you the law law the you help so and grass, and trees, woods, hill, and valley earth,

earth, nor locked it with locks, so help you God who created heaven and and heaven created who God you help so locks, with it locked nor earth,

you do not have it in any of your chests, you have not buried it in the the in it buried not have you chests, your of any in it have not do you

nothing of it, nor do you have it. You never had it in your possession, possession, your in it had never You it. have you do nor it, of nothing

Regarding such property of which the man accuses you, you know know you you, accuses man the which of property such Regarding

book and he shall repeat after him who administers the oath of the Jews: the of oath the administers who him after repeat shall he and book

shall lie before him, and his right hand up to the wrist shall lie on the the on lie shall wrist the to up hand right his and him, before lie shall

“The Jew shall stand on a sow’s skin and the five books of Master Moses Moses Master of books five the and skin sow’s a on stand shall Jew “The

1392), required: 1392), c. ( Oath Frankfurt The

Sacred Name of God, YHWH. God, of Name Sacred

1455): the Jew would stand bareheaded and pronounce the the pronounce and bareheaded stand would Jew the 1455): c. ( Breslau

with his face turned to the east, holding the Pentateuch in his hand. his in Pentateuch the holding east, the to turned face his with

Vrbové, Hungary (1517): the Jew would stand barefooted and swear swear and barefooted stand would Jew the (1517): Hungary Vrbové,

the oath. the

Dortmund: the Jew would be fined each time he halted in repeating repeating in halted he time each fined be would Jew the Dortmund:

pay a fine each time he fell, finally losing his case if he fell four times. four fell he if case his losing finally fell, he time each fine a pay

Silesia (1422): the Jew would stand on a three-legged stool and have to to have and stool three-legged a on stand would Jew the (1422): Silesia

a bloody lamb. bloody a

Swabia (13th Century): the Jew would stand on the hide of a sow or or sow a of hide the on stand would Jew the Century): (13th Swabia

down upon himself all the curses of the Torah. the of curses the all himself upon down

“between his loins” his “between pulled be would length while he swore and called called and swore he while

neck, others would grovel at his knees, and a thorn branch five ells in in ells five branch thorn a and knees, his at grovel would others neck,

1150): a wreath of thorns would be hung on the swearer’s swearer’s the on hung be would thorns of wreath a 1150): c. ( Arles

223 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 224. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

If not, may you become as leprous as Naaman and Gehazi, and may the calamity strike you that the Israelite people escaped as they journeyed forth from Egypt’s land. And may a bleeding and a flowing come forth from you and never cease, as your people wished upon themselves when they condemned God, Jesus Christ, among themselves, and tortured Him and said: Matthew 27:25 “His blood be upon us and our children.” It is true, so help you God who appeared to Moses in a burning bush which yet remained unconsumed. It is true by the oath that you have sworn, by the soul which you bring on the Day of Judgment before the Court, [before the God of ] Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It is true, so help you God and the oath you have sworn. [Amen].”

Reference: 1392.1

1392: Jews expelled from Bern, Switzerland

The Jews were expelled from Bern after Christians were permitted to engage in moneylending in 1384.

Reference: 1392.2

1394 (some sources say 1396): Jews expelled from France

People affected / deaths: 100,000

King Charles VI issued a decree that “no Jew should dwell in his domains”. It was not immediately enforced, allowing Jews to sell their property and pay their debts. Those indebted to them were enjoined to redeem their obligations within a set time. Subsequently, the king released the Christians from their debts.

Reference: 1394.1

. . “conversions”

) could start again, which no doubt contributed to the high number of of number high the to contributed doubt no which again, start could ) above

see entry entry see ( 1391 of riots anti-Jewish the that feared and terrified, were Jews

successful, leading to the conversion of thousands of Moors, and 25,000 Jews. Jews. 25,000 and Moors, of thousands of conversion the to leading successful,

that together with his oratory powers, made his preaching both powerful and and powerful both preaching his made powers, oratory his with together that

followed him everywhere, whipping themselves bloody with chains, a spectacle spectacle a chains, with bloody themselves whipping everywhere, him followed

killed. Crowds of pious people, beggars, vagabonds, fanatics and flagellants flagellants and fanatics vagabonds, beggars, people, pious of Crowds killed.

His virulently antisemitic sermons sparked riots in which thousands were were thousands which in riots sparked sermons antisemitic virulently His

). ). below entry see ( 1492 in Spain from Jews the of expulsion the to leading factors

determined that Judaism be rooted out of Spain, which was one of the principal principal the of one was which Spain, of out rooted be Judaism that determined

1417), he is also remembered for his antisemitism. From the early 1390s he was was he 1390s early the From antisemitism. his for remembered also is he 1417),

While he helped bring an end to the Great Western Church Schism (1378- Schism Church Western Great the to end an bring helped he While

doubt gave his words enormous power. power. enormous words his gave doubt

languages, was said to have had the the had have to said was languages, , a gift which no no which gift a , tongues” in speaking of “gift

be understood by all he preached to, despite the bounds imposed by different different by imposed bounds the despite to, preached he all by understood be

of Catalan spoken in the Valencian community in Spain, but because he could could he because but Spain, in community Valencian the in spoken Catalan of

Germany. Biographers believe he could only speak Valencian, a linguistic variety variety linguistic a Valencian, speak only could he believe Biographers Germany.

he became a wandering preacher, and traveled through Spain, France, Italy, and and Italy, France, Spain, through traveled and preacher, wandering a became he

built up the Body of Christ—the Church. From 1398 until his death in 1419 1419 in death his until 1398 From Church. Christ—the of Body the up built

Catholic Church, canonized in 1455 as the patron saint of builders, because he he because builders, of saint patron the as 1455 in canonized Church, Catholic

acclaim as a missionary and a logician. He is honored as a saint of the Roman Roman the of saint a as honored is He logician. a and missionary a as acclaim

Vincent Ferrer (1350-1419) was a Valencian Dominican friar, who gained gained who friar, Dominican Valencian a was (1350-1419) Ferrer Vincent

25,000 deaths: / affected People

1398–1419: Vincent Ferrer Vincent 1398–1419:

Reference: 1397.1 Reference:

Angelo. Angelo.

Roman citizenship to Jewish physician Manuele and son son and Manuele physician Jewish to citizenship Roman

Pope Boniface IX issued papal bull confirming grant of of grant confirming bull papal issued IX Boniface Pope

1397: Pope Boniface IX Boniface Pope 1397:

225 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 226. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

His sermons, such as this excerpt from 1411, became part of the Laws of Vallalodid (see entry below, 1412): “the sixth sin is that we should not maintain Jews or Moors among us, nor permit them to sell anything to eat to Christians nor allow them to be surgeons nor physicians, nor allow them to run towns or any place. And cursed is any knight, lord or lady who makes a Jew his or her store-keeper.”

The following passage from one of his sermons has a double meaning: Ferrer tempts the Jews with salvation as soon as they are baptised, but is coloured by his assertion that the Jews are subject to the power of the king, whose ordinance required them to attend the sermon for their salvation:

“So, Jews, to do this, here is what you must do. Go into the Red Sea, which is Holy Baptism, which opened up at the tap of the wand of the Holy Cross, and be baptized and you will be saved, and all your enemies will drown. And those who will be baptized first, or in the middle, or at the end, all will saved. But, just as all would be saved, as they crossed the Sea, but the first who went in, who were the tribe of Judah, won the royal crown, so, you, now, if you are first to enter baptism, you will have the greater crown, even if all of you will be saved. For the order that the king put out, that you should come to the preaching, was done for your salvation, even if you came by force, goaded, and unwilling.”

Reference: 1398.1

1399: Host desecration in Poznań, Poland

Jews are charged with host desecration in Poznań, who bribed a Christian woman to steal hosts from a local church. Allegedly, the hosts were stabbed, and then they bled, and were thrown into a well. The Archbishop learned of the “blasphemy” and ordered that the Rabbi, 13 elders and the woman be tied to pillars and roasted alive over a slow fire.

Today “miracle water” that comes from that well is sold at the church, made “miraculous” because of the hosts the Jews tossed into it. A sign above the faucet loosely translates like a nursery rhyme:

Reference: 1399.1 Reference:

restored.” be to soul of health For

L you, ask we all of most But ord

Many sick folks their health have found have health their folks sick Many

From the well in which Your Body was drowned was Body Your which in well the From

“MIRACULOUS WATER “MIRACULOUS

227 1300–1399 Century: th 14 . 228. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

15th Century: 1400–1499

15th Century: Jewish expulsions

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of expulsions. Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities.

1401: Freiburg, Germany (also 1424) 1415: Vizzini, Sicily 1418: Trier, Germany 1420: Lyons, France; Mainz, Germany (also 1438, 1462, 1471, 1483) 1421: Austria 1424: Zurich, Switzerland; Cologne, Germany 1426: Moravia (also 1454) 1427: Bern, Switzerland 1428: Freiburg, Switzerland 1432: Saxony; Savoy, France 1435: Speyer, Germany 1436: Zurich, Switzerland 1439: Augsburg, Germany 1442: Upper Bavaria 1444: Utrecht, Netherlands 1450: Lower Bavaria 1453: France; Breslau, Germany; Franconia, Germany 1454: Wurzburg, Germany 230. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1458: Erfurt, Germany 1467: Tlemcen, Algeria 1468: Cairo, Egypt 1470: Bavaria 1472: Schaffhausen, Switzerland 1478: Passau, Germany 1481: Bassano, Italy 1484: Warsaw, Poland 1485: Vincenza, Italy; Perugia, Italy 1486: Trent, Italy 1488: Arles, France 1490: Switzerland 1491: Ravenna, Italy 1492: Spain; Mecklenburg, Germany 1493: Sicily 1494: Thurgau, Switzerland 1495: Lithuania 1496: Portugal; Naples, Italy; Styria, Austria; Maribor, Slovenia 1497: Graz, Austria 1498: Navarre, Spain 1498-99: Nuremberg, Germany 1499: Verona, Italy

Reference: 1400.1

15th Century: Blood libel accusations

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of blood libel accusations. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below for details:

1401: Diessenhofen 1407: Cracow*

Bavaria 1474:

)* expelled Jews ( Silesia Lower Breslau, 1453:

Segovia, Spain Segovia, 1432:

Mainz, Germany Mainz, 1422:

)* provinces Rhine

Jews expelled from Austria, Franconia, Saxony, Westphalia, the the Westphalia, Saxony, Franconia, Austria, from expelled Jews ( 1421:

Ems, Germany Germany Ems, 1420:

Mühlen, Austria ( Austria Mühlen, 1404: ) burned Hallein and Salzburg of Jews all

Głogów, Silesia (Poland) Silesia Głogów, 1401:

for details: for

desecration accusations. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below below entry see asterisk*, an with marked those For accusations. desecration

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of host host of list a is following the event, first the from order chronological In

Century: Host desecration accusations desecration Host Century: 15

th

Reference: 1400.2 Reference:

12 Jews and 2 Jewesses burned; the remainder expelled remainder the burned; Jewesses 2 and Jews 12 ( Tyrnau 1494: ) )

1490: La Guardia* La 1490:

Sebastian of Porto Buffole; 3 Jews burned Jews 3 Buffole; Porto of Sebastian ( Venice 1480: )

through the apostate Wolfram apostate the through ( Regensburg 1476: )

)* Simon ( Trent 1475:

1473: Regensburg 1473:

1470: Endingen 1470:

1468: Sepulveda 1468:

) Andreas ( Rinn 1462:

1453: Arles 1453:

1442: Lienz, Tyrol Lienz, 1442:

1435: Palma 1435:

1430: Ravensburg, Ueberlingen, Lindau Ueberlingen, Ravensburg, 1430:

) Ratisbon ( Regensburg 1428:

231 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 232. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1478: Passau, Germany* 1484: Passau, Germany

1492: Mecklenburg, Germany*

Reference: 1400.3

1401: Jews expelled from Freiburg, Germany

As a result of news of ritual killings against Christians in distant Bavaria, on July 4, 1401, the city council, after consulting Duke Leopold, announced the expulsion of all Jews from the pulpits. The councillors solemnly signed the decree dekein Jude ze Friburg niemmerme sin sol (“no Jews may set foot in Freiburg ever again”). Jews were only allowed to stay in Freiburg with the aid of a municipal court and an hourly fee. From 1411 onwards, Jews were accepted again in Freiburg, but during the time of the imperial city (1415-1527), King Sigismund officially confirmed the decree of 1401 with the Eternal Expulsion in 1424.

Reference: 1401.1

1402: Pope Boniface IX

Pope Boniface IX granted privileges to Roman Jews - reducing their taxes, ordering their Sabbath to be protected, placing them under the jurisdiction of the Curia, protecting them from oppression by officials; all Jews dwelling in the city were to be regarded and treated as Roman citizens.

Reference: 1402.1

1407: Cracow Accusations, Poland

Jews were persecuted in the Cracow Accusations, one of the first blood libels to be recorded in Poland. A priest, Budek, charged the Jews with murdering a boy at Easter. The Jews tried to defend themselves and ultimately took refuge in the

reside, except in case of need, or in travelling, or at the king’s court. If they they If court. king’s the at or travelling, in or need, of case in except reside,

Jews or Moors, either in or without their houses, in the towns where they they where towns the in houses, their without or in either Moors, or Jews

“4. Jews and Moors are not to eat with Christians, nor Christians with with Christians nor Christians, with eat to not are Moors and Jews “4.

punishment as I may please to order.” order.” to please may I as punishment

shall lose all their property, and be at my mercy, to receive such corporal corporal such receive to mercy, my at be and property, their all lose shall

Jews or Moors residing without the said inclosure, after the said time, time, said the after inclosure, said the without residing Moors or Jews

themselves within eight days after places shall be assigned them; and any any and them; assigned be shall places after days eight within themselves

to them, and in no other place or house without it. They are to separate separate to are They it. without house or place other no in and them, to

egress. All Jews and Moors are to reside within the said inclosure assigned assigned inclosure said the within reside to are Moors and Jews All egress.

where they reside, surrounded by a wall, having a single gate for ingress and and ingress for gate single a having wall, a by surrounded reside, they where

live apart from Christians, in a separate part of the city, town, and place place and town, city, the of part separate a in Christians, from apart live

“1. That all Jews and Moors of my kingdoms and dominions, do dwell and and dwell do dominions, and kingdoms my of Moors and Jews all That “1.

see reference section for link for section reference see ( archive.org at ):

The following edicts are quoted verbatim as examples. All 24 can be seen online online seen be can 24 All examples. as verbatim quoted are edicts following The

first edict gives them eight days to comply, or risk losing all their property. their all losing risk or comply, to days eight them gives edict first

confinement of Moors and Jews into ghettos, be established everywhere. The The everywhere. established be ghettos, into Jews and Moors of confinement

protection to the Jews. The edicts also ordered that the the that ordered also edicts The Jews. the to protection , , “Juderías” and “Morerías”

Punishment was 100 lashes and a fine. Local rulers were warned not to offer offer to not warned were rulers Local fine. a and lashes 100 was Punishment

in wine, flour, meat or bread, carrying arms, shaving, leaving the country, etc. etc. country, the leaving shaving, arms, carrying bread, or meat flour, wine, in

them to Christianity. These included a ban on working in handicrafts, trading trading handicrafts, in working on ban a included These Christianity. to them

24 edicts were issued against the Jews (and Moors) with the intention of driving driving of intention the with Moors) (and Jews the against issued were edicts 24

Ayllón Laws; Catalina’s Laws) Catalina’s Laws; Ayllón aka ( Spain Castile, in Valladolid, of Laws 1412:

Reference: 1408.1 Reference:

citizens. citizens.

freemen class, equal to lesser nobles, boyars and other free free other and boyars nobles, lesser to equal class, freemen

Received a bill of rights granting Jews status belonging to the the to belonging status Jews granting rights of bill a Received

1408: Grodno, Lithuania Grodno, 1408:

Reference: 1407.1 Reference:

left alive were forcibly baptized. baptized. forcibly were alive left

Church of St. Anne which was surrounded and then set on fire. Any children children Any fire. on set then and surrounded was which Anne St. of Church

233 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 234. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

find only taverns kept by Christians, and if there are no Jewries in places where fairs are held, although in such places they eat in Christians’ houses, my pleasure is, that they shall incur no penalty for so doing.”

“6. Jews and Moors are not to have squares or markets, to buy or sell any thing to Christians to eat or drink, under the penalty of five hundred maravedis for each, time; but they may have them within their inclosures, to trade among themselves.”

“10. No Jew or Moor shall presume to visit Christians in their illnesses, or give them medicines or draughts, or talk idly to them, or send them presents of dried herbs, spices, bread, wine, fish, game, fruit, or other articles of food. Any Jew or Moor acting contrary hereto, shall for each offence be fined three hundred maravedis.”

“11. That no married or single Christian woman, kept mistress, or prostitute, may either by day or night enter within the enclosure where Jews or Moors reside; and any Christian married woman that does, for each time she enters, she shall pay a fine of three hundred maravedis; if unmarried or kept, she is to lose the clothes she has on; and if a prostitute, to receive from justice one hundred lashes, and be driven from the city, town or place where she resides.”

“15. That no Jew or Moor, ten days after this date, shall wear cloth of which the entire suit costs upwards of thirty maravedis; those who act contrary shall, for the first offence, forfeit the apparel they have on to the shirt; for the second, lose all their clothes and receive a hundred lashes; and for the third, all their property shall be confiscated to my treasury. But it is my pleasure that, if they choose, they may make coats and cloaks of the clothes they now possess.”

“19. No Jews or Moors shall, by the day or otherwise, hire any Christian to cultivate or work on their lands, vineyards, houses, or other buildings. Whoever acts to the contrary shall receive a hundred lashes for the first offence; for the second, a hundred lashes and pay a fine of a hundred maravedis; and for the third time, forfeit all his property, and again receive a hundred lashes.”

“20. That no Jews or Moors shall be smiths, carpenters, doublet-makers, tailors, clothworkers, shoemakers, butchers, curriers, or clothiers for Christians; or sell them shoes, doublets, breeches, or any’ other article of clothing: whoever acts contrary incurs the penalties of the preceding law.”

Reference: 1413.1 Reference:

could be subjected to censorship. censorship. to subjected be could

of the Talmud be collected so that passages considered insulting to Christianity Christianity to insulting considered passages that so collected be Talmud the of

consequence of the Jewish defeat, but the Pope sufficed with an order that copies copies that order an with sufficed Pope the but defeat, Jewish the of consequence

one-sided “debate”. Geronimo demanded the burning of the Talmud as a a as Talmud the of burning the demanded Geronimo “debate”. one-sided

Pope Benedict ultimately declared the Church as the winner of the intimidating, intimidating, the of winner the as Church the declared ultimately Benedict Pope

such sources are to be understood for their literal meaning or only allegorically. allegorically. only or meaning literal their for understood be to are sources such

example — are to be relied upon for understanding Judaism; and even whether whether even and Judaism; understanding for upon relied be to are — example

humanity; which Hebrew sources — the midrashic texts versus the Talmud, for for Talmud, the versus texts midrashic the — sources Hebrew which humanity;

come yet or not; whether the Messiah was intended for the Jews alone or all all or alone Jews the for intended was Messiah the whether not; or yet come

addressed the meaning of the Messianic age and the question of whether it had had it whether of question the and age Messianic the of meaning the addressed

According to the Hebrew and Latin transcriptions of the debates, the discussions discussions the debates, the of transcriptions Latin and Hebrew the to According

Christianity.

about introducing certain themes in order to avoid being accused of attacking attacking of accused being avoid to order in themes certain introducing about

bishops, they debated the 14 rabbis who participated, who had to be circumspect circumspect be to had who participated, who rabbis 14 the debated they bishops,

the antipope to order the contest. Together with 70 cardinals, archbishops and and archbishops cardinals, 70 with Together contest. the order to antipope the

claims that Jewish texts pointed to the coming of Jesus as redeemer prompted prompted redeemer as Jesus of coming the to pointed texts Jewish that claims

known as Joshua Lorqui, a Jewish convert and physician to Benedict, whose whose Benedict, to physician and convert Jewish a Lorqui, Joshua as known

The Christian side of the disputation was led by Geronimo de Santa Fe, formerly formerly Fe, Santa de Geronimo by led was disputation the of side Christian The

see entry above, 1398 above, entry see ( Ferrer Vincent friar Dominican antisemitic ).

that Christianity had superseded its mother religion. It was attended by the the by attended was It religion. mother its superseded had Christianity that

XIII, intended to use Jewish sources to prove that Jesus was the Messiah and and Messiah the was Jesus that prove to sources Jewish use to intended XIII,

faiths however, but rather, as defined by the Avignon antipope Pope Benedict Benedict Pope antipope Avignon the by defined as rather, but however, faiths

). It was not an open inquiry into the beliefs of the two two the of beliefs the into inquiry open an not was It ). 1263 above, Barcelona

was the longest such debate held during the Middle Ages ( Ages Middle the during held debate such longest the was see Disputation of of Disputation see

from both the Jewish and Christian communities. It lasted 19 months, and and months, 19 lasted It communities. Christian and Jewish the both from

The Disputation of Tortosa was a theological debate between representatives representatives between debate theological a was Tortosa of Disputation The

1413–14: Disputation of Tortosa, Spain Tortosa, of Disputation 1413–14:

Reference: 1412.1 Reference:

one acting contrary, incurs the penalties of the preceding law.” law.” preceding the of penalties the incurs contrary, acting one

or bring produce to sell to Christians, as oil, honey, rice, or provisions: any any provisions: or rice, honey, oil, as Christians, to sell to produce bring or

“21. That no Jews or Moors of my kingdoms and dominions shall be carriers, carriers, be shall dominions and kingdoms my of Moors or Jews no That “21.

235 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 236. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1414: Kingdom of Aragon, Spain

Laws similar to the Laws of Valladolid (see entry above, 1412) were enacted in Aragon, with the additional measure that it would be illegal to have more than one synagogue per “aljama” (self-governing communities of Moors and Jews living under Christian rule in the Iberian Peninsula) and possess the Talmud. Jews were also required to listen to three sermons a year: on the second Sunday of Advent, Easter Monday, and a third to be designated by the local authority.

Jews were prohibited from hiring Christian or Muslim domestics, but were allowed to employ day-labourers to tend Jewish fields and vineyards.

Jewish men were allowed to trim their hair, but not entirely remove their beards, and shaving with a razor was forbidden. Jewish women had a price limitation on dress materials to prevent ostentation, and were required to wear a funnel- shaped head-covering, to which it was forbidden to attach tassels.

In essence the crown and the Church were working in tandem towards the same goal: the conversion of Jews, with the catechism (a summary of religious doctrine often in the form of questions and answers) complementing legal measures.

Reference: 1414.1

1415: Anti-Pope Benedict XIII

Anti-Pope Benedict XIII issued papal bull Etsi doctoribus gentium (“Although doctors to people”) which was a collection of anti-Jewish church legislation that served as an inspiration to other Popes.

Reference: 1415.1

1418: Jews expelled from Trier, Germany

Archbishop Otto von Ziegenheim banished the Jews from the entire electorate of Trier.

Reference: 1418.1

Reference: 1419.1 Reference:

Bavaria (1422), and Iglau (1428). (1428). Iglau and (1422), Bavaria

massacres and expulsions at the hands of the Catholics from Austria (1421), (1421), Austria from Catholics the of hands the at expulsions and massacres

were accused of supplying arms to the Hussites and on that account suffered suffered account that on and Hussites the to arms supplying of accused were

these attacks were incidental to attacks on Catholics. In the 1420s the Jews Jews the 1420s the In Catholics. on attacks to incidental were attacks these

(1422) the Jewish quarter was plundered along with the Old City. However, However, City. Old the with along plundered was quarter Jewish the (1422)

adopting Hussitism or death, a choice denied to the Catholics); and in Prague Prague in and Catholics); the to denied choice a death, or Hussitism adopting

together with the Catholics (although the Jews were given the choice between between choice the given were Jews the (although Catholics the with together

the capture of Chomutov (Komotau) in 1421, Jews were burned at the stake stake the at burned were Jews 1421, in (Komotau) Chomutov of capture the

attacks by the Hussites on the Jews, although they became their victims: after after victims: their became they although Jews, the on Hussites the by attacks

of the Antichrist,” i.e., the German Catholic crusaders. There were no direct direct no were There crusaders. Catholic German the i.e., Antichrist,” the of

The Hussites considered themselves “God’s warriors” subduing the “soldiers “soldiers the subduing warriors” “God’s themselves considered Hussites The

made a decisive contribution. contribution. decisive a made

first European war in which hand-held gunpowder weapons such as muskets muskets as such weapons gunpowder hand-held which in war European first

Lutheran Reformation by a full century. The Hussite Wars were arguably the the arguably were Wars Hussite The century. full a by Reformation Lutheran

between the medieval and the Reformation periods, and anticipated the the anticipated and periods, Reformation the and medieval the between

were named after Jan Hus, a religious reformer whose work was transitional transitional was work whose reformer religious a Hus, Jan after named were

Catholic Church, as well as among various Hussite factions themselves. They They themselves. factions Hussite various among as well as Church, Catholic

Roman Emperor, the Papacy and various European monarchs loyal to the the to loyal monarchs European various and Papacy the Emperor, Roman

Christian Hussites and the combined Catholic forces of Sigismund, Holy Holy Sigismund, of forces Catholic combined the and Hussites Christian

The Hussite Wars, also called the Bohemian Wars, were fought between the the between fought were Wars, Bohemian the called also Wars, Hussite The

1419-34: Hussite Wars, Germany Wars, Hussite 1419-34:

Reference: 1418.2 Reference:

of their synagogues. synagogues. their of

Pope forbids the forcible baptism of Jews or the disturbance disturbance the or Jews of baptism forcible the forbids Pope

1418: Pope Martin V Martin Pope 1418:

237 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 238. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1420: Pope Martin V

Pope Martin V issued papal bull Concessum Judaæisto (“It is granted to Jews”) to German Jews confirming their privileges, and Papal bull Licet Judæorum omnium (“Although the Jews”) in favour of Austrian Jews.

Reference: 1420.1

1420: Jews expelled from Lyons, France

All Jews were expelled from Lyons, including the refugees from Paris who were expelled 20 years earlier and had relocated to Lyons. Most of them moved to neighbouring Trévoux. The only Jews left in France remained in Provence.

Reference: 1420.2

1420: Jews expelled from Mainz, Germany

Jews were expelled from Mainz by the archbishop.

Reference: 1420.3

1421: Jews expelled from Austria

People affected / deaths: 212

In Easter 1420, Duke Albert V accused the Jews of collaboration with the Hussites, stories of ritual murder, and host desecration. A months-long campaign to purge Vienna of her Jews culminated in March 1421 with 92 men and 120 women burned to death, and the rest of the community forced to convert, or expelled, with the archduke taking possession of their property.

Reference: 1424.1 Reference:

revolutionary France in 1794. 1794. in France revolutionary

chapel. This ban remained in effect in Cologne until Cologne was annexed by by annexed was Cologne until Cologne in effect in remained ban This chapel.

Poland and Lithuania. The synagogue in Cologne was converted into a a into converted was Cologne in synagogue The Lithuania. and Poland

emigrated to central or northern European countries like like countries European northern or central to emigrated

pogroms and expulsion of 1424, many Jews of Cologne Cologne of Jews many 1424, of expulsion and pogroms

which expelled the Jews “for eternity”. Following the medieval medieval the Following eternity”. “for Jews the expelled which

King Sigismund officially confirmed the decree of 1401 1401 of decree the confirmed officially Sigismund King

1424: Jews expelled from Cologne, Freiburg; Germany Freiburg; Cologne, from expelled Jews 1424:

Reference: 1423.1 Reference:

law requiring Jews to wear a badge. badge. a wear to Jews requiring law

Sedes apostolica Sedes bull papal issued V Martin Pope (“The apostolic”) renewing the the renewing apostolic”) (“The

1423: Pope Martin V Martin Pope 1423:

Reference: 1421.1 Reference:

anti-Jewish sermons; permitted Jewish physicians to practise. practise. to physicians Jewish permitted sermons; anti-Jewish

Pope Martin V issued papal bull in favor of Jews and against against and Jews of favor in bull papal issued V Martin Pope

1421: Pope Martin V Martin Pope 1421:

Reference: 1421.1 Reference:

the flames which rose up in the year 1421 rid the city of all injustice.” injustice.” all of city the rid 1421 year the in up rose which flames the

“As the waters of the River Jordan cleansed the souls of the baptized, so did did so baptized, the of souls the cleansed Jordan River the of waters the “As

which read: read: which

standing over a Jewish man receiving a Christian baptism, and had a Latin text text Latin a had and baptism, Christian a receiving man Jewish a over standing

recently) on the square, still called Judenplatz, or Jews’ Square. It featured a devil devil a featured It Square. Jews’ or Judenplatz, called still square, the on recently)

A centuries old plaque extolling the executions was affixed to a house (until (until house a to affixed was executions the extolling plaque old centuries A

239 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 240. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1427: Jews expelled from Bern, Switzerland

Justinger, author of a Bernese chronicle and a notary public, led the proposition to expel the Jews “for the honor and greater glory of the Lord, his Mother and all the Saints”. It was only in 1820 that Jews began to settle there again.

Reference: 1427.1

1427: Pope Martin V, Italy

In May 1427 John of Capistrano, Franciscan friar and Catholic priest, persuaded the queen of Naples ( Joanna II) to cancel the privileges of the Jews in her kingdom, but Martin’s intervention resulted in the repeal of this edict the following August.

Reference: 1427.2

1429: Pope Martin V

Pope Martin V issued papal bull Quamquam Judæi (“However Jews”) placing Roman Jews under the general civic law, protecting them from forcible baptism, and permitting them to teach in schools.

Reference: 1429.1

1432: Jews expelled from Saxony

Margaret of Austria, a member of the House of Habsburg, married Frederick II. She went on to reside at the Meissen court, where she had a significant impact on her husband’s government: in 1432 she had all Jews expelled from the former margravate (territory ruled by a margrave).

Reference: 1432.1

or status who in any way impede the attendance of Jews at these sermons, sermons, these at Jews of attendance the impede way any in who status or

also by other kindnesses. The synod decrees that Christians of whatever rank rank whatever of Christians that decrees synod The kindnesses. other by also

as to gain them for Christ not only by the manifestation of the truth but but truth the of manifestation the by only not Christ for them gain to as

bishops and the preachers should behave towards them with such charity charity such with them towards behave should preachers the and bishops

business dealings with the faithful and of other apposite penalties. But the the But penalties. apposite other of and faithful the with dealings business

discretion, to attend these sermons under pain both of being excluded from from excluded being of both pain under sermons these attend to discretion,

errors. They should compel infidels of both sexes who have reached the age of of age the reached have who sexes both of infidels compel should They errors.

catholic faith in such a way that the infidels who hear it can recognize their their recognize can it hear who infidels the that way a such in faith catholic

where Jews and other infidels live, to preach and expound the truth of the the of truth the expound and preach to live, infidels other and Jews where

depute persons well trained in scripture, several times a year, in the places places the in year, a times several scripture, in trained well persons depute

remain steadfastly in it. It therefore decrees that all diocesan bishops should should bishops diocesan all that decrees therefore It it. in steadfastly remain

and other infidels may be converted to the orthodox faith and converts may may converts and faith orthodox the to converted be may infidels other and

“By these salutary instructions it desires to provide measures whereby Jews Jews whereby measures provide to desires it instructions salutary these “By

Excerpts from the Decree on Jews and neophytes: and Jews on Decree the from Excerpts

Jews had to wear distinctive clothing; and... clothing; distinctive wear to had Jews

at conversion sermons; Christians were forbidden from having Jewish doctors; doctors; Jewish having from forbidden were Christians sermons; conversion at

from obtaining academic degrees; compulsory attendance of Jews was required required was Jews of attendance compulsory degrees; academic obtaining from

The Council adopted many of the old measures against Jews: Jews were barred barred were Jews Jews: against measures old the of many adopted Council The

September 17, 1434: Council of Basel, Switzerland Basel, of Council 1434: 17, September

Reference: 1434.1 Reference:

sermons. sermons.

Pope Eugene IV issued papal bull prohibiting anti-Jewish anti-Jewish prohibiting bull papal issued IV Eugene Pope

1434: Pope Eugene IV Eugene Pope 1434:

Reference: 1432.2 Reference:

synagogues and graveyards. graveyards. and synagogues

ordinances against forcible baptism and disturbance of of disturbance and baptism forcible against ordinances

Pope Eugene IV issued papal bull protecting Jews, renewing renewing Jews, protecting bull papal issued IV Eugene Pope

1432: Pope Eugene IV Eugene Pope 1432:

241 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 242. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

or who forbid it, automatically incur the stigma of being supporters of unbelief... Furthermore, renewing the sacred canons, we command both diocesan bishops and secular powers to prohibit in every way Jews and other infidels from having Christians, male or female, in their households and service, or as nurses of their children; and Christians from joining with them in festivities, marriages, banquets or baths, or in much conversation, and from taking them as doctors or agents of marriages or officially appointed mediators of other contracts. They should not be given other public offices, or admitted to any academic degrees, or allowed to have on lease lands or other ecclesiastical rents. They are to be forbidden to buy ecclesiastical books, chalices, crosses and other ornaments of churches under pain of the loss of the object, or to accept them in pledge under pain of the loss of the money that they lent. They are to be compelled, under severe penalties, to wear some garment whereby they can be clearly distinguished from Christians. In order to prevent too much intercourse, they should be made to dwell in areas, in the cities and towns, which are apart from the dwellings of Christians and as far distant as possible from churches. On Sundays and other solemn festivals they should not dare to have their shops open or to work in public...

Both they [ Jews] and the bishops should strive that, at least for a long time, they do not mingle much with Jews or infidels lest, as occurs with convalescents from illness, a small occasion may make them fall back into their former perdition. Since experience shows that social communication between converts renders them weaker in our faith, and has been found to damage much their salvation, this holy synod exhorts local ordinaries to exercise care and zeal that they are married to born-Christians, in so far as this seems to promote an increase of the faith. Converts should be forbidden, under pain of severe penalties, to bury the dead according to the Jewish custom or to observe in any way the sabbath and other solemnities and rites of their old sect. Rather, they should frequent our churches and sermons, like other Catholics, and conform themselves in everything to Christian customs. Those who show contempt for the above should be delated to the diocesan bishops or inquisitors of heresy by their parish priests, or by others who are entrusted by law or ancient custom with inquiring into such matters, or by anyone else at all. Let them be so punished, with the aid of the secular arm if need be, as to give an example to others...

If converts fail to correct themselves after a canonical warning, and as Judaizers are found to have returned to their vomit, let proceedings be

Reference: 1438.1 Reference:

were used for building purposes. purposes. building for used were

cemetery and synagogue were confiscated, and the tombstones tombstones the and confiscated, were synagogue and cemetery

Jews were expelled in consequence of municipal quarrels; their their quarrels; municipal of consequence in expelled were Jews

1438: Jews expelled from Mainz, Germany Mainz, from expelled Jews 1438:

Reference: 1435.1 Reference:

make final disposition of their business affairs.” business their of disposition final make

whither they please with all their property, and in the meantime they may may they meantime the in and property, their all with please they whither

citizenship and of settlement. Until November 11 they are at liberty to go go to liberty at are they 11 November Until settlement. of and citizenship

designs upon their lives or their property: it only revokes their rights of of rights their revokes only it property: their or lives their upon designs

“The council is compelled to banish the Jews; but it has no no has it but Jews; the banish to compelled is council “The

expulsion which said: said: which expulsion

On May 5, 1435, the Jews were expelled with the decree of of decree the with expelled were Jews the 1435, 5, May On

May 5, 1435: Jews expelled from Speyer, Germany Speyer, from expelled Jews 1435: 5, May

Reference: 1434.3 Reference:

in 1530 and in Austria in 1551. 1551. in Austria in and 1530 in

obligation to wear the yellow badge was imposed upon all the Jews in Germany Germany in Jews the all upon imposed was badge yellow the wear to obligation

over the back, by which they would be distinguished from the local Jews. The The Jews. local the from distinguished be would they which by back, the over

a visit to Nuremberg were required to wear a type of long, wide hood falling falling hood wide long, of type a wear to required were Nuremberg to visit a

in front, and the women were ordered to wear yellow pointed veils. Jews on on Jews veils. pointed yellow wear to ordered were women the and front, in

Jewish men were ordered to attach yellow circles (called (called circles yellow attach to ordered were men Jewish ) to their clothes, clothes, their to ) ringel

1434: Augsburg, Germany Augsburg, 1434:

Reference: 1434.2 Reference:

enactments of the sacred canons...” canons...” sacred the of enactments

taken against them as against perfidious heretics in conformity with the the with conformity in heretics perfidious against as them against taken

243 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 244. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1439: Jews expelled from Augsburg, Germany People affected / deaths: 300

King Albert II agreed to accept 900 gulden from the city of Augsburg in return for allowing them to expel their Jews. Jews were to be allowed into the town on business and if a war broke out.

Reference: 1439.1

1442: Pope Eugene IV

Pope Eugene IV issued papal bull Dundum ad nostram audientiam (“Dundee came to our attention”) requiring complete separation of Jews and Christians, thus creating a legal basis for the creation of Jewish ghettos in Europe. He also issued papal bull Super Gregem Dominicum (“The Domenico flock”) revoking the privileges of Castilian Jews and imposed severe restrictions on them. It also forbade Castilian Christians to eat, drink, live or bathe with Jews or Muslims and declared invalid the testimony of Jews or Muslims against Christians.

Reference: 1442.1

1442: Jews expelled from Upper Bavaria

In 1442, Duke Albrecht, surnamed for this act “the Pious”, banished them from 40 towns and villages of Upper Bavaria. They found refuge in Lower Bavaria under Henry of Landshut (see entry below, 1450), who, with his well-known reputation for accepting gifts from all sides, welcomed the Jews and their not inconsiderable contributions, who was said to have boasted of these “chickens that laid golden eggs”.

Reference: 1442.2

made the ban law for all of Castile. Castile. of all for law ban the made

were deprived of their municipal offices. Within two years the king of Castile Castile of king the years two Within offices. municipal their of deprived were

conversos 14 result, a As affiliation. Christian of generations four prove could

private or public office or receiving land from the church benefices unless they they unless benefices church the from land receiving or office public or private

conversos , regardless of whether they were sincere Christians, from holding holding from Christians, sincere were they whether of regardless ,

shifting the definition of a Jew from a religious one to a racial one. It barred barred It one. racial a to one religious a from Jew a of definition the shifting

laws in modern history, where Jews were now legally defined by their bloodlines, bloodlines, their by defined legally now were Jews where history, modern in laws

On June 5, 1449, he issued the the issued he 1449, 5, June On , the first set of racial exclusion exclusion racial of set first the , Sentencia-Estatuto

. conversos

were working against the Church. Sarmiento formed an inquisition to punish punish to inquisition an formed Sarmiento Church. the against working were

floated rumors that that rumors floated were still secretly practicing the Jewish faith and and faith Jewish the practicing secretly still were conversos

Luna against the city government. To justify the looting, Sarmiento’s followers followers Sarmiento’s looting, the justify To government. city the against Luna

leaders arrested and tortured until they admitted to conspiring with de de with conspiring to admitted they until tortured and arrested leaders converso

used the revolt as a pretext to confiscate their targets’ belongings. He ordered ordered He belongings. targets’ their confiscate to pretext a as revolt the used

need to remove Alvaro de Luna from the Court”. the from Luna de Alvaro remove to need Sarmiento and his followers followers his and Sarmiento

On taking control of the city, he announced he was compelled to act by by act to compelled was he announced he city, the of control taking On “the “the

the city gates. Pero Sarmiento, the the Sarmiento, Pero gates. city the of Toledo, led the rebellion. rebellion. the led Toledo, of mayor alcalde

townspeople actively resisted payment, and a mob quickly obtained control of of control obtained quickly mob a and payment, resisted actively townspeople

converso the by collected be to maravedis million treasurer, Alfonso Cota. The The Cota. Alfonso treasurer,

On January 25, 1449, Alvaro de Luna imposed a tax from Toledo a loan of one one of loan a Toledo from tax a imposed Luna de Alvaro 1449, 25, January On

January 25, 1449: Toledo City Council, Spain Council, City Toledo 1449: 25, January

Reference: 1447.1 Reference:

to Italy. Italy. to

Pope Nicholas V re-issued Pope Eugene IV’s bull (1442) against Castilian Jews Jews Castilian against (1442) bull IV’s Eugene Pope re-issued V Nicholas Pope

1447: Pope Nicholas V Nicholas Pope 1447:

Reference: 1443.1 Reference:

The obligation for Jews to wear the yellow badge was reintroduced. reintroduced. was badge yellow the wear to Jews for obligation The

1443: Treviso, Italy Treviso, 1443:

245 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 246. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Conversos were soon restored to their offices and the pure-blood statutes rescinded, but relations between the two ethnic groups, frequently referred to as “the two lineages”, remained unstable in many towns of the realm.

The statute in part reads:

“We, Pedro Sarmiento, head repostero [honorific title in a noble household] of our lord the king... proclaim and declare that, in as much as it is well known through civil and canon law that conversos of Jewish lineage, being suspect in the faith of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, frequently belittle it by judaizing, they shall not be allowed to hold office or benefices public or private through which they might cause harm, aggravation, or bad treatment to good old Christians (Christianos viejos lindos), nor shall they be able to act as witnesses against them…

And in as much as the said conversos live and act without fear of God and have shown and still show themselves to be enemies of the said city and of the old Christians living in it... enemies of the Christian faith; wars, damages and evils which the Jews, enemies of our holy Catholic faith from the time of the passion of our Savior Jesus Christ have always caused…

Therefore we find that we ought to declare and do declare that all the said conversos descended from the perverse line of the Jews, in whatever situation they may be, be held as incapable and unworthy to hold public or private office in the said city of Toledo and in its lands, by means of which they would be able to hold lordship over Old Christians believing in the holy Catholic faith of Our Lord Jesus Christ and cause damage, injury, and to be incapable and unworthy of giving testimony and faith as public notaries or as witnesses.”

Reference: 1449.1

1450: Jews expelled from Lower Bavaria

Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria, successor to Henry of Landshut, had invited the Jews to live in his area (see entry above, 1442), but decided to banish them. He first tried conversion, then had many Jews arrested, then fined them 32,000 florins, and finally expelled them.

Reference: 1450.1

Reference: 1453.1 Reference:

sanction to live again in Breslau. Breslau. in again live to sanction

It was not until 1630 — nearly 200 years later — that Jews received official official received Jews that — later years 200 nearly — 1630 until not was It

Thereafter, Jews could enter Breslau only as visitors to the city’s trade fairs. fairs. trade city’s the to visitors as only Breslau enter could Jews Thereafter,

the king of Bohemia, officially banned Jews from living in the city in 1455. 1455. in city the in living from Jews banned officially Bohemia, of king the

The rest of the Jewish population was expelled. For good measure, Ladislaw, Ladislaw, measure, good For expelled. was population Jewish the of rest The

and forcibly baptized, even though at the time this was prohibited by canon law. law. canon by prohibited was this time the at though even baptized, forcibly and

executions, Jewish children under the age of seven were taken by the Church Church the by taken were seven of age the under children Jewish executions,

himself rather than be burned to death by the authorities. Following the the Following authorities. the by death to burned be than rather himself

that resulted in 41 Jews being burned at the stake. At least one person hung hung person one least At stake. the at burned being Jews 41 in resulted that

entry above, 1451-53 above, entry ), presided over a trial of host desecration, desecration, host of trial a over presided ),

John Capistrano, known as the “Scourge of the Hebrews” ( Hebrews” the of “Scourge the as known Capistrano, John see see

People affected / deaths: / affected People 41

1453: Jews expelled from Breslau, Lower Silesia Lower Breslau, from expelled Jews 1453:

Reference: 1451.2 Reference:

1690. 1690.

see entries below, 1453 below, entries see ( population Jewish entire ). Capistrano was canonised in in canonised was Capistrano ).

and pogroms, and persuaded many southern German regions to expel their their expel to regions German southern many persuaded and pogroms, and

Hebrews” for his antisemitic messages. These fiery sermons inspired violence violence inspired sermons fiery These messages. antisemitic his for Hebrews”

John of Capistrano, a Franciscan friar, became known as the “Scourge of the the of “Scourge the as known became friar, Franciscan a Capistrano, of John

1451–53: John of Capistrano of John 1451–53:

Reference: 1451.1 Reference:

earlier revocation of privileges and restrictions against Spanish and Italian Jews. Jews. Italian and Spanish against restrictions and privileges of revocation earlier

there. This is the third issuance of Pope Eugene IV’s bull (1442), confirming the the confirming (1442), bull IV’s Eugene Pope of issuance third the is This there.

the dukes of Austria from ecclesiastical censure for permitting Jews to dwell dwell to Jews permitting for censure ecclesiastical from Austria of dukes the

Romanus Pontifex Romanus bull papal issued V Nicholas Pope (“Roman Pope”) relieving relieving Pope”) (“Roman

1451: Pope Nicholas V Nicholas Pope 1451:

247 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 248. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1453: Jews expelled from Franconia, Germany

Bishop Godfrey of Wurzburg (Duke of Franconia), previously a benefactor of the Jews, was persuaded by John of Capistrano to expel them.

Reference: 1453.2

1453: Poland

Franciscan monk, John of Capistrano, persuaded the King of Poland to terminate all Jewish civil rights (see entry on him above, 1451-53).

Reference: 1453.3

1456: Pope Callixtus III

Pope Callixtus III issued papal bull Si ad reprimendos (“If he is preventing”) which prohibited Jews from testifying against Christians, but permitted Christians to testify against a Jew.

Reference: 1456.1

1462: Andreas Oxner, aka Anderl von Rinn

A 3-year-old boy disappears and is found hanging from a tree in a nearby forest. His uncle claimed to have sold him to Jews after returning from a fair. The child was buried without an investigation, but in 1621 the Jews were accused of ritual murder (see entry below, 1621). The alleged scene of the crime, known as the Judenstein (“Jew stone”) became a place of pilgrimage and locus of antisemitism in the Catholic Church. He was beatified by Pope Benedict XIV in 1752, but not canonised.

Reference: 1462.1

The Jews’ first race took place in the Via Lata February 9, 1466. 9, February Lata Via the in place took race first Jews’ The

contribute toward the expenses. the toward contribute

was to be older than twenty years, and the entire community had to to had community entire the and years, twenty than older be to was

in red cloaks, which all, save physicians, had to wear. No contestant contestant No wear. to had physicians, save all, which cloaks, red in

the participants, but were merely a part of the program. The Jews ran ran Jews The program. the of part a merely were but participants, the

of valuable robes ( robes valuable of ). The races were not supposed to degrade degrade to supposed not were races The ). “pallia”

various classes on different days. On Tuesdays Jews raced for a prize prize a for raced Jews Tuesdays On days. different on classes various

The papal officials desired to amuse the populace by holding races for for races holding by populace the amuse to desired officials papal The

), who established footraces in addition to the usual games. games. usual the to addition in footraces established who ), 1464-71

its scope was considerably extended by Pope Paul II at Rome ( Rome at II Paul Pope by extended considerably was scope its papacy: papacy:

part. While the carnival had existed from the earliest medieval period, period, medieval earliest the from existed had carnival the While part.

before Lent, in which the Jews were made to play a contemptuous contemptuous a play to made were Jews the which in Lent, before

Among the Romans, a period of gaiety occurred during the weeks weeks the during occurred gaiety of period a Romans, the Among

The Carnival: The

during the Turkish war, and a carnival tax of 1,100 gulden. 1,100 of tax carnival a and war, Turkish the during

Pope Sixtus IV issued a papal bull ordering taxation of Roman Jews at a tithe tithe a at Jews Roman of taxation ordering bull papal a issued IV Sixtus Pope

1472: Pope Sixtus IV Sixtus Pope 1472:

Reference: 1470.1 Reference:

many of whom moved to Bulgaria. Bulgaria. to moved whom of many

The Duke of Bavaria Louis IX expelled the Jews from Bavaria, Bavaria, from Jews the expelled IX Louis Bavaria of Duke The

1470: Jews expelled from Bavaria from expelled Jews 1470:

Reference: 1468.1 Reference:

community. community.

or be expelled. This severely impoverished the local Jewish Jewish local the impoverished severely This expelled. be or

Sultan Qaitbay forces Jews of Cairo to pay 75,000 gold pieces pieces gold 75,000 pay to Cairo of Jews forces Qaitbay Sultan

Expulsion by Muslims by Expulsion ( Egypt Cairo, from expelled Jews 1468: )

249 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 250. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

At first the Jews enjoyed these contests. Later, however, they were subjected to all sorts of cruelties by the populace; in 1547 a Jew died during the progress of a race, which was the last year in which Jews raced in the carnival. The carnival was an institution of most of the cities of Italy; and Jews, wherever settled, participated in the races.

Reference: 1472.1

1475: Simon of Trent, Italy

People affected / deaths: 17

This was one of the more notorious blood libels. A Franciscan monk, Bernardinus of Feltre, came to Trent and began preaching Lent sermons against the Jews. A week before Easter a boy by the name of Simon drowned in the river Adige. The monk charged the Jews with using the body for its blood. The body washed up a few days later near the house of a Jew who brought it to the Bishop Honderbach. 17 Jews were tortured for over two weeks. Some confessed while being tortured and six Jews were burned. Two more were strangled. A temporary hiatus was called by Pope Sixtus IV, but after five years the trial was reopened and five more Jews were executed. The Papal inquest agreed with the trial, Simon was beatified (the first step towards canonisation), and all Jews were expelled from Trent in 1486 for 300 years. The trial served as the basis for antisemitic writings for hundreds of years.

In 1965 the Catholic Church reinvestigated the story, and declared the episode a fraud. The “cult of Simon” was suppressed by Pope Paul VI, the shrine erected to him dismantled, his feast day removed from the calendar, and his future veneration officially forbidden.

Reference: 1475.1

1478: Jews expelled from Passau, Germany

A petty thief “confessed” to having stolen and sold the Host to Jews. On being tortured, 10 Jews confessed to having stabbed the Host and caused its blood to flow. All (including the witness) were sentenced to death. Concomitantly

Reference: 1478.3 Reference:

of which between 3,000 and 5,000 were executed. executed. were 5,000 and 3,000 between which of

offenses during the three centuries of duration of the Spanish Inquisition, out out Inquisition, Spanish the of duration of centuries three the during offenses

According to modern estimates, around 150,000 were prosecuted for various various for prosecuted were 150,000 around estimates, modern to According

dying, etc. were given to root them out. out. them root to given were etc. dying,

of pork, washing hands before eating, turning the face towards the wall when when wall the towards face the turning eating, before hands washing pork, of

forced conversion. Specific signs, such as no fires on the Sabbath, no eating eating no Sabbath, the on fires no as such signs, Specific conversion. forced

to be an even greater threat to the social order than those who had rejected rejected had who those than order social the to threat greater even an be to

suspected of secretly practising Judaism, known as as known Judaism, practising secretly of suspected , and were perceived perceived were and , Marranos

of poisoning peoples’ water, and abducting Christian boys. Some were also also were Some boys. Christian abducting and water, peoples’ poisoning of

suspicion by old powerful Christian families, and blamed for a plague, accused accused plague, a for blamed and families, Christian powerful old by suspicion

Christianity. Known as as Known Christianity. (“New Christians”), they were viewed with with viewed were they Christians”), (“New Conversos

caused by Jews who, to survive centuries of antisemitism, had converted to to converted had antisemitism, of centuries survive to who, Jews by caused

The King and Queen believed that corruption in the Catholic Church was was Church Catholic the in corruption that believed Queen and King The

to consolidate power in the monarchy of the newly unified Spanish kingdom. kingdom. Spanish unified newly the of monarchy the in power consolidate to

and Queen Isabella, ostensibly to root out heresy, but serving serving but heresy, out root to ostensibly Isabella, Queen and

The Spanish Inquisition was established by King Ferdinand Ferdinand King by established was Inquisition Spanish The

3,000 – 5,000 – 3,000 deaths: / affected People

1478–1834: Spanish Inquisition Spanish 1478–1834:

Reference: 1478.2 Reference:

created the Spanish Inquisition. Inquisition. Spanish the created

devotion”) authorising Ferdinand and Isabella to appoint inquisitors, which which inquisitors, appoint to Isabella and Ferdinand authorising devotion”)

Exigit sinceræ devotionis sinceræ Exigit bull papal issued IV Sixtus Pope (“Requires sincere sincere (“Requires

1478: Pope Sixtus IV Sixtus Pope 1478:

Reference: 1478.1 Reference:

synagogue and Jewish homes were demolished. demolished. were homes Jewish and synagogue

approximately 40 Jews accepted Christianity while the rest were expelled; the the expelled; were rest the while Christianity accepted Jews 40 approximately

251 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 252. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1480: Pope Sixtus IV

Pope Sixtus IV issued papal bull empowering Catholic kings to appoint inquisitors over all heretics.

Reference: 1480.1

1481–1850: Auto-da-fé

People affected / deaths: tens of thousands killed

An auto-da-fé (“Act of Faith”) was the ritual of public penance of condemned heretics and apostates. Although the Inquisition and the auto-da-fé were used on anyone accused of heresy, its main victims were Jews. The inquisition accused people of backsliding or heresy for actions such as not eating pig (for whatever reason), washing hands before prayer, changing clothes on the Sabbath, etc. Over 2,000 auto-da-fés are said to have taken place in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain, Portugal) and its colonies. The number of victims in Spain alone is estimated at 39,912, many of whom were burned alive, some in effigy. Others, convicted posthumously, were dug up and burned — and the property they left was confiscated from their heirs. Approximately 340,000 people, many of them Jews, suffered at the hands of the Inquisition, although the vast majority were given lesser punishments.

Because so many were conducted over the years, the beginning of each century below lists those occurring in cities by country as a general guide to the sum total. This list of auto-da-fés includes those in which it is positively known that Jews were concerned, and has been selected from those held by the Inquisition; the thousands of volumes of Inquisition reports in the archives at Madrid, Seville, Simancas, Lisbon, etc. when published, will doubtless add to that number. The cities are listed in chronological order, with numbers in parentheses for multiple offences for that year.

Reference: 1481.1

Reference: 1481.4 Reference:

700 men and women burned at the stake and 5,000 forced to ‘repent’. ‘repent’. to forced 5,000 and stake the at burned women and men 700

700 deaths: / affected People

1481: Seville, Spain Seville, 1481:

Reference: 1481.3 Reference:

the others were turned in by his daughter. daughter. his by in turned were others the

Seville, Spain. Diego de Suzan, a prominent merchant, and and merchant, prominent a Suzan, de Diego Spain. Seville,

women were burned alive for allegedly practicing Judaism in in Judaism practicing allegedly for alive burned were women

who converted to Catholicism to avoid persecution) and six six and persecution) avoid to Catholicism to converted who

See main entries above entries main See — Jews Jews — marranos (or men conversos Six .

auto-da-fé First 1481: : Seville, Spain Seville, :

Reference: 1481.2 Reference:

1490 1490 Valencia:

1490 Huesca:

1488 (2) 1488 Toledo:

1485-86 (7) 1485-86 Guadalupe:

Ciudad Real: 1484, 1485 1484, Real: Ciudad

see entry below for details for below entry see ( 1481 Seville: )

known that Jews were involved: were Jews that known

where it is positively positively is it where auto-da-fés of list a is following the

the first event, with multiple events per year in parentheses, parentheses, in year per events multiple with event, first the

. In chronological order from from order chronological In . 1481-1850 above, entry main See

Spain Auto-da-fé: 1481–99:

253 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 254. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1482: Pope Sixtus IV

Pope Sixtus IV issued papal bull Numquam Dubitavimus (“He never hesitated to”) which permitted inquisitors to continue with investigations and to root out any Jewish practice among converts to Christianity.

Reference: 1482.1

1483: Tomás de Torquemada appointed as Grand Inquisitor of Spain

People affected / deaths: c. 2,000

Tomás de Torquemada (1420-98) was a Castilian Dominican friar and first Grand Inquisitor in Spain. His name has become synonymous with the Inquisition’s horror, religious bigotry, and cruel fanaticism. The number of burnings at the stake during Torquemada’s tenure has been estimated at about 2,000. His hostility to the Jews probably exercised an influence on the decision of Ferdinand and Isabella to expel from their dominions all Jews who had not embraced Christianity (see expulsion, 1492).

In the 15 years under his direction, the Spanish Inquisition grew from the single tribunal at Seville to a network of two dozen Holy Offices. As Grand Inquisitor, he reorganized the Spanish Inquisition (originally based in Castile in 1478), establishing tribunals in Sevilla, Jaén, Córdoba, Ciudad Real, and (later) Saragossa. His quest was to rid Spain of all heresy.

Torquemada saw that the condemned were made to wear a sanbenito (also sambenito), a penitential garment worn over their clothing. There were three basic types of tunics used to distinguish those being punished by the Inquisition:

1. The Samarra was painted with dragons, devils, and flames amongst which the image of the prisoner could be distinguished, signifying that the impenitent heretic was condemned to be burnt alive at the stake.

2. The Fuego revolto was painted simply with flames pointing downwards, signifying that the heretic who became penitent after being condemned was not to be burnt alive at the stake, but was to have the mercy of being strangled before the fire was lit.

). 1483 in above entry his see ( crypto-Jews and heretics against

death greatly assisted the Inquisition General Tomás de Torquemada’s campaign campaign Torquemada’s de Tomás General Inquisition the assisted greatly death

On Arbués’ death, popular belief invested him with miraculous power, and his his and power, miraculous with him invested belief popular death, Arbués’ On

awaiting his his awaiting . . auto-da-fé

Vidal and Esperandeu being put to death; Abadia attempted suicide while while suicide attempted Abadia death; to put being Esperandeu and Vidal

The retaliation on the the on retaliation The , not all of whom were implicated, resulted in in resulted implicated, were whom of all not , marranos

the execution of his sister and the condemnation of his father by the Inquisition. Inquisition. the by father his of condemnation the and sister his of execution the

Zaragoza while he was attending mass. Abadia’s incentive was no doubt due to to due doubt no was incentive Abadia’s mass. attending was he while Zaragoza

servant, Vidal (probably a Jew), assassinated him in the La Seo Cathedral in in Cathedral Seo La the in him assassinated Jew), a (probably Vidal servant,

and Juan Esperandeu, with the hired help of an assassin, the latter’s French French latter’s the assassin, an of help hired the with Esperandeu, Juan and

as an official of the Spanish Inquisition. Two wealthy wealthy Two Inquisition. Spanish the of official an as , Juan de la Abadia Abadia la de Juan , marranos

Pedro de Arbués ( Arbués de Pedro 1441-85) was a Spanish Roman Catholic priest, who served served who priest, Catholic Roman Spanish a was 1441-85) c.

1485: Pedro de Arbués de Pedro 1485:

Reference: 1484.1 Reference:

were forcibly converted to Christianity. Christianity. to converted forcibly were

Attacks on Jews killed several women, their houses were ransacked, and 50 Jews Jews 50 and ransacked, were houses their women, several killed Jews on Attacks

50 deaths: / affected People

1484: Forced conversions in Arles, France Arles, in conversions Forced 1484:

Reference: 1483.1 Reference:

order”.

“the hammer of heretics, the light of Spain, the savior of his country, the honor of his his of honor the country, his of savior the Spain, of light the heretics, of hammer “the

A Spanish contemporary chronicler, Sebastián de Olmedo, called Torquemada Torquemada called Olmedo, de Sebastián chronicler, contemporary Spanish A

the neck, the rosary, and in their hands a yellow or green wax candle. candle. wax green or yellow a hands their in and rosary, the neck, the

wearing the sambenito, a canonical cap (the coroza, or capirote), the rope around around rope the capirote), or coroza, (the cap canonical a sambenito, the wearing

The heretics, found guilty by the inquisitors, had to walk in the procession procession the in walk to had inquisitors, the by guilty found heretics, The

Eventually all three types of tunics became known as as known became tunics of types three all Eventually . . sambenito

wearer was only to do penance. penance. do to only was wearer

3. featured red saltires (St. Andrew’s Cross), whose whose Cross), Andrew’s (St. saltires red featured Sambenito The

255 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 256. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Pedro de Arbués was canonised by Pope Pius IX in 1867.

Reference: 1485.1

1486: Jews expelled from Trent, Italy

Following the blood libel case of Simon of Trent (see entry above, 1475), the Jews were expelled in 1486.

Reference: 1486.1

1488: Jews expelled from Arles, France

Jews were expelled and never returned. Those who chose conversion were allowed to stay. The synagogue was destroyed, and the last Jew left in 1494.

Reference: 1488.1

1490: Jews expelled from Switzerland

Jews were expelled and not allowed to return for 300 years. They had been there since their expulsion from France by Philip Augustus in 1182. In Geneva the decree for expulsion was issued in December 1490, and carried out in the harsh winter season of January 1491.

Reference: 1490.1

1490–91: Blood libel: The Holy Child of La Guardia, Spain

People affected / deaths: 11

The Holy Child of La Guardia is a folk saint in Spanish Roman Catholicism and the subject of a medieval blood libel in the town of La Guardia in the

Reference: 1490.2 Reference:

that the alleged events actually took place. place. took actually events alleged the that

However, in 2016, the Archdiocese of Madrid’s official website still maintained maintained still website official Madrid’s of Archdiocese the 2016, in However,

. . ” history’ of lies disastrous and notable most the of ‘one named well been “has

The 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia stated that the allegation allegation the that stated Encyclopedia Catholic 1912 The Iberia”. in libel blood

“the most infamous case of of case infamous most “the called been has Child Holy The Inquisition. the and

conspiracy to bring about the annihilation of both Christianity Christianity both of annihilation the about bring to conspiracy Converso Jewish-

for the expulsion of the Jews from Spain by creating a background of an alleged alleged an of background a creating by Spain from Jews the of expulsion the for

There is also no doubt that the Inquisition wanted to prepare public opinion opinion public prepare to wanted Inquisition the that doubt no also is There

or were burned alive on November 16, 1491. 16, November on alive burned were or

existed, but the unjustly accused persons were either strangled and then burned burned then and strangled either were persons accused unjustly the but existed,

and the place where the crime was committed. The child of La Guardia never never Guardia La of child The committed. was crime the where place the and

age of the child, the names of his parents, the place of his birth and residence, residence, and birth his of place the parents, his of names the child, the of age

without being brought face to face, contradicted one another in regard to the the to regard in another one contradicted face, to face brought being without

The accused and the witnesses, who were heard separately by the Inquisitors Inquisitors the by separately heard were who witnesses, the and accused The

their witchcraft. This was the crime laid to the charge of the Jews and and Jews the of charge the to laid crime the was This witchcraft. their . marranos

to another rabbi of that city, in the hope that they might be more successful in in successful more be might they that hope the in city, that of rabbi another to

the child’s heart and a new host to Rabbi Moses Abenamias in Zamora and and Zamora in Abenamias Moses Rabbi to host new a and heart child’s the

had no effect, the conspirators met a third time, and sent Benito Garcia with with Garcia Benito sent and time, third a met conspirators the effect, no had

Christian faith, and to make the Jewish faith prevail generally. Since the charm charm the Since generally. prevail faith Jewish the make to and faith, Christian

was to bring about the death of all Inquisitors and Christians, to destroy the the destroy to Christians, and Inquisitors all of death the about bring to was

by means of the child’s heart and a consecrated host. The object of these charms charms these of object The host. consecrated a and heart child’s the of means by

utter curses and, with the assistance of the physician Tazarte, to practise magic magic practise to Tazarte, physician the of assistance the with and, curses utter

Some days later the same persons again gathered at night in the same den to to den same the in night at gathered again persons same the later days Some

to have buried him the same night in a place which could never be found again. again. found be never could which place a in night same the him buried have to

Jesus. Thereupon they were said to have taken the dead child from the cross and and cross the from child dead the taken have to said were they Thereupon Jesus.

caught his blood in a basin, and then torn out his heart with imprecations upon upon imprecations with heart his out torn then and basin, a in blood his caught

Guardia; that they had put a crown of thorns on his head, opened his veins, veins, his opened head, his on thorns of crown a put had they that Guardia;

accused had crucified a child at night in a den situated on the street of La La of street the on situated den a in night at child a crucified had accused

(through fear of martyrdom and the application of torture), showed that the the that showed torture), of application the and martyrdom of fear (through

The confession of Yuce Franco, either voluntary (as was pretended) or forced forced or pretended) was (as voluntary either Franco, Yuce of confession The

intellect, upon whose testimony the tribunal laid especial emphasis. emphasis. especial laid tribunal the testimony whose upon intellect,

chief witness was Yuce Franco, a young man hardly 20 years old and of limited limited of and old years 20 hardly man young a Franco, Yuce was witness chief

to November 16, 1491, and ended with the condemnation of the accused. The The accused. the of condemnation the with ended and 1491, 16, November to

arrested by the Inquisition in 1490. The trial lasted from December 17, 1490, 1490, 17, December from lasted trial The 1490. in Inquisition the by arrested

to employ his heart for the purpose of working charms. The accused were were accused The charms. working of purpose the for heart his employ to

and five Jews on Good Friday — not to use his blood for ritual purposes, but but purposes, ritual for blood his use to not — Friday Good on Jews five and

( Jews who professed conversion in order to avoid persecution) persecution) avoid to order in conversion professed who Jews ( marranos six by

province of Toledo. A Christian boy was said to have been crucified and killed killed and crucified been have to said was boy Christian A Toledo. of province

257 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 258. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1491: Jews expelled from Ravenna, Italy

The Jews of Ravenna were expelled and their synagogues destroyed, instigated by Franciscan and Dominican friars whose goal was the expulsion of all Jews from Italy.

Reference: 1491.1

1492: 9th of Av: Jews expelled from Spain

People affected / deaths: 200,000 – 300,000

The Alhambra Decree, aka the Edict of Expulsion, was issued on March 31, 1492 ordering the expulsion of Jews by July 31. The primary purpose was to eliminate their influence on Spain’s large converso population and ensure they did not revert to Judaism. As a result of the Alhambra decree and persecution in prior years, over 200,000 Jews converted to Catholicism and between 40,000 and 100,000 were expelled (Wikipedia); 200,000 were expelled ( JVL); of the 300,000 — half were expelled / half were converted (Constantine’s Sword).

Christopher Columbus begins his diary with:

“In the same month in which their Majesties [Ferdinand and Isabella] issued the edict that all Jews should be driven out of the kingdom and its territories, in the same month they gave me the order to undertake with sufficient men my expedition of discovery to the Indies.”

This was the largest expulsion of Jews in Europe prior to the Holocaust, and has become just as important a date in Jewish history as it has in American history.

The edict was formally and symbolically revoked on December 16, 1968, following the Second Vatican Council (see entry below, 1962-65), a full century after Jews had been openly practicing their religion in Spain and synagogues were once more legal places of worship under Spain’s Laws of Religious Freedom.

Reference: 1492.1

1868, when the Kazimierz and Krakow communities merged. communities Krakow and Kazimierz the when 1868,

government, subject only to the King’s power. Jews stayed in Kazimierz until until Kazimierz in stayed Jews power. King’s the to only subject government,

of the time was created, surrounded by city walls and endowed with its own own its with endowed and walls city by surrounded created, was time the of

of the town’s surface, and in this way, Europe’s only Jewish-governed town town Jewish-governed only Europe’s way, this in and surface, town’s the of

the district of Kazimierz from the ravaged Old Town. They took over a fifth fifth a over took They Town. Old ravaged the from Kazimierz of district the

residents in Krakow. In 1495, King Jan Olbracht ordered the Jews to move to to move to Jews the ordered Olbracht Jan King 1495, In Krakow. in residents

In June 1494 a fire spread from a Jewish street to one inhabited by Christian Christian by inhabited one to street Jewish a from spread fire a 1494 June In

1495: Kazimierz, Poland Kazimierz, 1495:

Reference: 1493.1 Reference:

Empire. Empire.

When they were expelled from there, they then went east to the Ottoman Ottoman the to east went then they there, from expelled were they When

the Italian mainland, in such southern regions as Apulia, Calabria and Naples. Naples. and Calabria Apulia, as regions southern such in mainland, Italian the

of the customs of the faith. Those who left initially attempted to resettle on on resettle to attempted initially left who Those faith. the of customs the of

(neophytes), and included crypto-Jews who secretly tried to maintain some some maintain to tried secretly who crypto-Jews included and (neophytes),

in Sicily. Half of Sicily’s Jews elected to convert; they were known as as known were they convert; to elected Jews Sicily’s of Half Sicily. in “neofiti”

of their possessions were taken by the crown or by wealthy Christian families families Christian wealthy by or crown the by taken were possessions their of

number of articles of clothing, a pair of sheets, and some petty cash. All the rest rest the All cash. petty some and sheets, of pair a clothing, of articles of number

the death penalty. Jews were forbidden from leaving with more than a small small a than more with leaving from forbidden were Jews penalty. death the

Sicily, then part of the Spanish kingdom, they were liable for for liable were they kingdom, Spanish the of part then Sicily,

living in Sicily for about 1,500 years, but if they didn’t leave leave didn’t they if but years, 1,500 about for Sicily in living

The Spanish Inquisition reached Sicily in 1493. Jews had been been had Jews 1493. in Sicily reached Inquisition Spanish The

plus 30,000– deaths: / affected People

1493: Jews expelled from Sicily from expelled Jews 1493:

Reference: 1492.2 Reference:

Judenberg. Jews would not return until the second half of the 17 the of half second the until return not would Jews Judenberg. Century. Century. th

the duchy. The spot where they were killed is still called the the called still is killed were they where spot The duchy. the

including two women, and all the Jews were expelled from from expelled were Jews the all and women, two including

Jews were accused of host desecration. 27 Jews were burned, burned, were Jews 27 desecration. host of accused were Jews

27 deaths: / affected People

1492: Jews expelled from Mecklenburg, Germany Mecklenburg, from expelled Jews 1492:

259 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 260. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Stephen Spielberg’s movie Schindler’s List was largely filmed in Kazimierz.

Reference: 1495.1

1495: Jews expelled from Lithuania

Alexander Jagiellon, grand duke of Lithuania, issued without warning the edict: “The Jews must leave the country”. They were allowed to return again in 1503. The Lithuanian statute of 1566 placed a number of restrictions on the Jews, and imposed sumptuary laws (laws that limit private expenditure on food and personal items), including the requirement that they wear distinctive clothing, including yellow caps for men and yellow kerchiefs for women.

Reference: 1495.2

1496: Jews expelled from Portugal

People affected / deaths: 20,000

King Manuel I issued a decree forcing all Jews to leave Portugal five days after marrying Princess Isabella of Spain, a condition she imposed on him for the marriage. Manuel wasn’t happy with this because of the economic value of Jews to the country, so he tried to make it more difficult for them to leave, by making Lisbon the only port of exit. He also tried to convert as many Jews to Christianity as he could to keep them in Portugal. Jewish parents were forced to hand over their children to be raised as Catholics. While some agreed, many parents chose to kill themselves and their children rather than be separated.

Reference: 1496.1

1496: Jews expelled from Styria, Austria

Jews are expelled from Styria and all their property confiscated.

Reference: 1496.2

Reference: 1499.1 Reference:

the poor so bad that the Jews were very shortly called to return. to called shortly very were Jews the that bad so poor the

lenders were replaced with Christian usurers who oppressed oppressed who usurers Christian with replaced were lenders

Jews are expelled from Verona. The Jews who were money money were who Jews The Verona. from expelled are Jews

1499: Jews expelled from Verona, Italy Verona, from expelled Jews 1499:

Reference: 1498.1 Reference:

destroyed and the tombstones used for building purposes. purposes. building for used tombstones the and destroyed

Emperor and then purchased by the town for 8,000 florins. The cemetery was was cemetery The florins. 8,000 for town the by purchased then and Emperor

the synagogue were confiscated by the mayor in favor of the the of favor in mayor the by confiscated were synagogue the

some settling in the surrounding villages. Their houses and and houses Their villages. surrounding the in settling some

from Nuremberg forever. In March 1499 they left the city, city, the left they 1499 March In forever. Nuremberg from

In 1498 Maximilian I approved the expulsion of the Jews Jews the of expulsion the approved I Maximilian 1498 In

1498-99: Jews expelled from Nuremberg, Germany Nuremberg, from expelled Jews 1498-99:

Reference: 1497.1 Reference:

there in 1160, only 30 years after the town was founded. founded. was town the after years 30 only 1160, in there

province of Styria, by Maximilian I. Jews had begun settling settling begun had Jews I. Maximilian by Styria, of province

Jews were expelled from Graz, the capital of the Austrian Austrian the of capital the Graz, from expelled were Jews

1497: Jews expelled from Graz, Austria Graz, from expelled Jews 1497:

261 1400–1499 Century: th 15 . 262. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

16th Century: 1500–1599

16th Century: Auto-da-fé: Spain, Spanish colonies

See main entry 1481. In chronological order from the first event, with multiple events per year in parentheses, the following is a list of auto-da-fés where it is positively known that Jews were involved. Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below for details:

Palma de Mallorca: 1506, 1509, 1510, 1511 Las Palmas: 1507, 1526 Mexico: 1528*, 1574, 1592 Valladolid: 1559 Seville: 1560 Murcia: 1562 (2) Toledo: 1576, 1578, 1598

Reference: 1500.1

16th Century: Jewish expulsions

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of expulsions. Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities.

1501: Provence (France) 264. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1504: Pilsen, West Bohemia 1506: Breslau, Bohemia 1510: Prussia; Brandenburg, Germany; Calabria, Italy (also 1524) 1510-11: Naples, Italy (also 1533, 1540-41) 1511: Apulia, Italy 1514: Strasbourg, France 1515: Genoa, Italy (also 1550, 1567); Laibach, Austria 1519: Regensburg, Germany 1537: Saxony 1539: Nauheim, Germany 1542: Bohemia 1550: Venice, Italy (paper expulsion) 1557: Prague, Czech Republic (also 1561) 1551: Bavaria 1555: Pesaro, Italy 1559: Austria 1567: Wurzburg, Germany 1569: Papal States (also 1593) 1571: Brandenburg, Austria (also 1593) 1573: Frankfurt on the Oder (in Brandenburg), Germany 1582: Holland; Hungary 1597: Milan, Cremona, Pavia & Lodi, Italy

Reference: 1500.2

th 16 Century: Blood libel accusations In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of blood libel accusations. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below for details: 1504: Frankfort-on-the-Main 1505: Budweis* (child murder accusation; 9 Jews were burnt alive, 13 Jews drowned themselves)

of Jewish property throughout the world. The The world. the throughout property Jewish of th 1/20 war Turkish the for years

Issued several papal bulls for collecting Crusade tithes, demanding for three three for demanding tithes, Crusade collecting for bulls papal several Issued

1500: Pope Alexander VI Alexander Pope 1500:

Reference: 1500.4 Reference:

Sochaczew, Poland Poland Sochaczew, 1559:

)* expelled 400-500 killed, 38 (

); Brandenburg, Germany Germany Brandenburg, ); beheaded 2 burned, 26 ( Germany Berlin, 1510:

Pilsen, West Bohemia West Pilsen, 1504:

for details: for

desecration accusations. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below below entry see asterisk*, an with marked those For accusations. desecration

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of host host of list a is following the event, first the from order chronological In

Century: Host desecration accusations desecration Host Century: 16

th

Reference: 1500.3 Reference:

) ) executed Jews 3 ( Luck 1598:

) Jew

blood accusation suggested in a trial of a a of trial a in suggested accusation blood ( Frankfort-on-the-Main 1593:

Hellerspring 1571:

) Lippold of case ( Brandenburg 1570:

Byelsk 1564:

) Farnese

accusation through Hananel Foligno, averted by Alexander Alexander by averted Foligno, Hananel through accusation ( Rome 1554:

Jews imprisoned on murder charge murder on imprisoned Jews ( Asti 1553: )

many hanged; Dr. Joseph Abiob burned Abiob Joseph Dr. hanged; many ( Minor Asia Amasia, 1545: )

Neuburg 1540:

) burned Jews 30 ( Poesing 1529:

Geisingen 1518:

265 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 266. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History most famous of his Crusade bulls was Quamvis ad amplianda (“Although to be broadened”).

Reference: 1500.5

1501: Jews expelled from Provence

King Louis XII ordered the final expulsion of the Jews from Provence in 1501. In order to compensate for the loss to his revenues caused by their departure, Louis introduced a tax in 1512 on the remaining Jews there, who had accepted baptism. Known as the “tax of the neophytes”, it amounted to a total of 6,000 livres. Down to the 18th Century, a number of noble Provençal families were held in discredit because they were reputedly descended from these “neophytes.”

Reference: 1501.1

1504: Jews expelled from Pilsen, West Bohemia

Jews were expelled from Pilsen as a result of a Host desecration charge, and the city was granted the privilege de non tolerandis Judaeis (“of not tolerating Jews”).

Reference: 1504.1

1504: Victor Karbensky: Jewish apostate

Karbensky, a Jewish apostate, was tasked with writing a pamphlet against Judaism. In this pamphlet he brings various accusations against the Jewish people, the responsibility for which he places on the Talmud. He recounts fabulous charges of Jewish persecution of apostates, and complains that even the poorest and most criminal and hardened Jews subject themselves to all manner of hardships rather than embrace Christianity. The pamphlet concludes with:

“All this is due to the Talmud, which is the source of all evil, and which the Jews hold in greater reverence than the ten commandments of God.”

Reference: 1504.2

Reference: 1505.2 Reference:

children for ritual purposes. purposes. ritual for children

their conversion, and defended them against the charge of murdering Christian Christian murdering of charge the against them defended and conversion, their

On the other hand, he condemned the persecution of the Jews as an obstacle to to obstacle an as Jews the of persecution the condemned he hand, other the On

churches to hear the sermons; and third, because they honor the Talmud.” the honor they because third, and sermons; the hear to churches

First, usury; second, because they are not compelled to attend Christian Christian attend to compelled not are they because second, usury; First,

“The causes which hinder the Jews from becoming Christians are three: three: are Christians becoming from Jews the hinder which causes “The

among them, writing: writing: them, among

of the Jewish people, and, for their own good, desired to introduce Christianity Christianity introduce to desired good, own their for and, people, Jewish the of

Warnungsspiegel his In ), he pretended to be a friend friend a be to pretended he ), Warning” of Mirror (“The

). ). below 1519 Regensburg, from expulsion

see see ( place took attendance such unless — Regensburg and Worms, Frankfurt,

Jews from the last German cities which had sizable Jewish communities — — communities Jewish sizable had which cities German last the from Jews

the Talmud be confiscated or destroyed; and recommended the expulsion of of expulsion the recommended and destroyed; or confiscated be Talmud the

employed in the most menial tasks only, and attend Christian sermons; that that sermons; Christian attend and only, tasks menial most the in employed

These works demanded that the Jews should give up the practice of usury, be be usury, of practice the up give should Jews the that demanded works These

(“Enemy of the Jews”, 1509). 1509). Jews”, the of (“Enemy Judenfeind Der and

Das Osterbuch Das 1508); Confession”, (“Jewish Judenbeicht (“Passover Book”, 1509); 1509); Book”, (“Passover

Der Judenspiegel Der Christianity: to hostile was Die Die 1507); Mirror”, (“Jews’

tracts written between 1507-09, where he demonstrated that Jewish literature literature Jewish that demonstrated he where 1507-09, between written tracts

under the protection of the Dominican friars, who published his antisemitic antisemitic his published who friars, Dominican the of protection the under

theft, and was baptised together with his family in 1505. He placed himself himself placed He 1505. in family his with together baptised was and theft,

Pfefferkorn converted from Judaism to Christianity to escape the penalty for for penalty the escape to Christianity to Judaism from converted Pfefferkorn

1505: Johannes Pfefferkorn Johannes 1505:

Reference: 1505.1 Reference:

city. Jews were permitted to settle again only after 1848. 1848. after only again settle to permitted were Jews city.

children were forcibly baptized and the rest of the Jews were expelled from the the from expelled were Jews the of rest the and baptized forcibly were children

burned alive, while 13 more drowned themselves. The next year 23 Jewish Jewish 23 year next The themselves. drowned more 13 while alive, burned

As a result of anti-Jewish riots, nine Jews were accused of ritual murder and and murder ritual of accused were Jews nine riots, anti-Jewish of result a As

22 deaths: / affected People

1505: Ritual murder accusation in Budweis, Bohemia Budweis, in accusation murder Ritual 1505:

267 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 268. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1506: Jews expelled from Breslau, Bohemia

Jews were expelled from Breslau, and were permitted to settle again only after 1848.

Reference: 1506.1

1506: Lisbon massacre

People affected / deaths: 2,000–plus

During a service at St. Dominics Church, the faithful were praying for the end of drought and plague that swept the country, when someone swore they saw the illuminated face of Jesus on the altar. A newly converted Jew raised doubts about the “miracle”. He was beaten to death and then burned. The crowd, led by two Dominican monks, proceeded to ransack Jewish houses and kill any Jews they could find. During the next few days countrymen, hearing about the massacre, came to Lisbon to join in. Over 2,000 Jews were killed during these three days.

Reference: 1506.2

1508: Ulrich Zasius

Ulrich Zasius (1461-1536), German humanist and jurist, published Questiones de Parvulis Judaeorum Baptisandis (“The Problems of Baptising Jewish Children”) in 1508, a savage treatise assaulting Jewish parental rights, including the baptism of Jewish children against the will of their parents. This work summarised a long scholastic debate on a subject which involved both the right of the Jewish people to survive in Christendom and the power of the state to control the spiritual education of the children of all parents whatsoever. When Church officials began to selectively exploit his thinking from about the middle of the 17th Century, they used it to justify what amounted to kidnappings and the subsequent forced baptism of Jewish children.

without some terror and coercion, force can be applied. be can force coercion, and terror some without

3. although it is not simple to compel adult Jews to accept baptism baptism accept to Jews adult compel to simple not is it although

) 1858 below, Case Mortara the see ( children Jewish

2. not only the prince, but any good Christian could, on occasion, baptise baptise occasion, on could, Christian good any but prince, the only not

other superiors of the Jews) to baptise Jewish children Jewish baptise to Jews) the of superiors other

1. it is not only within the power but the actual duty of the princes (and (and princes the of duty actual the but power the within only not is it

quaestio first the ends He with three conclusions: three with

“an infinite mob of the circumcised” circumcised” the of mob infinite “an among the infidels. infidels. the among

, for even if there were no Jews among Christians there would still be be still would there Christians among Jews no were there if even for , Israel” of

He assures the reader that one should not fear for the disappearance of the the of disappearance the for fear not should one that reader the assures He “seed “seed

horizon.” the

of Christians? Let that most loathsome scum sink beneath the darkness of of darkness the beneath sink scum loathsome most that Let Christians? of

professed enemies, such truculent beasts, and expel them from the territories territories the from them expel and beasts, truculent such enemies, professed

“Why then should the princes not be allowed to eliminate such truly truly such eliminate to allowed be not princes the should then “Why

solution to “the Jewish question” was expulsion: expulsion: was question” Jewish “the to solution

For the Jews as a people he had nothing but contempt, and the only practical practical only the and contempt, but nothing had he people a as Jews the For

pain.” with

years earlier], which I cannot speak of without feeling my heart beating beating heart my feeling without of speak cannot I which earlier], years

crime had testified to and had died for it [referring to a blood libel case four four case libel blood a to [referring it for died had and to testified had crime

land, they have spilled this [blood] more than once, as their accomplices in in accomplices their as once, than more [blood] this spilled have they land,

bloodthirsty bloodsuckers seek day and night. In these days and in our own own our in and days these In night. and day seek bloodsuckers bloodthirsty

“But the cruelest of all, the Jews thirst after Christian blood, which these these which blood, Christian after thirst Jews the all, of cruelest the “But

Sympathy for the Jewish children was balanced out by his hatred for the adults: adults: the for hatred his by out balanced was children Jewish the for Sympathy

thus initiated by the baptism of blood, will share eternal life.” life.” eternal share will blood, of baptism the by initiated thus

“It cannot be doubted that these children killed for the faith in Christ, and and Christ, in faith the for killed children these that doubted be cannot “It

murdered by their parents to prevent their baptism, he writes: writes: he baptism, their prevent to parents their by murdered

so long as parental murder doesn’t result from this. But if some children were were children some if But this. from result doesn’t murder parental as long so

children without the consent of their parents so as to give them a new life, life, new a them give to as so parents their of consent the without children

is that princes have the right to baptise Jewish Jewish baptise to right the have princes that is quaestio first the to answer His

Quaestio I Quaestio

269 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 270. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Quaestio II

In the second quaestio, he debates the pros and cons of whether a Jewish child who seeks conversion voluntarily could be baptised, and concludes that a child of seven has attained sufficient rational faculty to decide on his own salvation, seven being the age of consent when a child can inherit property, decide on marriage, sin, lie, and tell the truth.

Quaestio III

In the third quaestio, he answers objections based on contractual law against the forced baptism of the child in question.

Reference: 1508.1

1509: Victor von Carben writes against the Jews

Victor von Carben (1422–1515) was a German rabbi of Cologne who converted to Catholicism when he was 49 (leaving his wife and children), and later became a priest. He endeavored to show his zeal for his new religion by writing against his former coreligionists. After his death in 1515 the following epitaph was engraved on the door of the church of Sainte-Ursule at Cologne:

“Victor, formerly a Jew, wrote in the year 1509 four works against the errors of the Jews.”

He disputed with learned Jews before the Archbishop of Cologne at Bonn in 1480, which led to the expulsion of Jews from Brühl, Deutz, and other towns in the Diocese of Cologne. He wrote to the archbishop, congratulating him on having “plucked away the weeds from his bishopric and ridden it of Jews”, though he tried to persuade Christians that mistreating Jews would not aid in their conversion.

Reference: 1509.1

September 8, 1509: Emperor Maximilian: confiscation of Jewish books

Johannes Pfefferkorn (see entry above, 1505) succeeded in persuading Emperor Maximilian I to issue a mandate permitting the confiscation and destruction

Jewish property was seized and all remaining synagogues were were synagogues remaining all and seized was property Jewish

(converted Jews) were expelled and or tortured to death. Most Most death. to tortured or and expelled were Jews) (converted

A series of expulsions started 1511. Most Jews and and Jews Most 1511. started expulsions of series A neofiti neofiti

1511: Jews expelled from Apulia, Italy Apulia, from expelled Jews 1511:

Reference: 1510.3 Reference:

terminated with the second expulsion in 1540-41. 1540-41. in expulsion second the with terminated

may have returned, but attempts to reside there were finally finally were there reside to attempts but returned, have may

Jews were expelled from Naples in 1510-11. A few individuals individuals few A 1510-11. in Naples from expelled were Jews

1510–11: Jews expelled from Naples, Italy Naples, from expelled Jews 1510–11:

Reference: 1510.2 Reference:

Jews and New Christians are expelled. expelled. are Christians New and Jews

1510: Jews expelled from Calabria, Italy Calabria, from expelled Jews 1510:

Reference: 1510.1 Reference:

from Brandenburg. Brandenburg. from

being executed, and the remaining 400-500 Jews expelled expelled Jews 400-500 remaining the and executed, being

Host desecration accusation in Knoblauch results in 38 Jews Jews 38 in results Knoblauch in accusation desecration Host

38 deaths: / affected People

1510: Jews expelled from Brandenburg, Germany Brandenburg, from expelled Jews 1510:

Reference: 1509.2 Reference:

1509, in Frankfurt and subsequently in Mainz, Bingen, and other German cities. cities. German other and Bingen, Mainz, in subsequently and Frankfurt in 1509,

exception of the Bible. The confiscations took place on Friday, September 8, 8, September Friday, on place took confiscations The Bible. the of exception

of all Jewish books opposing Christianity, including prayer books, with the the with books, prayer including Christianity, opposing books Jewish all of

271 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 272. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History rededicated as Catholic Churches. By 1540, the last expulsion finally ended Jewish life in Apulia.

Reference: 1511.1

1514: Martin Luther’s letter to Reverend Spalatin

Luther’s first known comment about the Jews is in a letter written to Reverend Spalatin in 1514, where his antisemitism is already apparent:

“I have come to the conclusion that the Jews will always curse and blaspheme God and his King Christ, as all the prophets have predicted. He who neither reads nor understands this, as yet knows no theology, in my opinion... Conversion of the Jews will be the work of God alone operating from within, and not of man working — or rather playing — from without. If these offences be taken away, worse will follow. For they are thus given over by the wrath of God to reprobation, that they may become incorrigible, as Ecclesiastes says, for every one who is incorrigible is rendered worse rather than better by correction.”

Reference: 1514.1

1515: Jews expelled from Genoa, Italy

Jews were readmitted a year later (1516), and expelled again in 1550 (see entry below).

Reference: 1515.1

1515: Jews expelled from Laibach, Austria

In 1510 Emperor Maximilian decreed that Jews should be protected in their ancient privileges; but in 1513 he yielded to the demands of the citizens, and prohibited them from

intercession for them.” for intercession

not by the power of the keys, which he does not have, but by way of of way by but have, not does he which keys, the of power the by not

“26. The pope does very well when he grants remission to souls in purgatory, purgatory, in souls to remission grants he when well very does pope The “26.

Theses:

and disputed their views on indulgences, views which were expressed in his 95 95 his in expressed were which views indulgences, on views their disputed and

Luther rejected several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church, Church, Catholic Roman the of practices and teachings several rejected Luther

of the Jews. Jews. the of

and became the ammunition the Nazis needed to legitimise their persecution persecution their legitimise to needed Nazis the ammunition the became and

the Reformation, but his writings were also antisemitic (the focus of this LIST), LIST), this of focus (the antisemitic also were writings his but Reformation, the

sake. Martin Luther’s legacy was twofold: by writing his 95 Theses he launched launched he Theses 95 his writing by twofold: was legacy Luther’s Martin sake.

important year in Christian history which needs mentioning for completeness’ completeness’ for mentioning needs which history Christian in year important

While this LIST focuses on Christian persecution of Jews, 1517 was an an was 1517 Jews, of persecution Christian on focuses LIST this While

1517: Martin Luther’s 95 Theses: Reformation begins Reformation Theses: 95 Luther’s Martin 1517:

Reference: 1516.1 Reference:

). ). 1267 above, Breslau of Synod

Century. It is the oldest Jewish ghetto in the world ( world the in ghetto Jewish oldest the is It Century. th 20 the in see entry for the the for entry see

and badges to distinguish themselves, a practise that the Nazis would later adapt adapt later would Nazis the that practise a themselves, distinguish to badges and

at night. Jews had to observe a curfew, and were required to wear yellow hats hats yellow wear to required were and curfew, a observe to had Jews night. at

ghetto). The ghetto in Venice was enclosed by a wall and gates that were locked locked were that gates and wall a by enclosed was Venice in ghetto The ghetto).

from an area where an old copper foundry was located (the (the located was foundry copper old an where area an from , old old , Vecchio Ghetto

Ghetto Nuovo Ghetto (the Carregio of island the to move to Jews , new ghetto), across across ghetto), new ,

of metal. The term was first used in Venice in 1516, when authorities required required authorities when 1516, in Venice in used first was term The metal. of

“gettare” Italian the from derives supposedly and live, , which refers to the casting casting the to refers which ,

“Ghetto” refers to an enclosed place where European Jews were relegated to to relegated were Jews European where place enclosed an to refers “Ghetto” The

1516: First use of the term “Ghetto”, Venice “Ghetto”, term the of use First 1516:

Reference: 1515.2 Reference:

of the citizens, they were expelled. expelled. were they citizens, the of

engaging in mercantile pursuits. Finally, on January 1, 1515, upon the petition petition the upon 1515, 1, January on Finally, pursuits. mercantile in engaging

273 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 274. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

“27. They preach only human doctrines who say that as soon as the money clinks into the money chest, the soul flies out of purgatory.”

“32. Those who believe that they can be certain of their salvation because they have indulgence letters will be eternally damned, together with their teachers.”

“36. Any truly repentant Christian has a right to full remission of penalty and guilt, even without indulgence letters.”

“45. Christians are to be taught that he who sees a needy man and passes him by, yet gives his money for indulgences, does not buy papal indulgences but God’s wrath.”

“49. Christians are to be taught that papal indulgences are useful only if they do not put their trust in them, but very harmful if they lose their fear of God because of them.”

Reference: 1517.1

1519: Martin Luther challenges “Servitude of the Jews”

Luther challenged the doctrine Servitus Judaeorum (“Servitude of the Jews”), established in the Justinian Code in 529 (see entry above), writing:

“Absurd theologians defend hatred for the Jews. ... What Jew would consent to enter our ranks when he sees the cruelty and enmity we wreak on them — that in our behavior towards them we less resemble Christians than beasts?”

Reference: 1519.1

1519: Jews expelled from Regensburg, Germany

People affected / deaths: 800

Upon the death of Emperor Maximilian I, who had long protected the Jews, the opportunity was taken to expel 800 Jews from Regensburg. Their synagogue was razed and a chapel built on the site, and 5,000 tombstones from the Jewish cemetery were used as building

Reference: 1522.1 Reference:

creatures, and so no one should stone their houses or harass them”. harass or houses their stone should one no so and creatures,

The Trieste authorities declared that that declared authorities Trieste The “all Jews are God’s God’s are Jews “all

1522: Edict in Trieste in Edict 1522:

Reference: 1521.1 Reference:

day.” every turning are they and them,

treat the Jews in so unkindly a spirit, for there are future Christians among among Christians future are there for spirit, a unkindly so in Jews the treat

is, from one generation to another, without end. We ought, therefore, not to to not therefore, ought, We end. without another, to generation one from is,

and to his seed, not for one year or for a thousand years, but in secula, that that secula, in but years, thousand a for or year one for not seed, his to and

“For this promise of God does not lie that the promise was made to Abraham Abraham to made was promise the that lie not does God of promise this “For

He concludes the letter with: with: letter the concludes He

them by. They still continue in this state, but God grant not for long. Amen.” long. for not grant God but state, this in continue still They by. them

thus shut the door upon themselves, so that the Seed was compelled to pass pass to compelled was Seed the that so themselves, upon door the shut thus

own strength, and failed to learn from it their needy and cursed state. They They state. cursed and needy their it from learn to failed and strength, own

this advantage into a disadvantage; they undertook to keep the law by their their by law the keep to undertook they disadvantage; a into advantage this

wherein they had an advantage over all the heathen world. But they turned turned they But world. heathen the all over advantage an had they wherein

cursed state and the more fervently and heartily desire the promised Seed; Seed; promised the desire heartily and fervently more the and state cursed

was given in order that by its light they might the better come to know their their know to come better the might they light its by that order in given was

giving of the law to the Jews is not on a par with this promise. The law law The promise. this with par a on not is Jews the to law the of giving

believe in the Seed that is come and has been given... But the subsequent subsequent the But given... been has and come is that Seed the in believe

“The sole difference is, they believed in the coming and promised Seed; we we Seed; promised and coming the in believed they is, difference sole “The

Torah, the first five books of the Old Testament. He states: states: He Testament. Old the of books five first the Torah,

in Luke 1:46–55), Luther is critical of the emphasis Judaism places on the the on places Judaism emphasis the of critical is Luther 1:46–55), Luke in

especially at vespers and evensong, the text being the hymn of the Virgin Mary Mary Virgin the of hymn the being text the evensong, and vespers at especially

In his commentary on the Magnificat (a canticle used in Christian liturgy, liturgy, Christian in used canticle (a Magnificat the on commentary his In

1521: Martin Luther writes a commentary on the Magnificat the on commentary a writes Luther Martin 1521:

Reference: 1519.2 Reference:

a new synagogue was dedicated. dedicated. was synagogue new a

material. In 1669 they were allowed to return, but it wouldn’t be until 1841 that that 1841 until be wouldn’t it but return, to allowed were they 1669 In material.

275 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 276. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1523: Martin Luther publishes: “That Jesus was Born a Jew”

In his essay “That Jesus Christ Was Born a Jew”, Luther condemned the inhumane treatment of the Jews and urged Christians to treat them kindly. Luther’s fervent desire was that Jews would hear the gospel proclaimed clearly and be moved to convert to Christianity, arguing:

“If I had been a Jew and had seen such dolts and blockheads govern and teach the Christian faith, I would sooner have become a hog than a Christian. They have dealt with the Jews as if they were dogs rather than human beings; they have done little else than deride them and seize their property. When they baptize them they show them nothing of Christian doctrine or life, but only subject them to popishness and monkery ... If the apostles, who also were Jews, had dealt with us Gentiles as we Gentiles deal with the Jews, there would never have been a Christian among the Gentiles ... When we are inclined to boast of our position [as Christians] we should remember that we are but Gentiles, while the Jews are of the lineage of Christ. We are aliens and in-laws; they are blood relatives, cousins, and brothers of our Lord. Therefore, if one is to boast of flesh and blood the Jews are actually nearer to Christ than we are ... If we really want to help them, we must be guided in our dealings with them not by papal law but by the law of Christian love. We must receive them cordially, and permit them to trade and work with us, that they may have occasion and opportunity to associate with us, hear our Christian teaching, and witness our Christian life. If some of them should prove stiff-necked, what of it? After all, we ourselves are not all good Christians either.”

Reference: 1523.1

1528–1850: Auto-da-fé: Mexico

In 1528 the first auto-da-fé to take place in the New World occurred in Mexico. One of its first victims was Hernando Alsono, one of Cortés’ conquistadors, who was burnt at the stake with another “Judaizer”. An official Office of the Inquisition was set up in 1571. The last recorded auto-da-fé ever to take place was recorded in Mexico in 1850 (see entry below).

Reference: 1528.1

Reference: 1531.1 Reference:

and lack of food. food. of lack and

walls. Riots forced them to flee to the mountains where many died from cold cold from died many where mountains the to flee to them forced Riots walls.

fanatic monks to the fact that the city tolerated these “secret Jews” within its its within Jews” “secret these tolerated city the that fact the to monks fanatic

caused great destruction in Santarem, 40 miles away, and was ascribed by the the by ascribed was and away, miles 40 Santarem, in destruction great caused

subsequent tsunami resulted in approximately 30,000 deaths. The earthquake earthquake The deaths. 30,000 approximately in resulted tsunami subsequent

The Lisbon earthquake occurred on January 26 in Portugal. The earthquake and and earthquake The Portugal. in 26 January on occurred earthquake Lisbon The

January 26, 1531: Earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal Lisbon, in Earthquake 1531: 26, January

Reference: 1530.1 Reference:

cited by antisemites over the coming centuries. centuries. coming the over antisemites by cited

it exerted a fairly significant influence on him. It was repeatedly reprinted and and reprinted repeatedly was It him. on influence significant fairly a exerted it

Lies” and even encouraged his readers to read it for themselves is evidence that that evidence is themselves for it read to readers his encouraged even and Lies”

approvingly appealed to the treatise multiple times in “On the Jews and Their Their and Jews the “On in times multiple treatise the to appealed approvingly

to proselytism, they were eager to gain adherents to their faith. That Luther Luther That faith. their to adherents gain to eager were they proselytism, to

neither pious nor charitable, and that, notwithstanding their apparent aversion aversion apparent their notwithstanding that, and charitable, nor pious neither

greediness, and asserted that, despite their minuteness in ritual, the Jews were were Jews the ritual, in minuteness their despite that, asserted and greediness,

to perform manual labor. He charged the Jewish physicians with ignorance and and ignorance with physicians Jewish the charged He labor. manual perform to

Jews, he appealed to the magistrates to remedy the evil and to force the Jews Jews the force to and evil the remedy to magistrates the to appealed he Jews,

anti-Christian in tendency. Declaiming against the usury and idleness of the the of idleness and usury the against Declaiming tendency. in anti-Christian

argued against their Messianic hopes. He denounced the ‘Alenu prayer as as prayer ‘Alenu the denounced He hopes. Messianic their against argued

Jews of usury and of sentiments hostile to Christians and Christianity, and and Christianity, and Christians to hostile sentiments of and usury of Jews

Faith), published in 1530, where he ridiculed Jewish ceremonies, accused the the accused ceremonies, Jewish ridiculed he where 1530, in published Faith),

Der gantze Jüdisch Glaub Jüdisch gantze Der book his for known best is He (The Whole Jewish Jewish Whole (The

Augsburg, was imprisoned and then expelled from Augsburg. Augsburg. from expelled then and imprisoned was Augsburg,

public debate in 1530 with Josel of Rosheim before Charles V and his court at at court his and V Charles before Rosheim of Josel with 1530 in debate public

was a possible source for some of Martin Luther’s concept of Judaism. He lost a a lost He Judaism. of concept Luther’s Martin of some for source possible a was

Anthonius Margaritha was a Jew who converted to Christianity in 1522, and and 1522, in Christianity to converted who Jew a was Margaritha Anthonius

1530: Anthonius Margaritha Anthonius 1530:

277 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 278. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1531: Pope Clement VII

Pope Clement VII issued papal bull cum ad nihil magis (“When no more”), which formally established the Inquisition in three cities in Portugal: Evora, Coimbra and Lisbon (see entry below when the Portuguese Inquisition formally began, 1536).

Reference: 1531.2

1533: Pope Clement VII

Pope Clement VII issued papal bull Sempiterno regi (“Eternal king”) partially condemning the forced baptism of Portuguese Jews. Admitting that forced conversion could often lead to dissimulation, he pardoned conversos (New Christians) accused of Judaising.

Reference: 1533.1

1535: Pope Paul III

Pope Paul III issued papal bull Illius Vides (“They seem to”) which condemns Christians who pay homage to Judaism in secret:

“We have received knowledge that in the greatest part of the Kingdom of Portugal several converts from Jewish falsity — called new Christians — return to the Rite of the Jews…”

Reference: 1535.1

1536: Martin Luther: Jews of Saxony

Luther’s prince, John Frederick, Elector of Saxony, issued a mandate that prohibited Jews from inhabiting, engaging in business in, or passing through his realm. Rabbi Josel of Rosheim, asked a reformer, Wolfgang Capito, to approach

Reference: 1537.1 Reference:

Saxony ( Saxony ). 1536 above, entry see

of the Reformation, ordered the expulsion of the Jews from from Jews the of expulsion the ordered Reformation, the of

Duke John Frederick of Saxony, who was a strong supporter supporter strong a was who Saxony, of Frederick John Duke

1537: Jews expelled from Saxony from expelled Jews 1537:

Reference: 1536.2 Reference:

Christianity or leave. The number of victims is estimated as around 40,000. 40,000. around as estimated is victims of number The leave. or Christianity

Jews who had left Spain for Portugal, when Spain forced Jews to convert to to convert to Jews forced Spain when Portugal, for Spain left had who Jews

suspected of secretly practising Judaism. Many of these were originally Spanish Spanish originally were these of Many Judaism. practising secretly of suspected

, (also known as New Christians, Christians, New as known (also , conversos the ), who were were who ), marranos or conversos

The major targets were those who had converted from Judaism to Catholicism, Catholicism, to Judaism from converted had who those were targets major The

Inquisition along with the Spanish Inquisition and Roman Inquisition. Inquisition. Roman and Inquisition Spanish the with along Inquisition

Inquisition, it was one of three different manifestations of the wider Christian Christian wider the of manifestations different three of one was it Inquisition,

). In the period after the Medieval Medieval the after period the In ). 1531 VII, Clement Pope under above entry see (

Portugal proper in 1536 at the request of its king, John III III John king, its of request the at 1536 in proper Portugal

The Portuguese Inquisition was formally established in in established formally was Inquisition Portuguese The

c. 40,000 deaths: / affected People

1536–1821: Portuguese Inquisition Portuguese 1536–1821:

Reference: 1536.1 Reference:

see entry below entry see ( 1537 in expelled were Jews The ). ).

lord.” good my with intermediary

your [ Jewish] obstinacy by my own kind actions. You must find another another find must You actions. kind own my by obstinacy Jewish] [ your

“I would willingly do my best for your people but I will not contribute to to contribute not will I but people your for best my do willingly would “I

to convert the Jews: Jews: the convert to

intercession. In response to Josel, Luther referred to his unsuccessful attempts attempts unsuccessful his to referred Luther Josel, to response In intercession.

Luther in order to obtain an audience with the prince, but Luther refused every every refused Luther but prince, the with audience an obtain to order in Luther

279 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 280. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1538: Martin Luther writes the treatise “Against the Sabbatarians”

In this treatise, published in the form of an open letter, Luther gives his scriptural argument for why God had “forsaken” the Jews. He also said that it was reasonable to assume that for the 1,500 years since Jesus, God had paid the Law “no heed”. The name “Sabbatarian” comes from those who observe the Sabbath on Saturday, i.e. the Jews. This work is a key work in his transition towards his later antisemitism:

“However, since David’s throne, which God declares is not to be destroyed or fall, has been destroyed now for fifteen hundred years, it is incontrovertible that either the Messiah came fifteen hundred years ago and occupied the throne of his father David, and forever occupies it, or God has become a liar in his most glorious promise because of evil men and disobedient Jews. But this God did not want and never will want. No, the Jews are slandering God and deceiving themselves when they accuse God of breaking faith and trust with David because he did not send the Messiah in the manner they would have liked and as they prescribe and imagine him to be. I know this argument is true. Where there are still reasonable Jews, it must move them, and it must even upset the obdurate ones a little, for they cannot bring any substantial evidence against it. But if it does not move them or make them waver, we have nonetheless substantiated our own faith, so that their foul and worthless lies and idle chatter cannot harm us. And if they do not stick to the point of the argument but evade the issue by resorting to other twaddle, as they like to do, let them go their way and you go yours. It only shows you how they are given to babbling and lying.”

Reference: 1538.1

1538–39: Martin Bucer; Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse

When Philip of Hesse’s law on the protection of the Jews in his territory expired in 1538, he commissioned Bucer to create a new policy. Philip gave him a draft that was tolerant in the regulation of their affairs. Bucer rejected the favourable conditions and recommended that Jews be prohibited from all trades except those providing minimum subsistence. His Judenratschlag (“Jews advice”) also included his first use of negative stereotypes of the Jews.

Philip’s ordinance of 1539 represented a compromise — it didn’t unequivocally legalise the presence of Jews in Hesse, but made it dependent on the goodwill of the Landgrave. Philip allowed the Jews to engage in trade and commerce

forcefully refuted the charge of Jewish ritual murder of Christian children. children. Christian of murder ritual Jewish of charge the refuted forcefully

in 1529, which was published anonymously in 1540, that systematically and and systematically that 1540, in anonymously published was which 1529, in

Blood” Their of Use Make and Children Christian Strangulate Secretly Jews

Andreas Osiander authored a tract “Whether It be True and Credible That the the That Credible and True be It “Whether tract a authored Osiander Andreas

1540: Andreas Osiander Andreas 1540:

Reference: 1540.2 Reference:

themselves or be buried among Jews. Jews. among buried be or themselves

except that gained by usury; also municipal rights, but must not marry among among marry not must but rights, municipal also usury; by gained that except

Pope Paul III issued papal bull granting Neo-Christians family property property family Neo-Christians granting bull papal issued III Paul Pope

1540: Pope Paul III Paul Pope 1540:

Reference: 1540.1 Reference:

in 1540-41. 1540-41. in

reside there were finally terminated with the second expulsion expulsion second the with terminated finally were there reside

few individuals may have returned since then, any attempts to to attempts any then, since returned have may individuals few

The first expulsion of the Jews occurred in 1510-11. While a a While 1510-11. in occurred Jews the of expulsion first The

1540–41: Jews expelled from Naples, Italy Naples, from expelled Jews 1540–41:

Reference: 1538.2 Reference:

result, many Jews chose to leave Hesse. Hesse. leave to chose Jews many result,

for regulating the immigration of Jews or for arranging for their expulsion. As a a As expulsion. their for arranging for or Jews of immigration the regulating for

not be exploited mercilessly. Philip’s ordinance turned this precept into a tool tool a into precept this turned ordinance Philip’s mercilessly. exploited be not

for their protection be proportional to their respective wealth, in order that they they that order in wealth, respective their to proportional be protection their for

Christians living together; and demanded that the fee Jews paid in exchange exchange in paid Jews fee the that demanded and together; living Christians

to attend sermons aimed at missionising them; the death penalty for Jews and and Jews for penalty death the them; missionising at aimed sermons attend to

the Talmud; a ban on the construction of any new synagogues; the obligation obligation the synagogues; new any of construction the on ban a Talmud; the

“blasphemy” against Christ or against the Christian faith; the prohibition of of prohibition the faith; Christian the against or Christ against “blasphemy”

Bucer’s religious demands into legal precepts, such as the abjuration of all all of abjuration the as such precepts, legal into demands religious Bucer’s

restricted circumstances and under strict supervision. He translated some of of some translated He supervision. strict under and circumstances restricted

(against Bucer’s advice), and permitted them to work as moneylenders in in moneylenders as work to them permitted and advice), Bucer’s (against

281 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 282. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Osiander was a Christian Hebraist who engaged in the study of Kabbalah (the ancient Jewish tradition of mystical interpretation of the Bible) and had a thorough knowledge of rabbinic literature and the Talmud. He argued that it is “inconceivable that the Jews should murder children and make use of their blood” when their own Kosher laws forbade them even to eat the meat of animals containing blood. The treatise appeared just as the investigation of one such supposed murder at Tittingen was ongoing.

Reference: 1540.3

1541: Johann Eck

Johann Eck was a German theologian and theological opponent of Luther. In “Refutation of a Jew-Book”, Eck based his passionate argument of the historical reality of Jewish ritual murder on his own personal experience. According to Eck, he had actually: “placed his own fingers in the wound of a child who had died four weeks before at the hand of the Jews of Waldkirch in the Breisgau in 1503.” The book also includes a call for “new and more stringent laws” against Jews and strong condemnation of usury. He accused the Nuremberg reformer Andreas Osiander (see 1540) of being a “Jew-protector” and “Jew-father”, and no fewer than 19 times reviled the Jews, and called them “a blasphemous race”. Eck believed that Jews were murderous by nature: bloodthirsty magicians who reveal the demonic in their behavior, the very image of the Devil seeking Christian blood, which they need to wash away their stigma for having murdered Christ. He repeated myths that Jewish men menstruate, that only Christian blood could cure Jewish ills, and that the Jews of Genoa had murdered a Christian child, using his blood as a sauce into which they dipped pieces of fruit to eat. He concluded that Christian persecutions of Jews were justified as self-defense.

Reference: 1541.1

1541–1761: Auto-da-fé: Portugal, Portuguese colonies

See main entry 1481. In chronological order from the first event, with multiple events per year in parentheses, the

Reference: 1542.1 Reference:

Inquisition. Inquisition.

Catholic Inquisition, along with the Spanish Inquisition and the Portuguese Portuguese the and Inquisition Spanish the with along Inquisition, Catholic

The Roman Inquisition was one of three different manifestations of the wider wider the of manifestations different three of one was Inquisition Roman The

a demand for that person’s execution. person’s that for demand a

inquisitors handed a guilty person over to civil authorities, it was tantamount to to tantamount was it authorities, civil to over person guilty a handed inquisitors

the inquisitors could themselves impose was life imprisonment. Thus, when the the when Thus, imprisonment. life was impose themselves could inquisitors the

cases were confiscation of property or imprisonment. The most severe penalty penalty severe most The imprisonment. or property of confiscation were cases

pattern, marked those who were under investigation. The penalties in serious serious in penalties The investigation. under were who those marked pattern,

of red or other brightly colored cloth, sewn onto an outer garment in an an in garment outer an onto sewn cloth, colored brightly other or red of “x” “x”

public scourging, a fine, or the wearing of a cross. The wearing of two tongues tongues two of wearing The cross. a of wearing the or fine, a scourging, public

sermo generalis sermo the was . Penances might consist of a pilgrimage, a a pilgrimage, a of consist might Penances . auto-da-fé or ,

pronounced together in a public ceremony at the end of all the processes. This This processes. the all of end the at ceremony public a in together pronounced

The penances and sentences for those who confessed or were found guilty were were guilty found were or confessed who those for sentences and penances The

witchcraft, as well as for censorship of printed literature. printed of censorship for as well as witchcraft,

including Protestantism, sorcery, immorality, blasphemy, Judaizing and and Judaizing blasphemy, immorality, sorcery, Protestantism, including

for prosecuting individuals accused of committing offenses relating to heresy, heresy, to relating offenses committing of accused individuals prosecuting for

supervisory body of local Inquisitions. The Roman Inquisition was responsible responsible was Inquisition Roman The Inquisitions. local of body supervisory

of examining and proscribing errors and false doctrines; it thus became the the became thus it doctrines; false and errors proscribing and examining of

of maintaining and defending the integrity of the faith and and faith the of integrity the defending and maintaining of

staffed with cardinals and other officials. It had the tasks tasks the had It officials. other and cardinals with staffed

Holy Office of the Inquisition as a permanent congregation congregation permanent a as Inquisition the of Office Holy

In 1542 Pope Paul III established the Congregation of the the of Congregation the established III Paul Pope 1542 In

1542–1860: Roman Inquisition Roman 1542–1860:

Reference: 1541.2 Reference:

Lima (Peru): 1580, 1582 1582 1580, (Peru): Lima

Porto: 1543 Porto:

Evora: 1541 Evora:

Lisbon: 1541 Lisbon:

that Jews were involved: were Jews that

Century where it is positively known known positively is it where Century th 16 the in auto-da-fés of list a is following

283 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 284. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

May 4, 1542: Jews expelled from Bohemia

On May 4, 1542, when acting as the clerk at a meeting of the Parliament of Bohemia, Joachim II agreed to the following resolution:

“Regarding the decision from the last meeting concerning the Jews that led to the expulsion of the Jews from Bohemia by His Majesty the King based on a request by all three ranks [nobility, clergy and citizens] which has been inscribed into the records of the meeting, it is resolved that His Majesty the King shall maintain this decision and that no Jews shall be permitted to take residence in Bohemia now and for eternity. Those who are found in this kingdom shall lose their head. The only exceptions shall be those who received from the King, on the most recent St. George’s Day, a Letter of Dispensation which they can present to anybody and to those coming to pay their debts. These Jews are to write down all their claims and hand this record to the high bailiff of the Kingdom of Bohemia before the feast day of Saint John. If they fail to do so before the feast day of Saint John, they shall not retain any right on these claims.”

Reference: 1542.2

1542: Pope Paul III

Pope Paul III issued papal bull Cupientes judaeos (“We the Jews”) granting privileges in favour of neophytes (new converts).

Reference: 1542.3

1543: Martin Luther publishes “On the Jews and Their Lies”

“On the Jews and Their Lies” is a 65,000-word antisemitic treatise written in 1543 by the German Reformation leader Martin Luther, was reprinted 5 times during his lifetime, and came just 20 years after he wrote positively about them in his essay “That Jesus was Born a Jew” (see entry above, 1523).

Jews — in the eternal fire of hell.” hell.” of fire eternal the in — Jews

for which Christ will reward him on the day of judgment, together with the the with together judgment, of day the on him reward will Christ which for

object... Then he will be a perfect Christian, filled with works of mercy — mercy of works with filled Christian, perfect a be will he Then object...

stuff them into his mouth, or crawl into their behind and worship this holy holy this worship and behind their into crawl or mouth, his into them stuff

and us all. And if that is not enough, let him him let enough, not is that if And all. us and L our Christ of enemies ord

venomous serpents are the devil’s children, who are the most vehement vehement most the are who children, devil’s the are serpents venomous

defamed, vilified by them, and to suffer every evil at their hands — these these — hands their at evil every suffer to and them, by vilified defamed,

to shelter and feed them, to honor them, to be fleeced, robbed, plundered, plundered, robbed, fleeced, be to them, honor to them, feed and shelter to

“Now let me commend these Jews sincerely to whoever feels the desire desire the feels whoever to sincerely Jews these commend me let “Now

He cautions Christians against helping Jews: Jews: helping against Christians cautions He

etc… then eject them forever from the country…” the from forever them eject then etc…

emulate the common sense of other nations such as France, Spain, Bohemia, Bohemia, Spain, France, as such nations other of sense common the emulate

they might harm us or our wives, children, servants, cattle, etc… then let us us let then etc… cattle, servants, children, wives, our or us harm might they

earn their bread in the sweat of their brow… But if we are afraid that that afraid are we if But brow… their of sweat the in bread their earn

spindle into the hands of young, strong Jews and Jewesses and letting them them letting and Jewesses and Jews strong young, of hands the into spindle

“Seventh, I recommend putting a flail, an ax, a hoe, a spade, a distaff, or a a or distaff, a spade, a hoe, a ax, an flail, a putting recommend I “Seventh,

treasure of silver and gold be taken from them…” from taken be gold and silver of treasure

“Sixth, I advise that usury be prohibited to them, and that all cash and and cash all that and them, to prohibited be usury that advise I “Sixth,

for the Jews. For they have no business in the countryside…” the in business no have they For Jews. the for

“Fifth, I advise that safe-conduct on the highways be abolished completely completely abolished be highways the on safe-conduct that advise I “Fifth,

of loss of life and limb…” and life of loss of

“Fourth, I advise that their rabbis be forbidden to teach henceforth on pain pain on henceforth teach to forbidden be rabbis their that advise I “Fourth,

such idolatry, lies, cursing, and blasphemy are taught, be taken from them...” from taken be taught, are blasphemy and cursing, lies, idolatry, such

“Third, I advise that all their prayer books and Talmudic writings, in which which in writings, Talmudic and books prayer their all that advise I “Third,

“Second, I advise that their houses also be razed and destroyed.” and razed be also houses their that advise I “Second,

Christians…”

and of Christendom, so that God might see that we are are we that see might God that so Christendom, of and L our of honor ord

“First, to set fire to their synagogues or schools… This is to be done in in done be to is This schools… or synagogues their to fire set to “First,

with the following suggestions: following the with Jews?” the

“What shall we Christians do with this rejected and condemned people, people, condemned and rejected this with do Christians we shall “What question the

the treatise advises Protestants to carry out seven remedial actions in response to to response in actions remedial seven out carry to Protestants advises treatise the

Protestants and Protestant Christianity. Following the exposition, Section XI of of XI Section exposition, the Following Christianity. Protestant and Protestants

length, upon his views concerning Jews and Judaism and how these compare to to compare these how and Judaism and Jews concerning views his upon length,

In the first ten sections of the treatise, Luther expounds, at considerable considerable at expounds, Luther treatise, the of sections ten first the In

285 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 286. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Concerning the Jews and Israel he said:

“The country roads are open for them to proceed to their land whenever they wish. If they did so, we would be glad to present gifts to them on the occasion; it would be good riddance.”

Concerning whether or not to kill Jews:

“our rulers must act like a good physician who, when gangrene has set in, proceeds without mercy to cut and saw… as Moses did in the wilderness, slaying 3,000 lest the whole people perish. They are a people possessed...”

“There is no other explanation for this than the one cited earlier from Moses — namely, that God has struck [the Jews] with ‘madness and blindness and confusion of mind’ [Deuteronomy 28:28]. So we are even at fault in not avenging all this innocent blood of our Lord and of the Christians which they shed for three hundred years after the destruction of Jerusalem, and the blood of the children they have shed since then (which still shines forth from their eyes and their skin). We are at fault in not slaying them.”

Himmler wrote admiringly of his writings and sermons on the Jews, and of this treatise the German philosopher Karl Jaspers wrote: “There you already have the whole Nazi program”.

Reference: 1543.1

1543: Martin Luther publishes Von Schem Hamphoras und vom Geschlecht Christi: “Of the Unknowable Name and the Generations of Christ”

Von Schem Hamphoras was written just a few months after “On the Jews and Their Lies” (see entry above, 1543), a 125-page book where he argues that the Jews are no longer the “chosen people” but the “devil’s people”. The Nazi Party used his writings to build up antisemitism during the 1930s and ‘40s, by exerting pressure on schools to incorporate it into the curriculum, and the Lutheran church to incorporate it into sermons. This book includes the quote on Judensau (see entry below, 1543), and this prophetic statement:

“Even if they were punished in the most gruesome manner that the streets ran with their blood, that their dead would be counted, not in the hundred thousands, but in the millions, as happened under Vespasian in Jerusalem and for evil under Hadrian, still they must insist on being right even if after

Luther’s antisemitic writings of 1543. of writings antisemitic Luther’s

trigger for the new wave of antisemitism in the empire can be seen in Martin Martin in seen be can empire the in antisemitism of wave new the for trigger

duties and the denial of the right to appeal to the imperial or other courts. A A courts. other or imperial the to appeal to right the of denial the and duties

robbery, expulsion, closing of schools and synagogues, payment of tolls and and tolls of payment synagogues, and schools of closing expulsion, robbery,

This included beatings, tortures and killings, imprisonment, imprisonment, killings, and tortures beatings, included This

V that they were mistreated and denied their given rights. rights. given their denied and mistreated were they that V

Speyer the Jews of the empire complained to emperor Charles Charles emperor to complained empire the of Jews the Speyer

At the the At (deliberative body of the Roman Empire) of 1544 in in 1544 of Empire) Roman the of body (deliberative diet

1544: The “Great Jews Privilege Charter” of Speyer of Charter” Privilege Jews “Great The 1544:

Reference: 1543.4 Reference:

doubt they gained their Shem Hamphoras from that place...” that from Hamphoras Shem their gained they doubt

as if he wanted to read and see something most difficult and exceptional; no no exceptional; and difficult most something see and read to wanted he if as

sow, bows down and looks with great effort into the Talmud under the sow, sow, the under Talmud the into effort great with looks and down bows sow,

stands a rabbi who is lifting up the right leg of the sow, raises behind the the behind raises sow, the of leg right the up lifting is who rabbi a stands

stone under which lie young pigs and Jews who are sucking; behind the sow sow the behind sucking; are who Jews and pigs young lie which under stone

“Here in Wittenberg, in our parish church, there is a sow carved into the the into carved sow a is there church, parish our in Wittenberg, in “Here

see entry above, 1543 above, entry see — Name” Unknoweable the ) as being on his church: church: his on being as )

in his 125-page book book 125-page his in Judensau the referenced Luther (“Of (“Of Hamphoras Schem Von

on his church his on Judensau the references Luther Martin 1543:

Reference: 1543.3 Reference:

Luther tries unsuccessfully to get the Jews expelled from Brandenburg. Brandenburg. from expelled Jews the get to unsuccessfully tries Luther

1543: Martin Luther Martin 1543:

Reference: 1543.2 Reference:

much too mild in insulting such devils…” devils…” such insulting in mild too much

in that I deal with them so sarcastically and insulting. But, good God, I am am I God, good But, insulting. and sarcastically so them with deal I that in

I am behaving too crude and disdainfully against the poor, miserable Jews Jews miserable poor, the against disdainfully and crude too behaving am I

to Hell... Perhaps, one of the merciful Saints among us Christians may think think may Christians us among Saints merciful the of one Perhaps, Hell... to

a liar and they must be correct. In sum, they are the devil’s children, damned damned children, devil’s the are they sum, In correct. be must they and liar a

these 1,500 years they were in misery another 1,500 years, still God must be be must God still years, 1,500 another misery in were they years 1,500 these

287 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 288. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Accordingly, Charles V considered it necessary to renew and confirm the Jews’ charter. At the same time these rights and privileges were extended to the Jews of the whole empire. Nobody was to have the right to close their schools and synagogues, to drive them out or hinder their use. Whoever violated the imperial constitutio pacis (“establishment of peace”) by infringing upon the rights of the Jews was to be punished by every authority. Every Jew was to have the right to do business in the empire and every authority was to protect him and not burden him with tolls or duties. Jews were not required to wear “Jewish insignias” outside of their dwellings and no Jew was to be driven from his home without the emperor’s expressed consent. Because Jews paid higher taxes but had no public offices, real estate or manual trade, they were allowed to charge higher interest rates than the Christians. It was forbidden to accuse Jews of using Christian blood without due proof and witness, to take them prisoner, to torture or to execute them. Infringements of this privilege were to be fined with 50 marks in gold, one half to be paid to the emperor and the other to the Jewish community. In 1548 this charter was once more confirmed by Charles V and again by emperor Maximilian II in 1566.

Reference: 1544.1

1546: Martin Luther preaches four sermons warning against the Jews in Eisleben, Germany

Shortly before his death on February 18, 1546 Luther preached four sermons in Eisleben, where he advocated that the authorities who could expel the Jews from their lands should do so if they don’t convert to Christianity: “Worse than these [i.e. those who despise the doctrine of the Gospel], you have the Jews yet in the land, who do great harm. We want to deal with them in a Christian manner now. Offer them the Christian faith that they would accept the Messiah, who is even their cousin and has been born of their flesh and blood; and is rightly Abraham’s Seed, of which they boast. Even so, I am concerned [that] Jewish blood may no longer become diluted and impure. First of all, you should propose to them that they be converted to the Messiah and allow themselves to be baptized, that one may see that this is a serious matter to them. If not, then we would not permit them [to live among us], for Christ commands us to be baptized and believe in Him... Now, here is what the Jews do: daily they only blaspheme and dishonor our Lord Jesus Christ. Since they do this and we know it, we should not permit it. Should I permit anyone to be with me, who dishonors, blasphemes, and

authority thereof, wherein stands the hope of your victory, I no more doubt doubt more no I victory, your of hope the stands wherein thereof, authority

“For, as for your Roman kirk [church], as it is now corrupted, and the the and corrupted, now is it as [church], kirk Roman your for as “For,

Jews: Jews:

Roman Catholic Church to the “synagogue of Satan”, a common pejorative for for pejorative common a Satan”, of “synagogue the to Church Catholic Roman

Scotland. He was also antisemitic, and in a public debate in 1547 likened the the likened 1547 in debate public a in and antisemitic, also was He Scotland.

a leader of Scotland’s Reformation, and founded the Presbyterian Church of of Church Presbyterian the founded and Reformation, Scotland’s of leader a

John Knox (1513-72) was a Scottish minister, theologian, and writer who was was who writer and theologian, minister, Scottish a was (1513-72) Knox John

First of three entries: see also 1558, 1560 1558, also see entries: three of First

1547: John Knox John 1547:

Reference: 1546.1 Reference:

should not tolerate or permit them to be with us.” us.” with be to them permit or tolerate not should

else they have done to us, then we will gladly forgive them. If not, then we we then not, If them. forgive gladly will we then us, to done have they else

If the Jews would be converted and stop their blaspheming and whatever whatever and blaspheming their stop and converted be would Jews the If

blaspheming Christ, draining you dry, and, if he can, killing [you]... [you]... killing can, he if and, dry, you draining Christ, blaspheming

we. Whoever will not do this is no doubt a malicious Jew, who will not stop stop not will who Jew, malicious a doubt no is this do not will Whoever we.

, whom they should properly honor more than than more honor properly should they whom , L the receive to converted ord

Yet, we will show them Christian love and pray for them that they may be be may they that them for pray and love Christian them show will we Yet,

body, life, honor, and goods. goods. and honor, life, body,

Jesus Christ and deprive us of of us deprive and Christ Jesus L dear our blaspheme heinously than ord

not be involved with them as with those who do nothing else among you you among else nothing do who those with as them with involved be not

a year, ten or twenty years. They are able to practice this art. Therefore, do do Therefore, art. this practice to able are They years. twenty or ten year, a

administer poison to someone from which he could die in an hour, a month, month, a hour, an in die could he which from someone to poison administer

sometimes they help—for the devil helps to finish it in the end... They They end... the in it finish to helps devil the help—for they sometimes

gladly do it. They do it often, especially those who pose as physicians—though physicians—though as pose who those especially often, it do They it. do gladly

abortions (Mahlkälber: “meal calves”). If they could kill us all, they would would they all, us kill could they If calves”). “meal (Mahlkälber: abortions

calling the Virgin Mary a whore, Christ, a bastard, and us changelings or or changelings us and bastard, a Christ, whore, a Mary Virgin the calling

They are our public enemies. They do not stop blaspheming our our blaspheming stop not do They enemies. public our are They Christ, Christ, L ord

they go too far. far. too go they

willingly regard them our brothers. Otherwise, nothing will come of it, for for it, of come will nothing Otherwise, brothers. our them regard willingly

they are converted, abandon their usury, and receive Christ, then we will will we then Christ, receive and usury, their abandon converted, are they

not permit them [to remain with us], but drive them away. However, if if However, away. them drive but us], with remain [to them permit not

5:22]. I have enough sins of my own; therefore, you who are lords should should lords are who you therefore, own; my of sins enough have I 5:22].

Christ, I make myself a partner in another’s sins [1 Timothy Timothy [1 sins another’s in partner a myself make I Christ, L my curses ord

289 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 290. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

but that it is the synagogue of Satan; and the head thereof, called the pope, to be that man of sin, of whom the apostle speaks, than that I doubt that Jesus Christ suffered by the procurement [contrivance] of the visible kirk of Jerusalem. Yea, I offer myself, by word or writing, to prove the Roman church this day farther degenerated from the purity which was in the days of the apostles, than was the church of the Jews from the ordinances given by Moses, when they consented to the innocent death of Jesus Christ.”

Reference: 1547.1

July 23, 1550: Paper expulsion of Jews issued in Venice

On July 23, 1550, a new edict of expulsion was issued in Venice, ordering the conversos to leave within two months. The French ambassador, de Morvilliers, explained that the conversos were “worse than the Hebrews because they are neither christians nor Jews”. In retrospect, it seems that the edict caused more panic than created a real turning point in Venetian policy, for attempts to expel the conversos were actually rebuffed by Christian merchants. It became clear that if local magistrates and merchants wanted to trade with the Levant, they had to consider the Jewish and converso businessmen and traders, who both held central positions in the Eastern Mediterranean and enjoyed the support of the Porte (the government of the Ottoman Empire).

Reference: 1550.1

1550: Jews expelled from Genoa, Italy

The Jews were expelled in 1515, readmitted a year later, and expelled again in 1550. In 1567 the expulsion was extended to the whole territory of the republic.

Reference: 1550.2

Reference: 1554.1 Reference:

States. States.

imposed a tax of 10 gold ducats on two out of the 115 synagogues in the Papal Papal the in synagogues 115 the of out two on ducats gold 10 of tax a imposed

Pope Julius III issued papal bull Pastoris Pastoris bull papal issued III Julius Pope (“Pastor wheeling”) which which wheeling”) (“Pastor vices æterni

1554: Pope Julius III Julius Pope 1554:

Reference: 1553.1 Reference:

grief more strongly. strongly. more grief

Jewish faith. Rosh Hashanah was chosen as the date so that Jews would feel the the feel would Jews that so date the as chosen was Hashanah Rosh faith. Jewish

rabbis they will be more prepared and disposed to receive the the receive to disposed and prepared more be will they rabbis

the advice that when Jews are without the wisdom of their their of wisdom the without are Jews when that advice the

copies of the Talmud and other Jewish tests were burnt, on on burnt, were tests Jewish other and Talmud the of copies

Only 33 years after the Talmud was first printed in Venice, Venice, in printed first was Talmud the after years 33 Only

1553: Inquisition burns Jewish books on Rosh Hashanah Rosh on books Jewish burns Inquisition 1553:

Reference: 1551.1 Reference:

Munich. Munich.

were expelled from Bavaria, but some were able to acquire the right to reside in in reside to right the acquire to able were some but Bavaria, from expelled were

After the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), Jews of Austrian origin origin Austrian of Jews (1701-14), Succession Spanish the of War the After

Vienna. Vienna.

Century, when a small community was founded in Sulzbach by refugees from from refugees by Sulzbach in founded was community small a when Century,

settlement in Bavaria ceased until toward the end of the 17 the of end the toward until ceased Bavaria in settlement

th th

Jews were finally expelled from the Duchy of Bavaria. Jewish Jewish Bavaria. of Duchy the from expelled finally were Jews

it (1276, 1442, 1450, 1478, 1499, 1519), the few remaining remaining few the 1519), 1499, 1478, 1450, 1442, (1276, it

After previous expulsions from Bavaria, or towns within within towns or Bavaria, from expulsions previous After

1551: Jews expelled from Bavaria from expelled Jews 1551:

291 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 292. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1555: Jewish Oath in Germany

In 1555, a German imperial court procedure (Reichskammergerichtsordnung) prescribed a form of oath that, with some alterations, formed a model to subsequent legislation, in which the swearer called down upon himself all the curses of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, the ten plagues of Egypt, the leprosy of Naaman and Gehazi (see II Kings 5), the fate of Dathan and Abiram, etc (see entry on Jewish Oath above, 1392).

The German-Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn of the Enlightenment persuaded the Prussian government to moderate the terms of the oath during the 18th Century. The small German states gradually surrendered the most objectionable features of the oath: Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), in 1828; Oldenburg, 1829; Württemberg, 1832; Saxony, 1839 (on which occasion Zecharias Frankel published his famous “Die Eidesleistung”); Schaumburg- Lippe and Anhalt-Bernburg, 1842; and Hesse-Homburg, 1865.

Prussia retained the obnoxious formula until March 15, 1869; the Netherlands modified the oath in 1818, and Russia in 1838 and 1860. The oath was abolished in Nîmes in 1827. The French Supreme Court finally declared the oath unconstitutional on March 3, 1846. Romania upheld that country’s version of the oath as recently as 1902, but following criticism in the French press, finally abolished it in 1904, the last country in Europe to do so.

Reference: 1555.1

1555: 9th of Av: Papal bull of Pope Paul IV confined Jews into a walled ghetto in Rome

People affected / deaths: 3,000

Pope Paul IV issued papal bull Cum Nimis Absurdum (“Since it is absurd”) which placed religious and economic restrictions on Jews in the Papal states. The bull takes its name from its first words, which goes on to say “Since it is absurd and utterly inconvenient that the Jews, who through their own fault were condemned by God to eternal slavery...”

Jews had to wear badges and live in ghettos, with no property outside. 3,000 people were confined to eight acres. Women had to wear a yellow veil or scarf; men a yellow pointed hat. All were required to attend compulsory Catholic sermons on the Jewish sabbath.

gospel.” gospel.”

confess), do this day make plain war against all true professors of his holy holy his of professors true all against war plain make day this do confess),

did crucify (for Jews they are, as histories do witness, and they themselves themselves they and witness, do histories as are, they Jews (for crucify did

despite which they do bear against Christ Jesus, whom their forefathers forefathers their whom Jesus, Christ against bear do they which despite

“As the odious nation of Spaniards does manifestly declare, who for very very for who declare, manifestly does Spaniards of nation odious the “As

and their literal descendants: descendants: literal their and

(i.e. successors to the Jews who persecuted Jesus, the Apostles and Saint Paul) Paul) Saint and Apostles the Jesus, persecuted who Jews the to successors (i.e.

abuse, and argues that Spaniards are both the spiritual descendants of the Jews, Jews, the of descendants spiritual the both are Spaniards that argues and abuse,

The following quote illustrates that referring to someone as a Jew is a term of of term a is Jew a as someone to referring that illustrates quote following The

attacks female monarchs, arguing that rule by women is contrary to the Bible. Bible. the to contrary is women by rule that arguing monarchs, female attacks

John Knox wrote this book against Queen Elizabeth I of England, in which he he which in England, of I Elizabeth Queen against book this wrote Knox John

Second of three entries: see also 1547, 1560 1547, also see entries: three of Second

Regiment of Women of Regiment

1558: John Knox: The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Monstrous the against Trumpet the of Blast First The Knox: John 1558:

Reference: 1557.1 Reference:

Jew.” any in sense common found

a drop of piety or a grain of truth or ingenuousness — nay, I have never never have I nay, — ingenuousness or truth of grain a or piety of drop a

“I have had much conversation with many Jews— I have never seen either either seen never have I Jews— many with conversation much had have “I

In his commentary on Daniel 2:44-45 he writes: writes: he 2:44-45 Daniel on commentary his In

: John Calvin’s Commentary on Daniel on Commentary Calvin’s John : onwards 1557

Reference: 1555.2 Reference:

a much more popular area of Jewish study than it had ever been before. before. been ever had it than study Jewish of area popular more much a

since their physical world was so restrained, and would propel the Kabbalah into into Kabbalah the propel would and restrained, so was world physical their since

says James Carroll, pressured Jews to retreat inward to explore the spiritual world, world, spiritual the explore to inward retreat to Jews pressured Carroll, James says

in 1870. Brief liberations occurred in 1808, 1816, 1830, 1831, 1848, 1849. This, This, 1849. 1848, 1831, 1830, 1816, 1808, in occurred liberations Brief 1870. in

The Jews would be imprisoned in the Jewish ghetto in Rome until emancipation emancipation until Rome in ghetto Jewish the in imprisoned be would Jews The

293 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 294. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Thus he declares that it is no surprise that the Spaniards were persecuting Protestants as they had been the enemies of Christ since time immemorial.

Reference: 1558.1

1559: Index Librorum Prohibitorum, “List of Prohibited Books” is published

The Index librorum prohibitorum (“List of Prohibited Books”) was a list of books deemed heretical, and forbidden by Roman Catholic church as dangerous to the faith or morals of Catholics. It was first published two years earlier, in 1557, but withdrawn for unclear reasons. In 1559, under the direction of Pope Paul IV, a new index was published banning the works of 550 authors in addition to individual proscribed titles.

The entries in the text are arranged alphabetically, each letter being divided into the following three categories:

1. Auctores quorum libri & scripta omnia prohibentur (“All books or writings by an author prohibited”)

2. Certorum auctores Libri prohibiti (“Specific books by an author prohibited”)

3. Libri prohibiti ab incerti nominis auctorib compositi or Auctorú incerti nominis libri prohibiti (“Prohibited books of uncertain authorship”)

The Index included the Talmud and “books of the Jews” containing anything that might be interpreted as anti-Catholic. The entry for the Talmud has the stipulation “sitamen prodierient sine nomine Thalmud, & sine iniuris, & calumniis in religionem Christianam tolerabuntur” (“but if they shall be published without the title Talmud, and without calumnies and insults to the Christian religion, they shall be tolerated”).

In 1595, a preliminary index of 420 Hebrew books that could not be read without revisions or deletions was also established. (Many textual errors in the standard editions of Hebrew texts owe their origin to Church censorship.)

The 20th and final edition of the Index, issued in 1948, included Jewish or Hebrew-language works by Josephus, Jacob ibn Habib, Leon Modena, Maimonides, Baruch Spinoza, Manasseh Ben Israel, and Edmund Fleg, among others.

Inquisition was abolished in 1820, but the few records that have survived survived have that records few the but 1820, in abolished was Inquisition

deaths are unknown as records were destroyed by the Portuguese when the the when Portuguese the by destroyed were records as unknown are deaths

to trial by the Inquisition before being abolished in 1820. Exact numbers of of numbers Exact 1820. in abolished being before Inquisition the by trial to

from a 4-year temporary abolition in 1774, at least 16,202 persons were brought brought were persons 16,202 least at 1774, in abolition temporary 4-year a from

( Jews who had converted to Catholicism usually by force or coercion). Apart Apart coercion). or force by usually Catholicism to converted had who Jews (

and persecuted Hindus, Muslims, Jews and “New Christians” Christians” “New and Jews Muslims, Hindus, persecuted and

The Goa Inquisition was part of the Portuguese Inquisition, Inquisition, Portuguese the of part was Inquisition Goa The

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People ) records surviving official ( 57

1560–1820: Goa Inquisition: India Inquisition: Goa 1560–1820:

Reference: 1560.1 Reference:

embrace to our own condemnation the one for the other.” the for one the condemnation own our to embrace

synagogue, by clear and perfect notes, lest we, being deceived, receive and and receive deceived, being we, lest notes, perfect and clear by synagogue,

it is a thing most requisite that the true kirk be discerned from the filthy filthy the from discerned be kirk true the that requisite most thing a is it

whole priesthood of the Jews, Christ Jesus himself, and his apostles after him; him; after apostles his and himself, Jesus Christ Jews, the of priesthood whole

as Cain did Abel; Ishmael, Isaac; Esau, Jacob; and the the and Jacob; Esau, Isaac; Ishmael, Abel; did Cain as ­ thereof members

hearts of cruel murderers to persecute, trouble, and molest the true kirk and and kirk true the molest and trouble, persecute, to murderers cruel of hearts

synagogue with the title of the kirk [church] of God, and has inflamed the the inflamed has and God, of [church] kirk the of title the with synagogue

“Because that Satan from the beginning has laboured to deck his pestilent pestilent his deck to laboured has beginning the from Satan that “Because

Chapter 18 begins: begins: 18 Chapter

Christ as their saviour). saviour). their as Christ

suitable to receive God’s grace at all (except through unreservedly accepting accepting unreservedly through (except all at grace God’s receive to suitable

people who had shunned the word of God and thus eventually became no longer longer no became eventually thus and God of word the shunned had who people

Catholic Church, and that the Jews, the ‘filthy synagogue’, were a fallen evil evil fallen a were synagogue’, ‘filthy the Jews, the that and Church, Catholic

ministers, he associates the Jews as being the historical precursor of the Roman Roman the of precursor historical the being as Jews the associates he ministers,

which he co-wrote with five other other five with co-wrote he which , Faith” of Confession “Scottish the In

Third of three entries: see also 1547, 1558 1547, also see entries: three of Third

1560: John Knox: Scottish Confession of Faith of Confession Scottish Knox: John 1560:

Reference: 1559.1 Reference:

was abolished by Pope Paul VI in June 1966. 1966. June in VI Paul Pope by abolished was Index The

295 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 296. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History suggest that at least 57 were executed for their religious crime, and another 64 were burned in effigy because they had already died in jail before sentencing. The inquisition was also a method of confiscating property and enriching the Inquisitors.

Reference: 1560.2

1563: Ivan the Terrible

People affected / deaths: c. 300

When Ivan the Terrible captured Polotsk in 1563, he ordered all the Jews who refused to be baptized (around 300) to be drowned in the Dvina River or burned at the stake.

Reference: 1563.1

1566: Pope Pius V

Pope Pius V issued papal bull Romanus Pontifex (“Roman Pope”) confirming the determinations of the earlier Papal bulls and Holy Councils, and ordered that all Jews should wear as distinguishing mark a cap for men and a simple sign for women:

“3. In order to make an end to all doubt concerning the colour of the cap and the sign of the women, we declare that the colour must be yellow.”

Reference: 1566.1

1567: Pope Pius V

Pope Pius V issued papal bull Cum nos nuper (“When we recently”) ordering Jews to sell all property in Papal States:

“Since we a short time ago renewed the orders of our predecessor Pope Paul IV against the Jews and among other things ordered that the Jews both in our city Rome as also in other cities, districts and places, which stand under

have everywhere sucked the property of the needy Christians, then we give give we then Christians, needy the of property the sucked everywhere have

“If we look away from the countless kinds of usury, through which the Jews Jews the which through usury, of kinds countless the from away look we “If

danger for the Church, so gave them no option of conversion: of option no them gave so Church, the for danger

that those who apparently “confessed” to avoid expulsion represented a greater greater a represented expulsion avoid to “confessed” apparently who those that

gave Jews the option to convert or be expelled, but Pius knew knew Pius but expelled, be or convert to option the Jews gave

with the exception of Rome and Ancona. An earlier papal bull bull papal earlier An Ancona. and Rome of exception the with

nation alone”), which expelled the Jews from the Papal States, States, Papal the from Jews the expelled which alone”), nation

Pope Pius V issued papal bull bull papal issued V Pius Pope (“Jewish (“Jewish sola gens Hebraeorum

1569: Jews expelled from Papal States Papal from expelled Jews 1569:

Reference: 1567.2 Reference:

lending and business, were again allowed to live there. there. live to allowed again were business, and lending

a limited number of Jews, specifically those engaged in money money in engaged those specifically Jews, of number limited a

decree was extended to the entire republic. Within a few years years few a Within republic. entire the to extended was decree

The two prior expulsions of 1515 and 1550 were local; this this local; were 1550 and 1515 of expulsions prior two The

1567: Jews expelled from Genoa, Italy Genoa, from expelled Jews 1567:

Reference: 1567.1 Reference:

possession in this city Rome or other places of our domain of rule.” of domain our of places other or Rome city this in possession

(and recognize no right or claim) all properties, which the Jews have in their their in have Jews the which properties, all claim) or right no recognize (and

exercising of the apostolic powers, we withdraw from the Jews and their rule rule their and Jews the from withdraw we powers, apostolic the of exercising

that ordered by us had its effect voluntarily, with full understanding and in in and understanding full with voluntarily, effect its had us by ordered that

“Since we, as is necessary, wish to remedy this deceit and wish to ensure that that ensure to wish and deceit this remedy to wish necessary, is as we, “Since

the Jews had committed, that: that: committed, had Jews the

In another part of the bull the Pope orders in connection with the deceit which which deceit the with connection in orders Pope the bull the of part another In

in accordance with our judgement, of the official and judge.” and official the of judgement, our with accordance in

Vicar or other official. And the Christian people shall show them mistrust mistrust them show shall people Christian the And official. other or Vicar

lèse majesté, according to the manner of the crime determined by us, our our us, by determined crime the of manner the to according majesté, lèse

that they be punished by the judges as rebels and as guilty of the crime of of crime the of guilty as and rebels as judges the by punished be they that

… And if these Jews do not carry out this or the preceding, we order … … order we preceding, the or this out carry not do Jews these if And …

estate) in their possession to Christians within a period fixed by a judge judge a by fixed period a within Christians to possession their in estate)

the worldly rule of the Holy Roman Church, must sell the properties (real (real properties the sell must Church, Roman Holy the of rule worldly the

297 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 298. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

judgment that they are visibly protectors and even accomplices of thieves and robbers, who cause the stolen and embezzled goods to come to another or hitherto wish to conceal them... And the most damaging thing in the matter is, that they attract through prophecy, magical incantations, superstition and witchcraft many incautious and sick people to the deceit of the “Synagogue of Satan” and boast of being able to predict the future, where treasures are concealed and secret things. On account of this and other grave things, on account of the gravity of the crimes... We order in the following that in the time limit of 3 months from the publication onwards all Jews of both sexes in our entire worldly realm... must leave these regions without grace.”

In case the Jews failed to obey, it said:

“After this time limit shall all at the present or in future, who dwell or wander into that city of the region of justice mentioned... their property [shall be] confiscated and handed over to the Siscus, and they shall become slaves of the Roman Church, live in eternal servitude and the Roman Church shall have the same rights over them as the remaining lords over slaves and property. Excepted are the cities Rome and Ancona, where the Jews will be tolerated... under the condition that they respect our Church Laws and those of our predecessor. If they do not do this, they shall suffer all punishments, which are ordered in this law, and which we renew in this document.”

In Bologna he gave the cemetery to the nuns at the convent of St. Peter the Martyr, and commanded them to “Destroy all ( Jewish) graves…exhume the cadavers…and move them to where ever they please”.

Reference: 1569.1

1570–1820: Peruvian Inquisition

The Holy Office and tribunal of the Inquisition were located in Lima, the administrative center of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Unlike the Spanish Inquisition and the Medieval Inquisition, in the Peruvian Inquisition both the authorities and the church were dependent of the Crown’s approval to carry out jurisdiction. Crimes against the Church could range from heresy, sorcery, witchcraft, and other superstitious practices. People accused of these crimes were generally individuals who came from a lower status of Peruvian society, among them were

The Inquisition used three main means of torture: of means main three used Inquisition The

prisons. prisons.

serving as both a palace for the inquisitor and also housing the tribunal and and tribunal the housing also and inquisitor the for palace a both as serving

a museum since 1966. The building became the headquarters of the Inquisition, Inquisition, the of headquarters the became building The 1966. since museum a

purposes, including as a military hospital, a mess hall and a convent. It has been been has It convent. a and hall mess a hospital, military a as including purposes,

from 1574 to 1798, after which it was used for a number of of number a for used was it which after 1798, to 1574 from

The Inquisitor’s Palace was the seat of the Maltese Inquisition Inquisition Maltese the of seat the was Palace Inquisitor’s The

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 2

1574-1798: Maltese Inquisition Maltese 1574-1798:

Reference: 1571.1 Reference:

for practicing the Jewish religion. religion. Jewish the practicing for

executed as “Judaizers” between 1571 and 1700 (out of 324 people prosecuted) prosecuted) people 324 of (out 1700 and 1571 between “Judaizers” as executed

were executed by the Mexican Inquisition. Included in that total are 29 people people 29 are total that in Included Inquisition. Mexican the by executed were

Although records are incomplete, one historian estimates that about 50 people people 50 about that estimates historian one incomplete, are records Although

Office of the Inquisition occurred in Mexico City. City. Mexico in occurred Inquisition the of Office

Almost all of the events associated with the official establishment of the Holy Holy the of establishment official the with associated events the of all Almost

social groups as suffered in Europe itself, minus the Indians to a large extent. extent. large a to Indians the minus itself, Europe in suffered as groups social

New World, it was employed for many of the same reasons and against the same same the against and reasons same the of many for employed was it World, New

Spanish, but a religious event as well. When the Inquisition was brought to the the to brought was Inquisition the When well. as event religious a but Spanish,

City. The Spanish Conquest of Mexico was not only a political event for the the for event political a only not was Mexico of Conquest Spanish The City.

North America, Central America, Asia and Oceania, with its capital in Mexico Mexico in capital its with Oceania, and Asia America, Central America, North

Inquisition to “New Spain”, an area that included territories in in territories included that area an Spain”, “New to Inquisition

The Mexican Inquisition was an extension of the Spanish Spanish the of extension an was Inquisition Mexican The

50 c. deaths: / affected People

1571–1820: Mexican Inquisition Mexican 1571–1820:

Reference: 1570.1 Reference:

Protestant Europeans seeking refuge from religious persecution. persecution. religious from refuge seeking Europeans Protestant

(mixed race), women, and Jewish or or Jewish and women, race), (mixed mestizos descent, African of individuals

299 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 300. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1. tie a person’s hands behind his back, lift him up in mid-air by means of a rope and pulley and leave him in that position for a maximum of 30 minutes.

2. use of a kavallett, which resembled a saddle in the form of a triangle made of wood on which the forsaken person was forced to sit.

3. use of the stringitore, a form of wooden vice to crush one’s ankles.

Generally, the methods that were employed by the Inquisition in Malta were enough to cause fear and make the accused plead guilty often for more crimes than they actually committed. In the late 16th Century, the Inquisition’s main concern was heretical behaviour owing to the influence of Protestantism. Once the spread of that religion died out, the Inquisitors turned their attention to blasphemy, apostasy in Islam during a person’s term under slavery, bigamy and witchcraft. By the time the Inquisition came to an end in 1798, only two persons had lost their lives — and they were burnt alive.

Reference: 1574.1

1575: John Calvin’s “A Response To Questions and Objections of a Certain Jew” is published

This 9-page treatise dealing with 23 objections by a Jew is published 11 years after Calvin’s death (1509-64), and is his only antisemitic writing. In dealing with the 23 queries, Calvin tended to concentrate on the Old Testament, while the anonymous Jewish debater concentrated on the New Testament. He writes:

“Their [the Jews] rotten and unbending stiffneckedness deserves that they be oppressed unendingly and without measure or end and that they die in their misery without the pity of anyone.”

Reference: 1575.1

1577: Pope Gregory III

Pope Gregory III issued papal bull Vices eius nos (“Changes to it”) which ordered the Jews of Rome and other places in the Papal States to send a certain quota

Reference: 1582.1 Reference:

expelled the Jews. Jews. the expelled

modern state of the Netherlands. A year later, in 1582, they they 1582, in later, year A Netherlands. the of state modern

Dutch Republic or United Provinces, the predecessor to the the to predecessor the Provinces, United or Republic Dutch

In 1581, seven provinces formed a confederacy called the the called confederacy a formed provinces seven 1581, In

1582: Jews expelled from Holland from expelled Jews 1582:

Reference: 1581.2 Reference:

generation. generation.

be “eternal slaves”, since their guilt for murdering Jesus grew deeper with each each with deeper grew Jesus murdering for guilt their since slaves”, “eternal be

the employment of Christian wet nurses. He concluded that the Jews were to to were Jews the that concluded He nurses. wet Christian of employment the

incitement to heresy or assistance to heretics, possession of forbidden books, or or books, forbidden of possession heretics, to assistance or heresy to incitement

involving Jews, especially those concerning blasphemies against Jesus or Mary, Mary, or Jesus against blasphemies concerning those especially Jews, involving

Jewish dishonesty”) which authorized the Inquisition directly to handle cases cases handle to directly Inquisition the authorized which dishonesty”) Jewish

Antiqua Judaeorum improbitas Judaeorum Antiqua bull papal issued XIII Gregory Pope (“Ancient (“Ancient

1581: Pope Gregory XIII Gregory Pope 1581:

Reference: 1581.1 Reference:

employment of Christian servants. servants. Christian of employment

cases of blasphemy, protection of heretics, possession of forbidden works, and and works, forbidden of possession heretics, of protection blasphemy, of cases

Christians still”) that gave jurisdiction over Jews of Rome to the Inquisition in in Inquisition the to Rome of Jews over jurisdiction gave that still”) Christians

Multos adhuc ex Christianis ex adhuc Multos bull papal issued XIII Gregory Pope (“Many (“Many

1581: Pope Gregory XIII Gregory Pope 1581:

Reference: 1577.1 Reference:

which might open their eyes to the true faith. faith. true the to eyes their open might which

of their number on specified occasions to one of the churches to hear a sermon sermon a hear to churches the of one to occasions specified on number their of

301 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 302. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1584: Pope Gregory XIII

People affected / deaths: 150

Pope Gregory XIII issued papal bull Sancta mater ecclesia (“Holy Mother Church”) that ordered 150 Jews (100 men, 50 women) to attend weekly conversion sermons.

Reference: 1584.1

1586: Pope Sixtus V

Pope Sixtus V issued papal bull Christiana pietas (“Christian piety”) that allowed Jews to settle in the Papal States, revoking Pius V’s 1569 bull, Hebraeorum gens sola (“Jewish nation alone”).

Reference: 1586.1

1592: Pope Clement VIII

Pope Clement VIII issued papal bull Cum sæpe accidere (“Since it often happens”) forbidding the Jews of Avignon to deal in new commodities.

Reference: 1592.1

1592: Lvov, Poland

Harsh persecution of Jews began when Archbishop Salikowski ordered the Jews to build a church. In rapid succession followed accusations of blood ritual and host desecration. In 1603 the Jesuits closed the synagogue, and only by paying a heavy ransom could the Jews rededicate their temple in 1609.

Reference: 1592.2

Reference: 1596.1 Reference:

the stake in Mexico City by the Spanish Inquisition. Inquisition. Spanish the by City Mexico in stake the

Four members of the well-known well-known the of members Four family, the Carvajals, were burnt at at burnt were Carvajals, the family, converso

1596: Mexico City Mexico 1596:

Reference: 1593.2 Reference:

Jews. Jews.

Pope Clement VIII issued papal bull in favour of Turkish Turkish of favour in bull papal issued VIII Clement Pope

1593: Pope Clement VIII Clement Pope 1593:

Reference: 1593.1 Reference:

commerce. commerce.

rights, by the Medici family, who wanted to develop the region into a center of of center a into region the develop to wanted who family, Medici the by rights,

main port of Tuscany, where they were granted full religious liberty and civil civil and liberty religious full granted were they where Tuscany, of port main

Jews were expelled from Bologna. Jews were invited to settle in Leghorn, the the Leghorn, in settle to invited were Jews Bologna. from expelled were Jews

the Jews living in all the Papal States, except Rome, Avignon and Ancona. 900 900 Ancona. and Avignon Rome, except States, Papal the all in living Jews the

determined Jewish”) which forbade the reading of the Talmud. Plus he expelled expelled he Plus Talmud. the of reading the forbade which Jewish”) determined

Cum Hebraeorum malitia Hebraeorum Cum bull the issued he later days few A (“When a a (“When

Sixtus V in 1586. 1586. in V Sixtus

Hebrews”), thus revoking the bull Christiana pietas of his predecessor Pope Pope predecessor his of pietas Christiana bull the revoking thus Hebrews”),

“the blind and obdurate perfidy of the the of perfidy obdurate and blind “the ( perfidia Hebraeorum

Caeca et Obdurata Obdurata et Caeca bull papal issued VIII Clement Pope

900 deaths: / affected People

1593: Jews expelled from Papal States Papal from expelled Jews 1593:

303 1500–1599 Century: th 16 . 304. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1597: Jews expelled from Milan, Italy

People affected / deaths: 900

King Philip II of Spain expelled the Jews from Milan at the end of a thirty-year power struggle between secular and religious Italian authorities and Spanish imperial powers. The exiles were received at Mantua, Modena, Reggio, Verona, and Padua.

Reference: 1597.1 qr .

17th Century: 1600–1699

17th Century: Auto-da-fé: Spain, Spanish colonies

See main entry 1481. In chronological order from the first event, with multiple events per year in parentheses, the following is a list of auto-da-fés where it is positively known that Jews were involved. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below for details:

Peru: 1600* Logroño: 1610 (2) Seville: 1624, 1625, 1627 (2), 1628, 1644, 1648, 1660 (2), 1691 Córdoba: 1625, 1655, 1662, 1663, 1665, 1666 (2), 1667, 1669, 1670 Cuença: 1634, 1654 Valladolid: 1636, 1644, 1699 Río de la Plata (Uruguay/Argentina): 1639 Mexico: 1645*, 1647*, 1648* Toledo: 1651, 1661, 1666 Granada: 1654, 1684, 1689 Santiago de Compostela: 1655 Palma: 1675, 1679 (5), 1691 (4) Madrid: 1680 (2) Majorca: 1691

Reference: 1600.1 306. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

17th Century: Auto-da-fé: Portugal, Portuguese colonies

See main entry 1481. In chronological order from the first event, with multiple events per year in parentheses, the following is a list of auto-da-fés where it is positively known that Jews were involved. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below for details:

Lisbon: 1603, 1605*, 1624, 1629, 1642, 1647, 1652, 1660, 1675, 1682, 1683 Evora: 1605, 1606, 1629 Lima (Peru): 1605*, 1639 Porto: 1658 Coimbra: 1664, 1673

Reference: 1600.2

17th Century: Jewish expulsions

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of expulsions. Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities.

1614: Frankfurt, Germany 1615: Worms, Germany 1619: Kiev, Polish-Lithuanian rule 1649: Hamburg, Germany; Jamestown colony, America 1654: Recife, Brazil 1656: Isfahan (Persia) 1669: Oran, North African coast (Algeria) 1669-70: Vienna, Austria 1682: Marseilles, France

Reference: 1600.3

Reference: 1605.1 Reference:

to public repentance instead. instead. repentance public to

money, so he confiscated their wealth and condemned them them condemned and wealth their confiscated he so money,

the King of Spain, Philip III, only because he was in need of of need in was he because only III, Philip Spain, of King the

descendants of Jews forcibly baptised in 1497, were spared by by spared were 1497, in baptised forcibly Jews of descendants

A large large A is held in Lisbon. 155 “New Christians”, Christians”, “New 155 Lisbon. in held is auto-da-fé

: Lisbon, Portugal Lisbon, : Auto-da-fé 1605:

Reference: 1600.5 Reference:

as Judaizers. Two were burnt at the stake. stake. the at burnt were Two Judaizers. as auto-da-fé an at

In Spanish Peru, 14 Portuguese “New Christians” were tried tried were Christians” “New Portuguese 14 Peru, Spanish In

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 2

: Spanish Peru Spanish : Auto-da-fé 1600:

Reference: 1600.4 Reference:

Kaidan and Zausmer Zausmer and Kaidan 1698:

) charge murder false ( Posen 1696:

four Jews executed for child-murder for executed Jews four ( Wilna 1691: )

) burned Levi Raphael ( Metz 1670:

Vienna 1668:

Gt. Poland Gt. 1654:

Razinai 1650:

) martyred Jeshurun Isaac ( Ragusa 1623:

libel accusations: libel

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of blood blood of list a is following the event, first the from order chronological In

Century: Blood libel accusations libel Blood Century: 17

th

307 1600–1699 Century: th 17 . 308. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1605: Auto-da-fé: Lima, Peru

19 persons are accused of Judaizing (secretly practicing Judaism); six are burned in effigy, three are burned at the stake, and 16 are “reconciled”, that is, they promise to repent. They have to do public penance and are deprived of all their civil rights.

Reference: 1605.2

1610: Pope Paul V

Pope Paul V issued papal bull Exponi nobis nuper fecistis (“We did recently display”) regulating dowries of Roman Jews.

Reference: 1610.1

1614: Jews expelled from Frankfurt, Germany

People affected / deaths: 1,380

The Frankfurter Judengasse (“Jews’ Alley”) was the Jewish ghetto of Frankfurt and one of the earliest ghettos in Germany, existing from 1462 until 1811. Tensions between the patricians and the guilds led to the 1614 Fettmilch Rising, named after its ringleader, Vincenz Fettmilch. During the riot, the Judengasse was attacked and looted, and 1,380 Jews were expelled from the city. When they were permitted to return two years later, the Jews declared the anniversary of that event a “little Purim” — a local holiday marking the return of the community.

Reference: 1614.1

“Jew stone”), a district of the village Rinn, in Austria. in Rinn, village the of district a stone”), “Jew ( Judenstein

church was built around a rock where the child had allegedly been murdered in in murdered been allegedly had child the where rock a around built was church

). A A ). 1475 above, entry see — Trent of Simon e.g. ( Jews by killed been supposedly

established throughout the Tyrol in Austria, together with other boys who had had who boys other with together Austria, in Tyrol the throughout established

of Anderl began in 1621. By the late 17 late the By 1621. in began Anderl of Century the cult of Anderl was was Anderl of cult the Century th

Church. Tyrolean oral tradition states that the modern celebration of the cult cult the of celebration modern the that states tradition oral Tyrolean Church.

Anderl von Rinn ( Rinn von Anderl ) is a folk saint of the Roman Catholic Catholic Roman the of saint folk a is ) 1462 in above entry see

1621: Anderl von Rinn, Rinn, von Anderl 1621: Andreas Oxner Andreas aka

Reference: 1619.1 Reference:

Century. Century. th 18 late the

the Jews again, and Jewish settlement was not restored until until restored not was settlement Jewish and again, Jews the

however, Christian merchants successfully petitioned to expel expel to petitioned successfully merchants Christian however,

rest of the Jews in the principality of Lithuania. In 1619, 1619, In Lithuania. of principality the in Jews the of rest

The Jews of Kiev had been expelled in 1495 along with the the with along 1495 in expelled been had Kiev of Jews The

1619: Jews expelled from Kiev, under Polish-Lithuanian rule Polish-Lithuanian under Kiev, from expelled Jews 1619:

Reference: 1615.1 Reference:

laid waste, and the tombstones destroyed. destroyed. tombstones the and waste, laid

hour to leave the city, after which their synagogue was demolished, the cemetery cemetery the demolished, was synagogue their which after city, the leave to hour

a citizens’ deputation that arrived on the last day of Passover, giving them an an them giving Passover, of day last the on arrived that deputation citizens’ a

from movement, denied the ability to enter or leave the city. The final straw was was straw final The city. the leave or enter to ability the denied movement, from

from bringing milk for children to the Jewish quarter. The Jews were also barred barred also were Jews The quarter. Jewish the to children for milk bringing from

denied the ability to buy food, their cows were seized, and they were prohibited prohibited were they and seized, were cows their food, buy to ability the denied

denying them access to the basic necessities of life. They were were They life. of necessities basic the to access them denying

guilds, to persuade the Jews to leave of their own volition - by by - volition own their of leave to Jews the persuade to guilds,

Chemnitz, orchestrated a campaign, backed by the trade trade the by backed campaign, a orchestrated Chemnitz,

The Christians of the city, spurred by a lawyer named Dr. Dr. named lawyer a by spurred city, the of Christians The

1615: Jews expelled from Worms, Germany Worms, from expelled Jews 1615:

309 1600–1699 Century: th 17 . 310. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

In recent times, the bishop of Innsbruck (Bishop Stecher) tried to forbid the antisemitic cult, and Anderl’s body was transferred from the church to the churchyard of Judenstein in 1985. In 1994 the cult was officially forbidden and Anderl was supposed to become a symbol of antisemitism and of crimes against little children. Nevertheless, some people make a procession to his grave every year.

Reference: 1621.1

1621: First Thanksgiving, Plymouth

The 53 surviving Pilgrims celebrated their first successful harvest. But historians note that their first celebrated Thanksgiving had religious intent. The date of the original Thanksgiving is unknown, but most suppose it to be in late October, corresponding to the Feast of Tabernacles. The Puritans are known to have modeled themselves after the Jews, considering their journey to America to be a reenactment of the Biblical Exodus. Historical documents show that the Puritans compared England, which oppressed them, to Egypt, and referred to the British King James I as ‘Pharaoh’. Their voyage across the Atlantic was compared to the Israelites crossing the Red Sea, after which they arrived at the Promised Land. The Puritans were Calvinists, who believed that the Jews were a rejected people who needed to embrace Jesus to re-enter the covenant, a basic belief of Replacement Theology.

Rabbi Weisz:

“Puritans were convinced that their voyage was a final step in the messianic journey to the New Jerusalem.”

Reference: 1621.2

1622: King Christian IV, Denmark

The first Jews arrived in Denmark in 1622 at the invitation of King Christian IV, settling in the recently established town of Glückstadt (now in northern Germany). Denmark was the first of the Scandinavian countries where Jews were permitted to settle. Aiming to propel trade and economic growth, the king gave the Jews

Reference: 1632.1 Reference:

strangled and burnt at the stake. stake. the at burnt and strangled

declared insane, and charged with heresy. When he refused to recant he was was he recant to refused he When heresy. with charged and insane, declared

French Protestant theologian and pastor attempts to convert to Judaism, is is Judaism, to convert to attempts pastor and theologian Protestant French

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 1

1632: Nicolas Antoine Nicolas 1632:

Reference: 1626.1 Reference:

to Islam. Islam. to

Sultan. To save his life, he renounced Judaism and converted converted and Judaism renounced he life, his save To Sultan.

Messiah. In 1666 he was summoned to appear before the the before appear to summoned was he 1666 In Messiah.

Sabbatai Zevi is born, who in 1648 claimed to be the Jewish Jewish the be to claimed 1648 in who born, is Zevi Sabbatai

of Av: Sabbatai Zevi is born is Zevi Sabbatai Av: of 9 1626:

th

Reference: 1625.1 Reference:

removed or destroyed. destroyed. or removed

be buried in unmarked graves, and ordered pre-existing tombstones to be be to tombstones pre-existing ordered and graves, unmarked in buried be

condemned the Jews as heretics in Portugal. He also decreed that Jews should should Jews that decreed also He Portugal. in heretics as Jews the condemned

Sedes apostolica Sedes bull papal issued VIII Urban Pope (“The apostolic”) which which apostolic”) (“The

1625: Pope Urban VIII Urban Pope 1625:

Reference: 1622.1 Reference:

when Denmark saved over 99% of its Jews during WWII during Jews its of 99% over saved Denmark when ). ).

see entry below, 1943, 1943, below, entry see ( persecution religious from freedom and privileges trading

— who were successful merchants from Amsterdam and Hamburg — extensive extensive — Hamburg and Amsterdam from merchants successful were who —

311 1600–1699 Century: th 17 . 312. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1632–77: Baruch Spinoza

Baruch Spinoza (Baruch means “blessed”) was a Jewish-Dutch philosopher, the son of Marrano parents who had immigrated to Amsterdam from Portugal in order to escape the Inquisition. By laying the groundwork for the Enlightenment and modern biblical criticism, including modern conceptions of the self and the universe, he came to be considered one of the great rationalists of 17th Century philosophy.

He developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of the Divine. His increasingly unorthodox views strained his relations with the Jewish community, and was expelled from the Synagogue (see entry below, 1656), He was also investigated by the Catholic Inquisition (1659), and banned by the Calvinist Synod (1670).

The release of his book the Theological-Political Treatise in 1670, in which he put forth his most systematic critique of Judaism and all organized religion in general, was met with a firestorm of criticism, and condemned as a work of evil. Spinoza found himself embroiled in heated religious controversy and saddled with a reputation for atheism.

His books were also later put on the Catholic Church’s Index of Forbidden Books.

Reference: 1632.2

1635: Pope Urban VIII

Pope Urban VIII issued papal bull Cum sicut acceptimus (“When you accept”) which obligated poor Jews imprisoned for debt to be fed.

Reference: 1635.1

1636: Pope Urban VIII

Pope Urban VIII issued papal bull Cum alias piae (“As at another time of pious”) which ordered that the Synagogues of the Duchies of Ferarri and Urban were to pay a tax of 10 ecus.

Reference: 1636.1

with the other penitents, in person, without a waist-band and bonnet, and and bonnet, and waist-band a without person, in penitents, other the with

said and committed he shall go forth on the day of the Auto to the scaffold scaffold the to Auto the of day the on forth go shall he committed and said

We Command that in pain and penance for what has been by him done done him by been has what for penance and pain in that Command We

upon him… upon

was ready to fulfil and comply with any penance which we might impose impose might we which penance any with comply and fulfil to ready was

henceforth he would live and die in our holy Catholic Faith, and that he he that and Faith, Catholic holy our in die and live would he henceforth

crimes, and from us penance with mercy, solemnly promising that from from that promising solemnly mercy, with penance us from and crimes,

of contrition and repentance, begging from God our our God from begging repentance, and contrition of pardon for his his for pardon L ord

Gabriel de Granada in the confessions he made before US showed signs signs showed US before made he confessions the in Granada de Gabriel

pains by law established against such heretics but considering that the said said the that considering but heretics such against established law by pains

And although with a good conscience we could condemn him to suffer the the suffer to him condemn could we conscience good a with although And

and by it. by and

and dead law of Moses and his followers, believing he would be saved in it it in saved be would he believing followers, his and Moses of law dead and

and concealer of Heretics, and of having passed over to the accursed, perverse perverse accursed, the to over passed having of and Heretics, of concealer and

Granada to have been a Heretical Judaizing apostate a favorer and abettor abettor and favorer a apostate Judaizing Heretical a been have to Granada

“Wherefore we ought to declare and we do declare the said Gabriel de de Gabriel said the declare do we and declare to ought we “Wherefore

Gabriel de Granada was sentenced in 1645 as follows: as 1645 in sentenced was Granada de Gabriel

of others. of

that anyone arrested would deny all the charges so as to prevent the implication implication the prevent to as so charges the all deny would arrested anyone that

Portuguese from the province without special license. The general consensus was was consensus general The license. special without province the from Portuguese

direct and some via Spain. An embargo was placed upon the emigration of any any of emigration the upon placed was embargo An Spain. via some and direct

circumcised. The vast majority of them were emigrants from Portugal, some some Portugal, from emigrants were them of majority vast The circumcised.

their co-religionists as far afield as Italy and Turkey; many of the men were were men the of many Turkey; and Italy as afield far as co-religionists their

The province was filled with “Judaizing heretics”, who were in contact with with contact in were who heretics”, “Judaizing with filled was province The

). ). aftermath the for 1646-49 below entry

whole of his family, who were also arrested, some of whom died in prison ( prison in died whom of some arrested, also were who family, his of whole see see

implicated no fewer than 108 persons in all, including his own mother and the the and mother own his including all, in persons 108 than fewer no implicated

He was examined, and forced to make admissions which which admissions make to forced and examined, was He . Moses” of law the

Gabriel de Granada, age 13, was arrested on July 12, 1642, as an “observer of of “observer an as 1642, 12, July on arrested was 13, age Granada, de Gabriel

remarkably graphic impression of a typical Inquisitional case.” Inquisitional typical a of impression graphic remarkably

“The persons concerned in it are of no great importance; but it gives a a gives it but importance; great no of are it in concerned persons “The

Cecil Roth, British Jewish historian, said of this trial: trial: this of said historian, Jewish British Roth, Cecil

1642–45: The trial of Gabriel de Granada, Mexico Granada, de Gabriel of trial The 1642–45:

313 1600–1699 Century: th 17 . 314. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

with a penitential habit of yellow cloth with two red bars in the form of St. Andrew’s cross, and carrying a green wax candle in his hands where this our sentence shall be read to him, and publicly abjure his said errors which before us he hath confessed, and all species whatsoever of heresy and apostasy;

And the said abjuration being made WE command the said Gabriel de Granada to be absolved and we do absolve him from whatever sentence of excommunication into which for the above cause he may have fallen and incurred, and we unite and incorporate him into the bosom of the holy catholic mother church and we reinstate him to the participation of the holy Sacraments and communion of the faithful and Catholic christians thereof and we condemn him to imprisonment with a penitential habit for one year;

and that he wear the said habit over his vestments, and keep and observe seclusion in the perpetual prison of this city, and that every Sunday and feast day he go to hear high mass, and sermon where there is any in the Cathedral church, with the other penitents and on Saturdays go in pilgrimage to the church which may be designated to him where on his knees and with great devotion he shall recite the paternoster five times with the Ave Maria creed and Salve Regina, and that he confess and receive the Most holy Sacrament of the Altar pasches the three pasches of each year (Christmas, Epiphany and Easter) all the days of his life, and to perpetual and precise banishment from all these Western Indies and from the city of Seville and town of Madrid, His Majestys Court, and that he embark to fulfil it… and that as soon as he arrives in the said Kingdoms, within one month, he present, himself in the Tribunal of the Holy office of the Inquisition of Seville, in order that he may be known and a description taken of his person, and that a part and place be designated to him where he shall finish what may remain unexpired of his imprisonment and habit…

and we pronounce the said Gabriel de Granada to be disabled… nor to wear on his person gold, silver, pearls or precious stones nor silk camelot, nor fine cloth, nor go on horseback, nor carry arms nor exercise or use any of the other things which by common right… are prohibited to those similarly disabled, and to his descendants… under pain of relapsed impenitency; and by this our sentence definitively adjudged we thus pronounce and command in and by these writings.”

Reference: 1642.1

Reference: 1647.1 Reference:

Five others are burnt alive with him; 60 more are given life imprisonment. imprisonment. life given are more 60 him; with alive burnt are others Five

Judaism) is killed by the Inquisition. He recites the Shema and refuses to recant. recant. to refuses and Shema the recites He Inquisition. the by killed is Judaism)

Isaac de Castro Tartas, a a Tartas, Castro de Isaac (a Jew forced to convert but secretly practising practising secretly but convert to forced Jew (a Marrano

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 6

1647: Isaac de Castro Tartas, a a Tartas, Castro de Isaac 1647: Marrano

Reference: 1646.1 Reference:

person burned alive was Tomas Trevino of Sobremonte ( Sobremonte of Trevino Tomas was alive burned person ). ). 1649 below, entry see

sentences, including, in some cases, deportation from “New Spain”. The only only The Spain”. “New from deportation cases, some in including, sentences,

the preliminary grace of garroting. Those who were not executed received lesser lesser received executed not were who Those garroting. of grace preliminary the

remains of 13 who were executed. Twelve professed repentance, and so secured secured so and repentance, professed Twelve executed. were who 13 of remains

but one were Judaizers. Of these, 57 died awaiting trial, so were burnt with the the with burnt were so trial, awaiting died 57 these, Of Judaizers. were one but

largest such event held in the New World. Out of 109 persons who appeared, all all appeared, who persons 109 of Out World. New the in held event such largest

The climax of the Mexican Inquisition was reached on April 11, 1649 — the the — 1649 11, April on reached was Inquisition Mexican the of climax The

were accused, though no burnings took place. place. took burnings no though accused, were

reconciled, 21 burned in effigy and one in person; in the second, 21 Judaizers Judaizers 21 second, the in person; in one and effigy in burned 21 reconciled,

: in the first, 8 Judaizers were penanced, 8 8 penanced, were Judaizers 8 first, the in : auto-da-fés two were there 1648, In

coffers of the Holy Office; 21 followed in 1647. 1647. in followed 21 Office; Holy the of coffers

In 1646, 38 Judaizers were reconciled, bringing a very considerable profit to the the to profit considerable very a bringing reconciled, were Judaizers 38 1646, In

some 30,000 spectators from as far away as Mexico City (80km away). away). (80km City Mexico as away far as from spectators 30,000 some

ceremonies were grand public affairs, with with affairs, public grand were ceremonies auto-da-fé The

. . 1642-45

See entry above on trial of Gabriel de Granada for background, background, for Granada de Gabriel of trial on above entry See

1646–49: Mexican Inquisition at its peak its at Inquisition Mexican 1646–49:

315 1600–1699 Century: th 17 . 316. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1648: 9th of Av: The Cossacks massacre thousands of East European Jews

People affected / deaths: 100,000 (est.)

The Khmelnytsky Uprising, or the Chmielnicki Uprising, was a Cossack rebellion within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1648– 1657, which led to the creation of a Cossack Hetmanate in Ukrainian lands. It was led by the Ukrainian Cossack Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky under the premise that the Poles had sold them as slaves “into the hands of the accursed Jews”. It was during the months of May to November 1648 that most of the massacres took place, and it was on the 9th of Av that Khmelnytsky massacred thousands of Polish Jews. Those Jews who did not manage to escape or join the Polish army of Wisniowiecki on its retreat westward met violent deaths; some converted to Christianity to save their lives; many were seized by the Tatars and sold into slavery. The first large-scale massacre took place in Nemirov, followed by Tulchin, the towns bordering Belorussia, Polonnoye, Volhynia, the fortress of Bar, Lvov and Narol. A new wave of massacres occurred in 1654. Altogether tens of thousands were killed, with some Jewish sources saying 100,000; but recent estimates range from 15-30,000 Jews killed or taken captive, and 300 Jewish communities totally destroyed. The horror of the massacres of 1648–49 is expressed in Hebrew literature; many liturgical poems and laments were composed on this subject, as well as many works of poetry and prose.

Reference: 1648.1

1649: Second Jew into America is expelled, Jamestown colony

After the first known Jew, Elias Legarde, successfully immigrated to the Jamestown colony in America in 1621, the second attempt by Solomon Franco in 1649 into Boston was rebuffed. He was given housing and an allowance until he could be expelled back to Holland.

Reference: 1649.1

Reference: 1649.3 Reference:

this fire.” this

“Throw more wood on this fire, you wretched ones, because I am paying for for paying am I because ones, wretched you fire, this on wood more “Throw

flames. He reportedly told his executioners, as the flames were being ignited, ignited, being were flames the as executioners, his told reportedly He flames.

the fire was lit and, instead, Trevino suffered a slow, agonizing death in the the in death agonizing slow, a suffered Trevino instead, and, lit was fire the

Because he would not recant, he was denied the mercy of a quick death before before death quick a of mercy the denied was he recant, not would he Because

to live and die in the Law of Moses”. of Law the in die and live to

that in his final hours Trevino asserted that that asserted Trevino hours final his in that “he was a Jew and that he was resolved resolved was he that and Jew a was “he

before being set afire. The priest accompanying Trevino to his death testified testified death his to Trevino accompanying priest The afire. set being before

Tomas refused, and so was not afforded the privilege of being strangulated strangulated being of privilege the afforded not was so and refused, Tomas

Given the opportunity to repent before his execution, and to kiss the cross, cross, the kiss to and execution, his before repent to opportunity the Given

born? … Everything the Church believes is nonsense.” nonsense.” is believes Church the Everything … born?

“Shut up, you horse, God has no mother; if He created us, how could He be be He could how us, created He if mother; no has God horse, you up, “Shut

his son: son: his

make it stop raining. According to the records of the Inquisition, Tomas told told Tomas Inquisition, the of records the to According raining. stop it make

testified that his father had scolded him when he prayed to the Virgin Mary to to Mary Virgin the to prayed he when him scolded had father his that testified

Among other accusations against him was one from his 13-year-old son, who who son, 13-year-old his from one was him against accusations other Among

religion and observe the rituals and customs of Judaism. Judaism. of customs and rituals the observe and religion

Christian” convert to Catholicism, Tomas continued secretly to practice the the practice to secretly continued Tomas Catholicism, to convert Christian”

and its rites and ceremonies. In other words, while ostensibly living as a “New “New a as living ostensibly while words, other In ceremonies. and rites its and

). His crime: observing the “dead law of Moses” of law “dead the observing crime: His ). 1646-49 peak, its at Inquisition

stake in Mexico City, a victim of the Inquisition ( Inquisition the of victim a City, Mexico in stake see entry above for Mexican Mexican for above entry see

On April 11, 1649, Tomas Trevino de Sobremonte was burned to death at the the at death to burned was Sobremonte de Trevino Tomas 1649, 11, April On

April 11, 1649: Tomas Trevino de Sobremont Sobremont de Trevino Tomas 1649: 11, April

Reference: 1649.2 Reference:

community in 1649. 1649. in community

were rising, culminating in the expulsion of the Ashkenazi Ashkenazi the of expulsion the in culminating rising, were

Amsterdam since tensions with the Christian community community Christian the with tensions since Amsterdam

in Hamburg in 1648. However, these refugees soon left for for left soon refugees these However, 1648. in Hamburg in

Many Jews fleeing persecution in Ukraine and Poland arrived arrived Poland and Ukraine in persecution fleeing Jews Many

1649: Jews expelled from Hamburg, Germany Hamburg, from expelled Jews 1649:

317 1600–1699 Century: th 17 . 318. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1652: Manuel Fernandez Villareal, Lisbon

People affected / deaths: 1

Manuel Fernandez Villareal is found guilty of secretly being a Jew and burned alive in Lisbon, Portugal.

Reference: 1652.1

1653: Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux

Bossuet (1627-1704) was a French bishop and theologian, renowned for his sermons and other addresses. He has been considered by many to be one of the most brilliant orators of all time and a masterly French stylist. His sermon of 1653 “On the Law of God” bears the statement in his own handwriting “Preached at Metz against the Jews”. In a sermon for Good Friday he cursed them from the pulpit, saying: “Accursed People! Your visitation shall pursue you up to your most remote descendants, until the Lord becomes weary of punishing you and at the end of time takes pity on your wretched remains.”

In his “Addresses Concerning History” and in various sermons Bossuet repeatedly described the Jews as “accursed race”, upon whom “divine punishment” has come and will always “be destroyed by the other peoples of the world”.

Reference: 1653.1

1654: Jews expelled from Recife, Brazil

The prominence and economic success of Brazil’s Jews stirred up resentment among the colony’s Christians, who participated in the ongoing Portuguese campaign to push out the Dutch. By 1645 there were 1,630 Jews living in Recife, a number equal to the Jewish population of Amsterdam at the time. The Dutch finally lost control of Recife on January 28, 1654 to the Portuguese, and on April 26 the last Jewish residents were expelled.

Reference: 1654.1

Reference: 1656.1 Reference:

Judaism in secret similar to their brethren 150 years earlier in Spain. in earlier years 150 brethren their to similar secret in Judaism

accepted Islam on the outside, but continued to practice practice to continued but outside, the on Islam accepted

and forced them to either convert or be expelled. Many Jews Jews Many expelled. be or convert either to them forced and

Shah Abbas II (1632 -66) declared that all Jews were unclean, unclean, were Jews all that declared -66) (1632 II Abbas Shah

Muslims )

1656: Jews expelled from Isfahan, Persia ( Persia Isfahan, from expelled Jews 1656: Expulsion by by Expulsion

Reference: 1655.1 Reference:

months a synagogue and burial ground were allowed. allowed. were ground burial and synagogue a months

they did not declare their identity, living as Spanish merchants), and within within and merchants), Spanish as living identity, their declare not did they

an established Jewish community in London before 1655; fearful of persecution persecution of fearful 1655; before London in community Jewish established an

worship in private as they had done prior to the petitioning (there is evidence of of evidence is (there petitioning the to prior done had they as private in worship

In 1656 Cromwell allowed the Jews to return to England, permitting Jews to to Jews permitting England, to return to Jews the allowed Cromwell 1656 In

community.

international trade and commercial connections with the Amsterdam Jewish Jewish Amsterdam the with connections commercial and trade international

the Jews to England: a Jewish presence in England would be advantageous for for advantageous be would England in presence Jewish a England: to Jews the

that about. There were also pragmatic reasons why he supported the return of of return the supported he why reasons pragmatic also were There about. that

throughout the world, so establishing communities in England would help bring bring help would England in communities establishing so world, the throughout

the Jewish Messiah would only appear when the Jewish people had spread spread had people Jewish the when appear only would Messiah Jewish the

England was a step towards that goal. Manasseh ben Israel believed that that believed Israel ben Manasseh goal. that towards step a was England

the conversion of Jews was a sign of the end times and their readmission to to readmission their and times end the of sign a was Jews of conversion the

pamphlet war. While some opposed their return, Christian supporters believed believed supporters Christian return, their opposed some While war. pamphlet

During 1655-56 the question of the return of Jews to England was fought in a a in fought was England to Jews of return the of question the 1655-56 During

Jews. Jews.

worship, burial grounds, freedom to trade and the withdrawal of all laws against against laws all of withdrawal the and trade to freedom grounds, burial worship,

personally petitioned Cromwell. The petition requested citizenship, freedom of of freedom citizenship, requested petition The Cromwell. petitioned personally

1655 he arrived in London with a delegation and members of his family and and family his of members and delegation a with London in arrived he 1655

to Cromwell in 1651 for their readmission. In September September In readmission. their for 1651 in Cromwell to

rabbi from Amsterdam, had published a pamphlet appealing appealing pamphlet a published had Amsterdam, from rabbi

). In 1651, Manasseh ben Israel, a a Israel, ben Manasseh 1651, In ). above entry see ( I Edward

The Jews had been expelled from England in 1290 by by 1290 in England from expelled been had Jews The

1655–56: Oliver Cromwell Oliver 1655–56:

319 1600–1699 Century: th 17 . 320. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1656: Spinoza excommunicated from the synagogue

In 1656, when he was 23 (see entry above for an overview of his life, 1632-77), Jewish religious authorities issued a herem against him (the Jewish version of excommunication):

“The Lords of the ma’amad [council of elders in a Sephardi community], having long known of the evil opinions and acts of Baruch de Espinoza,... have decided, with their consent, that the said Espinoza should be excommunicated and expelled from the people of Israel. By the decree of the angels, and by the command of the holy men, we excommunicate, expel, curse and damn Baruch de Espinoza, with the consent of God, Blessed be He, and with the consent of all the Holy Congregation, in front of these holy Scrolls with the six-hundred-and-thirteen precepts which are written therein, with the excommunication with which Joshua banned Jericho, with the curse with which Elisha cursed the boys and with all the curses which are written in the Book of the Law. Cursed be he by day and cursed be he by night; cursed be he when he lies down, and cursed be he when he rises up; cursed be he when he goes out, and cursed be he when he comes in. The Lord will not spare him; the anger and wrath of the Lord will rage against this man, and bring upon him all the curses which are written in this book, and the Lord will blot out his name from under heaven, and the Lord will separate him to his injury from all the tribes of Israel with all the curses of the covenant, which are written in the Book of the Law. But you who cleave unto the Lord God are all alive this day. We order that no one should communicate with him orally or in writing, or show him any favour, or stay with him under the same roof, or within four ells of him, or read anything composed or written by him.”

After the herem, the Amsterdam municipal authorities expelled him from Amsterdam,

“responding to the appeals of the rabbis, and also of the Calvinist clergy, who had been vicariously offended by the existence of a free thinker in the synagogue.”

Reference: 1656.2

Century Enlightenment (emphasizing (emphasizing Enlightenment Century th 18 the of groundwork the laying with

Theologico-Political Treatise. Baruch Spinoza’s writings would later be credited credited be later would writings Spinoza’s Baruch Treatise. Theologico-Political

The Calvinist Synod of northern Holland bans Spinoza’s work, specifically the the specifically work, Spinoza’s bans Holland northern of Synod Calvinist The

1670: Calvinist Synod of northern Holland bans Spinoza’s work Spinoza’s bans Holland northern of Synod Calvinist 1670:

Reference: 1669.2 Reference:

Upper and Lower Austria before Corpus Christi Day ( June 20), never to return. return. to never 20), June ( Day Christi Corpus before Austria Lower and Upper

all Jews should, on penalty of imprisonment and death, leave Vienna and and Vienna leave death, and imprisonment of penalty on should, Jews all God”

of Austria, issued a solemn proclamation in all public places that that places public all in proclamation solemn a issued Austria, of “for the glory of of glory the “for

On Monday, March 1, 1670, Leopold I, the Holy Roman Emperor and archduke archduke and Emperor Roman Holy the I, Leopold 1670, 1, March Monday, On

poorer Jews from Vienna and Lower Austria: 1,346 people. 1,346 Austria: Lower and Vienna from Jews poorer

the Jewish ghetto. It was decided on July 26, 1669, to expel a number of the the of number a expel to 1669, 26, July on decided was It ghetto. Jewish the

the Jews resulting in riots, looting, and attempts to set fire to to fire set to attempts and looting, riots, in resulting Jews the

A fire in the newly built royal palace in 1668 was blamed on on blamed was 1668 in palace royal built newly the in fire A

1,346 deaths: / affected People

1669–70: Jews expelled from Vienna, Austria Vienna, from expelled Jews 1669–70:

Reference: 1669.1 Reference:

majority of the Jews of Oran and its environs. environs. its and Oran of Jews the of majority

Spanish Queen Maria of Austria expelled the overwhelming overwhelming the expelled Austria of Maria Queen Spanish

1669: Jews expelled from Oran, North African coast African North Oran, from expelled Jews 1669:

Reference: 1658.1 Reference:

Jews would not hire houses from which Jews had been evicted. been had Jews which from houses hire not would Jews

ordering Roman Jews to pay rent even for unoccupied houses in ghetto, because because ghetto, in houses unoccupied for even rent pay to Jews Roman ordering

Ad ea per quae per ea Ad bull papal issued VII Alexander Pope (“For those reasons that”) that”) reasons those (“For

1658: Pope Alexander VII Alexander Pope 1658:

321 1600–1699 Century: th 17 . 322. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History the physical alone — “If you can’t see it, it doesn’t exist”), a movement which would in turn be extended by others into secular humanism, socialism and Marxism. In addition Spinoza is credited with laying the groundwork for modern biblical criticism that challenges the divine inspiration of the Bible.

While Spinoza, a Jew, is disparaged by Christians today for his atheism and for having inspired Marxism, a question we (the compilers of this LIST) see being ignored is the degree to which the ongoing Inquisitions of the Church, with their inherent irrationality and brutality, may have propelled Spinoza to envision a world that exists without God. Did we, the Church, create through Spinoza that great enemy which today stands in opposition to our Judeo- Christian values? Did we, the Church, sow “the Inquisitions” and reap “secular humanism”?

Reference: 1670.1

1670: Raphael Levy

People affected / deaths: 1

Levy, a Jew, is accused of having ritually murdered a Christian child in Metz, France, even though the child’s body was found in the woods, partially eaten by animals. He was tortured, refused to confess, offered an opportunity to become a Christian (which he refused), and burnt at the stake. The courts applied to Louis XIV to have the 95 Jewish families in Metz expelled from the province, but the king prohibited any further action.

Reference: 1670.2

1680: Toledo, Spain

People affected / deaths: 21

21 Jews are accused of Judaizing at Toledo, Spain. Two are burnt alive. The rest are garroted (strangled) first before burning.

Reference: 1680.1

Reference: 1682.1 Reference:

1711. 1711.

expelled, including Lopez, originally from Bordeaux, who was driven out in in out driven was who Bordeaux, from originally Lopez, including expelled,

having opened a synagogue in his house. Other Jews were were Jews Other house. his in synagogue a opened having

having induced some Jewish families to come to the city and and city the to come to families Jewish some induced having

Marseilles. Among them was Villaréal, who was expelled for for expelled was who Villaréal, was them Among Marseilles.

Centuries some Jews had settled at at settled had Jews some Centuries th 18 and th 17 the In

1682: Jews expelled from Marseilles, France Marseilles, from expelled Jews 1682:

323 1600–1699 Century: th 17 . 324. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

18th Century: 1700–1799

th 18 Century: Auto-da-fé: Spain

See main entry 1481. In chronological order from the first event, with multiple events per year in parentheses, the following is a list of auto-da-fés where it is positively known that Jews were involved:

Seville: 1700, 1703, 1718, 1721 (2), 1722 (3), 1723 (2), 1724 (2), 1725, 1781, 1799

Valladolid: 1706, 1723, 1724, 1725, 1726, 1727, 1745

Córdoba: 1718, 1722, 1723, 1724 (2), 1726, 1728, 1730, 1731, 1745

Madrid: 1721, 1722, 1724

Palma: 1721, 1722, 1724

Granada: 1721, 1723 (3), 1724, 1725 (3), 1726, 1728

Toledo: 1722, 1725, 1738

Murcia: 1722, 1723, 1724, 1725, 1726

Cuença: 1722 (2), 1723, 1724, 1725 (2)

Llerena: 1722, 1723, 1725 (2)

Valencia: 1723, 1724, 1725 (2) 326. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Barcelona: 1723, 1725, 1726

Saragossa: 1723

Reference: 1700.1

18th Century: Auto-da-fé: Portugal, Portuguese colonies

See main entry 1481. In chronological order from the first event, with multiple events per year in parentheses, the following is a list of auto-da-fés where it is positively known that Jews were involved: Lisbon: 1701 (2), 1705 (2), 1707, 1713, 1723, 1726, 1739 (2), 1752, 1755 Coimbra: 1704, 1718, 1723 Evora: 1706 Lima (Peru): 1736

Reference: 1700.2

18th Century: Jewish expulsions

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of expulsions. Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities. 1712: Sandomierz, Poland 1714: Bavaria 1717: Gibraltar 1718: Carniola, Styria and Carinthia, Slovenia 1727: Russia (also 1742) 1738: Wurttemberg, Germany 1740: Little Russia (modern Ukraine) 1743: Riga, Livonia 1744: Prague, Czech Republic 1753: Kaunas, Lithuania (also 1761) 1761: Bordeaux, France

It begins with the following opening statements: opening following the with begins It da-fé.

to Jewish victims of the Inquisition, preparatory to the celebration of an an of celebration the to preparatory Inquisition, the of victims Jewish to auto-

On September 6, 1705, a sermon was delivered by the Archbishop of Cranganor Cranganor of Archbishop the by delivered was sermon a 1705, 6, September On

66 deaths: / affected People

auto-da-fé of Sermon 1705: 6, September , Lisbon ,

Reference: 1700.4 1700.4 Reference:

) ) burned synagogue killed; 4 ( Rumania Galatz, 1797:

Tasnád, Transylvania (Hungary) Transylvania Tasnád, 1791:

Totiz 1788:

Botoshani, Rumania Botoshani, 1783:

Orcuta, Hungary Orcuta, 1764:

Jampol, Poland Jampol, 1756:

synagogue closed through false charge by apostate by charge false through closed synagogue ( Fürth 1745: )

) quartered Jew ( Jaslau 1743:

) years four lasted ( Posen 1736:

child murder child ( Sinigaglia and Danzig 1721: )

Roman, Rumania Roman, 1714:

Frankfort-on-the-Main 1712:

Neamtz, Moldavia (Romania); Orlinghausen, Germany Orlinghausen, (Romania); Moldavia Neamtz, 1710:

Viterbo 1705:

accusations:

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of blood libel libel blood of list a is following the event, first the from order chronological In

Century: Blood libel accusations libel Blood Century: 18

th

Reference: 1700.3 Reference:

Jedda, Arabia Arabia Jedda, 1786:

Morocco 1783:

) 1790 also ( Poland Warsaw, 1775:

327 1700–1799 Century: th 18 . 328. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

“Oh! Degraded remnants of Judaism, unhappy fragments of the Synagogue! The last spoil of Judea! Opprobrium of the Catholics! Abhorrence and laughing-stock of your fellow Jews, it is to you I address myself, ye misguided men! You are the abhorrence and laughing-stock of the Jews, for your ignorance is such that you know not how to observe the very law you profess. You are the opprobrium of the Catholics; for, being born within the pale of its church, your voluntary apostasy has banished you from its bosom; you are the last spoil of Judea, for (to our shame) your lot is cast here in Portugal to disgrace and scandalise us in the opinion of the whole world — in our quarter of the globe as well as in your native East. You are the wretched fragments of the Synagogue, for all its former greatness is come to an end in your present misery. Finally, you are a degraded remnant of Judaism, the wretched offshoots of Israel, who, since the destruction of your country, have spread throughout Europe to infect whole nations by your presence.”

It concludes with:

“You have awaited with open arms the sons of Judea for 1705 years, and the more eagerly you solicit them to come to you, the more ungratefully they turn away from you, and obstinately refuse to acknowledge you as their Messiah... You called to them in kindness, but they made an ungrateful return for your favours. Seek now to win them to you by chastisement, however little chastisement has hitherto benefited them. Cause them to acknowledge with perfect sincerity, that in their present miserable state they have no other remedy than to repent for the time they have lost in their false expectations, by bewailing their errors, abhorring their sins, abominating their superstition, and renouncing their contumacy [stubborn refusal to obey or comply with authority], so that, being renegerated by the waters of their penitent eyes, they have be born again your children, as already by Bapsim they have become. LAUS DEO! [Praise God]”

Most of the Jews compelled to listen to the sermon had to choose between apostasy and death. 66 individuals were sentenced and punished. One victim, having offended a second time against the Inquisition, was condemned to being burnt alive.

Reference: 1705.1

the presence of King Charles XI of Sweden, the dowager queen queen dowager the Sweden, of XI Charles King of presence the

28 Jews were baptised in the Lutheran Church in Stockholm in in Stockholm in Church Lutheran the in baptised were Jews 28 1681:

them live in the city freely as Jews. The king refused. king The Jews. as freely city the in live them

Jews in Stockholm petitioned King Charles XI (1669-97) to let let to (1669-97) XI Charles King petitioned Stockholm in Jews 1680:

1718: Sweden: Jews allowed to settle without conversion first conversion without settle to allowed Jews Sweden: 1718:

Reference: 1717.1 Reference:

pursuant to the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht. Utrecht. of Treaty the of terms the to pursuant

Jews were expelled from Gibraltar at Spain’s insistence, insistence, Spain’s at Gibraltar from expelled were Jews

1717: Jews expelled from Gibraltar from expelled Jews 1717:

Reference: 1714.1 Reference:

holders, Court Jews, mintmasters and physicians. physicians. and mintmasters Jews, Court holders,

able to acquire the right to reside in Munich as monopoly monopoly as Munich in reside to right the acquire to able

Austrian origin were expelled from Bavaria, but some were were some but Bavaria, from expelled were origin Austrian

After the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), Jews of of Jews (1701-14), Succession Spanish the of War the After

1714: Jews expelled from Bavaria from expelled Jews 1714:

Reference: 1712.1 Reference:

Żuchowski. Żuchowski.

throughout Poland in two anti-Jewish booklets written by a local priest, Stefan Stefan priest, local a by written booklets anti-Jewish two in Poland throughout

although the royal order was likely unenforced. The accusations were publicized publicized were accusations The unenforced. likely was order royal the although

libel case led King Augustus II to expel the Jews in 1712, 1712, in Jews the expel to II Augustus King led case libel

accusations led to trials and death sentences. The last blood blood last The sentences. death and trials to led accusations

four blood libel cases between 1605 and 1710. Three of these these of Three 1710. and 1605 between cases libel blood four

Continuing tensions between Christians and Jews resulted in in resulted Jews and Christians between tensions Continuing

1712: Jews expelled from Sandomierz, Poland Sandomierz, from expelled Jews 1712:

329 1700–1799 Century: th 18 . 330. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Hedvig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp, and several other high state officials.

1685: Charles XI ordered the governor-general of Stockholm to ban Jews from living not only in Stockholm but anywhere in the realm,

“on account of the danger of the eventual influence of the Jewish religion on the pure evangelical faith.”

The king ruled that any Jews who were found in residence would be given 14 days to leave.

1718: In the final year of King Charles XII’s rule (1697-1718), Jews were allowed to settle in Sweden without converting first.

1782: Under King Gustav III, Jews were restricted to dwelling in just four Swedish towns — Gothenburg, Norrköping, Landskrona and Stockholm. Jews who lived elsewhere in the country had to move. They were allowed to build synagogues, if not to intermarry with Christians — though their occupations were curtailed.

1838: Stockholm’s Jews achieved almost complete emancipation.

1852: On September 1 an anti-Jewish riot erupted in Stockholm, the same year that Prague abolished its first Jewish ghetto, which had existed since the 13th Century.

1910: Jews in Sweden were fully emancipated.

1943: Neutral Sweden not only protected its Jews, but took in 7,220 Jews fleeing the Nazis from Denmark (see entry below in 1943).

1974: The Swedish Constitution adopts the principles of multiculturalism.

1999: Yiddish becomes one of five official minority languages in Sweden.

2016: The Jewish population in Sweden is between 15-25,000, making it the largest Jewish community in Scandinavia.

Reference: 1718.1

and its surroundings. The Reizes brothers were arrested, interrogated, tortured, tortured, interrogated, arrested, were brothers Reizes The surroundings. its and

was arrested and tortured. His arrest led to the arrest of many Jews from Lwów Lwów from Jews many of arrest the to led arrest His tortured. and arrested was

and of having profaned the symbols of Christianity which he carried. Filipowicz Filipowicz carried. he which Christianity of symbols the profaned having of and

accused of encouraging the Jewish apostate Jan Filipowicz to return to Judaism, Judaism, to return to Filipowicz Jan apostate Jewish the encouraging of accused

Hayyim Reizes and his brother Joshua were rabbis and martyrs. They were were They martyrs. and rabbis were Joshua brother his and Reizes Hayyim

1728: Reizes brothers, Poland brothers, Reizes 1728:

Reference: 1727.2 Reference:

outlining the necessary conditions for imposing baptism on a Jew. Jew. a on baptism imposing for conditions necessary the outlining

(“It did recently”) recently”) did (“It nuper Emanavit bull papal issued XIII Benedict Pope

1727: Pope Benedict XIII Benedict Pope 1727:

Reference: 1727.1 Reference:

to be expelled at once beyond the frontiers of Russia.” Russia.” of frontiers the beyond once at expelled be to

“The Jews... who are found in Ukraine and in other Russian provinces are are provinces Russian other in and Ukraine in found are who Jews... “The

Catherine I of Russia in 1727: 1727: in Russia of I Catherine

of Peter the Great until his death in 1725, led to the edict of of edict the to led 1725, in death his until Great the Peter of

and deep rooted prejudice, which continued during the reign reign the during continued which prejudice, rooted deep and

Increased anti-Jewish feeling based on religious fanaticism fanaticism religious on based feeling anti-Jewish Increased

1727: Jews expelled from Russia from expelled Jews 1727:

Reference: 1718.2 Reference:

Century, and the last Jews were expelled in 1718. 1718. in expelled were Jews last the and Century, th 16

Carinthia) began expelling their Jews around the turn of the the of turn the around Jews their expelling began Carinthia)

The Estates of the single provinces (Carniola, Styria and and Styria (Carniola, provinces single the of Estates The

Slovenia

1718: Jews expelled from Carniola, Styria and Carinthia, Carinthia, and Styria Carniola, from expelled Jews 1718:

331 1700–1799 Century: th 18 . 332. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History and condemned to death by burning at the stake. Joshua committed suicide, but his body was abused first, and then burnt with his brother. Their property was confiscated and set aside for financing a project to strengthen the town walls. Although Jan Filipowicz was rebaptized, he was convicted of apostasy, beheaded, and burned.

Reference: 1728.1

1736: Peruvian Inquisition: Last person to be executed for practising Judaism

Ana de Castro was burned at the stake in Lima, Peru, after she was convicted of charges of being a “judaizer”, a backsliding convert to Christianity, among other things. She was apparently the last person to be executed by the Peruvian Inquisition for secretly practicing Judaism. The case also became notorious because an internal examination by the Church led to accusations that the inquisitors responsible for Castro’s case violated proper procedure and denied the defendant the opportunity to repent and save her life. She was imprisoned for ten years, tortured on three separate occasions, and sentenced to death. After being paraded through the streets of Lima on the back of a mule, to the jeers and abuse of thousands of locals, her neck was broken, her body burned, and her ashes scattered in the Rimac River. The Church also confiscated her substantial fortune.

Reference: 1736.1

February 4, 1738: Jews expelled from Wurttemberg, Germany

On February 4, 1738, Joseph Suess Oppenheimer, a controversial Jewish financier and close adviser to the recently deceased Duke Karl Alexander of Wuerttemberg, was executed by hanging in Stuttgart, Germany, after being convicted of a litany of charges, including fraud and treason. He was offered several opportunities to convert to Christianity, an act that might have saved his life, but he refused, even at the last minute as he was led to the gallows, where he recited the Shema prayer. In the following year the Jews were expelled. After his death, his body was left hanging on public display in a cage for six years.

Reference: 1742.1 Reference:

Christ.” Jesus of enemies the from profit or benefit any obtain to wish not do “I

Empress wrote with her own hand: own her with wrote Empress

losses that would ensue for the merchants of the city through that expulsion, the the expulsion, that through city the of merchants the for ensue would that losses

When the city of Riga submitted that consideration should be given to the the to given be should consideration that submitted Riga of city the When

Jews in Russia except those prepared to adopt Christianity. Christianity. adopt to prepared those except Russia in Jews

Empress Elizabeth issued an Order of Expulsion against all all against Expulsion of Order an issued Elizabeth Empress

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 35,000

1742: Jews expelled from Russia from expelled Jews 1742:

Reference: 1740.1 Reference:

coming from Spain, Portugal, and the West Indies. Indies. West the and Portugal, Spain, from coming

community in this colony increased by slow stages, the principal immigrants immigrants principal the stages, slow by increased colony this in community

this time and the American War of Independence (1775 - 83) the Jewish Jewish the 83) - (1775 Independence of War American the and time this

, were also put upon the statute-book. Between Between statute-book. the upon put also were , Christian” a of faith true the “upon

general in character, under which Jews could be naturalized without taking oath oath taking without naturalized be could Jews which under character, in general

naturalization, some of which were applicable to individuals only; others, more more others, only; individuals to applicable were which of some naturalization,

however, the New York Colonial Assembly had passed numerous special acts of of acts special numerous passed had Assembly Colonial York New the however,

permitted Jews to be naturalized in the American colonies. Previous to this date, date, this to Previous colonies. American the in naturalized be to Jews permitted

settled or shall settle in any of His Majesty’s Colonies in America” in Colonies Majesty’s His of any in settle shall or settled , which specifically specifically which ,

Act for Naturalizing such foreign Protestants and others therein mentioned, as are are as mentioned, therein others and Protestants foreign such Naturalizing for Act

In 1740, the British Parliament passed the Plantation Act, officially titled titled officially Act, Plantation the passed Parliament British the 1740, In “An “An

1740: United States United 1740:

Reference: 1738.1 Reference:

director Veit Harlan in his 1940 Nazi propaganda film version of “Jew Suess.” Suess.” “Jew of version film propaganda Nazi 1940 his in Harlan Veit director

was this sympathetic portrait of the financier that was adopted and twisted by by twisted and adopted was that financier the of portrait sympathetic this was

Feuchtwanger, whose novel “Jew Suess” was a popular success. Ironically, it it Ironically, success. popular a was Suess” “Jew novel whose Feuchtwanger,

Oppenheimer’s story was revived in 1925 by the Jewish German writer Lion Lion writer German Jewish the by 1925 in revived was story Oppenheimer’s

333 1700–1799 Century: th 18 . 334. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1743: Jews expelled from Riga, Livonia (in Russia)

People affected / deaths: 18

After the Russian edict for expulsion in December 1742 was promulgated, the council of Riga in January 1743 expressed the fear that if this decree were rigidly enforced the commerce of Riga with Poland would be seriously affected. On March 30, 18 Jews were expelled. Because trade with Poland declined in the following years, Jews were allowed to return in 1764, and received the status of Schutzjuden (protected Jews), whose stay in the city was not limited—unlike other Jews, who were allowed to be in the city for periods no longer than six weeks.

Reference: 1743.1

December 18, 1744: Jews expelled from Prague, Czech Republic

On December 18, 1744, Maria Theresa, queen of Austria and archduchess of Hungary and Bohemia and known for her hatred of Jews, signed an edict ordering the expulsion of all Jews, from Prague — which said they had to depart by the end of January 1745. In June 1745 the decree to expel them from all her hereditary dominions, that is, from Moravia and Bohemia was not carried out. In 1748 the decree of expulsion was remitted and most of the Jews returned, although they were subjected to a new “Toleration Tax”.

In 1777 she wrote:

“Henceforth no Jew, no matter under what name, will be allowed to remain here without my written permission. I know of no other troublesome plague within the state than this race, which impoverished the people by their fraud, usury and money-lending and commits all deeds which an honorable man despises. Subsequently they have to be removed and excluded from here as much as possible.”

Reference: 1744.1

Reference: 1751.1 Reference:

). ). 1858 below, case

see entry for the Mortara Mortara the for entry see ( household Catholic a in raised be only could law by and

parents on the grounds that the child had been baptized by a Christian servant servant Christian a by baptized been had child the that grounds the on parents

authorities who removed Edgardo Mortara from the custody of his Jewish Jewish his of custody the from Mortara Edgardo removed who authorities

In 1858, Pope Pius IX cited cited IX Pius Pope 1858, In when defending the church church the defending when mense Postremo

being baptized. being

laid down punishments for Jewish converts who abandoned Catholicism after after Catholicism abandoned who converts Jewish for punishments down laid

(even under the age of seven) can be baptized without parental agreement, and and agreement, parental without baptized be can seven) of age the under (even

see entry above entry see ( 1747 of mense ). This bull delineated the situations where a child child a where situations the delineated bull This ).

which discussed related questions to those raised in the papal bull bull papal the in raised those to questions related discussed which Postremo Postremo

Pope Benedict XIV issued papal bull bull papal issued XIV Benedict Pope (“Well you remember”) remember”) you (“Well meminisse te Probe

1751: Pope Benedict XIV Benedict Pope 1751:

Reference: 1747.1 Reference:

baptism is licit or not not or licit is baptism

provide the child with a Christian education, whether that child’s child’s that whether education, Christian a with child the provide

its parents’ custody if the parents have not been baptized and to to and baptized been not have parents the if custody parents’ its

3. church authorities have a duty to remove a baptized child from from child baptized a remove to duty a have authorities church

parental consent parental

2. it is licit to baptize a Jewish child in danger of death without without death of danger in child Jewish a baptize to licit is it

without parental consent parental without

1. it is generally not licit to baptize the child of a Jewish family family Jewish a of child the baptize to licit not generally is it

Benedict set out several guidelines: several out set Benedict

and removed from their parents’ custody. custody. parents’ their from removed and

children aged seven or older who requested baptism could be licitly baptized baptized licitly be could baptism requested who older or seven aged children

Judaism they faced punishment as apostates. He also determined that Jewish Jewish that determined also He apostates. as punishment faced they Judaism

see entry for the Mortara case below, 1858 below, case Mortara the for entry see ( parents ). If the children reverted to to reverted children the If ).

law, must be brought up under Christian influences and be removed from its its from removed be and influences Christian under up brought be must law,

October 22, 1597, that a Jewish child, once baptized, even against canonical canonical against even baptized, once child, Jewish a that 1597, 22, October

last month of the previous year”) confirming the decision of Roman Curia of of Curia Roman of decision the confirming year”) previous the of month last

Postremo mense superioris anni superioris mense Postremo bull papal issued XIV Benedict Pope “In the the “In (

1747: Pope Benedict XIV Benedict Pope 1747:

335 1700–1799 Century: th 18 . 336. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1753: Jews expelled from Kaunas, Lithuania

The mayor expelled the Jews but the crown’s representative in Kaunas allowed the Jews to settle on his property, which was under the king’s authority (see entry below, 1761).

Reference: 1753.1

1755: Pope Benedict XIV

Pope Benedict XIV issued papal bull Beatus Andreas (“Blessed Andreas”) beatifying child martyr Andreas Oxner, said in a blood libel accusation to have been murdered by Jews in 1462 (see entry above).

Reference: 1755.1

1755: Jeronimo José Ramos

The last person to be burned alive for Judaizing (secretly practising Judaism) in Lisbon was Jeronimo José Ramos. Having escaped the auto-da-fé in 1752, he was recaptured and sentenced to death as a nonrepentant.

Reference: 1755.2

1761: Jews expelled from Kaunas, Lithuania

After violent attacks on Jews and their property, and Jews were once again expelled from Kaunas (see entry above, 1753). 20 years later, a royal court ordered their return to Kaunas, restoration of their property with compensation for damages, and two weeks’ imprisonment for the mayor.

Reference: 1761.1

their sect is not much anterior to the Christian era.” Christian the to anterior much not is sect their

dogmas of the Stoics with the old Jewish ideas. St. Jerome claims even that that even claims Jerome St. ideas. Jewish old the with Stoics the of dogmas

the Jews, were very new fangled. In Alexandria they mixed a part of the the of part a mixed they Alexandria In fangled. new very were Jews, the

later; for these Pharisees themselves, who were the first literates among among literates first the were who themselves, Pharisees these for later;

among the little Jewish people, did not adopt destiny until several centuries centuries several until destiny adopt not did people, Jewish little the among

is master of the gods, as the gods are masters of the world... The Pharisees, Pharisees, The world... the of masters are gods the as gods, the of master is

ancient is Homer; it is there that one finds the... idea of the destiny which which destiny the of idea the... finds one that there is it Homer; is ancient

“Of all the books of the Occident which have come down to us, the most most the us, to down come have which Occident the of books the all “Of

Destiny

you not find that they cut a pretty figure?...” figure?...” pretty a cut they that find not you

that account: nearly always have they been beaten and slaves, and to-day do do to-day and slaves, and beaten been they have always nearly account: that

“...The Jews had God Himself for master; see what has happened to them on on them to happened has what see master; for Himself God had Jews “...The

Democracy

Other selections under their respective chapter headings are: headings chapter respective their under selections Other

and enriched.” enriched.” and

and the most invincible hatred for every people by whom they are tolerated tolerated are they whom by people every for hatred invincible most the and

long united the most sordid avarice with the most detestable superstition superstition detestable most the with avarice sordid most the united long

“In short, we find in them only an ignorant and barbarous people, who have have who people, barbarous and ignorant an only them in find we short, “In

wrote of the Jews: Jews: the of wrote

Later versions were expanded into two volumes consisting of 120 articles. He He articles. 120 of consisting volumes two into expanded were versions Later

institutions. The first edition, released in June 1764, consisted of 73 articles. articles. 73 of consisted 1764, June in released edition, first The institutions.

often criticize the Roman Catholic Church, Judaism, Islam, and other other and Islam, Judaism, Church, Catholic Roman the criticize often

dictionary published by Voltaire in 1764. The alphabetically arranged articles articles arranged alphabetically The 1764. in Voltaire by published dictionary

(“Philosophical Dictionary”) is an encyclopedic encyclopedic an is Dictionary”) (“Philosophical philosophique Dictionnaire The

Dictionary”

Dictionnaire philosophique Dictionnaire publishes Voltaire 1764: , “Philosophical “Philosophical ,

Reference: 1761.2 Reference:

Jews from Bordeaux. Bordeaux. from Jews

Marshal Louis de Richelieu issued a decree expelling 152 152 expelling decree a issued Richelieu de Louis Marshal

1761: Jews expelled from Bordeaux, France Bordeaux, from expelled Jews 1761:

337 1700–1799 Century: th 18 . 338. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Natural Law “It was forbidden to marry one’s sister in Rome. It was allowed among the Egyptians, the Athenians and even among the Jews, to marry one’s sister on the father’s side. It is but with regret that I cite that wretched little Jewish people, who should assuredly not serve as a rule for anyone, and who (putting religion aside) was never anything but a race of ignorant and fanatic brigands.”

Tolerance [which is a positive statement about the Jews] “If it were permitted to reason consistently in religious matters, it is clear that we all ought to become Jews, because Jesus Christ our Saviour was born a Jew, lived a Jew, died a Jew, and that he said expressly that he was accomplishing, that he was fulfilling the Jewish religion. But it is clearer still that we ought to be tolerant of one another, because we are all weak, inconsistent, liable to fickleness and error. Shall a reed laid low in the mud by the wind say to a fellow reed fallen in the opposite direction: “Crawl as I crawl, wretch, or I shall petition that you be torn up by the roots and burned?”

Despite his rhetoric above, the Jewish Encyclopedia has this to say: “It seems that, aside from his desire to select any subject apt to furnish an opportunity to display his humorous satire and give him a chance to attack the Bible, Voltaire had no intention of antagonizing the Jews. In his reply to Isaac de Pinto, who wrote an apology for the Jews entitled “Apologie pour la Nation Juive,” Voltaire admitted as much. He recognized the fact that there were respectable Jews, and he did not wish to wound the feelings of his opponent by references to the people of Israel as represented in the Bible.”

Reference: 1764.1

1775: Jews expelled from Warsaw, Poland

As Jews were generally not allowed to live permanently in Warsaw they had settled in the outlying areas including a settlement known as New Jerusalem. The local populace organized street attacks and their expulsion, taking over their property. Fifteen years later after the Jews had returned, they were once again attacked and expelled.

Reference: 1775.1

former country came under Russian rule, it was decided (in 1791) to permit permit to 1791) (in decided was it rule, Russian under came country former

the first partition of Poland in 1772, when masses of Jews living within the the within living Jews of masses when 1772, in Poland of partition first the

of the empire in which Jewish subjects would be required to reside. After After reside. to required be would subjects Jewish which in empire the of

authorized the creation of the Pale of Settlement, an area in the western part part western the in area an Settlement, of Pale the of creation the authorized

On December 23, 1791, Catherine II (“the Great”), the empress of Russia, Russia, of empress the Great”), (“the II Catherine 1791, 23, December On

December 23, 1791: Russian Pale of Settlement of Pale Russian 1791: 23, December

Reference: 1791.1 Reference:

new job opportunities and could move up the economic ladder. ladder. economic the up move could and opportunities job new

moving from the rural areas of France and into the big cities, where they had had they where cities, big the into and France of areas rural the from moving

allowed to pray in their own synagogues; and many Jews found themselves themselves found Jews many and synagogues; own their in pray to allowed

schools that were once delegated for just non-Jews; they were were they non-Jews; just for delegated once were that schools

law. Their new freedoms included: Jews were allowed to attend attend to allowed were Jews included: freedoms new Their law.

to give the country’s Jews full rights and equality under the the under equality and rights full Jews country’s the give to

On September 27, 1791, the French National Assembly voted voted Assembly National French the 1791, 27, September On

September 27, 1791: Emancipation of Jews: France Jews: of Emancipation 1791: 27, September

Reference: 1786.1 Reference:

expelled and not allowed to return. return. to allowed not and expelled

The small, mostly Yemenite Jewish community in Jedda was was Jedda in community Jewish Yemenite mostly small, The

) Muslims

Expulsion by by Expulsion ( Arabia Jedda, from expelled Jews 1786:

Reference: 1783.1 Reference:

within a number of years. years. of number a within

exorbitant ransom. This was the third time they were expelled expelled were they time third the was This ransom. exorbitant

The Sultan expelled the Jews after they failed to pay an an pay to failed they after Jews the expelled Sultan The

Expulsion by Muslims by Expulsion ( Morocco from expelled Jews 1783: )

339 1700–1799 Century: th 18 . 340. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History the presence of the Jews not only in their former regions of residence, but also in the new areas which had then been annexed from Turkey. In the second and third partitions of Poland (1794 and 1795 respectively), more areas were added. These territories were designated “the Pale of Settlement” by the Imperial Russian government, within which Jews were reluctantly permitted to live, with the exception of certain cities, and it was within them that the pogroms largely took place.

Most Jews were forbidden from moving to other parts of the Empire, unless they converted to the Russian Orthodox state religion. Jewish life in the shtetls (“little towns”) of the Pale of Settlement was hard and poverty-stricken. The concentration of Jews in the Pale, coupled with Tzar Alexander III’s “fierce hatred of the Jews” (1845-94), and the rumors that Jews had been involved in the assassination of his father Tzar Alexander II (1881) made them easy targets for pogroms and anti-Jewish riots by the majority population.

At its peak, the Pale was home to approximately five million Jews, estimated to be 40 percent of the world’s Jewish population at the time. The Pale of Settlement was official abolished on April 2, 1917, although by that time it had largely ceased to exist in practice.

Reference: 1791.2

September 2, 1796: Emancipation of Jews: Batavia

On September 2, 1796, the Batavian National Assembly declared that:

“it is impossible to deprive any Jew of the rights and privileges which are attached to Batavian citizenship, if he wishes to employ them, on condition that the Jew answers to all the requirements and fulfills all the obligations to which every citizen is bound.”

Reference: 1796.1

qr .

19th Century: 1800–1899

19th Century: Jewish expulsions

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of expulsions. Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities.

1843: Austria-Prussia border 1862: Tennessee, Mississippi, and Kentucky, United States 1891-92: Moscow, Russia

Reference: 1800.1

19th Century: Blood libel accusations

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of blood libel accusations. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below for details:

1801: Bucharest (128 Jews killed by soldiers and populace) 1803: Neamtz, Moldavia (four Jews imprisoned) 1811: Talowitza 1816: Piatra, Moldavia 1823: Velizh, Vitebsk (lasted twelve years) 1824: Bakau 1829: Boleslaw-on-the-Weichsel; Babowno 1834: Neuenhoven, near Düsseldorf 342. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1838: Ferrara 1839: Niezdow 1840: Near Aix-la-Chapelle; Trianda, Rhodes; Damascus (disappearance of Father Thomas; 13 Jews arrested and tortured; four died)* 1843: Marmora 1844: Stobikowka 1837-47: Fiorenzola, Buffeto, Monticelli, Cortemaggiore 1857: Saratov 1859: Galatz, Rumania 1861: Chavlian 1863: Smyrna 1867: Galatz (90 Jews injured; four synagogues destroyed); Calarash, Rumania 1877: Kutais, Transcaucasia 1882: Tisza-Eszlár (disappearance of Esther Solymosi) 1891: Corfu; Xanten; Nagy-Szokol 1892: Eisleben; Ingrandes, France; Bakau, Rumania 1893: Kolin, Bohemia; Holleschau; Prague 1894: Berent, Prussia 1898: Skaisgirren 1899: Polná, Bohemia*

Reference: 1800.2

19th Century: Host desecration accusations

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of host desecration accusations:

1836: Bislad, Rumania

Reference: 1800.3

1804, Russian Jews obtained the right to buy and rent land in in land rent and buy to right the obtained Jews Russian 1804,

Organization of the Jews”, drafted in 1802 and enacted in in enacted and 1802 in drafted Jews”, the of Organization

Under the enactment of the “Statute Concerning the the Concerning “Statute the of enactment the Under

1804: Russian enacts laws concerning Jews concerning laws enacts Russian 1804:

Reference: 1800.4 Reference:

Brazil Brazil 1890:

Bulgaria; Serbia Bulgaria; 1878:

Germany* 1871:

Sweden-Norway 1870:

Austria-Hungary 1867:

Italy 1861:

United Kingdom* United 1858:

Switzerland 1856:

Norway 1851:

Denmark 1849:

Ottoman Empire Ottoman 1839:

Netherlands 1834:

Canada 1832:

Jamaica 1831:

Belgium; Greece Belgium; 1830:

within society. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below for details: for below entry see asterisk*, an with marked those For society. within

to not only see themselves as members of a religious sect, but also as citizens citizens as also but sect, religious a of members as themselves see only not to

emancipation immersed the Jews into a new culture. In doing so, Jews were able able were Jews so, doing In culture. new a into Jews the immersed emancipation

“for the better” the “for Jews the “changing” of hopes the in . Ultimately, Ultimately, .

with a single act, at other times granting limited rights at first first at rights limited granting times other at act, single a with

list of nations granting emancipation for its Jews, sometimes sometimes Jews, its for emancipation granting nations of list

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a a is following the event, first the from order chronological In

Century: Emancipation of Jews of Emancipation Century: 19

th

343 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 344. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History all the western and southern provinces (this led to the foundation of the first Jewish Agricultural Colonies in Russia); to enter all the elementary and high schools and universities; to establish factories in all the provinces in which they were permitted to dwell; and to visit all other provinces of Russia on business, upon the condition that they and their families adopted the German style of dress, in order that they might not differ from the natives in outward appearance. They were promised all the rights of citizens as soon as they showed diligence and skill in agriculture and handicrafts. Czar Alexander I even offered the Jews land in the neighborhood of St. Petersburg and Moscow, provided they were willing to confine themselves to agricultural pursuits.

In the introduction to the Statute, Czar Alexander I wrote:

“After review of the regulation, We found the principle implemented by the Committee very just and all articles of the regulation reflected moderation and care about the genuine welfare of Jews, as well as being based on benefits to native residents of the Gubernias, where those people have permission to live.”

Excerpts from Section I - About Enlightenment:

“2. Jewish children, while attending school, cannot be diverted from their religion under any circumstances, cannot be forced to learn that which is adverse to their religion and even could contradict their religion.”

Excerpts from Section IV - On the civil rights of Jews:

“42. All Jews in Russia who dwell, are newly resettled, or have arrived from other countries for commercial matters, are free and live under the precise patronage of laws given on the level with all other Russian subjects.

43. Those Jews who are outstanding because of their knowledge or are important to the state will be awarded with merits and will be proportionally accredited and rewarded.

44. No one has the right to appropriate the property of Jews, utilize their labor, or bind them personally [as serfs]. No one can oppress, disturb them in observation of their faith and in general private life neither by word nor by matter. Their complaints about offences, whatever kind they were, will be accepted in Public Offices and will be prosecuted to the full extent of the laws established for all Russian subjects.

Reference: 1804.2 Reference:

endeavors often needed to convert to Christianity to achieve their goals. goals. their achieve to Christianity to convert to needed often endeavors

throughout Christian history, in which Jews who wanted to achieve success in in success achieve to wanted who Jews which in history, Christian throughout

Disraeli and Rothschild thus become examples of the widespread phenomena phenomena widespread the of examples become thus Rothschild and Disraeli

take his seat as the first Jewish MP. Jewish first the as seat his take

was passed in 1858, when the Christian oath was abolished, that he was able to to able was he that abolished, was oath Christian the when 1858, in passed was

faith as a Christian” on a Christian Bible. It was only when the Jews Relief Act Act Relief Jews the when only was It Bible. Christian a on Christian” a as faith

was denied his position as MP four times because he wouldn’t declare his “true “true his declare wouldn’t he because times four MP as position his denied was

the form it did. His political career contrasts with Lionel de Rothschild’s, who who Rothschild’s, de Lionel with contrasts career political His did. it form the

children baptised as Christians, Disraeli’s political career could never have taken taken have never could career political Disraeli’s Christians, as baptised children

see entry below, 1858 below, entry see ( Parliament ); except for his father’s decision to have his his have to decision father’s his for except );

Until the Jews Relief Act was passed in 1858, Jews were excluded from from excluded were Jews 1858, in passed was Act Relief Jews the Until

February-December 1868, and again from 1874-80. 1874-80. from again and 1868, February-December

was 13 and eligible for Bar Mitzvah). He served as Prime Minister twice: from from twice: Minister Prime as served He Mitzvah). Bar for eligible and 13 was

in 1817 to have his children baptized as Christians (ironically, when Disraeli Disraeli when (ironically, Christians as baptized children his have to 1817 in

1813, his father’s quarrel with the synagogue of Bevis Marks led to the decision decision the to led Marks Bevis of synagogue the with quarrel father’s his 1813,

Britain’s first Jewish Prime Minister. In fact, he was a practicing Anglican. In In Anglican. practicing a was he fact, In Minister. Prime Jewish first Britain’s

Benjamin Disraeli was born Jewish and is therefore sometimes considered considered sometimes therefore is and Jewish born was Disraeli Benjamin

1804–81: Benjamin Disraeli Benjamin 1804–81:

Reference: 1804.1 Reference:

collected for community needs].” needs].” community for collected

which supervised the payment of national taxes and handled the amounts amounts the handled and taxes national of payment the supervised which

rabbis; but in any town there must only be one kagal [a Jewish community community Jewish [a kagal one be only must there town any in but rabbis;

then it is possible [for] one of them to build its own synagogue and to select its its select to and synagogue own its build to them of one [for] possible is it then

which one group does not want to be in a synagogue with the other group, group, other the with synagogue a in be to want not does group one which

“53. If in any place there arises a separation of sects and a split occurs in in occurs split a and sects of separation a arises there place any in If “53.

Excerpts from Section V - The position of rabbis: of position The - V Section from Excerpts

violated.”

landowners, on the land of which they wish to live, must be preserved, not not preserved, be must live, to wish they which of land the on landowners,

45. The legal and permissible contracts, concluded between them and the the and them between concluded contracts, permissible and legal The 45.

345 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 346. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1806: Jewish conspiracy theory of Abbé Augustin Barruel

Augustin Barruel (1741-1820) was a French publicist and Jesuit priest. He is now mostly known for setting forth the conspiracy theory involving the Bavarian Illuminati and the Jacobins in his book “Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism”, published in 1797. This treatise blamed the French Revolution on a secret conspiracy operating through the Order of Freemasons.

In 1806, he circulated a forged letter, probably sent to him by members of the state police opposed to Napoleon Bonaparte’s liberal policy toward the Jews, calling attention to the alleged part of the Jews in the conspiracy he had earlier attributed to the Masons. This myth of an international Jewish conspiracy reappeared later on in 19th Century Europe in places such as Germany and Poland.

Reference: 1806.1

1806–07: Napoleon convenes the Grand Sanhedrin

On May 30, 1806, Napoleon passed a decree that enshrined the creation of an assembly of Jewish notables who would represent the Jewish community and be a consultative body with the aim of bringing Jews over to his policies. This decree was an attempt to bring Jews out of their isolation. With the Grand Sanhedrin of 1807, Judaism became an official religion, which tied Jews closely to the regime.

The Grand Sanhedrin was a Jewish high court convened in Europe by Napoleon I to consider 12 questions submitted to it by the government. Like the Sanhedrin of old, it was composed of 71 members — two-thirds of them rabbis and one-third laymen.

The 12 questions were:

1. Is it lawful for Jews to have more than one wife? 2. Is divorce allowed in the Jewish religion, and if it is, is it allowed even in contradiction to the codes of French law? 3. Does Jewish law permit a Jewess to marry a Christian man, or a Jew to marry a Christian woman, or may they marry only other Jews?

as his fatherland, and shall love and defend it when called upon; called when it defend and love shall and fatherland, his as

6. That the Israelite is required to consider the land of his birth or adoption adoption or birth his of land the consider to required is Israelite the That

they were coreligionists; were they

fellow citizens as brothers, and to aid, protect, and love them as though though as them love and protect, aid, to and brothers, as citizens fellow

5. That every Israelite is religiously bound to consider his non-Jewish non-Jewish his consider to bound religiously is Israelite every That

binding, although they cannot be celebrated with religious forms; religious with celebrated be cannot they although binding,

4. That marriages contracted between Israelites and Christians are are Christians and Israelites between contracted marriages That

3. That the religious act of marriage must be preceded by a civil contract; contract; civil a by preceded be must marriage of act religious the That

the civil authorities; civil the

2. That divorce by the Jewish law is valid only after previous decision of of decision previous after only valid is law Jewish the by divorce That

is forbidden to the Israelites; the to forbidden is

1. That, in conformity with the decree of R. Gershom ben Judah, polygamy polygamy Judah, ben Gershom R. of decree the with conformity in That,

French and Hebrew, were as follows: as were Hebrew, and French

The decisions of the Sanhedrin, formulated in nine articles and drawn up in in up drawn and articles nine in formulated Sanhedrin, the of decisions The

12. Does Jewish law prohibit Jews from taking usury from non-Jews? from usury taking from Jews prohibit law Jewish Does

11. Does Jewish law prohibit Jews from taking usury from other Jews? other from usury taking from Jews prohibit law Jewish Does

10. Are there professions from which Jews are excluded by Jewish law? Jewish by excluded are Jews which from professions there Are

Jews?

laws of the Jewish religion or is it merely a custom existing among among existing custom a merely it is or religion Jewish the of laws

9. If there is rabbinical jurisdiction over the Jews, is it regulated by the the by regulated it is Jews, the over jurisdiction rabbinical is there If

8. What kind of judicial power do rabbis exercise over the Jews? the over exercise rabbis do power judicial of kind What

7. Who elects rabbis? elects Who

civil and court authorities of France? of authorities court and civil

they bound to defend it, to follow its laws, to follow the directions of the the of directions the follow to laws, its follow to it, defend to bound they

by the laws of France, truly acknowledge France as their country? Are Are country? their as France acknowledge truly France, of laws the by

6. Do the Jews who are born in France, and have been granted citizenship citizenship granted been have and France, in born are who Jews the Do

Frenchmen?

5. What type of conduct does Jewish law prescribe toward non-Jewish non-Jewish toward prescribe law Jewish does conduct of type What

their brethren or strangers? or brethren their

4. In the eyes of Jews, are Frenchmen who are not Jewish, considered to be be to considered Jewish, not are who Frenchmen are Jews, of eyes the In

347 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 348. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

7. That Judaism does not forbid any kind of handicraft or occupation; 8. That it is commendable for Israelites to engage in agriculture, manual labor, and the arts, as their ancestors in Israel were wont to do;

9. That, finally, Israelites are forbidden to exact usury from Jew or Christian.

These resolutions formed the basis of all subsequent laws and regulations of the French government in regard to the religious affairs of the Jews, although Napoleon, in spite of the declarations, issued a decree on March 17, 1808, restricting the Jews’ legal rights (see entry below). The Sanhedrin never convened again.

Reference: 1806.2

March 17, 1808: Napoleon issues Décret Infâme, the “Infamous Decree”

In 1791 France became the second country in the world to emancipate its Jewish population (see entry above, 1791), and Napoleon Bonaparte (1769- 1821) initially won the allegiance of Jews when in 1797 he emancipated Jews in Ancona, Italy. In 1798 he gave permission to the Jews in Malta to build a synagogue. In countries he conquered during the Napoleonic Wars (1803-15) he emancipated the Jews, abolished laws restricting Jews to reside in ghettos, as well as lifted laws that limited Jews’ rights to property, worship, and certain occupations. In 1807, he designated Judaism as one of the official religions of France.

On March 17, 1808 he issued three decrees intended to normalise the status of France’s Jews, and accelerate their assimilation into French society. The first two were largely administrative in nature, and pertained to the hierarchy that was to be established for control of France’s Jewish communities.

But the third became known as the “Infamous Decree”, which declared all debts with Jews to be annulled, reduced or postponed, imposing a 10-year ban on any kind of Jewish money-lending activity; required Jews to serve in the military; placed heavy restrictions on the Jews’ ability to migrate; prevented the Jews from relocating to the regions of Alsace and required that Jews wishing to move to other regions of France own or purchase land to farm.

In order to even engage in money-lending activity, the decree required Jews to apply for an annual license, granted only with the recommendation of the Jews’

have already been granted to them by the single states of the Federation.” the of states single the by them to granted been already have

members of this religion will have safeguarded for them the rights which which rights the them for safeguarded have will religion this of members

acceptance of all civic duties in the states of the Federation; until then, the the then, until Federation; the of states the in duties civic all of acceptance

insure for them the possibility of enjoying civic rights in return for the the for return in rights civic enjoying of possibility the them for insure

generally agreed a form as possible, in particular as to how to grant and and grant to how to as particular in possible, as form a agreed generally

improvement of the members of the Jewish religion in Germany in as as in Germany in religion Jewish the of members the of improvement

“The Assembly of the Federation will deliberate how to achieve the civic civic the achieve to how deliberate will Federation the of Assembly “The

resolved:

On June 10, paragraph 16 of the constitution of the German Federation was was Federation German the of constitution the of 16 paragraph 10, June On

proposals by Austria and Prussia. Prussia. and Austria by proposals

In May 1815, the opposition to Jewish civic equality grew, despite favorable favorable despite grew, equality civic Jewish to opposition the 1815, May In

the Jews of the other German states. states. German other the of Jews the

to the Congress to seek confirmation of their rights, as well as emancipation for for emancipation as well as rights, their of confirmation seek to Congress the to

previously attained equal civil rights under French rule, who then sent delegates delegates sent then who rule, French under rights civil equal attained previously

of German states. The Jews of Frankfurt, Hamburg, Luebeck, and Bremen had had Bremen and Luebeck, Hamburg, Frankfurt, of Jews The states. German of

Jewish question arose in connection with the constitution of a new federation federation new a of constitution the with connection in arose question Jewish

reestablish peace and order in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars (1803-15). The The (1803-15). Wars Napoleonic the after Europe in order and peace reestablish

The Congress of Vienna was held from September 1814 to June 1815 to to 1815 June to 1814 September from held was Vienna of Congress The

Germany

September 1814 – June 1815: Congress of Vienna: Jewish rights restricted in in restricted rights Jewish Vienna: of Congress 1815: June – 1814 September

Reference: 1808.1 Reference:

opted not to renew them. them. renew to not opted

The three decrees were set up to expire after 10 years, and in 1818 Louis XVIII XVIII Louis 1818 in and years, 10 after expire to up set were decrees three The

cities or names in the Hebrew Bible. Hebrew the in names or cities

“Joseph son of Benjamin”.) They were also prevented from selecting names of of names selecting from prevented also were They Benjamin”.) of son “Joseph

people more fully into French society. (Previously, Jews were often referred to as as to referred often were Jews (Previously, society. French into fully more people

names with which they would be addressed in an attempt to integrate the Jewish Jewish the integrate to attempt an in addressed be would they which with names

The last component of the Infamous Decree required Jews to adopt formal formal adopt to Jews required Decree Infamous the of component last The

the explicit consent of their superiors. superiors. their of consent explicit the

wife — were unable to engage in any kind of money-lending activity without without activity money-lending of kind any in engage to unable were — wife

who were in subservient positions - such as a Jewish servant, military officer, or or officer, military servant, Jewish a as such - positions subservient in were who

financial loss that the Jewish community nearly collapsed. Jewish individuals individuals Jewish collapsed. nearly community Jewish the that loss financial

local consistory and with the surety of the Jews’ honesty. This caused so much much so caused This honesty. Jews’ the of surety the with and consistory local

349 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 350. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

This formulation postponed Jewish equality to the far distant future, while by changing one word in the final draft to “by”, instead of “in the states”, eviscerated, through the change of one word, the rights granted under French dominion. The Congress, therefore, did nothing to better the status of the Jews but, in effect, only worsened their position in many places.

Reference: 1814.1

1819: Hep! Hep! riots in Bavaria, Germany

The name “Hep! Hep!” came from the perpetrators’ derogatory rallying cry. The riots began in Würzburg, swept through Bavaria and other parts of Germany, and eventually to Denmark and Poland. Many Jews were killed, and Jewish property destroyed. Initially pleas for the emancipation of the Jews caused the riots, but the rise of nationalism, and commercial and social competition, exacerbated the problem. While the German government protected the Jews on one hand, they also explained, somewhat cynically, that further rights could not be granted to Jews because they would provoke more riots. There were further Hep! Hep! pogroms over the years, but the movement died out in the 1830s.

Reference: 1819.1

1821: Heinrich Heine writes play “Almansor”

In the play, Hassan, a Muslim, when he heard that the Christian conquerors had burned the scriptures of the Quran at the marketplace of Granada, says:

“Das war ein Vorspiel nur, dort wo man Bücher verbrennt, verbrennt man auch am Ende Menschen”, which means

“That was but a prelude; where they burn books, they will ultimately burn people as well.”

Among the thousands of books burned on Berlin’s Opernplatz in 1933, were works by Heinrich Heine. To commemorate the terrible event, those words were engraved in the ground at the site.

Reference: 1821.1

Reference: 1826.1 Reference:

). ). 1481 above, entry main see ( alive burnt was Jew one which

to occur in Spain occurred in Valencia, in in Valencia, in occurred Spain in occur to auto-da-fé last The

1 deaths: / affected People

auto-da-fé Last 1826: in Spain in

Reference: 1821.3 Reference:

still under Turkish rule, such as Salonika. Salonika. as such rule, Turkish under still

and Corfu, among others) prompted Jews to flee or emigrate abroad or to areas areas to or abroad emigrate or flee to Jews prompted others) among Corfu, and

to Corfu. Anti-Jewish riots, disturbances, and blood libels (in Rhodes, Thessaly, Thessaly, Rhodes, (in libels blood and disturbances, riots, Anti-Jewish Corfu. to

the massacre of the Peloponnesus, 5,000 Jews lost their lives; the remainder fled fled remainder the lives; their lost Jews 5,000 Peloponnesus, the of massacre the

Jews were murdered after various accusations had been leveled against them. In In them. against leveled been had accusations various after murdered were Jews

the Ottoman Turks. In those towns where the rebels gained the upper hand, the the hand, upper the gained rebels the where towns those In Turks. Ottoman the

In the Greek War of Independence, thousands of Jews were massacred alongside alongside massacred were Jews of thousands Independence, of War Greek the In

5,000 deaths: / affected People

1821–29: Greek War of Independence of War Greek 1821–29:

Reference: 1821.2 Reference:

14 Jews were killed. killed. were Jews 14

his dead body through the streets and finally throwing it into the Bosphorus. Bosphorus. the into it throwing finally and streets the through body dead his

the Turks in killing the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople, Gregory V, dragging dragging V, Gregory Constantinople, of Patriarch Greek the killing in Turks the

Jews were accused of sympathizing with the Ottoman authorities and of aiding aiding of and authorities Ottoman the with sympathizing of accused were Jews

see entry below, 1821-29 below, entry see ( Independence for War Greek the of ), during which the the which during ),

the first such incident to be labeled as a pogrom. It was linked to the outbreak outbreak the to linked was It pogrom. a as labeled be to incident such first the

This pogrom in Odessa, perpetrated by ethnic Greeks rather than Russians, is is Russians, than rather Greeks ethnic by perpetrated Odessa, in pogrom This

14 deaths: / affected People

1821: Pogrom in Odessa, Russia Odessa, in Pogrom 1821:

351 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 352. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

August 26, 1827: Jews in the Russian military

People affected / deaths from 1827–1917: c. 1.5 million

On August 26, 1827, Nicholas I issued his Ustav rekrutskoi povinnosti (“Statute on Conscription Duty”). This statute made it mandatory for all Russian males aged from 12-25 to serve in the Russian armed forces for 25 years, and was the first time that the Jewish population was required to serve in the Russian military. The reasoning behind Nicholas’ mandatory conscription was because in the military they would learn not only Russian but also useful skills and crafts, and eventually they would become his loyal subjects.

Many Jewish families began to emigrate out of the Russian Empire in order to escape the conscription obligations. Subsequently, the government began to employ khappers who would kidnap Jewish children and turn them over to the government to fulfill the conscription quotas imposed on the Jewish communities from 1827 to 1857 in the Russian Empire. Unfortunately, it became known that the khappers were not scrupulous about adhering to the minimum age of 12 and frequently impressed children as young as 8.

By 1880, Russian Jews were fully integrated into the Russian military. By the time the Russian Empire collapsed in 1917, around 1.5 million Jewish soldiers fulfilled what was often seen as a highly burdensome and intrusive obligation.

Reference: 1827.1

1834: Heinrich Heine publishes “The History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany”

99 years before Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party seized power in Germany in 1933, Heine wrote in his work “The History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany”:

“Christianity — and that is its greatest merit — has somewhat mitigated that brutal Germanic love of war, but it could not destroy it. Should that subduing talisman, the cross, be shattered, the frenzied madness of the ancient warriors, that insane Berserk rage of which Nordic bards have spoken and sung so often, will once more burst into flame. This talisman is fragile, and the day will come when it will collapse miserably. Then the

the same personage would be discovered to be the heir at law of the exalted exalted the of law at heir the be to discovered be would personage same the

Mr. Disraeli’s family herald were to be examined and his genealogy traced, traced, genealogy his and examined be to were herald family Disraeli’s Mr.

the qualities of the impenitent thief on the Cross, and I verily believe, if if believe, verily I and Cross, the on thief impenitent the of qualities the

turpitude; and of those I look upon Mr. Disraeli as the worst. He has just just has He worst. the as Disraeli Mr. upon look I those of and turpitude;

every other people, some of the lowest and most disgusting grade of moral moral of grade disgusting most and lowest the of some people, other every

term of reproach; there are many most respectable Jews. But there are, as in in as are, there But Jews. respectable most many are there reproach; of term

the change. His name shows that he is of Jewish origin. I do not use it as a a as it use not do I origin. Jewish of is he that shows name His change. the

selfishness, depravity, want of principle, etc., which would qualify him for for him qualify would which etc., principle, of want depravity, selfishness,

become a Conservative. He possesses all the necessary requisites of perfidy, perfidy, of requisites necessary the all possesses He Conservative. a become

“a reptile ... just fit now, after being twice discarded by the people, to to people, the by discarded twice being after now, fit just ... reptile “a

attack, referring to Disraeli as: as: Disraeli to referring attack,

slandered him while electioneering at Taunton, and launched an outspoken outspoken an launched and Taunton, at electioneering while him slandered

Benjamin Disraeli. Misled by inaccurate press reports, he thought Disraeli had had Disraeli thought he reports, press inaccurate by Misled Disraeli. Benjamin

In 1835 he fought a by-election at Taunton as a Tory candidate against against candidate Tory a as Taunton at by-election a fought he 1835 In

the Acts of Union which combined Great Britain and Ireland. Ireland. and Britain Great combined which Union of Acts the

to sit in the Westminster Parliament, denied for over 100 years—and repeal of of repeal years—and 100 over for denied Parliament, Westminster the in sit to

He campaigned for Catholic emancipation—including the right for Catholics Catholics for right the emancipation—including Catholic for campaigned He

Emancipator, was an Irish political leader in the first half of the 19 the of half first the in leader political Irish an was Emancipator, Century. Century. th

Daniel O’Connell (1775–1847), often referred to as The Liberator or The The or Liberator The as to referred often (1775–1847), O’Connell Daniel

April 1835: Daniel O’Connell, Irish MP Irish O’Connell, Daniel 1835: April

Reference: 1834.1 Reference:

which will make the French Revolution look like an innocent idyll.” idyll.” innocent an like look Revolution French the make will which

of Africa will hide in their royal dens. A play will be performed in Germany Germany in performed be will play A dens. royal their in hide will Africa of

uproar the eagles of the air will drop dead, and lions in the remotest deserts deserts remotest the in lions and dead, drop will air the of eagles the uproar

then you know that the German thunderbolt has fallen at last. At that that At last. at fallen has thunderbolt German the that know you then

hear a crashing such as never before has been heard in the world’s history, history, world’s the in heard been has before never as such crashing a hear

very nimble, but rumbles along ponderously. Yet, it will come and when you you when and come will it Yet, ponderously. along rumbles but nimble, very

precedes thunder. German thunder is of true Germanic character; it is not not is it character; Germanic true of is thunder German thunder. precedes

as has taken place in the spiritual. Thought precedes action as lightning lightning as action precedes Thought spiritual. the in place taken has as

the visionary who anticipates the same revolution in the realm of the visible visible the of realm the in revolution same the anticipates who visionary the

against Kantians, Fichteans, and philosophers of nature. Do not smile at at smile not Do nature. of philosophers and Fichteans, Kantians, against

Do not smile at my advice — the advice of a dreamer who warns you you warns who dreamer a of advice the — advice my at smile not Do

will jump up and smash the Gothic cathedrals... Gothic the smash and up jump will

thousand years from their eyes, and finally Thor with his giant hammer hammer giant his with Thor finally and eyes, their from years thousand

ancient stony gods will rise from the forgotten debris and rub the dust of a a of dust the rub and debris forgotten the from rise will gods stony ancient

353 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 354. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

individual to whom I allude. I forgive Mr. Disraeli now, and as the lineal descendant of the blasphemous robber, who ended his career beside the Founder of the Christian Faith, I leave the gentleman to the enjoyment of his infamous distinction and family honours.”

Reference: 1835.1

1840: The Damascus Affair

The Damascus Affair refers to the arrest of 13 notable members of the Jewish community of Damascus who were accused of murdering a Christian monk for ritual purposes. The antisemitic blood libel resulted in the accused being imprisoned and tortured by the Ottoman authorities and the populace attacking and pillaging a local synagogue. The affair drew widespread international attention which resulted in negotiations conducted in Alexandria from August 4-28. The aftermath secured the unconditional release and recognition of innocence for the nine prisoners remaining alive and the issuing of a firman (edict) intended to halt the spread of blood libel accusations in the Ottoman Empire.

A letter of protest, signed by 58 prominent Jewish converts to Christianity, was published. The first signatory on the letter was Bishop Michael Alexander, the first Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem. The letter reads: “We, the undersigned, by nation Jews, and having lived to years of maturity in the faith and practise of modern Judaism, but now, by the grace of God, members of the Church of Christ, do solemnly protest that we have never directly nor indirectly heard, much less known, among the Jews, of the practice of killing Christians or using Christian blood, and that we believe this charge, so often brought against them formerly, and now lately revived, to be a foul and Satanic falsehood”.

Reference: 1840.1

1843: Jews expelled from Austria-Prussia border

Nicholas I ordered the expulsion of the Jews from a strip of 50 versts (about 33 miles) in width extending along the border with Prussia and Austria.

Reference: 1843.1

Reference: 1843.2 Reference:

real Judaism, would be the self-emancipation of our time.” time.” our of self-emancipation the be would Judaism, real

Emancipation from huckstering and money, consequently from practical, practical, from consequently money, and huckstering from Emancipation

the Jew? Huckstering. What is his worldly God? Money. Very well then! then! well Very Money. God? worldly his is What Huckstering. Jew? the

of Judaism? Practical need, self-interest. What is the worldly religion of of religion worldly the is What self-interest. need, Practical Judaism? of

human beings than those to whom you appeal... What is the secular basis basis secular the is What appeal... you whom to those than beings human

Germany, there are no citizens. As human beings? But you are no more more no are you But beings? human As citizens. no are there Germany,

your religion? It is the mortal enemy of the state religion. As citizens? In In citizens? As religion. state the of enemy mortal the is It religion? your

“On what grounds, then, do you Jews want emancipation? On account of of account On emancipation? want Jews you do then, grounds, what “On

revealing his antisemitic prejudices: prejudices: antisemitic his revealing

But his essay portrays Jews through common negative stereotypes and language, language, and stereotypes negative common through Jews portrays essay his But

and religion in general, in order to clear the way for human emancipation. emancipation. human for way the clear to order in general, in religion and

away with the rights of man, including strict individualism, private property, property, private individualism, strict including man, of rights the with away

, which he meant as a metaphor for doing doing for metaphor a as meant he which , Judaism” from society of emancipation

“The social emancipation of the Jew is the the is Jew the of emancipation social “The with essay his concluding Bauer, than

In the final analysis, Marx addressed the Jewish question in a very different way way different very a in question Jewish the addressed Marx analysis, final the In

“the critic should ask… what kind of emancipation is involved?” is emancipation of kind what ask… should critic “the

answer Bauer gives that Marx responds. For Marx: For responds. Marx that gives Bauer answer

general. It is against this formulation of the question of emancipation and the the and emancipation of question the of formulation this against is It general.

men in general can only be emancipated as citizens if they renounce religion in in religion renounce they if citizens as emancipated be only can general in men

To this question Bauer suggests that Jews should renounce Judaism and that that and Judaism renounce should Jews that suggests Bauer question this To

of the Christian state which is to emancipate him?” him?” emancipate to is which state Christian the of

“What… is the nature of the Jew who is to be emancipated, and the nature nature the and emancipated, be to is who Jew the of nature the is “What…

asking: by emancipation Jewish of question

which addressed the emancipation of Jews in Germany. Bauer formulated the the formulated Bauer Germany. in Jews of emancipation the addressed which

was a response to an essay by Bruno Bauer called “The Jewish Question” (1843), (1843), Question” Jewish “The called Bauer Bruno by essay an to response a was

“On the Jewish Question”, written in 1843 and first published in Paris in 1844, 1844, in Paris in published first and 1843 in written Question”, Jewish the “On

descent, with both his maternal and paternal grandfathers having been rabbis. rabbis. been having grandfathers paternal and maternal his both with descent,

Karl Marx (1818-83), baptised into the Lutheran Church, was of Jewish Jewish of was Church, Lutheran the into baptised (1818-83), Marx Karl

1843–44: Karl Marx publishes essay: “On the Jewish Question” Jewish the “On essay: publishes Marx Karl 1843–44:

355 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 356. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1845: Alphonse Toussenel

Alphonse Toussenel (1803-85) was a French naturalist, writer and journalist. He was also antisemitic, and in 1845 wrote a 2-volume work “The Jews, Kings of the Epoch: History of Financial Feudalism”, which argued that French finance and commerce was controlled by an ‘alien’ Jewish presence, typified in the malign influence of the ‘Rothschild railroad’. He portrayed the Jews as a people long divorced from the land, who had lost a feeling for nature, who had little love for or even interest in natural beauty, and that while Jews got richer and more powerful, France and French people were being ruined:

“As do the people, I call by the despised name of Jew every dealer in money, every unproductive parasite living off the work of someone else. Jew, usurer, money-dealer—all are synonymous for me. Many people have reproached me for having given the name of a still living people to an infamous profession. I reply that it is not up to a writer, to attack the value of an expression that has been consecrated by use, and that in my national language I have not been able to find a better name than Jew to designate those whom I wish to stigmatize.”

Reference: 1845.1

1846–78: Papacy of Pope Pius IX

Pope Pius IX was the longest reigning elected Pope in the history of the Catholic Church, serving over 31 years. He promulgated the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, articulating the long-held Catholic belief that Mary was conceived without original sin. His 1864 Syllabus of Errors condemned liberalism, modernism, moral relativism, secularization, and separation of church and state, in effect definitively restating Catholic teaching regarding state recognition of the Catholic faith as the state religion as imperative in nations where the majority of the population is Catholic. His most important legacy however, was the First Vatican Council, 1869, which defined the doctrine of Papal Infallibility. Pius IX was also the last Pope to rule as the Sovereign of the Papal States, which fell completely to Italian nationalist armies by 1870 and were incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy.

The relations between Pope Pius IX and Judaism were off to a good start at the beginning of his papacy, but relations later soured after anti-clerical revolutions removed most of the pontiff ’s temporal power and he stiffened into intolerance. While Pius rejected charges of antisemitism, the rift created by the Mortara

Reference: 1848.1 Reference:

Papal Infallibility would be formally approved under his reign. reign. his under approved formally be would Infallibility Papal

the ghettos, this time with violent regulation. In just over 20 years the decree of of decree the years 20 over just In regulation. violent with time this ghettos, the

he excommunicated the Italian nationalists and Jews were imprisoned back in in back imprisoned were Jews and nationalists Italian the excommunicated he

towards relaxing restrictions on Jews were quashed. When he returned to power power to returned he When quashed. were Jews on restrictions relaxing towards

was traumatized by his exile, and any internal leanings he may once have had had have once may he leanings internal any and exile, his by traumatized was

Jews were elected as part of the new revolutionary government. Pope Pius IX IX Pius Pope government. revolutionary new the of part as elected were Jews

to leave the city and exiled. While Jews did not instigate the revolution, a few few a revolution, the instigate not did Jews While exiled. and city the leave to

that opposed the domination of the Catholic Church. Pope Pius IX was forced forced was IX Pius Pope Church. Catholic the of domination the opposed that

On Passover night Jews were freed from the ghetto by a revolutionary force force revolutionary a by ghetto the from freed were Jews night Passover On

1848–50: Jewish Ghetto in Rome freed briefly freed Rome in Ghetto Jewish 1848–50:

Reference: 1847.1 Reference:

Christianity are to be reconciled, and the Church reborn as a progressive force. force. progressive a as reborn Church the and reconciled, be to are Christianity

three volumes, which poses the question of how Judaism and and Judaism how of question the poses which volumes, three

duality can be seen in his novel Tancred, first published in in published first Tancred, novel his in seen be can duality

Disraeli was born Jewish, but was a practising Anglican. This This Anglican. practising a was but Jewish, born was Disraeli

about Jews returning Jews about

1847: Benjamin Disraeli writes Tancred, the New Crusade Crusade New the Tancred, writes Disraeli Benjamin 1847:

Reference: 1846.1 Reference:

virtue.” his for

that he has made, but rather points him out for imitation and for veneration veneration for and imitation for out him points rather but made, has he that

“Beatifying a son of the church does not celebrate particular historic choices choices historic particular celebrate not does church the of son a “Beatifying

Paul II beatified Pius IX, the last step before sainthood, explaining: explaining: sainthood, before step last the IX, Pius beatified II Paul

in Europe until the Nazi era restored the church’s practice. In 2000, Pope John John Pope 2000, In practice. church’s the restored era Nazi the until Europe in

Rome’s ghetto, where he confined all Jews under Papal control - the last ghetto ghetto last the - control Papal under Jews all confined he where ghetto, Rome’s

previous restrictions against the Jews within the Vatican state, and re-instituted re-instituted and state, Vatican the within Jews the against restrictions previous

his relations over time went from good to worse. In 1850 he restored all the the all restored he 1850 In worse. to good from went time over relations his

to practise certain professions, and opened the papal charities to their needy, needy, their to charities papal the opened and professions, certain practise to

services and sermons aimed at their conversion, repealed laws that forbade Jews Jews forbade that laws repealed conversion, their at aimed sermons and services

So while he initially abolished requirements for Jews to attend Christian Christian attend to Jews for requirements abolished initially he while So

his long pontificate. pontificate. long his

) undermined his moral authority throughout most of of most throughout authority moral his undermined ) 1858 below, entry see ( case

357 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 358. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1848–58: Jews Relief Act, England

The wikipedia entry [November 2018] is worth quoting verbatim, with additional notes for clarity:

The Jews Relief Act 1858, also called the Jewish Disabilities Bill, is an Act of Parliament which removed previous barriers to Jews entering Parliament.

Following the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 there had been an unsuccessful attempt in 1830 to also allow Jews to sit in Parliament. The 1858 measure was the result of a long process which began with a bill introduced by the Whig leader Lord John Russell following the election of Lionel de Rothschild to the City of London constituency in 1847. Rothschild could not take the seat without taking the Christian oath. The bill was supported by the future Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli but not by his party. Disraeli was born Jewish, but was a practising Anglican.

In 1848, the bill was approved by the House of Commons but was twice rejected by the House of Lords, as was a new bill in 1851. In the 1852 general election, Rothschild was again elected but the next year the bill was again defeated in the upper house. Finally, in 1858, the House of Lords agreed to a proposal to allow each house to decide its own oath.

The bill allowed “any Person professing the Jewish Religion, [to] omit the Words ‘and I make this Declaration upon the true Faith of a Christian’” in their oaths, but explicitly did not extend to allowing Jews to various high offices, and also stated that:

“it shall not be lawful for any Person professing the Jewish Religion, directly or indirectly, to advise Her Majesty ... touching or concerning ... any office or preferment in the Church of England or in the Church of Scotland.”

Amendments in 1871, 1922, 1973, 1980 and 1986 removed all restrictions on Jews holding office except that they may not advise certain government officials on matters related to appointments in the Church of England or the Church of Scotland.

Reference: 1848.2

Reference: 1853.1 Reference:

German schools under the Third Reich. Reich. Third the under schools German

to make it conform to their views, extracts of which were mandatory reading in in reading mandatory were which of extracts views, their to conform it make to

when Hitler and Nazism borrowed his ideology, they edited his work extensively extensively work his edited they ideology, his borrowed Nazism and Hitler when

world as it had merchants,” merchants,” had it as world

the name of an independent nation, had given as many learned men to the the to men learned many as given had nation, independent an of name the

strong, and intelligent people, and one which, before it lost, sword in hand, hand, in sword lost, it before which, one and people, intelligent and strong,

“Jews... became a people that succeeded in everything it undertook, a free, free, a undertook, it everything in succeeded that people a became “Jews...

positive terms: terms: positive

But even though the text implicity criticises antisemitism and describes Jews in in Jews describes and antisemitism criticises implicity text the though even But

of the text that makes us regard the patriarch Ham as black.” as Ham patriarch the regard us makes that text the of

word is said about the yellow races, and it is only an arbitrary interpretation interpretation arbitrary an only is it and races, yellow the about said is word

those outside the white race were counted as part of the species at all. Not a a Not all. at species the of part as counted were race white the outside those

to show that, in the view of the first compilers of the Adamite genealogies, genealogies, Adamite the of compilers first the of view the in that, show to

deriving from him are certainly white. This being admitted, there is nothing nothing is there admitted, being This white. certainly are him from deriving

The scriptures are evidently meant to be so understood, for the generations generations the for understood, so be to meant evidently are scriptures The

“We must, of course, acknowledge that Adam is the ancestor of the white race. race. white the of ancestor the is Adam that acknowledge course, of must, “We

be one of the earliest examples of scientific racism: scientific of examples earliest the of one be

traits because of less interbreeding with inferior races. It is today considered to to considered today is It races. inferior with interbreeding less of because traits

aristocrats were superior to commoners for they possessed more Aryan genetic genetic Aryan more possessed they for commoners to superior were aristocrats

decline and fall when the races are mixed, that the white race is superior, and that that and superior, is race white the that mixed, are races the when fall and decline

which argues that there are differences between human races, that civilizations civilizations that races, human between differences are there that argues which

infamous 1,400 page book “Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races”, Races”, Human the of Inequality the on “Essay book page 1,400 infamous

developing the theory of the Aryan master race. In 1853–1855 he wrote an an wrote he 1853–1855 In race. master Aryan the of theory the developing

racism by use of scientific racist theory and “racial demography”, and for his his for and demography”, “racial and theory racist scientific of use by racism

travel writer, and aristocrat, who is best known today for helping to legitimise legitimise to helping for today known best is who aristocrat, and writer, travel

Joseph Arthur, Comte de Gobineau (1816-82) was a French novelist, diplomat, diplomat, novelist, French a was (1816-82) Gobineau de Comte Arthur, Joseph

1853–55: Arthur de Gobineau de Arthur 1853–55:

Reference: 1850.1 Reference:

). ). 1481 above,

occurs in Mexico ( Mexico in occurs auto-da-fé recorded last The see main entry entry main see

auto-da-fé Last 1850:

359 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 360. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1858: The Mortara case

The Mortara case was an Italian cause célèbre that captivated much of Europe and North America in the 1850s and 1860s. It concerned the Papal States’ seizure from a Jewish family in Bologna of one of their children, 6-year-old Edgardo Mortara (August 27, 1851 - March 11, 1940), on the basis of a former teenage servant girl’s testimony that she had administered emergency baptism to the boy when he fell sick as an infant (fearing he would die), despite the parents’ assertion that he had never been seriously ill.

Mortara grew up as a Catholic under the protection of Pope Pius IX - who refused his parents’ desperate pleas for his return - and eventually became a priest and died in a Belgian monastery. The domestic and international outrage against the pontifical state’s actions may have contributed to its downfall amid the unification of Italy in 1871. The Vatican never apologised for the kidnapping.

The controversy came back to the public’s attention after Pius’ beatification in 2000, despite objections from Italian Jews and the Mortara family. The controversy was reignited in January 2018 with an essay defending the kidnapping, written by Father Cessario, a Dominican priest and theologian.

Complicating matters further was Edgardo’s memoirs, which were published in English for the first time in 2017. Originally written by him in Spanish in 1888, it was translated into Italian by Vittorio Messori (1941- ), Italy’s foremost conservative Catholic journalist, and from there into English. But these two translations have been “doctored”, with numerous changes to the original, including the addition and deletion of entire paragraphs, so as to justify Pius’ actions and present the Church in a more positive light.

Stephen Spielberg is making a movie about it, “due for release sometime during the 2019 awards season” (Tablet Magazine). As to the delay in making the movie, Spielberg said: “I had my crew in Italy and was starting to build sets and had scouted all the locations and I was unable to find this boy upon whose shoulders this entire story rests. Mark Rylance was cast as the Pope [Pius IX] and Oscar Isaac was cast as the father, and I’d spent almost 10 months looking for this six-year-old kid. It’s much easier to find a 10-year-old child than a six- year-old child to carry an entire movie. I was looking at over 3,000 young applicants for the role.”

Reference: 1858.1

Reference: 1862.1 Reference:

President Abraham Lincoln revoked the General Order on January 4, 1863. 1863. 4, January on Order General the revoked Lincoln Abraham President

Jewish community leaders and an outcry by members of Congress and the press, press, the and Congress of members by outcry an and leaders community Jewish

“mostly by Jews and other unprincipled traders”. traders”. unprincipled other and Jews by “mostly run being Following protests from from protests Following

campaign against a black market in Southern cotton, which Grant thought was was thought Grant which cotton, Southern in market black a against campaign

Tennessee, Mississippi, and Kentucky. The order was issued as part of a Union Union a of part as issued was order The Kentucky. and Mississippi, Tennessee,

ordered the expulsion of all Jews in his military district, comprising areas of of areas comprising district, military his in Jews all of expulsion the ordered

on December 17, 1862, during the American Civil War. It It War. Civil American the during 1862, 17, December on

Major-General Ulysses S. Grant (future US President) President) US (future Grant S. Ulysses Major-General

General Order No. 11 was the title of an order issued by by issued order an of title the was 11 No. Order General

Mississippi, and Kentucky and Mississippi,

December 17, 1862: Jews expelled from Tennessee, Tennessee, from expelled Jews 1862: 17, December

Reference: 1858.2 Reference:

general election in 1874. 1874. in election general

returned unopposed in a by-election in 1869 but defeated a second time in the the in time second a defeated but 1869 in by-election a in unopposed returned

re-elected in general elections in 1859 and 1865, but defeated in 1868; he was was he 1868; in defeated but 1865, and 1859 in elections general in re-elected

Testament, and took his seat as the first Jewish member of Parliament. He was was He Parliament. of member Jewish first the as seat his took and Testament,

for the ordinary form of oath, declared his oath on the Old Old the on oath his declared oath, of form ordinary the for Jehovah” me, help

On July 26, 1858, Rothschild took the oath with covered head, substituting substituting head, covered with oath the took Rothschild 1858, 26, July On “so “so

each house to decide its own oath. oath. own its decide to house each

). Finally, in 1858, the House of Lords agreed to a proposal to allow allow to proposal a to agreed Lords of House the 1858, in Finally, ). above 58

see Jews Relief Act, 1848- Act, Relief Jews see ( Bible Christian a on Christian” a as

seat in Parliament, because he wouldn’t declare his his declare wouldn’t he because Parliament, in seat “true faith faith “true

11 years for Baron Lionel Nathan de Rothschild to get his his get to Rothschild de Nathan Lionel Baron for years 11

As a practising Jew, and voted into power four times, it took took it times, four power into voted and Jew, practising a As

July 26, 1858: First Rothschild enters parliament in England in parliament enters Rothschild First 1858: 26, July

361 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 362. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1864: Syllabus of Errors published

Pope Pius IX condemned all the ideas of democratic pluralism, from freedom of conscience to the idea of tolerance. See entry below on Döllinger in 1871, who connected the pursuit of power by the church to its antisemitism.

Reference: 1864.1

1867: Pope Pius IX raises Grand Inquisitor to sainthood

Pope Pius IX raised to sainthood a 15th Century Spanish Grand Inquisitor, Don Pedro Arbués de Epilae (see entry above, 1485). Johann Ignaz von Döllinger, a leading Catholic theologian, opposed the decision (see entry below, 1871).

Reference: 1867.1

1868: Hermann Goedsche, pen name Sir John Retcliffe

Hermann Goedsche was a German writer, remembered primarily for his antisemitism. In his 1868 book Biarritz, he plagiarized a book by the French satirist Maurice Joly, “The Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu”, and added a chapter called “At the Jewish Cemetery in Prague”, which described a secret rabbinical cabal, Council of Representatives of The Twelve Tribes of Israel, which meets in the cemetery at midnight for one of their centennial meetings, whose purpose is to review the past 100 years and to make plans for the next century. They report on the progress of their long- term conspiracy to establish world domination through the acquisition of landed property, the transformation of craftsmen into industrial workers, the infiltration into high public offices, the control of the press, etc.

This fictional “Rabbi’s Speech” was frequently quoted later as an authentic episode and invoked as a proof of the authenticity of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (see entry below, 1905). In Nazi Germany the chapter was re-printed independently in many editions.

Excerpt:

“It is already eighteen centuries that the war of Israel is being waged with the power which had been promised to Abraham but which had been

Reference: 1869.1 Reference:

then on, the dome was referred to by locals as “Franz Joseph’s cap”. Joseph’s “Franz as locals by to referred was dome the on, then

Tiferet Yisrael Synagogue, founded by Nissan Beck. From From Beck. Nissan by founded Synagogue, Yisrael Tiferet

Hungarian Empire, offered to pay for the synagogue roof for for roof synagogue the for pay to offered Empire, Hungarian

Hungary, and monarch of many other states of the Austro- the of states other many of monarch and Hungary,

Franz Joseph I, (1830-1916), Emperor of Austria, King of of King Austria, of Emperor (1830-1916), I, Joseph Franz

1869: Franz Joseph I, Austria I, Joseph Franz 1869:

Reference: 1868.2 Reference:

throughout Germany ( Germany throughout ). ). below entry see

July 3, 1869. It wouldn’t be until 1871 that the emancipation of Jews extended extended Jews of emancipation the that 1871 until be wouldn’t It 1869. 3, July

Religious Freedom passed by the North German Reichstag on on Reichstag German North the by passed Freedom Religious

on December 3, 1868, before the passage of the Law on on Law the of passage the before 1868, 3, December on

Saxony was one of the last German states to give Jews equality equality Jews give to states German last the of one was Saxony

emancipates its Jews its emancipates

1868–69: Saxony and North Germany Confederation Confederation Germany North and Saxony 1868–69:

Reference: 1868.1 Reference:

without fail.” fail.” without

and the following must belong to us, the People of Israel, and will be ours, ours, be will and Israel, of People the us, to belong must following the and

holds in store. Eighteen centuries have belonged to our enemies; this century century this enemies; our to belonged have centuries Eighteen store. in holds

spirit with the aid of which the entire world is ruled. This is what the future future the what is This ruled. is world entire the which of aid the with spirit

fears and desires. This is the sole mystery, the most profound science of that that of science profound most the mystery, sole the is This desires. and fears

it is might, reward, the instrument of every authority, it is all man, both both man, all is it authority, every of instrument the reward, might, is it

made to Abraham will be fulfilled. Gold—is the greatest power on earth; earth; on power greatest the Gold—is fulfilled. be will Abraham to made

true power will practically be transferred to our hands, and the promises promises the and hands, our to transferred be practically will power true

we become, at last, the sole possessors of all the gold to be found on earth, the the earth, on found be to gold the all of possessors sole the last, at become, we

the whole world it is because the whole world should belong to him... When When him... to belong should world whole the because is it world whole the

violence of every sort, Israel has not succumbed; and if he is dispersed over over dispersed is he if and succumbed; not has Israel sort, every of violence

his enemies, ceaselessly under threats of death, of persecution, of rapine and and rapine of persecution, of death, of threats under ceaselessly enemies, his

snatched away from him by the Cross. Trampled under foot, humiliated by by humiliated foot, under Trampled Cross. the by him from away snatched

363 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 364. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1869–70: First Vatican Council: Papal Infallibility defined

The doctrine of Papal Infallibility developed over time from early Church teachings, but was defined during the papacy of Pope Paul IX (see entry above, 1846-78) at the First Vatican Council. Papal infallibility is a dogma of the Catholic Church that states that, in virtue of the promise of Jesus to Peter, the Pope is preserved from the possibility of error: “Therefore, faithfully adhering to the tradition received from the beginning of the Christian faith, to the glory of God our savior, for the exaltation of the Catholic religion and for the salvation of the Christian people, with the approval of the Sacred Council, we teach and define as a divinely revealed dogma that when the Roman Pontiff speaks EX CATHEDRA [“from his chair” as supreme teacher], that is, when, in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which the divine Redeemer willed his Church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals. Therefore, such definitions of the Roman Pontiff are of themselves, and not by the consent of the Church, irreformable. So then, should anyone, which God forbid, have the temerity to reject this definition of ours: let him be anathema.” At the Second Vatican Council, also known as Vatican II (see entry below, 1962- 65), the doctrine of infallibility was explained as follows: “Although the individual bishops do not enjoy the prerogative of infallibility, they can nevertheless proclaim Christ’s doctrine infallibly. This is so, even when they are dispersed around the world, provided that while maintaining the bond of unity among themselves and with Peter’s successor, and while teaching authentically on a matter of faith or morals, they concur in a single viewpoint as the one which must be held conclusively. This authority is even more clearly verified when, gathered together in an ecumenical council, they are teachers and judges of faith and morals for the universal Church. Their definitions must then be adhered to with the submission of faith.” (Lumen Gentium 25)

The doctrine remained a major obstacle to ecumenical endeavours in the late 20th Century and was the subject of controversial discussion even among Roman Catholic theologians.

Reference: 1869.2

Reference: 1871.1 Reference:

He was excommunicated on April 18, 1871. 1871. 18, April on excommunicated was He

theologian, as an historian, and as a citizen I cannot accept this doctrine” this accept cannot I citizen a as and historian, an as theologian, .

1871 wrote a letter to the Archbishop of Munich saying saying Munich of Archbishop the to letter a wrote 1871 “As a Christian, as a a as Christian, a “As

the dogma of papal infallibility ( infallibility papal of dogma the ), and on March 28, 28, March on and ), 1869-70 above, entry see

in Munich, called “On the Past and Present of Catholic Theology”. He rejected rejected He Theology”. Catholic of Present and Past the “On called Munich, in

advanced in an 1863 address at a major congress of German Catholic scholars scholars Catholic German of congress major a at address 1863 an in advanced

), which had directly condemned a number of ideas Döllinger had had Döllinger ideas of number a condemned directly had which ), above entry

differed strongly with Pope Pius IX’s Syllabus of Errors published in 1864 ( 1864 in published Errors of Syllabus IX’s Pius Pope with strongly differed see see

In his Letters of Janus (1869) and the Letters of Quirinus (1869-70) he he (1869-70) Quirinus of Letters the and (1869) Janus of Letters his In

a canonisation of the Inquisition itself. Inquisition the of canonisation a

) was to Döllinger almost a personal affront, which he thought of as as of thought he which affront, personal a almost Döllinger to was ) 1485 above,

In 1867, the canonisation of the Spanish inquisitor, Pedro de Arbués ( Arbués de Pedro inquisitor, Spanish the of canonisation the 1867, In see entry entry see

Century theologians. Century

), which ran contrary to the more common antisemitic views of 19th 19th of views antisemitic common more the to contrary ran which ), 1881

of power by the Church, and wrote posivitely about the Jews ( Jews the about posivitely wrote and Church, the by power of see entry below, below, entry see

Döllinger connected the antisemitism of the Church to the improper pursuit pursuit improper the to Church the of antisemitism the connected Döllinger

Index of Forbidden Books, a Catholic list of publications deemed heretical. heretical. deemed publications of list Catholic a Books, Forbidden of Index

Catholic priest and church historian. Some of his books were placed on the the on placed were books his of Some historian. church and priest Catholic

Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllinger (1799-1890) was a German theologian, theologian, German a was (1799-1890) Döllinger von Ignaz Joseph Johann

April 18, 1871: Ignaz von Döllinger excommunicated Döllinger von Ignaz 1871: 18, April

Reference: 1870.1 Reference:

Germany in the 1930s. 1930s. the in Germany

remaining ghetto in Western Europe until ghettos were reintroduced by Nazi Nazi by reintroduced were ghettos until Europe Western in ghetto remaining

the ghetto was almost completely demolished. The Roman Ghetto was the last last the was Ghetto Roman The demolished. completely almost was ghetto the

in the Ghetto came to an end. The ghetto walls were torn down in 1888 and and 1888 in down torn were walls ghetto The end. an to came Ghetto the in

incorporated in the Kingdom of Italy. With this the requirement that Jews live live Jews that requirement the this With Italy. of Kingdom the in incorporated

The Papal States ceased to exist on September 20, 1870 when they were were they when 1870 20, September on exist to ceased States Papal The

September 20, 1870: Jewish ghetto in Rome demolished Rome in ghetto Jewish 1870: 20, September

365 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 366. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1871: August Rohling

August Rohling was a German Catholic theologian, polemical author, and a student of antisemitic texts. Of his anti-Jewish works, Der Talmudjude (“The Talmud Jew”), written in 1871, became a standard work for antisemitic authors and journalists. It contains distorted and falsified quotes from the Talmud. Rohling was so sure of himself and of the things he wrote that he challenged Austrian Jewry to find mistakes or lies in the book. Rabbi Shmuel Yosef Bloch raised the gauntlet and accused Rohling of ignorance and lies. Rohling sued Bloch but withdrew the suit from fear of undesirable exposure.

Rohling was a witness in the blood libel in the Hungarian village of Tiszaeszlar in 1882, where he testified that the Talmud commands Jews to use Christian blood.

Reference: 1871.2

1871: Emancipation of the Jews in Germany

A united Germany now emancipates all Jews in its borders. Jews are now free in most nations of Europe.

Reference: 1871.3

1874–90: Adolf Stoecker is court chaplain; hailed as “second Luther”

Adolf Stoecker (1835-1909) was the court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I from 1874-90, a politician, and a German Lutheran theologian who founded the Christian Social Party. He helped popularize the idea that Jews were a race, not a religion, and emphasized that love for a Jew was inimical to true Christianity. He was particularly influenced by Luther’s “On the Jews and their Lies” (see entry above, 1543), which he interpreted as condemning literal Jews. In 1887, at a Christian Social Party event, Prince Wilhelm praised him as the “second Luther”. After his death in 1909, Pastor Johannes Haussleiter wrote “Nobody has so lastingly influenced the rising generation of pastors and has put his mark on them for decades to come as he did.”

As early as 1875, Stoecker began to attack Jews in racial terms in his sermons, and, starting in 1879, began to give speeches blaming all of Germany’s problems

must, in all candor, state the necessity of protecting ourselves against the the against ourselves protecting of necessity the state candor, all in must,

for this; as long as they are Jews, they are bound to act in this way. But we we But way. this in act to bound are they Jews, are they as long as this; for

or their hatred of Christians against Christianity. We cannot condemn them them condemn cannot We Christianity. against Christians of hatred their or

Unbroken Semitic character against Teutonic nature, their rigid cult of law law of cult rigid their nature, Teutonic against character Semitic Unbroken

by the people among whom they live—all save the Jews. They pit their their pit They Jews. the save live—all they whom among people the by

separate tribe within a foreign race. All immigrants are eventually absorbed absorbed eventually are immigrants All race. foreign a within tribe separate

The Jews are and remain a people within a people, a state within a state, a a state, a within state a people, a within people a remain and are Jews The

it lives on nothing but its fantasies... fantasies... its but nothing on lives it

This is the picture of Judaism on earth. Lacking any creative religious force, force, religious creative any Lacking earth. on Judaism of picture the is This

wild frenzy; under the Crescent devoid of spirit and rotting like Islam itself. itself. Islam like rotting and spirit of devoid Crescent the under frenzy; wild

unbelief; in the Slav nations petrified in formulas and again in the grip of of grip the in again and formulas in petrified nations Slav the in unbelief;

in factions; in the Latin countries split between strictest Talmudism and and Talmudism strictest between split countries Latin the in factions; in

within whose sphere it is located: in Germany enlightened and torn apart apart torn and enlightened Germany in located: is it sphere whose within

And barren it is, indeed, nothing but the shadow of the Christian church church Christian the of shadow the but nothing indeed, is, it barren And

in the temple. Without them Judaism is a dry well and a withered tree. tree. withered a and well dry a is Judaism them Without temple. the in

The religion of the Old Testament requires worship by sacrifices and services services and sacrifices by worship requires Testament Old the of religion The

overcome by the church itself... itself... church the by overcome

soil but in a wretched period of the Christian church, a period long since since long period a church, Christian the of period wretched a in but soil

remnant of the age of enlightenment. Its ideas did not originate on Jewish Jewish on originate not did ideas Its enlightenment. of age the of remnant

religious significance. It is neither Judaism nor Christianity, but a pitiful pitiful a but Christianity, nor Judaism neither is It significance. religious

no longer holding any truth for the present. Reformed Judaism is of even less less even of is Judaism Reformed present. the for truth any holding longer no

revelation, an outlived spirit, still venerable but set at nought by Christ and and Christ by nought at set but venerable still spirit, outlived an revelation,

century. It is a form of religion which is dead at its very core, a low form of of form low a core, very its at dead is which religion of form a is It century.

Messiah, is neither attractive nor dangerous to the children of the nineteenth nineteenth the of children the to dangerous nor attractive neither is Messiah,

Testament without a temple, without priests, without sacrifice, without a a without sacrifice, without priests, without temple, a without Testament

of the reformed. Orthodox Judaism, this ossification of the Law, the Old Old the Law, the of ossification this Judaism, Orthodox reformed. the of

By this I mean neither the religion of the orthodox nor the enlightenment enlightenment the nor orthodox the of religion the neither mean I this By

“I do indeed consider modern Jewry a great danger to German national life. life. national German to danger great a Jewry modern consider indeed do “I

Jewry”, 1879: 1879: Jewry”,

Excerpts from his first antisemitic speech “What we Demand of Modern Modern of Demand we “What speech antisemitic first his from Excerpts

Germanentum...to settle once and for all with the Semites.” the with all for and once settle Germanentum...to

with the extermination of one of them” and it was the responsibility of “the “the of responsibility the was it and them” of one of extermination the with

“the ancient contradiction between Aryans and the Semites...can only end end only Semites...can the and Aryans between contradiction ancient “the

pamphlets, he wrote: wrote: he pamphlets,

“alien drop in our blood” our in drop “alien a and , “leeches” , “parasites” Jews . Chillingly, in one of his his of one in Chillingly, .

would later be recycled by the Nazis. In various speeches Stoecker called all all called Stoecker speeches various In Nazis. the by recycled be later would

antisemitism in a way it never had before. Many of the tropes Stoecker used used Stoecker tropes the of Many before. had never it way a in antisemitism

on the Jewish minority. His status as a popular court official legitimized German German legitimized official court popular a as status His minority. Jewish the on

367 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 368. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

dangers of such an intermingling. There are 45,000 Jews in Berlin alone, as many as there are in all of France, in all of England. That is too many. If they had a real bond with us, there would be nothing wrong with this figure. But this half of a hundred thousand lives by itself, in easy circumstances, with increasing power, equipped with a very profitable mind, and without any concern for our Christian-German interests. Therein lies the real danger...

We are approaching the Polish ratio in the Christian-Jewish population, save for the fact that the Berlin Jews are much richer, much more clever and influential than the Polish Israelites. They control the arteries of money, banking, and trade; they dominate the press and they are flooding the institutions of higher learning... But this development is ominous. We are moving toward the point when public opinion will be completely dominated and labor completely exploited by the Jews...

Either we succeed in this [curbing Jewish capital, limiting appointments of Jewish judges, removing Jewish teachers, strengthening the Christian- Germanic spirit] and Germany will rise again, or the cancer from which we suffer will spread further. In that event our whole future is threatened and the German spirit will become Judaized. The German economy will become impoverished. These are our slogans: A return to a Germanic rule in law and business, a return to the Christian faith. May every man do his duty, and God will help us.”

Reference: 1874.1

1877: Richard Wagner

Wagner was a Christian, but also antisemitic. After hundreds of Jewish deaths in a Vienna theater fire, Wagner admitted a lack of sympathy — they are “people too wicked to be affected too much when they perished in masses”. Hitler may possibly have been inspired to murder Jews at a performance of Wagner’s opera Rienzi in Linz, Austria.

Reference: 1877.1

the lives of most of the settlers. the of most of lives the

Edmond de Rothschild). A malaria epidemic broke out in 1880, which claimed claimed which 1880, in out broke epidemic malaria A Rothschild). de Edmond

it was located in a swamp (which had to be drained with the help of Baron Baron of help the with drained be to had (which swamp a in located was it

The Ottomans allowed the purchase of the land because of its poor quality: quality: poor its of because land the of purchase the allowed Ottomans The

land of Egypt.” Egypt.” of land

sing there, as in the days of her youth, and as in the day when she came up out of the the of out up came she when day the in as and youth, her of days the in as there, sing

vineyards from thence, and the Valley of Achor for an opening of hope: and she shall shall she and hope: of opening an for Achor of Valley the and thence, from vineyards

by its founders in 1878 from the prophecy of Hosea 2:15 2:15 Hosea of prophecy the from 1878 in founders its by “And I will give her her give will I “And

Petah Tikva, which means “Opening of Hope”, was chosen chosen was Hope”, of “Opening means which Tikva, Petah

from Romania, and purchased from the Ottomans in 1878. 1878. in Ottomans the from purchased and Romania, from

became Israel, was established in 1875 by Jewish immigrants immigrants Jewish by 1875 in established was Israel, became

Petah Tikva, the first modern agricultural settlement in what what in settlement agricultural modern first the Tikva, Petah

1878: Petah Tikva founded Tikva Petah 1878:

Reference: 1878.1 Reference:

his Constitution about these books must be perpetually and inviolably observed” inviolably and perpetually be must books these about Constitution his . .

condemned and that they must remain always condemned and prohibited, and that that and prohibited, and condemned always remain must they that and condemned

) of books that must must that books of ) 1559 above, entry see ( Expurgatorius Index “be entirely entirely “be

“The Talmud and other Jewish books” by keeping it on the the on it keeping by books” Jewish other and Talmud “The of prescription

of Catholics to non-Catholics, including Jews, Pope Leo XIII upheld the the upheld XIII Leo Pope Jews, including non-Catholics, to Catholics of

In addition to affirming Catholic social teaching preventing the marriage marriage the preventing teaching social Catholic affirming to addition In

1878–1903: Papacy of Pope Leo XIII Leo Pope of Papacy 1878–1903:

Reference: 1877.2 Reference:

was a prophecy fulfilled with Resolution 181 in 1947. 1947. in 181 Resolution with fulfilled prophecy a was

the British. Theodor Herzl would iterate the same sentiment in 1897, which which 1897, in sentiment same the iterate would Herzl Theodor British. the

million Jews would reside in Palestine under the guidance of of guidance the under Palestine in reside would Jews million

is the Oriental Quest” that within 50 years, a nation of one one of nation a years, 50 within that Quest” Oriental the is

Disraeli wrote in his article entitled “The Jewish Question Question Jewish “The entitled article his in wrote Disraeli

Oriental Quest” Oriental

1877: Benjamin Disraeli writes “The Jewish Question is the the is Question Jewish “The writes Disraeli Benjamin 1877:

369 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 370. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

It is located east of Tel Aviv. Its title “Opening of Hope” is a somewhat prophetic title, given that Tel Aviv has the highest number of startups per capita in the world, and the highest investment of GDP in R&D.

Reference: 1878.2

1879: Wilhelm Marr coins the term “antisemitism”

Wilhelm Marr (1819-1904) was a German agitator and publicist, who coined the term “antisemitism”. In 1879 he wrote the pamphlet Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum (“The Way to Victory of Germanism over Judaism”), in which he introduced the idea that Germans and Jews were locked in a longstanding conflict, the origins of which he attributed to race— and that the Jews were winning. He argued that Jewish emancipation resulting from German liberalism had allowed the Jews to control German finance and industry.

Furthermore, since this conflict was based on the different qualities of the Jewish and German races, it could not be resolved even by the total assimilation of the Jewish population. According to him, the struggle between Jews and Germans would only be resolved by the victory of one and the ultimate death of the other. A Jewish victory, he concluded, would result in the end of the German people.

To prevent this from happening, in 1879 he founded Antisemiten-Liga, (“League of Antisemites”), the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany posed by the Jews and advocating their forced removal from the country. They would go on to win seats in German federal elections until 1907: 1887 (1); 1890 (5); 1893 (16); 1898 (13); 1903 (11); 1907 (16).

Reference: 1879.1

1880: Heinrich von Treitschke: “The Jews are our misfortune!”

Heinrich von Treitschke (1834-96) was a German historian, political writer and National Liberal member of the Reichstag during the time of the German Empire. He was one of the few important public figures who supported antisemitic attacks which became prevalent from 1879 onwards.

and to demand legislative action. It demanded that the legal emancipation emancipation legal the that demanded It action. legislative demand to and

1880 to rally public awareness of what they identified as the “Jewish problem” problem” “Jewish the as identified they what of awareness public rally to 1880

Leading German antisemites launched a petition campaign in the summer of of summer the in campaign petition a launched antisemites German Leading

1880–81: Antisemites’ Petition, Germany Petition, Antisemites’ 1880–81:

Reference: 1880.1 Reference:

chat the Jewish press befouls what is purely historical truth.” truth.” historical purely is what befouls press Jewish the chat

world. It is necessary to speak openly about the Jews, undisturbed by the fact fact the by undisturbed Jews, the about openly speak to necessary is It world.

nationalities, is a disintegrating influence; he can be of no further use to the the to use further no of be can he influence; disintegrating a is nationalities,

longer necessary. The international Jew, hidden in the mask of different different of mask the in hidden Jew, international The necessary. longer

have become accustomed to the idiosyncrasies of finance, the Jews are no no are Jews the finance, of idiosyncrasies the to accustomed become have

of their ability in the management of money. But now that the Aryans Aryans the that now But money. of management the in ability their of

“The Jews at one time played a necessary role in German history, because because history, German in role necessary a played time one at Jews “The

He also wrote other antisemitic remarks, such as: as: such remarks, antisemitic other wrote also He

our misfortune!” our

intolerance or national arrogance there rings with one voice: the Jews are are Jews the voice: one with rings there arrogance national or intolerance

it. Among the circles of highly educated men who reject any idea of church church of idea any reject who men educated highly of circles the Among it.

and strong. A few jokes by Christian Social politicos will not suffice to stem stem to suffice not will politicos Social Christian by jokes few A strong. and

openly discussed. Let’s not deceive ourselves. The movement is very deep deep very is movement The ourselves. deceive not Let’s discussed. openly

untruth. An evil that everyone felt but no one wanted to touch upon is now now is upon touch to wanted one no but felt everyone that evil An untruth.

has inadvertently performed a useful service: it has lifted the ban on a quiet quiet a on ban the lifted has it service: useful a performed inadvertently has

element that has assumed all too large a space in our life. [The agitation] agitation] [The life. our in space a large too all assumed has that element

is nonetheless a natural reaction of Germanic racial feeling against an alien alien an against feeling racial Germanic of reaction natural a nonetheless is

be added! — this noisy agitation of the moment, though brutal and hateful, hateful, and brutal though moment, the of agitation noisy this — added! be

schools. Overlooking all these circumstances — and how many others could could others many how and — circumstances these all Overlooking schools.

Christian images be set aside and that their sabbath be celebrated in mixed mixed in celebrated be sabbath their that and aside set be images Christian

are only a minority among us. We have experienced their demands that that demands their experienced have We us. among minority a only are

want to see that we Germans are still a Christian people and that the Jews Jews the that and people Christian a still are Germans we that see to want

simply shocking... They demanded literal parity in everything and did not not did and everything in parity literal demanded They shocking... simply

“The anti-Christian defamations and witticisms of Jewish journalists are are journalists Jewish of witticisms and defamations anti-Christian “The

several decades later: later: decades several Stürmer Der publication Nazi the by motto

our misfortune!”) which became a popular phrase, and which was adopted as a a as adopted was which and phrase, popular a became which misfortune!”) our

Die Juden sind unser Unglück! unser sind Juden Die words the contained also It Poland. (“The Jews are are Jews (“The

culture and society, and attacked the flow of Jewish immigrants from Russian Russian from immigrants Jewish of flow the attacked and society, and culture

Jews”), where he accused German Jews of refusing to assimilate into German German into assimilate to refusing of Jews German accused he where Jews”),

(“A Word About our our About Word (“A Judenthum unser über Wort Ein published he 1880 In

371 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 372. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History of the Jews (1869) be rescinded; and claimed that the German nation itself must be “emancipated” from the Jews’ “alien domination”. It also demanded the curtailment or limitation of Jewish immigration and the expulsion of Jews from positions as judges, teachers, and other civil service posts. Signatures were collected from many high-ranking figures, including Adolf Stoecker (see entry for him above, 1874-90), although some people listed had refused to sign or later denied that they had done so. Approximately 265,000 adult males signed the petition, which resulted in a two-day debate on the “Jewish Question” in the Prussian House of Deputies on November 20 and 22, 1880, during which a government spokesman gave only a lukewarm defense of Jewish emancipation. In April 1881, the petition was presented to Bismarck, which he ignored.

Portions of the text of the petition:

“...Wherever Christian and Jew enter into social relations, we see the Jew as master and the native-born Christian population in a servile position. The Jew takes only a vanishingly small part in the hard work of the great mass of our people; in field and workshop, in mines and on scaffolding, in swamps and canals – everywhere it is only the calloused hand of the Christian that is active. But it is above all the Jew who harvests the fruits of this labor. By far the greatest portion of capital produced by national labor is concentrated in Jewish hands. Jewish real estate keeps pace with the growth of mobile capital. Not only the proudest palaces of our cities belong to the Jewish masters (whose fathers or grandfathers crossed the borders of our fatherland as peddlers and hawkers), but the rural estate – this highly significant and conserving basis of our state structure – is falling into Jewish hands with ever greater frequency. Truly, in view of these conditions and because of the massive penetration of the Semitic element into all positions affording power and influence, the following question seems justified on an ethical as well as national standpoint: what future is left our fatherland if the Semitic element is allowed to make a conquest of our home ground for another generation as it has been allowed to do in the last two decades?...

If our nation is not to be consigned to economic servitude under the pressure of Jewish money power, if it is not to be consigned to national decadence one step at a time under the influence of Jewry’s materialistic outlook, then measures to halt the Jewish hypertrophy are imperative. Nothing lies further from us than the desire to bring forth any kind of oppression of the Jewish nation. What we strive for is actually the emancipation of the German nation from a kind of alien domination that it cannot long tolerate. There is danger in delay. Therefore, have we decided to approach Your Excellency [Bismarck] with the most respectful petition:

interchanges of banishments and recallings. It is as if the European nations nations European the if as is It recallings. and banishments of interchanges

afflictions, of violence and persecution, of wholesale slaughters, with with slaughters, wholesale of persecution, and violence of afflictions,

up a succession of elaborate oppressions, of degrading and demoralizing demoralizing and degrading of oppressions, elaborate of succession a up

The whole external history of the Jews for almost a thousand years makes makes years thousand a almost for Jews the of history external whole The

impossible... and improbable

even eagerness, held the Jews to be capable of every crime, even the most most the even crime, every of capable be to Jews the held eagerness, even

unnatural was credulously laid hold of with a kind of predilection and and predilection of kind a with of hold laid credulously was unnatural

debtor to the Christians, the nations, in a time when what was cruel and and cruel was what when time a in nations, the Christians, the to debtor

the harvest. Accustomed to the view that every Jew is a born enemy and and enemy born a is Jew every that view the to Accustomed harvest. the

“...the seeds of hate and detestation were sown, and wholesale murder was was murder wholesale and sown, were detestation and hate of seeds “...the

forefathers have said about them, and what they have done to them, saying: saying: them, to done have they what and them, about said have forefathers

historical summation of the Church’s attitudes to the Jews, what our Church Church our what Jews, the to attitudes Church’s the of summation historical

impressive drama in the history of the world,” world,” the of history the in drama impressive and goes on to give an excellent excellent an give to on goes and

In it, Döllinger says says Döllinger it, In “The fortunes of the Jewish people make, perhaps, the most most the perhaps, make, people Jewish the of fortunes “The

Monthly. Monthly.

was published in 2-parts in June/July 1882 by Popular Science Science Popular by 1882 June/July in 2-parts in published was

address to the Academy of Sciences on the Jews in Europe. It It Europe. in Jews the on Sciences of Academy the to address

see entry above, 1871 above, entry see ( Döllinger 1881 July In ) delivered an an delivered )

1881: Ignaz von Döllinger on the Jews in Europe in Jews the on Döllinger von Ignaz 1881:

Reference: 1880.2 Reference:

that a special census of the Jewish population be reinstituted.” be population Jewish the of census special a that 4.

placed only in special and exceptional cases; exceptional and special in only placed

allowed in these schools and that in all other schools Jewish teachers be be teachers Jewish schools other all in that and schools these in allowed

by Jewish pupils – be strictly protected; that only Christian teachers be be teachers Christian only that protected; strictly be – pupils Jewish by

that the Christian character of the primary school – even when attended attended when even – school primary the of character Christian the that 3.

receive appropriate limitation; appropriate receive

employment in the judiciary — namely as autonomous judges –— judges autonomous as namely — judiciary the in employment

that the Jews be excluded from all positions of authority; that their their that authority; of positions all from excluded be Jews the that 2.

prevented;

that the immigration of alien Jews be at least limited, if not completely completely not if limited, least at be Jews alien of immigration the that 1.

Your Excellency, may your mighty influence in Prussia and Germany urge: Germany and Prussia in influence mighty your may Excellency, Your

373 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 374. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

had vied with each other in trying to create the double delusion that the Jews were condemned till the end of time in the decrees of Heaven to the severest helotism [serfdom], and that the sons of the Gentiles were ordained to act the part of jailers and hangmen to the chosen people of God! Christians knew not how to dispense with them; they were serviceable in many ways; and yet they could not be endured. Their countenances worked like a challenge upon the believer, who was touched by no scruple, and thought it possible to explain the Jews’ fixed attachment to their ancestral faith, under the clear light of the gospel, only as a species of wicked obstinacy.

Nevertheless, one feature is striking in the great mass of abusive discourses, arraignments, and declamatory outbursts against the detested people... is that their moral life, so far as the family, chastity, temperance, and fidelity to obligations go, is never attacked... it is always simply their religious belief that made the ground for charges against them: they are continually accused of crime; and the fact that they did not recognize the Christian doctrines of the Trinity and Incarnation was sufficient proof of their guilt...

Altogether too long has the false and detestable view ruled in the world that we are called upon to avenge, generation after generation, the sins and mistakes of the fathers upon their guiltless descendants. It is a view which has covered Europe with a multitude of cruel and shameful deeds, the thought of which causes us to shudder and avert our faces. Woe to us and our posterity if such a law of revenge is ever applied to the descendants of the Germans, Frenchmen, Spaniards, and Englishmen of the middle ages! But there is one thing which the self-styled anti-Semitic agitation of to-day should not forget, viz., that hate and contempt are feelings bitter and of no comfort to him who cherishes them, and painful and exasperating to those against whom they are directed. A sad thing it is when (to use a Scriptural expression), “Deep calleth unto deep [Psalm 42:7].” Rather let the saying of Sophocles’s “Antigone” be and remain our motto: “My nature leads to sharing love, not hate.”

Reference: 1881.1

1881: Eugen Dühring

Eugen Dühring (1833-1921) was a German philosopher, positivist, economist, and socialist who was a strong critic of Marxism. He was also antisemitic, and in 1881 wrote “The Jewish question as a racial, moral and cultural question”:

Reference: 1881.4 Reference:

group. group.

the Russian word word Russian the was used to describe a massacre against a minority minority a against massacre a describe to used was “pogrom”

This is the first of the Russian pogroms against the Jews, and also the first time time first the also and Jews, the against pogroms Russian the of first the is This

Jews were blamed for the assassination of Alexander II of Russia by radicals. radicals. by Russia of II Alexander of assassination the for blamed were Jews

1881–84: Russians initiate 200 anti-Jewish events anti-Jewish 200 initiate Russians 1881–84:

Reference: 1881.3 Reference:

effective, the child must die in torment.” in die must child the effective,

“Every year the Hebrews crucify a child... [and] in order that the blood be be blood the that order in [and] child... a crucify Hebrews the year “Every

Ritual Murder defamation: defamation: Murder Ritual

A series of articles were published which were antisemitic, which included the the included which antisemitic, were which published were articles of series A

Civiltà Cattolica Civiltà 1881–82: articles

Reference: 1881.2 Reference:

Dühring’s writings, which helped persuade him that Zionism was the only answer. only the was Zionism that him persuade helped which writings, Dühring’s

Theodor Herzl identified the genealogy of modern, racist antisemitism in in antisemitism racist modern, of genealogy the identified Herzl Theodor

tenacious life everywhere!” life tenacious

which is reflected in its God and seeks its advantage in order to expand its its expand to order in advantage its seeks and God its in reflected is which

minded life! Only a single object of interest, namely the Jewish tribe itself, itself, tribe Jewish the namely interest, of object single a Only life! minded

self-seeking of all religions! Only a narrowing down to their own narrow- own their to down narrowing a Only religions! all of self-seeking

life, indeed in general no philosophy! Only a cult of theocracy and of the most most the of and theocracy of cult a Only philosophy! no general in indeed life,

no logic, no scientific understanding for universal human forms of political political of forms human universal for understanding scientific no logic, no

homeland among the Jewish people? No mathematics, no natural science, science, natural no mathematics, No people? Jewish the among homeland

elsewhere. Is there even a single scientific truth which might have had its its had have might which truth scientific single a even there Is elsewhere.

science nor has it ever shown the spirit of cultivating the science produced produced science the cultivating of spirit the shown ever it has nor science

sap of the soil of other peoples; but it has neither itself attained any real real any attained itself neither has it but peoples; other of soil the of sap

and branched off into subsidiaries which had to nourish themselves on the the on themselves nourish to had which subsidiaries into off branched and

itself, or — which is the same thing in their case — the God their their God the — case their in thing same the is which — or itself, , , L ord

millennia up to the Christian calendar and up to its downfall? It has served served has It downfall? its to up and calendar Christian the to up millennia

existence. What have the little group of people in Palestine done during the the during done Palestine in people of group little the have What existence.

immediately how it has not managed a fibre of real science in its national national its in science real of fibre a managed not has it how immediately

“If one surveys the history of the Jewish tribe as a whole, one finds finds one whole, a as tribe Jewish the of history the surveys one “If

375 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 376. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1882–1903: First Jewish immigration (“Aliyah”) to Palestine

People affected / deaths: 25,000 – 35,000

Jews in this first wave of immigration came mostly from Eastern Europe and Yemen.

Reference: 1882.1

1882–83: Tiszaeszlár Affair

Jews were accused of murdering and beheading a local girl after she disappeared. This led to a trial which sparked antisemitic agitation in Austria-Hungary. Her body was found in a river, where she apparently drowned. The trial resulted in the acquittal of all accused.

Reference: 1882.2

1882: Vatican and Berlin

The Vatican and Berlin resume diplomatic relations, thus setting the stage for the future relationship between the Vatican and the Third Reich (see Reichskonkordat, 1933 below).

Reference: 1882.3

1882: Nietzsche pronounces “God is dead”

Nietzsche pronounces “God is dead” in his book The Gay Science. He used the phrase figuratively, to express the idea that the Enlightenment had “killed” the possibility of belief in God or any gods having ever existed. Others have since used the phrase literally, meaning that the Christian God who existed at one point has now ceased to exist. Between 1883-85 his book “Thus Spoke

especially thy daughters, lest they suffer injury of body and soul. and body of injury suffer they lest daughters, thy especially

community with the Jew and keep him away from thyself and thy family, family, thy and thyself from away him keep and Jew the with community

V. Thou shalt have no social intercourse with the Jew. Avoid all contact and and contact all Avoid Jew. the with intercourse social no have shalt Thou V.

abuse the laws of our country with impunity. with country our of laws the abuse

by the Jew in deed, word or letter, that comes to thy knowledge, lest the Jew Jew the lest knowledge, thy to comes that letter, or word deed, in Jew the by

the Jew. Thou shalt at once take into court any offense or crime committed committed crime or offense any court into take once at shalt Thou Jew. the

matters not counter to the German conscience, the more so if he be pressed by by pressed be he if so more the conscience, German the to counter not matters

IV. Thou shalt be helpful to thy fellow German and further him in all all in him further and German fellow thy to helpful be shalt Thou IV.

body and soul unto the farthest generations. farthest the unto soul and body

must know that Jewish blood is everlasting, putting the Jewish stamp on on stamp Jewish the putting everlasting, is blood Jewish that know must

Aryan breed of thy people by mingling it with the Jewish breed. For thou thou For breed. Jewish the with it mingling by people thy of breed Aryan

III. Thou shalt keep thy blood pure. Consider it a crime to soil the noble noble the soil to crime a it Consider pure. blood thy keep shalt Thou III.

regardless of faith or creed, hast a common implacable foe. His name is Jew. is name His foe. implacable common a hast creed, or faith of regardless

II. Thou shalt know that thou, together with all thy fellow Germans, Germans, fellow thy all with together thou, that know shalt Thou II.

inspire and develop these virtues in thy children. thy in virtues these develop and inspire

the inherited virtues of our people, courage, faithfulness and veracity, and to to and veracity, and faithfulness courage, people, our of virtues inherited the

“I. Be proud of being a German and strive earnestly and steadily to practice practice to steadily and earnestly strive and German a being of proud Be “I.

Defense”:

“The Racists’ Decalogue”, the “Ten German Commandments of Lawful Self- Lawful of Commandments German “Ten the Decalogue”, Racists’ “The

by 1944. He also wrote “The Riddle of the Jew’s Success” Jew’s the of Riddle “The wrote also He 1944. by and in 1883 wrote wrote 1883 in and ,

them. Vastly popular, the book was read by millions and was in its 49 its in was and millions by read was book the popular, Vastly them. edition edition th

European Jews and called upon Germans to refrain from intermingling with with intermingling from refrain to Germans upon called and Jews European

which leveled a number of conspiratorial charges at at charges conspiratorial of number a leveled which , Catechism” “Anti-Semitic

most famous work, “The Handbook of the Jewish Question” Jewish the of Handbook “The work, famous most also known as the the as known also ,

centuries. In 1893, Fritsch published his his published Fritsch 1893, In centuries. th 20 early and th 19 late the in Jews

antisemitic writings did much to influence popular German opinion against against opinion German popular influence to much did writings antisemitic

Theodor Fritsch (1852-1933), was a German publisher and journalist. His His journalist. and publisher German a was (1852-1933), Fritsch Theodor

1883: Theodor Fritsch: The Racists’ Decalogue Racists’ The Fritsch: Theodor 1883:

Reference: 1882.4 Reference:

responsible for making the phrase popular. popular. phrase the making for responsible

Zarathustra: A Book for All and None” was released in four parts, which was was which parts, four in released was None” and All for Book A Zarathustra:

377 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 378. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

VI. Thou shalt have no business relations with the Jew. Never choose a Jew as a business partner, nor borrow nor buy from him, and keep your wife, too, from doing so. Thou shalt sell nothing to him, nor use him as an agent in thy transactions, that thou mayest remain free and not become slave unto the Jew nor help to increase his money, which is the power by which he enslaves our people.

VII. Thou shalt drive the Jew from thy own breast and take no example from Jewish tricks and Jewish wiles, for thou shalt never match the Jew in trickery but forfeit thy honor and earn the contempt of thy fellow Germans and the punishment of the courts.

VIII. Thou shalt not entrust thy rights to a Jewish lawyer, nor thy body to a Jewish physician, nor thy children to a Jewish teacher lest thy honor, body and soul suffer harm.

IX. Thou shalt not lend ear nor give credence to the Jew. Keep away all Jewish writings from thy German home and hearth lest their lingering poison may unnerve and corrupt thyself and thy family.

X. Thou shalt use no violence against the Jews because it is unworthy of thee and against the law. But if a Jew attack thee, ward off his Semitic insolence with German wrath.”

Reference: 1883.1

1883: Eugenics term is coined

Francis Galton coins the term Eugenics that would be used to describe the belief that some humans (i.e. races) were more valuable to humanity than others. It would lead to such things as Aryan Supremacy in Germany which asserted that Semites were intrinsically inferior.

Reference: 1883.2

known as the Blackstone Memorial: Memorial: Blackstone the as known

Quoted by William Blackstone in 1891 at a conference later later conference a at 1891 in Blackstone William by Quoted

of Berlin (1878) Berlin of

1891: Quote by William Blackstone in reference to the Treaty Treaty the to reference in Blackstone William by Quote 1891:

Reference: 1891.2 Reference:

The instigators were never punished. punished. never were instigators The

opposition of the populace against the Jews, who then fled to escape a massacre. massacre. a escape to fled then who Jews, the against populace the of opposition

hinder the Corfiote Jews from participating in the elections. This aroused the the aroused This elections. the in participating from Jews Corfiote the hinder

the rumour that a Christian girl had been slain for ritual purposes, in order to to order in purposes, ritual for slain been had girl Christian a that rumour the

Rubina Sarda, an 8-year-old Jewish girl, was murdered. But Christians spread spread Christians But murdered. was girl, Jewish 8-year-old an Sarda, Rubina

1891: Ritual murder, Corfu, Greece Corfu, murder, Ritual 1891:

Reference: 1891.1 Reference:

Settlement. Settlement.

stay. In all, approximately 14,000 Jewish families were expelled to the Pale of of Pale the to expelled were families Jewish 14,000 approximately all, In stay.

prostitutes. Registered cantonists and wealthy merchants were allowed to to allowed were merchants wealthy and cantonists Registered prostitutes.

they either convert, or women were willing to become become to willing were women or convert, either they

The governor of Moscow orders Jews to be expelled, unless unless expelled, be to Jews orders Moscow of governor The

14,000 Jewish families Jewish 14,000 c. deaths: / affected People

1891–92: Jews expelled from Moscow, Russia Moscow, from expelled Jews 1891–92:

Reference: 1890.1 Reference:

Revolution and democratic society.” society.” democratic and Revolution

“Through their guile, the Jews allegedly caused the evils of the French French the of evils the caused allegedly Jews the guile, their “Through

modern world: world: modern

The journal repeated almost every antisemitic defamation ever uttered in the the in uttered ever defamation antisemitic every almost repeated journal The

Articles concerning the “Jewish Question” in Europe in Question” “Jewish the concerning Articles Cattolica Civiltà 1890:

379 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 380. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

“Why shall not the powers which under the treaty of Berlin, in 1878, gave Bulgaria to the Bulgarians and Serbia to the Serbians now give Palestine back to the Jews?…These provinces, as well as Romania, Montenegro, and Greece, were wrested from the Turks and given to their natural owners. Does not Palestine as rightfully belong to the Jews?”

Reference: 1891.3

1891: William Blackstone

William Blackstone stated that the general “law of dereliction” did not apply to the Jews in Palestine: “...for they never abandoned the land. They made no treaty; they did not even surrender. They simply succumbed, after the most desperate conflict, to the overwhelming power of the Romans.”

Reference: 1891.4

1894: Dreyfus Affair

Captain Alfred Dreyfus, officer on the French general staff, is convicted of treason, and imprisoned on Devil’s Island in French Guiana for nearly five years. The affair is often seen as a modern and universal symbol of injustice, and remains one of the most notable examples of a complex miscarriage of justice and antisemitism. It ultimately led Theodore Herzl to write “A Modern Solution to the Jewish Question”.

Reference: 1894.1

February 14, 1896: Theodor Herzl writes Der Judenstaat, “The Jewish State”

Der Judenstaat is a pamphlet written by Theodor Herzl and published in February 1896. It is subtitled: Versuch einer modernen Lösung der Judenfrage (“Proposal of a modern solution for the Jewish question”). It is considered one of the most important texts of early Zionism.

humanity.” of good the for beneficially and powerfully react will welfare,

by our greatness. And whatever we attempt there to accomplish for our own own our for accomplish to there attempt we whatever And greatness. our by

The world will be freed by our liberty, enriched by our wealth, magnified magnified wealth, our by enriched liberty, our by freed be will world The

at last as free men on our own soil, and die peacefully in our own homes. homes. own our in peacefully die and soil, own our on men free as last at

opening words: The Jews who wish for a State will have it. We shall live live shall We it. have will State a for wish who Jews The words: opening

existence. The Maccabeans will rise again. Let me repeat once more my my more once repeat me Let again. rise will Maccabeans The existence.

“Therefore I believe that a wondrous generation of Jews will spring into into spring will Jews of generation wondrous a that believe I “Therefore

The book concludes: book The

all Europe, which would have to guarantee our existence.” our guarantee to have would which Europe, all

opposed to barbarism. We should as a neutral State remain in contact with with contact in remain State neutral a as should We barbarism. to opposed

portion of a rampart of Europe against Asia, an outpost of civilization as as civilization of outpost an Asia, against Europe of rampart a of portion

undertake to regulate the whole finances of Turkey. We should there form a a form there should We Turkey. of finances whole the regulate to undertake

If His Majesty the Sultan were to give us Palestine, we could in return return in could we Palestine, us give to were Sultan the Majesty His If

of Palestine would attract our people with a force of marvelous potency. potency. marvelous of force a with people our attract would Palestine of

these points... Palestine is our ever-memorable historic home. The very name name very The home. historic ever-memorable our is Palestine points... these

what is selected by Jewish public opinion. The Society will determine both both determine will Society The opinion. public Jewish by selected is what

“Shall we choose Palestine or Argentine? We shall take what is given us, and and us, given is what take shall We Argentine? or Palestine choose we “Shall

The book encouraged Jews to purchase land in either Palestine or Argentina: or Palestine either in land purchase to Jews encouraged book The

a people—one people.” people—one a

discussed and settled by the civilized nations of the world in council. We are are We council. in world the of nations civilized the by settled and discussed

which can only be solved by making it a political world-question to be be to world-question political a it making by solved be only can which

that it sometimes takes these and other forms. It is a national question, question, national a is It forms. other and these takes sometimes it that

Jewish question is no more a social than a religious one, notwithstanding notwithstanding one, religious a than social a more no is question Jewish

into England; they have already introduced it into America... I think the the think I America... into it introduced already have they England; into

basis. The unfortunate Jews are now carrying the seeds of Anti-Semitism Anti-Semitism of seeds the carrying now are Jews unfortunate The basis.

instance, France—until the Jewish question finds a solution on a political political a on solution a finds question Jewish the France—until instance,

in every country, and will remain so, even in those highly civilized—for civilized—for highly those in even so, remain will and country, every in

not persecuted, and there our presence produces persecution. This is the case case the is This persecution. produces presence our there and persecuted, not

course of their migrations. We naturally move to those places where we are are we where places those to move naturally We migrations. their of course

in perceptible numbers. Where it does not exist, it is carried by Jews in the the in Jews by carried is it exist, not does it Where numbers. perceptible in

when they emancipated us. The Jewish question exists wherever Jews live live Jews wherever exists question Jewish The us. emancipated they when

shake off, try as they will. They certainly showed a generous desire to do so so do to desire generous a showed certainly They will. they as try off, shake

of the Middle Ages, which civilized nations do not even yet seem able to to able seem yet even not do nations civilized which Ages, Middle the of

“The Jewish question still exists. It would be foolish to deny it. It is a remnant remnant a is It it. deny to foolish be would It exists. still question Jewish “The

an independent Jewish state: state: Jewish independent an

Herzl argued that the best way to avoid antisemitism in Europe was to create create to was Europe in antisemitism avoid to way best the that argued Herzl

381 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 382. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Herzl popularized the term “Zionism”, and one year later, in 1897 convened the First Zionist Congress (see entry below).

Reference: 1896.1

August 29–31, 1897: First Zionist Congress

The First Zionist Congress was the inaugural congress of the Zionist Organisation held in Basel, Switzerland. The conference was convened and chaired by Theodor Herzl, the founder of the modern Zionism movement, and attended by 208 delegates and 26 press correspondents. Delegates included 10 Christians who were invited as guests, but had no voting rights.

On the second day of its deliberations (August 30), it was stated that:

“Zionism seeks to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law.”

The program, which came to be known as the Basel Program, set out the goals of the Zionist movement. The organisation also adopted Hatikvah as its anthem, which would later become the national anthem of the State of Israel.

Following the conference, on September 3, 1897, Herzl wrote in his diary:

“Were I to sum up the Basel Congress in a word — which I shall guard against pronouncing publicly — it would be this: At Basel I founded the Jewish State. If I said this out loud today l would be greeted by universal laughter. In five years perhaps, and certainly in fifty years, everyone will perceive it.”

These words echo the same sentiments written by Benjamin Disraeli in 1877 (see entry above), but Herzl had no idea how prophetic his words would actually be, for in 1947, exactly 50 years later, the UN passed Resolution 181 which partitioned Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state (see entry below, 1947).

Reference: 1897.1

Reference: 1899.3 Reference:

the Philippines; while the Italians blamed the Jews and gypsies. gypsies. and Jews the blamed Italians the while Philippines; the

India, accused the “dirty natives”; the Americans thought the disease came from from came disease the thought Americans the natives”; “dirty the accused India,

became associated with outsiders in each society. Thus the British, who were in in were who British, the Thus society. each in outsiders with associated became

immigrants and travelers often carried cholera from infected locales, the disease disease the locales, infected from cholera carried often travelers and immigrants

many cholera outbreaks. In the sixth cholera pandemic of 1899-1923, because because 1899-1923, of pandemic cholera sixth the In outbreaks. cholera many

Seven cholera pandemics have occurred in the past 200 years, in addition to to addition in years, 200 past the in occurred have pandemics cholera Seven

5,000 deaths: / affected People

1899–1923: Jews blamed for cholera for blamed Jews 1899–1923:

Reference: 1899.2 Reference:

conviction was never annulled, and no one else was charged with the murders. murders. the with charged was else one no and annulled, never was conviction

In 1918, Emperor Charles I of Austria granted Hilsner a pardon, but his his but pardon, a Hilsner granted Austria of I Charles Emperor 1918, In

to life imprisonment. imprisonment. life to

time of both murders, and sentenced to death, but his sentence was commuted commuted was sentence his but death, to sentenced and murders, both of time

was dropped in favour of being sexually motivated. Hilsner was found guilty this this guilty found was Hilsner motivated. sexually being of favour in dropped was

resemblance to that of the Hrůzová crime scene. The charge of ritual murder murder ritual of charge The scene. crime Hrůzová the of that to resemblance

murder of Marie Klímová, whose corpse, when it was discovered, bore some some bore discovered, was it when corpse, whose Klímová, Marie of murder

intervened, and forced a retrial, but this time he was also charged with the the with charged also was he time this but retrial, a forced and intervened,

and Moravia. Tomáš G. Masaryk, the future president of Czechoslovakia, Czechoslovakia, of president future the Masaryk, G. Tomáš Moravia. and

the trial, riots against Jews broke out in numerous cities and towns in Bohemia Bohemia in towns and cities numerous in out broke Jews against riots trial, the

He was convicted and sentenced to death. Both during the investigation and after after and investigation the during Both death. to sentenced and convicted was He

blood libel against Leopold Hilsner, a Jew, for the murder of Anežka Hrůzová. Hrůzová. Anežka of murder the for Jew, a Hilsner, Leopold against libel blood

The Hilsner Affair was a series of antisemitic trials following an accusation of of accusation an following trials antisemitic of series a was Affair Hilsner The

1899–1900: Hilsner Affair in Polná, Bohemia Polná, in Affair Hilsner 1899–1900:

Reference: 1899.1 Reference:

presidential pardon. pardon. presidential

He was convicted again with a 10-year sentence of hard labour, but was given a a given was but labour, hard of sentence 10-year a with again convicted was He

In 1899 Dreyfus returned to France for another trial ( trial another for France to returned Dreyfus 1899 In ). ). 1894 above, entry see

1899: Dreyfus convicted for second time second for convicted Dreyfus 1899:

383 1800–1899 Century: th 19 . 384. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

20th Century: 1900–1999

20th Century: Jewish expulsions

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of expulsions. Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities.

1910: Kiev, Ukraine

1915: Western Russia, WWI

1939-45: Europe, WWII

1948: The Old City (the Jewish Quarter), Jerusalem

Reference: 1900.1

20th Century: Blood libel accusations

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of blood libel accusations. For those marked with an asterisk*, see entry below for details:

1900: Nachod, Bohemia; Konitz, W. Prussia*

1928: Massena, New York*

Reference: 1900.2 386. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

20th Century: Emancipation of Jews

In chronological order from the first event, the following is a list of nations granting emancipation for its Jews, sometimes with a single act, at other times granting limited rights at first in the hopes of “changing” the Jews “for the better”. Ultimately, emancipation immersed the Jews into a new culture. In doing so, Jews were able to not only see themselves as members of a religious sect, but also as citizens within society:

1910: Spain; Sweden (Sweden-Norway emancipated Jews in 1870; they dissolved their union in 1905)

1911: Portugal

1917: Russia

1918: Finland

1919: Estonia

1923: Romania

Reference: 1900.3

1900: Konitz Affair, West Prussia

The Konitz Affair was an accusation of Jewish ritual murder, based on the unexplained death of Ernst Winter. His dismembered body led first to suspicion of local butchers with a knowledge of anatomy, but antisemites accused the authorities of shielding Jewish suspects, which led to anti-Jewish riots. The Jewish population of Konitz subsequently declined, with many ruined economically.

Reference: 1900.4

Weizmann asked Balfour if he would change London for Paris. Paris. for London change would he if Balfour asked Weizmann

practical benefit of the Uganda Plan to Weizmann. Weizmann. to Plan Uganda the of benefit practical

), explained the the explained ), below entry see ( 1917 in named be would Declaration Balfour

In 1906, Arthur Balfour (Prime Minister from 1902-05, and after whom the the whom after and 1902-05, from Minister (Prime Balfour Arthur 1906, In

last Sunday when there are so many old ladies living on your street.” street.” your on living ladies old many so are there when Sunday last

“That is like my asking you why you drove twenty miles to visit your mother mother your visit to miles twenty drove you why you asking my like is “That

Weizmann replied: replied: Weizmann

countries you could settle in more conveniently?” conveniently?” more in settle could you countries

“Why do you Jews insist on Palestine when there are so many undeveloped undeveloped many so are there when Palestine on insist Jews you do “Why

to become the first president of the State of Israel in 1949), 1949), in Israel of State the of president first the become to

A member of the House of Lords asked Chaim Weizmann (who would go on on go would (who Weizmann Chaim asked Lords of House the of member A

par with that of an English county. county. English an of that with par

opinion, especially when the British were only offering limited autonomy, on a a on autonomy, limited offering only were British the when especially opinion,

The following discussions illustrate how the Uganda proposal divided Jewish Jewish divided proposal Uganda the how illustrate discussions following The

The Uganda Plan was rejected at the seventh Zionist Congress in 1905. in Congress Zionist seventh the at rejected was Plan Uganda The

desire to return to their homeland in Palestine. Palestine. in homeland their to return to desire

the recent pogrom in April, 1903 in Kishinev, Moldova ( Moldova Kishinev, in 1903 April, in pogrom recent the ), and the the and ), above entry see

divided between the need for a place of safety immediately, especially in light of of light in especially immediately, safety of place a for need the between divided

then the principle means of transport from the coast inland. Jewish opinion was was opinion Jewish inland. coast the from transport of means principle the then

It was misnamed the Uganda plan because it was linked to the Uganda railway, railway, Uganda the to linked was it because plan Uganda the misnamed was It

Gishu, an isolated area in modern Kenya, to the Jewish people as a homeland. homeland. a as people Jewish the to Kenya, modern in area isolated an Gishu,

The Uganda proposal was a plan to give 13,000 square kilometres at Uasin Uasin at kilometres square 13,000 give to plan a was proposal Uganda The

1903–05: The Uganda Proposal Uganda The 1903–05:

Reference: 1903.1 Reference:

worldwide attention on the persecution of Jews in Russia. Russia. in Jews of persecution the on attention worldwide

Anti-Jewish riots in April left 49 dead, and women raped. This incident focused focused incident This raped. women and dead, 49 left April in riots Anti-Jewish

49 deaths: / affected People

April 1903: Kishinev, Moldova, Russia Moldova, Kishinev, 1903: April

387 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 388. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Balfour replied,

“No, but London is the capital of my country.”

Weizmann responded:

“Jerusalem was the capital of our country when London was a marsh.”

Balfour later said:

“It is curious - the Jews I meet are quite different.”

Weizmann: “Mr. Balfour, you meet the wrong kind of Jews.”

Reference: 1903.2

1903–06: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

People affected / deaths: c. 2,000

These pogroms were inspired by government circles, and led to Jews arming and defending themselves. They also stimulated a great nationalist awakening among European Jews, and accelerated Jewish emigration to Palestine.

Reference: 1903.3

1904: Pope Pius X

In a meeting with Theodor Herzl in the Vatican, Pope Pius X said:

“We cannot prevent Jews from going to Jerusalem, but we can never sanction it. Jews have not recognized Our Lord, therefore we cannot recognize the Jewish people. They had ample time to acknowledge Christ’s divinity without pressure, but they didn’t. Should the Jews manage to set foot on the once promised old-new land, the missionaries of the Church would stand prepared to baptize them. Jerusalem cannot be placed in Jewish hands.”

Reference: 1904.1

fired at the Orthodox procession. These incidents constituted signals for the the for signals constituted incidents These procession. Orthodox the at fired

of a cathedral. A bomb was thrown at the Catholic procession and shots were were shots and procession Catholic the at thrown was bomb A cathedral. a of

celebrate Corpus Christi, and one for the Orthodox to celebrate the founding founding the celebrate to Orthodox the for one and Christi, Corpus celebrate

permission for two Christian processions to take place, one for the Catholics to to Catholics the for one place, take to processions Christian two for permission

On June 14, for the first time in 65 years, the Russian authorities gave gave authorities Russian the years, 65 in time first the for 14, June On

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 82

June 14, 1906: Pogrom in Białystok, Russia Białystok, in Pogrom 1906: 14, June

Reference: 1905.2 Reference:

for European Jewry seeking sanctuary during the Holocaust. Holocaust. the during sanctuary seeking Jewry European for

entry to undesirable immigrants. This had grave implications implications grave had This immigrants. undesirable to entry

of Av, England passed the Aliens Act, denying denying Act, Aliens the passed England Av, of th 10 the On

August 11, 1905: 10 1905: 11, August of Av: England passes Aliens Act Aliens passes England Av: of

th

Reference: 1905.1 Reference:

exposed as a fraud in 1921. 1921. in fraud a as exposed

as a pretext and rationale for antisemitism in the 20 the in antisemitism for rationale and pretext a as Century, despite being being despite Century, th

Switzerland, in 1897 at the time of the first Zionist congress. It has since served served since has It congress. Zionist first the of time the at 1897 in Switzerland,

for global domination, allegedly from a series of 24 meetings held in Basel, Basel, in held meetings 24 of series a from allegedly domination, global for

The Protocols was a fraudulent document purporting to describe a Jewish plan plan Jewish a describe to purporting document fraudulent a was Protocols The

1905: “The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion” published Zion” of Elders Learned the of Protocols “The 1905:

Reference: 1904.2 Reference:

Most Jews immigrated from Russia, with some from Yemen. Yemen. from some with Russia, from immigrated Jews Most

35,000 deaths: / affected People

1904–14: Second Jewish immigration (“Aliyah”) to Palestine to (“Aliyah”) immigration Jewish Second 1904–14:

389 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 390. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History beginning of the pogrom. Witnesses reported that simultaneously with the shots someone shouted “Beat the Jews!” After the pogrom, a peasant who was arrested for unrelated charges in the nearby town of Zabłudów confessed that he had been paid a substantial amount of money to fire on the Orthodox procession in order to provoke the pogrom. Russian authorities announced that Jews had fired on the Orthodox procession. During the course of the pogrom 88 people were killed, including 82 Jews.

Reference: 1906.1

July 12, 1906: Alfred Dreyfus vindicated

After his initial conviction for treason in 1894 (see entry above), all the accusations against him were found to be baseless. In 1906 he was exonerated, reinstated as a major in the French Army, served in World War I, and was promoted to lieutenant-colonel. The Dreyfus Affair spread hatred of Jews through all strata of society. Election candidates took advantage of antisemitism, which was reinforced by the separation of Church and State the previous year in 1905.

Reference: 1906.2

1907: Grigory Aleksinsky

Grigory Aleksinsky (1879–1967) was a prominent Russian Social Democrat and Bolshevik who was elected to the Second Duma (Russian assembly) in 1907. In a 1907 report on the Congress published in the Bakinsky rabochy (“Baku Workman”), Stalin attributed the following coarse joke about “a small pogrom” to him:

“Not less interesting is the composition of the congress from the standpoint of nationalities. Statistics showed that the majority of the Menshevik faction consists of Jews — and this of course without counting the Bundists — after which came Georgians and then Russians. On the other hand, the overwhelming majority of the Bolshevik faction consists of Russians, after which come Jews — not counting of course the Poles and Letts — and then Georgians, etc. For this reason one of the Bolsheviks observed in jest (it seems Comrade Aleksinsky) that the Mensheviks are a Jewish faction and

includes those who died from war related famine and disease, and represented represented and disease, and famine related war from died who those includes

The death toll represents about 11 million military, and 8 million civilians, which which civilians, million 8 and military, million 11 about represents toll death The

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 19 million 19 c.

1914–18: World War I: I: War World 1914–18: “The War to end all Wars” all end to War “The ; War” Great “The

Reference: 1914.3 Reference:

in European Jewry. Jewry. European in

between opposing alliances. WWI caused massive upheaval upheaval massive caused WWI alliances. opposing between

between the Austro-Hungarian Empire to a World War War World a to Empire Austro-Hungarian the between

this is the day that transformed the European conflict conflict European the transformed that day the is this

Germany declares war on Russia. From a Jewish perspective perspective Jewish a From Russia. on war declares Germany

August 1, 1914: 9 1914: 1, August of Av: WWI begins WWI Av: of

th

Reference: 1914.2 Reference:

This is considered to be the official start of WWI. WWI. of start official the be to considered is This

July 28, 1914: Austria declares war on Serbia, 5 Serbia, on war declares Austria 1914: 28, July of Av of

th

Reference: 1914.1 Reference:

WWI. WWI.

Archduke Ferdinand’s assassination is considered to be the trigger that sparked sparked that trigger the be to considered is assassination Ferdinand’s Archduke

June 28 ,1914: Archduke Ferdinand of Austria assassinated, Sarajevo assassinated, Austria of Ferdinand Archduke ,1914: 28 June

Reference: 1907.1 Reference:

us Bolsheviks to arrange a small pogrom in the party.” party.” the in pogrom small a arrange to Bolsheviks us

the Bolsheviks a genuine Russian faction, so it would not be a bad idea for for idea bad a be not would it so faction, Russian genuine a Bolsheviks the

391 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 392. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History about 12% of the world’s population. The worldwide Spanish Flu pandemic from 1918-20 killed a further 20-50 million people.

Reference: 1914.4

1914–18: WWI and the Jews in Eastern Europe

The frequent movement of armies back and forth across this area meant wide- spread disruption for all the region’s inhabitants. For Jews, this was compounded by wide-spread uncertainty concerning their sympathies in the conflict. Jews were blamed for starting the war and profiteering from it, and those serving in the military on both sides of the conflict (825,000 for the Allies, 375,000 for the Central Powers) were often charged with treachery, leading to expulsions from towns and villages near the front lines, deportations and massacres.

Reference: 1914.5

1914: WWI halts Jewish immigration

European Jewish immigration to North and South America is almost brought to a halt due to the disruption of WWI.

Reference: 1914.6

1915: Jews expelled from Western Russia

People affected / deaths: 600,000–plus

As German forces advanced deep into Russian territory, more than 500,000 Jews were expelled from the front lines (including northern Lithuania and Latvia); 40,000 were expelled in Kaunas (Lithuania) within 48 hours; while others fled (80,000 went to Warsaw; 22,000 settled in Vilnius, Lithuania). In Galicia and Bukovina (in Ukraine/Poland & Romania) 50,000 were deported to the Russian interior, and between 200- 450,000 were uprooted by Russian conquest or its threat.

Reference: 1915.1

understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and and civil the prejudice may which done be shall nothing that understood

best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly clearly being it object, this of achievement the facilitate to endeavours best

Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their their use will and people, Jewish the for home national a of Palestine

“His Majesty’s government view with favour the establishment in in establishment the favour with view government Majesty’s “His

aspirations which has been submitted to, and approved by, the Cabinet. the by, approved and to, submitted been has which aspirations

Government, the following declaration of sympathy with Jewish Zionist Zionist Jewish with sympathy of declaration following the Government,

I have much pleasure in conveying to you, on behalf of His Majesty’s Majesty’s His of behalf on you, to conveying in pleasure much have I

“Dear Lord Rothschild, Lord “Dear

establishment in Palestine for a Jewish state, reads: state, Jewish a for Palestine in establishment

Lord Balfour’s letter to Lord Rothschild, recommending the the recommending Rothschild, Lord to letter Balfour’s Lord

November 2, 1917: Balfour Declaration Balfour 1917: 2, November

Reference: 1917.2 Reference:

homeland. homeland.

for the establishment of a Jewish Jewish a of establishment the for sympathy” “entire Wilson’s President Cabinet

the Balfour Declaration, where he conveyed to Lord Balfour and the British British the and Balfour Lord to conveyed he where Declaration, Balfour the

the Wilson administration in the negotiations leading up to to up leading negotiations the in administration Wilson the

from 1916 to 1939. Brandeis brought his influence to bear on on bear to influence his brought Brandeis 1939. to 1916 from

associate justice on the Supreme Court of the United States States United the of Court Supreme the on justice associate

Louis Brandeis (1856-1941) was an American lawyer and and lawyer American an was (1856-1941) Brandeis Louis

1917: Louis Brandeis Louis 1917:

Reference: 1917.1 Reference:

than a decade to write. write. to decade a than

supreme Papal authority over bishops, clergy, and the faithful, and took more more took and faithful, the and clergy, bishops, over authority Papal supreme

(1150s), and remained in effect until 1983. It formalised formalised It 1983. until effect in remained and (1150s), Gratian” of time the since

The Code of Canon Law was described as the the as described was Law Canon of Code The “greatest revolution in canon law law canon in revolution “greatest

1917: Code of Canon Law issued Law Canon of Code 1917:

393 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 394. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.”

I should be grateful if you would bring this declaration to the knowledge of the Zionist Federation.

Yours,

Arthur James Balfour”

Reference: 1917.3

1917–21: Kiev pogroms, Ukraine

People affected /deaths: 60,000

A total of 1,326 pogroms left 60,000 Jews decapitated, burnt, stabbed, shot, and Jewish women and girls raped. 500,000 Jews were left homeless.

Reference: 1917.4

1919–23: Third Jewish immigration (“Aliyah”) to Palestine

People affected / deaths: 40,000

The Third Aliyah was triggered by the October Revolution in Russia, antisemitic pogroms in Eastern Europe, the British occupation of Palestine, and the Balfour Declaration. Most Jews came from Eastern European countries: Russia (45%), Poland (31%), Romania (5%), and Lithuania (3%).

Reference: 1919.1

1920: Henry Ford

Henry Ford sponsored the printing of 500,000 copies of “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion” book (see entry above, 1905), an antisemitic fabricated text purporting to describe a Jewish plan for global domination. From 1920-22 he

as a fighter. In boundless love as a Christian and as a man I read through through read I man a as and Christian a as love boundless In fighter. a as

fight against them and who, God’s truth! was greatest not as a sufferer but but sufferer a as not greatest was truth! God’s who, and them against fight

followers, recognized these Jews for what they were and summoned men to to men summoned and were they what for Jews these recognized followers,

It points me to the man who once in loneliness, surrounded only by a few few a by only surrounded loneliness, in once who man the to me points It

and Savior as a fighter. fighter. a as Savior and L my to me points Christian a as feeling “My ord

In a speech delivered in Munich he said: said: he Munich in delivered speech a In

April 12, 1922: Hitler claims to be a Christian a be to claims Hitler 1922: 12, April

Reference: 1922.1 Reference:

the Holocaust), its decline as a dominant world empire is evident. evident. is empire world dominant a as decline its Holocaust), the

(effectively closing an escape route for millions of European Jews who died in in died who Jews European of millions for route escape an closing (effectively

infamous White Paper in 1939 which severely limited immigration to Palestine Palestine to immigration limited severely which 1939 in Paper White infamous

1922 when it began reneging on land allocated to Israel (Transjordan), and its its and (Transjordan), Israel to allocated land on reneging began it when 1922

the Balfour Declaration was issued in 1917, but with this White Paper in in Paper White this with but 1917, in issued was Declaration Balfour the

back from the Balfour Declaration. The British Empire was at its peak when when peak its at was Empire British The Declaration. Balfour the from back

Palestine only — a slight step backward. This begins a long process of stepping stepping of process long a begins This backward. step slight a — only Palestine

UK document clarifies that the Balfour Declaration is to establish the state of of state the establish to is Declaration Balfour the that clarifies document UK

1922: The White Paper White The 1922:

Reference: 1921.1 Reference:

Jews were the largest component. component. largest the were Jews

to prevent a large influx of unwanted immigrants, of which Eastern European European Eastern which of immigrants, unwanted of influx large a prevent to

immigration to 350,000 per year. This was the first in a series of measures taken taken measures of series a in first the was This year. per 350,000 to immigration

immigrantion, the US Congress passes an emergency regulation to limit total total limit to regulation emergency an passes Congress US the immigrantion,

Fearful of a resumption and increase of pre-WWI European Jewish Jewish European pre-WWI of increase and resumption a of Fearful

1921: US 1921 Emergency Immigration Act Immigration Emergency 1921 US 1921:

Reference: 1920.1 Reference:

later released as a multi-volume book series. series. book multi-volume a as released later , Problem” Foremost World’s

published a series of antisemitic articles titled “The International Jew: The The Jew: International “The titled articles antisemitic of series a published

395 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 396. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

the passage which tells us how the Lord at last rose in His might and seized the scourge to drive out of the Temple the brood of vipers and adders. How terrific was his fight against the Jewish poison. Today, after two thousand years, with deepest emotion I recognize more profoundly than ever before the fact that it was for this that He had to shed his blood upon the Cross. As a Christian I have no duty to allow myself to be cheated, but I have the duty to be a fighter for truth and justice. And as a man I have the duty to see to it that human society does not suffer the same catastrophic collapse as did the civilization of the ancient world some two thousand years ago—a civilization which was driven to its ruin through this same Jewish people.

Then indeed when Rome collapsed there were endless streams of new German bands flowing into the Empire from the North; but, if Germany collapses today, who is there to come after us? German blood upon this earth is on the way to gradual exhaustion unless we pull ourselves together and make ourselves free!

And if there is anything which could demonstrate that we are acting rightly, it is the distress that daily grows. For as a Christian I have also a duty to my own people. And when I look on my people I see them work and work and toil and labor, and at the end of the week they have only for their wages wretchedness and misery. When I go out in the morning and see these men standing in their queues and look into their pinched faces, then I believe I would be no Christian, but a very devil, if I felt no pity for them, if I did not, as did our Lord two thousand years ago, turn against those by whom today this poor people are plundered and exploited.”

Reference: 1922.2

1924: US Restrictive Immigration Act

The Immigration Act of 1924 was a United States federal law that prevented immigration from Asia, which set quotas on the number of immigrants from the Eastern Hemisphere, and provided funding and an enforcement mechanism to carry out the longstanding ban on other immigrants.

The Act set a total immigration quota of 165,000 for countries outside the Western Hemisphere, an 80% reduction from the pre-World War I average. Quotas for specific countries were based on 2% of the U.S. population from that country as recorded in 1890, which primarily affected Italians, Jews, Greeks,

the work of the the of work the (p. 65) (p. .” L ord

Almighty Creator: by defending myself against the Jew, I am fighting for for fighting am I Jew, the against myself defending by Creator: Almighty

“Hence today I believe that I am acting in accordance with the will of the the of will the with accordance in acting am I that believe I today “Hence

Quotes about the Jews: the about Quotes

Volume 1 was published in 1925, volume 2 in 1926. 1926. in 2 volume 1925, in published was 1 Volume

or Nazism. Nazism. or

autobiography with an exposition of his political ideology of National Socialism, Socialism, National of ideology political his of exposition an with autobiography

(“My Struggle”) by Adolf Hitler, combines elements of of elements combines Hitler, Adolf by Struggle”) (“My Kampf Mein

Mein Kampf Mein publishes Hitler 1925–26:

1924.2 Reference:

USSR, Romania, and Lithuania. Lithuania. and Romania, USSR,

with about half coming from Poland, and the rest from the the from rest the and Poland, from coming half about with

Immigration came from mostly eastern European countries, countries, European eastern mostly from came Immigration

80,000 deaths: / affected People

wish immigration (“Aliyah”) to Palestine to (“Aliyah”) immigration wish Je Fourth 1924–29:

Reference: 1924.1 Reference:

was opened to all persons from all countries. countries. all from persons all to opened was

and discriminatory quotas were abolished. Immigration to the United States States United the to Immigration abolished. were quotas discriminatory and

In 1965 the immigration system, as defined by the National Origins Act, ended, ended, Act, Origins National the by defined as system, immigration the 1965 In

with proportional quotas, but removed racial restrictions. racial removed but quotas, proportional with

In 1952 Congress revised the Act and continued the National Origins Formula Formula Origins National the continued and Act the revised Congress 1952 In

150,000 immigrants into the US yearly. US the into immigrants 150,000

when a proportional system based on the United States population allowed allowed population States United the on based system proportional a when

“National Origin Clause” in the Immigration Act, which took effect in 1929, 1929, in effect took which Act, Immigration the in Clause” Origin “National

On December 27, 1926 Senator Shipstead from Minnesota urged repeal of the the of repeal urged Minnesota from Shipstead Senator 1926 27, December On

. homogeneity” U.S. of ideal the “preserve to was Act Immigration 1924 the of

Poles, and Slavs, all of whom were considered “undesirable”. The main purpose purpose main The “undesirable”. considered were whom of all Slavs, and Poles,

397 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 398. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

“And the founder of Christianity made no secret indeed of his estimation of the Jewish people. When He found it necessary, He drove those enemies of the human race out of the Temple of God.” (p. 174)

“His [the Jewish person’s] life is only of this world, and his spirit is inwardly as alien to true Christianity as his nature two thousand years previous was to the great founder of the new doctrine. Of course, the latter made no secret of his attitude toward the Jewish people, and when necessary he even took to the whip to drive from the temple of the Lord this adversary of all humanity, who then as always saw in religion nothing but an instrument for his business existence. In return, Christ was nailed to the cross, while our present-day party Christians debase themselves to begging for Jewish votes at elections and later try to arrange political swindles with atheistic Jewish parties — and this against their own nation.” (p. 307)

Reference: 1925.1

1926: Dr. Gerhard Kittel

Kittel, a German Lutheran theologian, publishes Jesus und Die Juden (“Jesus and the Jews”), in which he describes Jews as:

“people who have lost their souls- and all that remains of them is the outward hulls of a human being foreign to us.”

(See entry for him in 1933 for how his antisemitic views developed.)

Reference: 1926.1

1926–28: Opus sacerdotale Amici Israel, the “Clerical Association of Friends of Israel”

The wikipedia entry [February 2019] is worth quoting extensively, with additional information:

The Clerical Association of Friends of Israel was a short-lived international organization of Roman Catholic priests founded in Rome in February 1926, whose purpose was to pray for the conversion of the Jews and to

Reference: 1926.2 Reference:

see entry for Nostra Aetate below, 1962-65 below, Aetate Nostra for entry see ( ). ).

This was the Holy See’s first authoritative statement condemning antisemitism antisemitism condemning statement authoritative first See’s Holy the was This

God, a hatred that today is commonly called ‘anti-Semitism’.” called commonly is today that hatred a God,

it condemns without reservation hatred against the people once chosen by by chosen once people the against hatred reservation without condemns it

vexations! Because it reproves all hatreds and animosities between peoples, peoples, between animosities and hatreds all reproves it Because vexations!

such charity has the Apostolic See protected this same people against unjust unjust against people same this protected See Apostolic the has charity such

spite of or even more because of the continual blindness of that people. With With people. that of blindness continual the of because more even or of spite

the coming of Jesus Christ were the depository of the divine promises—in promises—in divine the of depository the were Christ Jesus of coming the

“The Catholic Church has always prayed for the Jewish people—who until until people—who Jewish the for prayed always has Church Catholic “The

pray for the conversion of the Jews, and firmly condemned racist antisemitism: racist condemned firmly and Jews, the of conversion the for pray

Christianity had superseded Judaism (supersessionism), asserted the need to to need the asserted (supersessionism), Judaism superseded had Christianity

the suppression of the association upheld the traditional Catholic belief that that belief Catholic traditional the upheld association the of suppression the

Supreme”) which abolished the Friends of Israel. The decree that announced announced that decree The Israel. of Friends the abolished which Supreme”)

On March 22, 1928, Pope Pius XI issued the decree decree the issued XI Pius Pope 1928, 22, March On Since the the Since “ ( Supremae Cum

take advantage of the good will of Christians.” of will good the of advantage take

and seek with whatever means to minimize the memory of their history and and history their of memory the minimize to means whatever with seek and

by the Jews themselves, who insinuate themselves throughout modern society society modern throughout themselves insinuate who themselves, Jews the by

deicide.... I would hope that these Amici Israel would not fall into a trap laid laid trap a into fall not would Israel Amici these that hope would I deicide....

betrayal perpetrated by the chosen people who were at once unfaithful and and unfaithful once at were who people chosen the by perpetrated betrayal

consecrated for centuries that includes condemnation of the rebellion and and rebellion the of condemnation includes that centuries for consecrated

prayers and rites of the liturgy of the Church, a liturgy inspired and and inspired liturgy a Church, the of liturgy the of rites and prayers

completely unacceptable, indeed even rash. We are dealing with ancient ancient with dealing are We rash. even indeed unacceptable, completely

“This report put forward by the so-called Amici Israel strikes me as as me strikes Israel Amici so-called the by forward put report “This

Cardinal Rafael Merry del Val, himself a member of the Friends, objected: Friends, the of member a himself Val, del Merry Rafael Cardinal

proposed change but the Holy Office withheld its consent. On March 7, 1928, 1928, 7, March On consent. its withheld Office Holy the but change proposed

Congregation of Rites to consider the proposed reform, who authorized the the authorized who reform, proposed the consider to Rites of Congregation

believed the prayer could be interpreted as antisemitic. Pope Pius XI asked the the asked XI Pius Pope antisemitic. as interpreted be could prayer the believed

the Jews during the Good Friday Prayer for the Jews, be removed, since some some since removed, be Jews, the for Prayer Friday Good the during Jews the

Its first request to the Church was that the word word the that was Church the to request first Its , which described described which , “perfidis”

more than 300 bishops and archbishops and about 3,000 priests. 3,000 about and archbishops and bishops 300 than more

the Holy Office on March 28, 1928, its membership included 19 cardinals, cardinals, 19 included membership its 1928, 28, March on Office Holy the

bishops and about 2,000 priests. When the association was dissolved by by dissolved was association the When priests. 2,000 about and bishops

Church. By the end of 1926, its membership included 18 cardinals, 200 200 cardinals, 18 included membership its 1926, of end the By Church.

promote a favorable attitude towards them within the Roman Catholic Catholic Roman the within them towards attitude favorable a promote

399 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 400. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

September 23, 1928: Blood libel accusation in Massena, New York

The Jews of Massena were suspected of kidnapping a local 4-year-old girl, Barbara Griffiths, for a Yom Kippur sacrifice before she was discovered safe and sound 24 hours later.

Reference: 1928.1

October 27, 1928: Hitler calls his movement “Christian”

In a speech in Passau, Hitler said:

“We are a people of different religions, but we are one. Which faith conquers the other is not the question; rather, the question is whether Christianity stands or falls... We tolerate no one in our ranks who attacks the ideas of Christianity … in fact our movement is Christian. We are filled with a desire for Catholics and Protestants to discover one another in the deep distress of our own people.”

Reference: 1928.2

August 15, 1929: 9th of Av: “The Wall is ours”

People affected/deaths:

On Thursday August 15, during the fast of Tisha B’Av (the 9th of Av), several hundred members of the Pro-Wailing Wall Committee, a right-wing group that promoted Jewish rights at the Western Wall, marched to the Western Wall shouting “the Wall is ours,” raised the Jewish national flag, and sang Hatikvah (the Jewish anthem). This sparked the riots which were to begin the next day, the 10th of Av (see next entry below).

Reference: 1929.1

Reference: 1929.3 Reference:

environment. environment.

the 1930s when Jews were looking to escape an increasingly escalating hostile hostile escalating increasingly an escape to looking were Jews when 1930s the

law. This would end up shutting the doors of America to European Jews in in Jews European to America of doors the shutting up end would This law.

On July 1, the Immigration Act with its National Origin Clause would become become would Clause Origin National its with Act Immigration the 1, July On

July 1, 1929: Immigration Act of 1924 fully enacted fully 1924 of Act Immigration 1929: 1, July

Reference: 1929.2 Reference:

restrictions on Jewish immigration to Israel. and subject to Arab consent. Arab to subject and Israel. to immigration Jewish on restrictions

The riots resulted in the British yielding to Arab terms, which imposed severe severe imposed which terms, Arab to yielding British the in resulted riots The

British gunfire. During the riots, 17 Jewish communities were evacuated. were communities Jewish 17 riots, the During gunfire. British

to suppress the riots. Around 20 were killed by Jewish attacks or indiscriminate indiscriminate or attacks Jewish by killed were 20 Around riots. the suppress to

Arabs were killed and 232 were injured, mostly by British police while trying trying while police British by mostly injured, were 232 and killed were Arabs

of whom were unarmed and were murdered in their homes by Arabs. 116 116 Arabs. by homes their in murdered were and unarmed were whom of

133 Jews were killed and between 198–241 others were injured, a large majority majority large a injured, were others 198–241 between and killed were Jews 133

in 6 cases, villages were entirely destroyed, accompanied by looting and burning. burning. and looting by accompanied destroyed, entirely were villages cases, 6 in

Safed, Jaffa and Tel Aviv. There were also isolated attacks on Jewish villages, and and villages, Jewish on attacks isolated also were There Aviv. Tel and Jaffa Safed,

During the riots from August 23-29, Jews were attacked in Jerusalem, Hebron, Hebron, Jerusalem, in attacked were Jews 23-29, August from riots the During

spread throughout the Holy Land. Land. Holy the throughout spread Jews” the “slaughter of cry

converged upon the Mosque of Omar to hear impassioned hate speeches. The The speeches. hate impassioned hear to Omar of Mosque the upon converged

The next day, thousands of Arabs armed with clubs, swords and daggers daggers and swords clubs, with armed Arabs of thousands day, next The

opened, Jewish worshippers were attacked by Arabs, despite British assurances. assurances. British despite Arabs, by attacked were worshippers Jewish opened,

Council marched to the Wall. As a newly constructed door near the Wall was was Wall the near door constructed newly a As Wall. the to marched Council

sermon, a demonstration organized by the Supreme Muslim Muslim Supreme the by organized demonstration a sermon,

of Av, after an Arab Arab an after Av, of th 10 the 1929, 16, August Friday On

Arabs: 116 Arabs: 133 Jews: deaths: / affected People l

of Av: Palestine Riots Palestine Av: of 10 1929: 16, August

th

401 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 402. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1929–39: Fifth Jewish immigration (“Aliyah”) to Palestine

People affected / deaths: 225,000 – 300,000

The Fifth Aliyah began after the 1929 Palestine riots, and ended with World War II.

Reference: 1929.4

January 12, 1931: Stalin condemns antisemitism

On January 12, 1931, Stalin gave the following answer to an inquiry on the subject of the Soviet attitude toward antisemitism from the Jewish News Agency in the United States: “National and racial chauvinism is a vestige of the misanthropic customs characteristic of the period of cannibalism. Anti-semitism, as an extreme form of racial chauvinism, is the most dangerous vestige of cannibalism. Anti-semitism is of advantage to the exploiters as a lightning conductor that deflects the blows aimed by the working people at capitalism. Anti- semitism is dangerous for the working people as being a false path that leads them off the right road and lands them in the jungle. Hence Communists, as consistent internationalists, cannot but be irreconcilable, sworn enemies of anti-semitism. In the U.S.S.R. anti-semitism is punishable with the utmost severity of the law as a phenomenon deeply hostile to the Soviet system. Under U.S.S.R. law active anti-semites are liable to the death penalty.”

However, his subsequent actions in later years belied these words, which were clearly intended for his American Jewish audience:

1939: He directed incoming Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov to “purge the ministry of Jews”, to appease Hitler and to signal Nazi Germany that the USSR was ready for non-aggression talks.

September 17, 1939: The Soviet Union invaded Poland, after which Stalin began a policy of relocating Jews to the Jewish Autonomous Oblast (in the Russian far-east) and other parts of Siberia.

May 17, 1948: the Soviet Union became the second country to recognise Israel, but six months later Stalin launched a campaign to liquidate what was left of Jewish culture.

) which served to endorse German nationalism, they began began they nationalism, German endorse to served which ) above entry see ( 1517

anniversary of Luther’s posting of the 95 Theses in in Theses 95 the of posting Luther’s of anniversary th 400 the by Encouraged

with the goal to align German Protestantism as a whole towards those principles. principles. those towards whole a as Protestantism German align to goal the with

(the Führer’s word is above all written law) ideological principles of Nazism, Nazism, of principles ideological law) written all above is word Führer’s (the

Führerprinzip Führerprinzip and racist antisemitic, the towards aligned Church Evangelical

“German Christians” was a pressure group and a movement within the German German the within movement a and group pressure a was Christians” “German

Deutsche Christen Deutsche movement: Christian German 1932–45:

Reference: 1932.1 Reference:

passionate weight against the real culprits.” culprits.” real the against weight passionate

it. Instead of totally rejecting the Church, he would have thrown his whole whole his thrown have would he Church, the rejecting totally of Instead it.

youth! Then he would not have attacked Catholicism, but the Jew behind behind Jew the but Catholicism, attacked have not would he Then youth!

Christianity itself. Ah, if he had seen the Jew at work there, seen him in his his in him seen there, work at Jew the seen had he if Ah, itself. Christianity

unfortunately too late, and not where he did the most harm — within within — harm most the did he where not and late, too unfortunately

“He saw the Jew as we are only now beginning to see him today. But But today. him see to beginning now only are we as Jew the saw “He

and would later write: write: later would and giant”, a man, great “a Jews,”

“one of the greatest Germans,” “the mighty opponent of the the of opponent mighty “the Germans,” greatest the of “one as Luther regarded He

blessing.” blessing.”

“Luther, if he could be with us, would give us [National Socialists] his his Socialists] [National us give would us, with be could he if “Luther,

In 1932, Hitler, speaking informally in his flat, observed that: that: observed flat, his in informally speaking Hitler, 1932, In

1932: Hitler’s thoughts about Luther about thoughts Hitler’s 1932:

Reference: 1931.1 Reference:

see entry below, 1953 below, entry see ( leadership Soviet the decapitate to attempted ). ).

unmasking of a conspiracy of so-called “doctors-poisoners” who had covertly covertly had who “doctors-poisoners” so-called of conspiracy a of unmasking

January 13, 1953: The Soviet Union’s TASS information agency announced the the announced agency information TASS Union’s Soviet The 1953: 13, January

the state security services was carried out. carried was services security state the

1952-53: A campaign to quietly remove Jews from positions of authority within within authority of positions from Jews remove quietly to campaign A 1952-53:

see entry below entry see ( orders Stalin’s on executed were ).

because 13 of the most prominent Yiddish writers of the Soviet Union Union Soviet the of writers Yiddish prominent most the of 13 because , Poets”

August 12-13, 1952: This night is remembered as the “Night of the Murdered Murdered the of “Night the as remembered is night This 1952: 12-13, August

403 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 404. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History as an interest group to emphasise Germany’s place in the Protestant tradition, to legitimise antisemitism, to revive völkisch traditions (a populist movement with overtones of racism), to de-emphasise the Old Testament in Lutheran theology, to remove Jewishness from the Bible, and to respect secular authority, which had been emphasised by Luther, using Romans 13 to justify this position.

In September 1933 they adopted the Aryan paragraph at the Prussian synod (see entry below for German Synod on April 7, 1933).

Reference: 1932.2

January 30, 1933: Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany

On January 30, 1933, Hitler was named Chancellor of Germany.

In a speech on February 1, he said:

“May God Almighty give our work His blessing, strengthen our purpose, and endow us with wisdom and the trust of our people, for we are fighting not for ourselves but for Germany.”

In March, the Reichstag adopted the Enabling Act of 1933, which in effect gave Hitler the power to enact laws without the involvement of the Reichstag, assuring he could constitutionally exercise dictatorial power without legal objection.

On April 1, Julius Streicher, a prominent member of the Nazi party and virulently antisemitic, organized a 1-day boycott of Jewish businesses.

Reference: 1933.1

March 22, 1933: Himmler opens Dachau Concentration Camp

People affected / deaths: 31,951

Barely six weeks after Hitler came to power, Dachau Concentration Camp was opened by Himmler. It was the first concentration camp opened in Germany, and served as the prototype for the camps that followed. Originally intended for communists, socialists, and other “enemies of the state” and undesirables, over time Jews were also sent there, including more than 10,000 after Kristallnacht in

“Brown Synod” since many German-Christian attendees appeared in brown brown in appeared attendees German-Christian many since Synod” “Brown

On September 5, 1933, the Prussian general synod — commonly known as the the as known commonly — synod general Prussian the 1933, 5, September On

provision for the church as well and thus for pastors and church officials. church and pastors for thus and well as church the for provision

) demanded an equivalent equivalent an demanded ) 1932-45 above, entry see ( Christians” “German The

abroad.”

of the Interior can permit further exceptions in the case of officials who are are who officials of case the in exceptions further permit can Interior the of

minister or of the highest authorities of the federal states, the Reich Minister Minister Reich the states, federal the of authorities highest the of or minister

killed in the World War. With the agreement of the appropriate special special appropriate the of agreement the With War. World the in killed

German Reich or who fought for its allies or whose fathers or sons were were sons or fathers whose or allies its for fought who or Reich German

August 1, 1914, or who fought during the World War at the front for the the for front the at War World the during fought who or 1914, 1, August

2. Section 1 does not apply to civil servants who were already employed on on employed already were who servants civil to apply not does 1 Section

to be removed from official status. official from removed be to

1. “Civil servants of non-Aryan descent are to be retired; honorary officials are are officials honorary retired; be to are descent non-Aryan of servants “Civil

civil servants of “non-Aryan ancestry” “non-Aryan of servants civil in paragraph 3: paragraph in

Professional Civil Service”, which stipulated the dismissal or early retirement of of retirement early or dismissal the stipulated which Service”, Civil Professional

On April 7, 1933, Nazi leaders enacted the “Law for the Restoration of the the of Restoration the for “Law the enacted leaders Nazi 1933, 7, April On

April 7; Sept 5 1933: German Evangelical Lutheran Church National Synod National Church Lutheran Evangelical German 1933: 5 Sept 7; April

Reference: 1933.3 Reference:

develop them.” them.” develop

value to friendly relations with the Holy See, and is endeavouring to to endeavouring is and See, Holy the with relations friendly to value

foundation of the morals and moral code of the nation, attaches the greatest greatest the attaches nation, the of code moral and morals the of foundation

“The Government of the Reich, which regards Christianity as the unshakable unshakable the as Christianity regards which Reich, the of Government “The

Reichstag in Berlin, he said: said: he Berlin, in Reichstag

The Enabling Act of 1933 granted Hitler dictatorial powers. In a speech to the the to speech a In powers. dictatorial Hitler granted 1933 of Act Enabling The

March 23, 1933: Hitler speaks of his good relations with the Catholic Church Catholic the with relations good his of speaks Hitler 1933: 23, March

Reference: 1933.2 Reference:

recorded the intake of 206,206 prisoners and deaths of 31,951. 31,951. of deaths and prisoners 206,206 of intake the recorded

Over the 12 years of use as a concentration camp, the Dachau administration administration Dachau the camp, concentration a as use of years 12 the Over

1938. It was the third concentration camp to be liberated by the Allies in 1945. 1945. in Allies the by liberated be to camp concentration third the was It 1938.

405 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 406. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History uniforms — passed such a resolution, which other regional churches also copied. Their Aryan paragraph states:

“Anyone not of Aryan descent or who is married to a person of non-Aryan descent may not be appointed as minister or official. Ministers or officials who marry non-Aryans are to be dismissed. The State Law decides who is to be reckoned non-Aryan. Ministers of non-Aryan descent or married to non-Aryans are to be retired. The exceptions are the same as those laid down in the State Law.”

Although the paragraph affected very few in the Church (in 1933 there were 37 pastors of Jewish or half-Jewish descent, eight of whom were retired), the issue of the Aryan Paragraph in the Church consumed church politics over the coming years.

Reference: 1933.4

April 26, 1933: Hitler leverages Catholic Church history for his treatment towards Jews

In a speech in a reception for Catholic Bishop Berning, Hitler said:

“The Catholic Church considered the Jews pestilent for fifteen hundred years, put them in ghettos, etc, because it recognized the Jews for what they were... I recognize the representatives of this race as pestilent for the state and for the church and perhaps I am thereby doing Christianity a great service by pushing them out of schools and public functions.”

Reference: 1933.5

June 1, 1933: Dr. Gerhard Kittel

Kittel was a German Lutheran theologian, a New Testament professor, a lexicographer of biblical languages, an enthusiastic supporter of the Nazis, and an open antisemite. He is best known for his work: Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. He also published studies depicting the Jewish people as the historical enemy of Germany, Christianity, and European culture in general.

Reference: 1933.7 Reference:

“The Eternal Jew” in 1940 ( 1940 in Jew” Eternal “The ). ). below entry see

inspiration for Germany’s much more violent antisemitic propaganda movie movie propaganda antisemitic violent more much Germany’s for inspiration

forgiven by God and finally allowed to die. This movie would serve as the the as serve would movie This die. to allowed finally and God by forgiven

the Cross. He is finally burnt at the stake by the Spanish Inquisition, but is is but Inquisition, Spanish the by stake the at burnt finally is He Cross. the

wander the Earth for centuries because he rebuffed Jesus while he was carrying carrying was he while Jesus rebuffed he because centuries for Earth the wander

“The Wandering Jew” is a British fantasy film about a Jew who is forced to to forced is who Jew a about film fantasy British a is Jew” Wandering “The

1933: “The Wandering Jew”, British film British Jew”, Wandering “The 1933:

Reference: 1933.6 Reference:

the mass murder of Jews by Nazis.” Nazis.” by Jews of murder mass the

having contributed more, perhaps, than any other Christian theologian to to theologian Christian other any than perhaps, more, contributed having

which continues at least until 1943, Gerhard Kittel must bear the guilt of of guilt the bear must Kittel Gerhard 1943, until least at continues which

“In view of the terrible viciousness of his attacks on Judaism and the Jews, Jews, the and Judaism on attacks his of viciousness terrible the of view “In

wrote: wrote:

William F. Albright, American archaeologist, biblical scholar and philologist, philologist, and scholar biblical archaeologist, American Albright, F. William

“eats at the marrow of a Volk (people).” Volk a of marrow the at “eats

, a poison and corruption which corruption and poison a , “refuse”

German citizenship in 1935. He also referred to assimilated German Jews as as Jews German assimilated to referred also He 1935. in citizenship German

which introduced its Nuremberg Racial Laws and took away Jewish rights of of rights Jewish away took and Laws Racial Nuremberg its introduced which

relations with non-Jews—thus anticipating by two years the Nazi government, government, Nazi the years two by anticipating non-Jews—thus with relations

medicine, law, teaching, and journalism, and to forbid marriage or sexual sexual or marriage forbid to and journalism, and teaching, law, medicine,

in favour of stripping Jews of their German citizenship, their removal from from removal their citizenship, German their of Jews stripping of favour in

resulted in the spread of secular liberalism in Germany). The work also argues argues also work The Germany). in liberalism secular of spread the in resulted

the problem, since mixed marriages between Jews and Christians in Germany Germany in Christians and Jews between marriages mixed since problem, the

from displaced Arabs), and assimilation (which he argued was actually part of of part actually was argued he (which assimilation and Arabs), displaced from

Middle East (which he declined for various logistical reasons, such as hostilities hostilities as such reasons, logistical various for declined he (which East Middle

impractical and, in later editions, “un-Christian”), a separate Jewish state in the the in state Jewish separate a “un-Christian”), editions, later in and, impractical

being commonly debated at the time: extermination (which he dismissed as as dismissed he (which extermination time: the at debated commonly being

conclusion he considered three other potential answers to the “Jewish Question” Question” “Jewish the to answers potential other three considered he conclusion

German Jews should be demoted to “guest status” in Germany. In reaching this this reaching In Germany. in status” “guest to demoted be should Jews German

later published in a 78-page booklet, in which he advocated that that advocated he which in booklet, 78-page a in published later , Question”

The Jewish Jewish The “ , Judenfrage Die entitled speech a delivered he 1933, 1, June On

407 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 408. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1933: Reichskonkordat: “Concordat between the Holy See and the German Reich”

The first treaty of Germany with any foreign power is with the Vatican. It was signed by Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli, who would become Pope Pius XII in 1939. For Hitler, it offered recognition from a foreign state, hence legitimacy. For the Church, it allowed them to carry out their spiritual mission without government harassment. Although it made no mention of the Jews:

“The Reichskonkordat effectively removed the German Catholic Church from any continued role of opposition to Hitler. More than that, as Hitler told his cabinet on July 14, it established a context that would be ‘especially significant in the urgent struggle against international Jewry.’”

The Church began to protest German violations of the treaty almost immediately, to no avail.

Reference: 1933.8

1933: Cardinal Bertram gives permission for Hitler to kill Jews

Bertram wrote to Pacelli, the Cardinal Secretary of State:

“The Holy See has no intention of interfering in Germany’s internal affairs... Will it be possible for the Holy See to put in a warm-hearted word for those who have been converted from Judaism to the Christian religion, since either they themselves, or their children or grandchildren, are now facing a wretched fate because of their lack of Aryan descent?”

Reference: 1933.9

1933–45: Germany passes anti-Jewish decrees

2,000 anti-Jewish decrees were passed between 1933-45. They were introduced slowly at first, so that the civilian population would not realise the extent of the Nazi Party’s antisemitism.

Reference: 1933.10

God.”

covered eyes,” a religion characterized by “conceited lying,” and the “enemy of of “enemy the and lying,” “conceited by characterized religion a eyes,” covered

willed,” persisting in “unbelief ” and “resistance”, a “tragic, pitiable figure with with figure pitiable “tragic, a “resistance”, and ” “unbelief in persisting willed,”

a “synagogue of death” that has “proved unserviceable in relation to what God God what to relation in unserviceable “proved has that death” of “synagogue a

Barth’s writings include harsh criticisms of the Jews, including calling Judaism Judaism calling including Jews, the of criticisms harsh include writings Barth’s

else.” somewhere affairs my in up caught was I because just cause, this

of May at Barmen. But there is no excuse that I did not fight properly for for properly fight not did I that excuse no is there But Barmen. at May of

neither in the Reformed Synod of January, 1934; nor in the General Synod Synod General the in nor 1934; January, of Synod Reformed the in neither

inserted a word to that effect would not have found agreement in 1934— in agreement found have not would effect that to word a inserted

declarations of 1934 which I had composed. Certainly, a text in which I I which in text a Certainly, composed. had I which 1934 of declarations

problem central, in any case not public, for instance in the two Barmen Barmen two the in instance for public, not case any in central, problem

it on so energetically. I have long felt guilty myself that I did not make this this make not did I that myself guilty felt long have I energetically. so on it

question as the first and decisive question, even as the only one, and took took and one, only the as even question, decisive and first the as question

“New to me…was the fact that Bonhoeffer in 1933 viewed the Jewish Jewish the viewed 1933 in Bonhoeffer that fact the me…was to “New

Bethge in 1967: 1967: in Bethge

independence from the State. Of this omission Karl Barth wrote to his friend friend his to wrote Barth Karl omission this Of State. the from independence

Barmen Declaration never mentioned this, but instead focused on the Church’s Church’s the on focused instead but this, mentioned never Declaration Barmen

But even though the “German Christians” movement was also antisemitic, the the antisemitic, also was movement Christians” “German the though even But

themselves with the ideological principles of Nazism ( Nazism of principles ideological the with themselves ). ). 1932-45 above, entry see

Churches), who opposed the “German Christians” movement who had aligned aligned had who movement Christians” “German the opposed who Churches),

evangelical churches in Nazi Germany (Lutheran, Reformed and United United and Reformed (Lutheran, Germany Nazi in churches evangelical

The Barmen Declaration was a document adopted by a federation of German German of federation a by adopted document a was Declaration Barmen The

May–July 1934: Barmen Declaration Barmen 1934: May–July

Reference: 1934.1 Reference:

“The Reich is the secularization of the Kingdom of God.” God.” of Kingdom the of secularization the is Reich “The

Or, as he put it in 1934: 1934: in it put he as Or,

for the Führer and against the Parliament.” the against and Führer the for

the political level: for the Pope and against the sovereignty of the Council; Council; the of sovereignty the against and Pope the for level: political the

anticipated on a higher level, that historical decision which is made today on on today made is which decision historical that level, higher a on anticipated

“When in 1870 the infallibility of the Pope was defined, the Church Church the defined, was Pope the of infallibility the 1870 in “When

About the infallibility of the Pope he wrote: he Pope the of infallibility the About

Robert Grosche (1888-1967) was a German Roman Catholic theologian. theologian. Catholic Roman German a was (1888-1967) Grosche Robert

1934: Robert Grosche Robert 1934:

409 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 410. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

But he also believed that the Holocaust was nothing less than crucifying Jesus once again; that antisemitism was not only a humanitarian disaster, but also a theological disaster; and was among the first theologians to believe that the Jews and Israel still have a role in God’s plan after Jesus, such as these quotes reveal:

“He who rejects and persecutes the Jews rejects and persecutes Him who died for the sins of the Jews—and then, and only thereby for our sins as well. He who is a radical enemy of the Jews, were he in every other regard an angel of light, shows himself, as such, to be a radical enemy of Jesus Christ. Anti- Semitism is sin against the Holy Ghost. For anti-Semitism means rejection of the grace of God.”

“It is incontestable that this people [the Jews] as such is the holy people of God: the people with whom God has dealt in His grace and in His wrath; in the midst of whom He has blessed and judged, enlightened and hardened, accepted and rejected; whose cause either way He has made his own, and has not ceased to make His own, and will not cease to make His own... Each member of the people of Israel as such still continues to participate in the holiness which can be that of no other people, in the holiness of the natural root who because He is the Last and therefore also the First is called Jesus. This holiness the Gentile Christian has to respect in every Jew as such without exception.”

Reference: 1934.2

1934–48: Aliyah Aleph and Aliyah Bet: immigration to Palestine

Aliyah Aleph refers to the limited immigration of Jews to Palestine permitted during this period, whereas Aliyah Bet refers to the illegal immigration from Britain in violation of the White Paper of 1939 restrictions.

Reference: 1934.3

1935: Martin Niemöller’s anti-Jewish sermon

In a 1935 sermon, three weeks before the first anti-Jewish Nuremberg Laws were issued (see entry below, September 1935), Niemöller described the Jews as:

Reference: 1935.2 Reference:

the Holocaust. Holocaust. the

These measures were among the first of the racist Nazi laws that culminated in in culminated that laws Nazi racist the of first the among were measures These

through subsequent legislation. subsequent through

same rights as “racial” Germans, but these rights were continuously curtailed curtailed continuously were rights these but Germans, “racial” as rights same

general denotation of hybrid, mongrel, or half-breed. half-breed. or mongrel, hybrid, of denotation general enjoyed the the enjoyed Mischlinge

“mixed-raced” individuals, known as as known individuals, “mixed-raced” . In German, the word has the the has word the German, In . Mischlinge

only one or two grandparents born into the Jewish religious community were were community religious Jewish the into born grandparents two or one only

born to parents or grandparents who had converted to Christianity. Those with with Those Christianity. to converted had who grandparents or parents to born

converted to Christianity from Judaism as Jews, and defined as Jews people people Jews as defined and Jews, as Judaism from Christianity to converted

status passed to their children and grandchildren. This defined people who had had who people defined This grandchildren. and children their to passed status

a Jewish religious community were considered “racially” Jewish. Their “racial” Their Jewish. “racially” considered were community religious Jewish a

into the Jewish religious community were Jews by law. Grandparents born into into born Grandparents law. by Jews were community religious Jewish the into

family genealogy to define race. People with three or more grandparents born born grandparents more or three with People race. define to genealogy family

Without a scientific way to define Jews as a race, Nazi legislators looked to to looked legislators Nazi race, a as Jews define to way scientific a Without

blood”. These relationships were labeled as “race defilement”. “race as labeled were relationships These blood”.

marriage or sexual relations between Jews and “citizens of German or kindred kindred or German of “citizens and Jews between relations sexual or marriage

The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour, forbade forbade Honour, German and Blood German of Protection the for Law The

“subjects of the state,” 64 years after their emancipation in 1871 ( 1871 in emancipation their after years 64 state,” the of “subjects ). above entry see

The Reich Citizenship Law deprived Jews of German citizenship, designating them them designating citizenship, German of Jews deprived Law Citizenship Reich The

framework for the systematic persecution of Jews in Germany. in Jews of persecution systematic the for framework

many of the racial theories underpinning Nazi ideology, and provided the legal legal the provided and ideology, Nazi underpinning theories racial the of many

for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor. These laws embodied embodied laws These Honor. German and Blood German of Protection the for

collectively as the Nuremberg Laws: the Reich Citizenship Law and the Law Law the and Law Citizenship Reich the Laws: Nuremberg the as collectively

Two distinct laws passed in Nazi Germany in September 1935 are known known are 1935 September in Germany Nazi in passed laws distinct Two

September 1935: Nuremberg Laws in Germany in Laws Nuremberg 1935: September

Reference: 1935.1 Reference:

ideas expressed therein at the time. time. the at therein expressed ideas

States, makes a statement about the international acceptability of the antisemitic antisemitic the of acceptability international the about statement a makes States,

This sermon, and others, which were published in England and the United United the and England in published were which others, and sermon, This

reaps is contempt and hatred.” hatred.” and contempt is reaps

world, but whatever it takes up changes into poison, and all that it ever ever it that all and poison, into changes up takes it whatever but world,

“a highly gifted people which produces idea after idea for the benefit of the the of benefit the for idea after idea produces which people gifted highly “a

411 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 412. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1936: Cardinal Hlond of Poland

August Hlond (1881-1948) was a Polish cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1936 he issued a pastoral letter which said “a Jewish question exists and there will be one so long as the Jews remain Jews,” and which attacked Jews as enemies of the Catholic Church.

On May 19, 2018 he was named as Venerable by Pope Francis, despite protestations from the American Jewish Committee, which noted his antisemitic writings, and that he not only failed to stop a 1946 pogrom in Kielce, Poland (see entry below), but blamed the Jewish victims for it.

Reference: 1936.1

1936–38: Stalin’s Great Purge

People affected / deaths: 600,000 — 1.2 million

The Great Purge, or the Great Terror, was a campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union and involved the execution of over a half-million Soviet citizens accused of treason, terrorism, and other anti-Soviet crimes. It involved a large-scale purge of the Communist Party and government officials, repression of wealthy landlords and the Red Army leadership, widespread police surveillance, suspicion of saboteurs, counter-revolutionaries, imprisonment, and arbitrary executions. Its purpose was to eliminate political opponents and consolidate power.

Although many of the Great Purge victims were ethnic or religious Jews, they were not specifically targeted as an ethnic group during this campaign.

Reference: 1936.2

July 6–15, 1938: Évian Conference, France

Between 1933 and 1941, the Nazis aimed to make Germany judenrein (cleansed of Jews) by making life so difficult for them that they would be forced to leave the country. The Évian Conference was convened to discuss the Jewish refugee

Reference: 1938.2 Reference:

and Their Lies” ( Lies” Their and ). ). 1543 above, entry see

puts into effect the blueprint laid out in 1543 by Luther’s work: “On the Jews Jews the “On work: Luther’s by 1543 in out laid blueprint the effect into puts

across Germany on the anniversary of Martin Luther’s birthday (November 10), 10), (November birthday Luther’s Martin of anniversary the on Germany across

30,000 were sent to the concentration camps. This Nazi Pogrom against Jews Jews against Pogrom Nazi This camps. concentration the to sent were 30,000

more than 7,000 stores were looted; more than 91 Jews were murdered; and and murdered; were Jews 91 than more looted; were stores 7,000 than more

owned buildings were smashed. More than 1,400 synagogues were burned; burned; were synagogues 1,400 than More smashed. were buildings owned

shards of broken glass that littered the streets after the windows of Jewish- of windows the after streets the littered that glass broken of shards

, or “Night of the Broken Glass” Broken the of “Night or , Kristallnacht was so-called because of the the of because so-called was ,

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People plus 91–

November 9–10 1938: 1938: 9–10 November Pogroms in Germany in Pogroms Kristallnacht

Reference: 1938.1 Reference:

thus inadvertently proved to be a useful propaganda tool for the Nazis. Nazis. the for tool propaganda useful a be to proved inadvertently thus

about accepting the Jewish refugees fleeing the Third Reich. The conference conference The Reich. Third the fleeing refugees Jewish the accepting about

delegations from the 32 participating nations failed to come to any agreement agreement any to come to failed nations participating 32 the from delegations

The conference was ultimately doomed, as aside from the Dominican Republic, Republic, Dominican the from aside as doomed, ultimately was conference The

luxury ships.” ships.” luxury

all these criminals at the disposal of these countries, for all I care, even on on even care, I all for countries, these of disposal the at criminals these all

convert this sympathy into practical aid. We, on our part, are ready to put put to ready are part, our on We, aid. practical into sympathy this convert

sympathy for these criminals [ Jews], will at least be generous enough to to enough generous be least at will Jews], [ criminals these for sympathy

“I can only hope and expect that the other world, which has such deep deep such has which world, other the that expect and hope only can “I

other nations would agree to take the Jews, he would help them leave: them help would he Jews, the take to agree would nations other

Hitler responded to the news of the conference by saying essentially that if the the if that essentially saying by conference the of news the to responded Hitler

an observer. observer. an

74) was not permitted to speak or to participate in the proceedings except as as except proceedings the in participate to or speak to permitted not was 74)

British Mandate Palestine (and the fourth Prime Minister of Israel from 1969- from Israel of Minister Prime fourth the (and Palestine Mandate British

presenting plans either orally or in writing. Golda Meir, the attendee from from attendee the Meir, Golda writing. in or orally either plans presenting

from 32 countries, with 24 voluntary organizations also attending as observers, observers, as attending also organizations voluntary 24 with countries, 32 from

persecution by Nazi Germany. The conference was attended by representatives representatives by attended was conference The Germany. Nazi by persecution

problem and the plight of the increasing numbers of Jewish refugees fleeing fleeing refugees Jewish of numbers increasing the of plight the and problem

413 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 414. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

November 1938: Dietrich Bonhoeffer

Dietrich Bonhoeffer, German pastor and theologian, is remembered for his reported response to a colleague about the Kristallnacht burning of German synagogues:

“If the synagogues are set on fire today, it will be the churches that will be burned tomorrow.”

Reference: 1938.3

1938: Hitler brings back yellow star of David

Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the Reich Main Security Office, recommended that Jews should wear identifying badges after Kristallnacht (see entry above, November 9-10, 1938). Shortly after the invasion of Poland in September 1939, local German authorities began introducing mandatory wearing of badges. By the end of 1939, all Jews in the newly-acquired Polish territories were required to wear badges. Upon invading the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Germans again applied this requirement to newly-conquered lands. Throughout the rest of 1941 and 1942, Germany, its satellite states and western occupied territories adopted regulations stipulating that Jews wear identifying badges.

Reference: 1938.4

1938: Civiltà Cattolica, Jesuit journal, on Jews

Pope Pius XI permits the Jesuit journal, Civiltà Cattolica, to portray Judaism as inherently sinister, and Jews, through money and secularism, as out to seize the world:

“Judaism is a deeply malevolent religion, inasmuch as it pertains to a nation which presumes itself elect, and... it is the religion of corrupt messianism [which] renders Jewry a tinderbox of disorders and a standing menace to the world.”

Reference: 1938.5

Jewish question. People ask if what is happening now is Christian. Is it it Is Christian. is now happening is what if ask People question. Jewish

“I would like to talk about one more often mentioned question, namely the the namely question, mentioned often more one about talk to like would “I

In a speech in 1942 he stated: stated: he 1942 in speech a In

people, which is thus getting rid of its pests.” pests.” its of rid getting thus is which people,

“It is a Christian action to expel the Jews, because it is for the good of the the of good the for is it because Jews, the expel to action Christian a is “It

deported most Slovakian Jews to their deaths in the camps. He declared: declared: He camps. the in deaths their to Jews Slovakian most deported

Slovakia with Nazi Germany and, with strong objections from the Vatican, Vatican, the from objections strong with and, Germany Nazi with Slovakia

independent Slovakia from 1939 until 1945. Extremely antisemitic, he allied allied he antisemitic, Extremely 1945. until 1939 from Slovakia independent

Jozef Tiso, a Catholic priest with a doctorate in theology, became president of of president became theology, in doctorate a with priest Catholic a Tiso, Jozef

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 65,000 – 70,000 – 65,000

1939: Jozef Tito Jozef 1939:

Reference: 1939.2 Reference:

. . Damned” the

The story was depicted in a book (1974) and a movie (1976) called “Voyage of of “Voyage called (1976) movie a and (1974) book a in depicted was story The

(one man committed suicide during the voyage), 254 died in the Holocaust. Holocaust. the in died 254 voyage), the during suicide committed man (one

Holland and the UK agreed to take the refugees. Of the original 936 passengers passengers 936 original the Of refugees. the take to agreed UK the and Holland

return to Europe, where it disembarked in Antwerp, Belgium. Belgium, France, France, Belgium, Belgium. Antwerp, in disembarked it where Europe, to return

from Germany, was denied the right to dock in Cuba and the US, forcing it to to it forcing US, the and Cuba in dock to right the denied was Germany, from

The cruise ship containing 937 passengers, mostly Jewish refugees, fleeing fleeing refugees, Jewish mostly passengers, 937 containing ship cruise The

254 deaths: / affected People

May 1939: St. Louis German luxury cruise ship cruise luxury German Louis St. 1939: May

Reference: 1939.1 Reference:

. history” Jewish of hour “darkest the in

the White Paper, saying the British were denying the Jewish people their rights rights their people Jewish the denying were British the saying Paper, White the

wasn’t feasible. The Jewish Agency for Palestine issued a scathing response to to response scathing a issued Palestine for Agency Jewish The feasible. wasn’t

Britain rejects the Peel Commission’s partition plan on the grounds that it it that grounds the on plan partition Commission’s Peel the rejects Britain

May 1939: MacDonald White Paper White MacDonald 1939: May

415 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 416. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

humane? Is it not just looting? But I ask: Is it not Christian when the Slovak nation wants to defeat an eternal enemy, the Jew? Is that not Christian? Loving thyself is a commandment of God, and that love commands me to remove everything that harms me, that threatens my life. And for the Slovak people, the Jewish element has always been such a threat, a threat to our life, and I don’t think I need to convince anyone of that fact.”

In all, German and Slovak authorities deported about 70,000 Jews from Slovakia; about 65,000 of them were murdered or died in concentration camps.

Tiso was executed by hanging in 1947 as a war criminal.

Reference: 1939.3

1939–45: World War II

People affected / deaths: 60 million–plus

60 million deaths represented about 3% of the world’s population at the time, which was estimated at 2.3 billion. The six million Jews who died in the Holocaust therefore represented about 10% of those deaths. Some sources include deaths from war-related disease and famine, which would put the figure higher, at 80 million. It remains the deadliest military conflict in history.

Reference: 1939.4

1939–45: Jewish expulsions and deportations: World War II

People affected / deaths: millions

Mass evacuation, forced displacement, expulsion, and deportation of millions of people took place across most countries involved in World War II. The Holocaust also involved deportations and expulsions of Jews aside from the subsequent genocide perpetrated by Nazi Germany.

In May 1943, Nazi German authorities reported that the Reich was judenrein (“free of Jews”).

Reference: 1939.5

Reference: 1939.6 Reference:

and expulsion.” expulsion.” and

the paradigmatically evil Jews - including discrimination, expropriation, expropriation, discrimination, including - Jews evil paradigmatically the

Nazis or in pious indifference to allow ‘God’s will’ to be carried out against against out carried be to will’ ‘God’s allow to indifference pious in or Nazis

policy allowed the average person ‘in good conscience’ to collaborate with the the with collaborate to conscience’ good ‘in person average the allowed policy

this crisis. Without contradiction from Pius, the church’s traditional Jewish Jewish traditional church’s the Pius, from contradiction Without crisis. this

the Jews, the Catholic faithful had no clear reminder as to how to behave in in behave to how to as reminder clear no had faithful Catholic the Jews, the

toward the Jews of the Holocaust... Without a specific public statement on on statement public specific a Without Holocaust... the of Jews the toward

Semitism would have unmistakably set the tone for Catholic behavior behavior Catholic for tone the set unmistakably have would Semitism

of urgency or moral outrage.’ An unequivocal public condemnation of anti- of condemnation public unequivocal An outrage.’ moral or urgency of

“Pius XII and the Vatican could have spoken of the Jews ‘with a real sense sense real a ‘with Jews the of spoken have could Vatican the and XII “Pius

is doing, and will do all in its power to help.’” to power its in all do will and doing, is

the Jews. The Vatican’s repetitive response was that ‘the Holy See has done, done, has See Holy ‘the that was response repetitive Vatican’s The Jews. the

“Pius XII simply refused to publish a specific condemnation of the murder of of murder the of condemnation specific a publish to refused simply XII “Pius

evil in general.” in evil

Final Solution. When he spoke as pope, his words almost always condemned condemned always almost words his pope, as spoke he When Solution. Final

“Pope XII never publicly defined a position that specifically repudiated the the repudiated specifically that position a defined publicly never XII “Pope

acted on the Jewish issue.” Jewish the on acted

followed by nearly every one of the more than 90 popes who have spoken or or spoken have who popes 90 than more the of one every nearly by followed

“He followed a policy toward the Jews that was little different from that that from different little was that Jews the toward policy a followed “He

Holy Hatred says: Hatred Holy

failing to take action or speak out against the Holocaust. Holocaust. the against out speak or action take to failing

help the Jews. A controversial play in 1963 called “The Deputy” accuses him of of him accuses Deputy” “The called 1963 in play controversial A Jews. the help

“under his very windows” (the title of one book), and that he did nothing to to nothing did he that and book), one of title (the windows” very his “under

enough”, of “Papal silence” in the face of the Holocaust, which was taking place place taking was which Holocaust, the of face the in silence” “Papal of enough”,

The Pope has been accused of either being overly cautious, of of cautious, overly being either of accused been has Pope The not doing doing not “

Opinions are sharply divided on Pope Pius XII, so both views are summarised. are views both so XII, Pius Pope on divided sharply are Opinions

1939–58: Pope Pius XII: negative view negative XII: Pius Pope 1939–58:

417 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 418. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1939–58: Pope Pius XII: positive view

Opinions are sharply divided on Pope Pius XII, so both views are summarised.

The Pope issued a diplomatic protest at the Nazi order to expel the Jews; he sheltered Jews in the Vatican itself; he denounced the aggression of the Nazis and proposed a peace plan after the invasion of Poland in 1939; he instructed priests to issue baptism certificates to hundreds of Jews hidden in Genoa, Rome and elsewhere in Italy; and in the Christmas message of 1942 specifically denounced the extermination of the Jews, to name just a few. According to Israeli archives, papal relief programs saved anywhere from 200,000 to 860,000 Jews (sources vary), more than any other agency or organisation, and he used his diplomatic corps, protected by diplomatic immunity, to carry messages between the Allied Powers. He also helped raise the Gestapo’s demand of 50 kilos of gold for the safety of the Jewish community in Rome, which unfortunately did not prevent their eventual round up.

Dr. Raphael Cantoni, a leader in Italy’s Jewish Assistance Committee:

“The Church and the papacy have saved Jews as much and insofar as they could Christians. Six million of my co-religionists have been murdered by the Nazis... but there would have been many more victims had it not been for the efficacious intervention of Pius XII.”

The Jewish Virtual Library:

“Pius XII, standing in the heart of the Axis world when Britain stood alone and the United States was far away and frozen in isolationism... was far from silent... Pius XII was recognized by the most authoritative spokesmen for what he was in reality, one of the best friends the Jews had, in one of the most tragically dark days of the long, long history of the Jewish people...a great injustice has been done to the memory of Pope Pius XII.”

JVL again:

“The vindication of Pius XII has been established principally by Jewish writers and from Israeli archives. It is now established that the Pope supervised a rescue network which saved 860,000 Jewish lives - more than all the international agencies put together.”

Reference: 1940.1 Reference:

invited to submit claims based on lists of names posted on the internet. internet. the on posted names of lists on based claims submit to invited

sum” into accounts, to be held at the disposal of victims or their heirs, who were were who heirs, their or victims of disposal the at held be to accounts, into sum”

In 2001, eight leading French banks paid “a substantial, multi-million-dollar multi-million-dollar substantial, “a paid banks French leading eight 2001, In

French, by the French state.” French the by French,

our traditions. Yes, the criminal folly of the occupiers was seconded by the the by seconded was occupiers the of folly criminal the Yes, traditions. our

“These dark hours forever sully our history and are an insult to our past and and past our to insult an are and history our sully forever hours dark “These

Paris, he said: said: he Paris,

In ceremonies marking the 53 the marking ceremonies In anniversary of the first mass arrests of Jews in in Jews of arrests mass first the of anniversary

rd rd

equivocations by successive French Governments about France’s wartime role. role. wartime France’s about Governments French successive by equivocations

German occupation in World War II. His statement put an end to decades of of decades to end an put statement His II. War World in occupation German

responsibility for deporting thousands of Jews to Nazi death camps during the the during camps death Nazi to Jews of thousands deporting for responsibility

In 1995, French President Jacques Chirac publicly recognized France’s France’s recognized publicly Chirac Jacques President French 1995, In

but 2,500 died. died. 2,500 but

those in France at the time — were deported to Nazi death camps, where all all where camps, death Nazi to deported were — time the at France in those

about 80,000 Jewish bank accounts. Some 76,000 Jews — about a quarter of of quarter a about — Jews 76,000 Some accounts. bank Jewish 80,000 about

The Vichy government of France collaborated with Nazi Germany by freezing freezing by Germany Nazi with collaborated France of government Vichy The

1940: Vichy government of France of government Vichy 1940:

Reference: 1939.7 Reference:

is still our conviction today.” today.” conviction our still is

that the Pope said nothing. We all shared this opinion at the time, and this this and time, the at opinion this shared all We nothing. said Pope the that

protested, Rome would have become the center of attention. It was better better was It attention. of center the become have would Rome protested,

more excited and would have intensified its inquisitions. If the Pope had had Pope the If inquisitions. its intensified have would and excited more

and fugitives do not wish to be pointed at. The Gestapo would have become become have would Gestapo The at. pointed be to wish not do fugitives and

“None of us wanted the Pope to take an open stand. We were all fugitives, fugitives, all were We stand. open an take to Pope the wanted us of “None

Mr. and Mrs. Wolfsson, Jewish Berlin couple: couple: Berlin Jewish Wolfsson, Mrs. and Mr.

world, but it would have submitted the poor Jew to an even worse fate.” fate.” worse even an to Jew poor the submitted have would it but world,

“No doubt a protest would have gained me praise and respect of the civilized civilized the of respect and praise me gained have would protest a doubt “No

Pope Pius XII: XII: Pius Pope

419 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 420. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1940: “The Eternal Jew” German propaganda film

Hitler and Goebbels believed that film was a vital tool for molding public opinion. “The Eternal Jew” is a violently antisemitic version of the British film “The Wandering Jew” from 1933 (see entry above). This Nazi propaganda film is presented as a documentary.

Reference: 1940.2

January 21–23, 1941: Legionnaires’ rebellion and Bucharest pogrom, Romania

People affected / deaths: 125

The Legionnaires’ rebellion and the Bucharest pogrom was a power struggle between the government of Romanian prime minister Ion Antonescu, and his former allies, the Iron Guard Legion. During their attempt to topple Antonescu, whom they portrayed as a puppet of the Jews, the legionnaires of the fascistic Iron Guard sadistically attacked members of the Romanian Jewish community in a number of different venues.

During the days of the rebellion, the Legionnaires’ newspapers (the only ones active during this time) engaged in vicious propaganda against the Jews. At the end of the articles was the motto “You know whom to shoot.”

125 Jews died, 60 of whom were taken to a slaughterhouse and hung on the hooks used by the slaughterers. The slaughterhouse was closed for a week to purge and clean it. American minister to Romania, Franklin Mott Gunther, toured the meat-packing plant where the Jews were slaughtered, with placards on some of the corpses reading “Kosher meat” on them. He reported back to Washington:

“Sixty Jewish corpses were discovered on the hooks used for carcasses. They were all skinned... and the quantity of blood about was evidence that they had been skinned alive.”

Gunther wrote he was especially shocked that one of the Jewish victims hanging on the meat hooks was a 5-year-old girl, saying that he could not imagine such cruelty was possible until he saw the evidence of it firsthand.

During the riots 1,274 businesses, shops, workshops and homes were badly damaged or destroyed. The Sephardic Temple in Bucharest was looted and set on fire. Some synagogues were partly saved. The large Choral Temple

struggle for existence. It is the old battle of the Germanic against the Slavic Slavic the against Germanic the of battle old the is It existence. for struggle

“The war against Russia is an important chapter in the German nation’s nation’s German the in chapter important an is Russia against war “The

command, General Erich Hoepner of the Panzer Group 4 stated: stated: 4 Group Panzer the of Hoepner Erich General command,

Influenced by the guidelines, in a directive sent out to the troops under his his under troops the to out sent directive a in guidelines, the by Influenced

and the complete elimination of all active and passive resistance.” resistance.” passive and active all of elimination complete the and

“ruthless and vigorous measures against Bolshevik inciters, guerrillas, saboteurs, Jews, Jews, saboteurs, guerrillas, inciters, Bolshevik against measures vigorous and “ruthless

its adherents that Germany is waging war.” waging is Germany that adherents its The guidelines went on to demand demand to on went guidelines The

enemy of the German nation, and that that and nation, German the of enemy “It is against this destructive eology and and eology destructive this against is “It

days later on May 19, 1941 declared “Judeo-Bolshevism” to be the most deadly deadly most the be to “Judeo-Bolshevism” declared 1941 19, May on later days

The “Guidelines for the Conduct of the Troops in Russia” issued by the OKW 6 6 OKW the by issued Russia” in Troops the of Conduct the for “Guidelines The

executions without trial or formality. or trial without executions

acts punishable according to German law. Officers were entitled to perform perform to entitled were Officers law. German to according punishable acts

war were to be exempted from criminal responsibility, even if they committed committed they if even responsibility, criminal from exempted be to were war

soldiers who committed crimes against humanity, the USSR and prisoners of of prisoners and USSR the humanity, against crimes committed who soldiers

measures up to the destruction of the attacker”, the of destruction the to up measures with the assurance that German German that assurance the with

Wehrmacht, its members and retinue are to be repelled on the spot by the most extreme extreme most the by spot the on repelled be to are retinue and members its Wehrmacht,

The decree also stipulated that all attacks attacks all that stipulated also decree The “by enemy civilians against the the against civilians enemy “by

themselves against every threat from the enemy civilian population without mercy”. without population civilian enemy the from threat every against themselves

the Soviet Union in World War II. It instructed German troops to to troops German instructed It II. War World in Union Soviet the “defend “defend

Chief Wilhelm Keitel during the preparation for Operation Barbarossa against against Barbarossa Operation for preparation the during Keitel Wilhelm Chief

- “High Command of the Armed Forces”) Forces”) Armed the of Command “High - Wehrmacht der Oberkommando ( OKW

Martial Law and on Special Measures of the Troops” was a document signed by by signed document a was Troops” the of Measures Special on and Law Martial

The Barbarossa Decree, whose full title was “Decree on the Jurisdiction of of Jurisdiction the on “Decree was title full whose Decree, Barbarossa The

May 13, 1941: Barbarossa Decree Barbarossa 1941: 13, May

Reference: 1941.1 Reference:

members were imprisoned. imprisoned. were members

Following the riots, the Iron Guard movement was banned and 9,000 of its its of 9,000 and banned was movement Guard Iron the riots, the Following

synagogues in Europe. in synagogues

been extensively renovated isince then, and is today one of the most beautiful beautiful most the of one today is and then, isince renovated extensively been

reminding them of their Christian teachings. The synagogue was saved. It has has It saved. was synagogue The teachings. Christian their of them reminding

Christian, Lucreţia Canjia, who begged the rioters not to burn the synagogue, synagogue, the burn to not rioters the begged who Canjia, Lucreţia Christian,

the Legionnaires didn’t bring enough fuel. In the large synagogue was a a was synagogue large the In fuel. enough bring didn’t Legionnaires the

(Heichal Hakorali) synagogue was saved from burning completely, because because completely, burning from saved was synagogue Hakorali) (Heichal

421 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 422. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

people, of the defence of European culture against Muscovite-Asiatic inundation and of the repulse of Jewish Bolshevism. The objective of this battle must be the demolition of present-day Russia and must therefore be conducted with unprecedented severity. Every military action must be guided in planning and execution by an iron resolution to exterminate the enemy remorselessly and totally. In particular, no adherents of the contemporary Russian Bolshevik system are to be spared.”

German Army propaganda portrayed the Soviet enemy in the most dehumanized terms, depicting the Red Army as a force of Slavic Untermenschen (“sub-humans”) and “Asiatic” savages engaging in “barbaric Asiatic fighting methods” commanded by evil Jewish commissars to whom German troops were to grant no mercy.

Before Barbarossa, German troops had been exposed to violent antisemitic and anti-Slavic indoctrination via movies, radio, lectures, books and leaflets. Much of this psychological warfare propaganda was designed to play on Russian anti-Semitism, with one pamphlet calling the “Gentlemen commissars and party functionaries” a group of “mostly filthy Jews”. The pamphlet ended with the call for “brother soldiers” of the Red Army to rise up and kill all of the “Jewish commissars”.

Typical of the German Army propaganda was the following passage from a pamphlet issued in June 1941:

“Anyone who has ever looked into the face of a Red commissar knows what the Bolsheviks are. There is no need here for theoretical reflections. It would be an insult to animals if one were to call the features of these, largely Jewish, tormentors of people beasts. They are the embodiment of the infernal, of the personified insane hatred of everything that is noble in humanity. In the shape of these commissars we witness the revolt of the subhuman against noble blood.”

Reference: 1941.2

June 25–29, 1941: Kaunas pogrom, Lithuania

The Kaunas pogrom was a massacre of Jewish people living in Kaunas, Lithuania that took place in the first days of Operation Barbarossa (see entry above, May 13, 1941) and the Nazi occupation of Lithuania. On June 25, the first day of the

Reference: 1941.4 Reference:

July 1941: A Photo Documentary from the Holocaust in Romania.” in Holocaust the from Documentary Photo A 1941: July

were published by author Radu Ioanid in a book called “The Iaşi Pogrom, June- Pogrom, Iaşi “The called book a in Ioanid Radu author by published were

127 photographs, accompanied by survivors’ and even perpetrators’ testimony, testimony, perpetrators’ even and survivors’ by accompanied photographs, 127

there also, and they too photographed the continuing massacre. massacre. continuing the photographed too they and also, there

to their family members. Members of the Romanian Intelligence Service were were Service Intelligence Romanian the of Members members. family their to

photograph the atrocities and to send those “souvenirs” of the Eastern Front Front Eastern the of “souvenirs” those send to and atrocities the photograph

of the Holocaust in that German troops, present in the city, were allowed to to allowed were city, the in present troops, German that in Holocaust the of

authorities. This pogrom is one of the most thoroughly documented events events documented thoroughly most the of one is pogrom This authorities.

resulting in the murder of at least 13,266 Jews, according to Romanian Romanian to according Jews, 13,266 least at of murder the in resulting

under Ion Antonescu in the Romanian city of Iaşi against its Jewish population, population, Jewish its against Iaşi of city Romanian the in Antonescu Ion under

The Iași pogrom was a series of pogroms launched by governmental forces forces governmental by launched pogroms of series a was pogrom Iași The

13,266 deaths: / affected People

June–July 1941: Iași pogrom in Bucharest, Romania Bucharest, in pogrom Iași 1941: June–July

Reference: 1941.3 Reference:

played the Lithuanian national anthem. anthem. national Lithuanian the played

Dealer,” fetched an accordion, climbed to the top of the pile of the corpses, and and corpses, the of pile the of top the to climbed accordion, an fetched Dealer,”

Once the total number of bodies reached 50, a man, nicknamed the “Death “Death the nicknamed man, a 50, reached bodies of number total the Once

Some of them were killed with shovels, iron bars or by other barbaric methods. methods. barbaric other by or bars iron shovels, with killed were them of Some

is well documented and photographed, partly because it was a public event. event. public a was it because partly photographed, and documented well is

dozen Jewish men were publicly tortured and executed on June 27. This incident incident This 27. June on executed and tortured publicly were men Jewish dozen

The most infamous incident occurred in the Lietūkis garage, where several several where garage, Lietūkis the in occurred incident infamous most The

“This is what we’ll do to all the Jews.” Jews.” the all to do we’ll what is “This

son. His head was placed in a window of the residence, bearing a sign: sign: a bearing residence, the of window a in placed was head His son.

after which they murdered his wife and and wife his murdered they which after ” off head his sawed [they] and Talmud)

“then his head was laid upon an open volume of gemora (volume of the the of (volume gemora of volume open an upon laid was head his “then chair, a to

pogrom, the rabbi of Slobodka, Rav Zalman Osovsky, was tied hand and foot foot and hand tied was Osovsky, Zalman Rav Slobodka, of rabbi the pogrom,

423 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 424. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

July 10, 1941: Jedwabne pogrom, Poland

People affected / deaths: 340–plus

After being controlled by Russia for two years, Jedwabne was captured by Germany on June 22, 1941. One of the first questions the Poles asked the Nazis, their new rulers, was if it was permitted to kill the Jews. The Jedwabne pogrom took place shortly thereafter on July 10.

In 1963 a monument to the victims was placed in Jedwabne with the inscription:

“The place of destruction of the Jewish population. Here Gestapo and Nazi gendarmes burnt alive 1600 people on 10 July 1941.”

But author Jan T. Gross, in his book “Neighbors: The Destruction of the Jewish Community in Jedwabne, Poland”, writes that the mass execution was actually performed by locals, who, for decades, had shifted the blame away from themselves. He also writes that Jedwabne’s mayor, Marian Karolak, whose name appears in virtually every deposition, agreed to help facilitate a massacre, and Poles from local villages came in to watch and celebrate the event as a holiday. Members of the Catholic community participated in torturing the Jewish community and corralling them into a barn, which was then set ablaze. Eye-witness Szmul Wasersztajn’s testimony at the start of the book makes for harrowing reading!

Since publication of the controversial book in 2001, Poland has been engaged in a nationwide debate over whether or not to accept blame for the atrocities Poles committed against the Jews during the Holocaust, or to continue to pass them onto the Nazis.

On July 10, 2001, about 3,000 people helped Poland’s president, prime minister, local officials, Jewish leaders and relatives of the murdered commemorate the deceased by unveiling a new sign at the monument. President Aleksander Kwasniewski said in an apology long awaited by the international Jewish community:

“This was a particularly cruel crime. It was justified by nothing. The victims were helpless and defenseless. For this crime, we should beg the souls of the dead and their families for forgiveness. This is why today, as a citizen and as president of the Republic of Poland, I apologize.”

The monument’s sign now reads:

“In memory of the Jews of Jedwabne and surrounding areas, men, women,

witness but I must say the truth. Contrary to the opinion of the National National the of opinion the to Contrary truth. the say must I but witness

“Thus the misfortune came about. They did not believe... I am the only living living only the am I believe... not did They about. came misfortune the “Thus

out of food. Von dem Bach said: Bach dem Von food. of out

after a few days hiding in the woods they returned, probably because they ran ran they because probably returned, they woods the in hiding days few a after

them, by sending word ahead to the chief rabbi of each of these three towns, but but towns, three these of each of rabbi chief the to ahead word sending by them,

Baranowicze that his forces were approaching and of what was in store for for store in was what of and approaching were forces his that Baranowicze

But on three occasions in 1941 he warned the Jews of Bialystok, Mogilev, and and Mogilev, Bialystok, of Jews the warned he 1941 in occasions three on But

“Thus the figure in my area now exceeds the thirty thousand mark.” mark.” thousand thirty the exceeds now area my in figure the “Thus

progress, saying in a message on August 22: 22: August on message a in saying progress,

included Bialystok, regularly cabling to headquarters on the extermination extermination the on headquarters to cabling regularly Bialystok, included

Jews in Riga and Minsk, as well as visiting other sites of mass killings, which which killings, mass of sites other visiting as well as Minsk, and Riga in Jews

From July to September 1941 Bach-Zelewski oversaw the extermination of of extermination the oversaw Bach-Zelewski 1941 September to July From

relatives living there. there. living relatives

the Nazis came to power. Her husband had been born in Bialystok, and still had had still and Bialystok, in born been had husband Her power. to came Nazis the

he had been rather fond of, but they had been forced to emigrate to Brazil after after Brazil to emigrate to forced been had they but of, fond rather been had he

married Jewish men. One of his sisters had married a Jewish musician whom whom musician Jewish a married had sisters his of One men. Jewish married

A great source of embarrassment to him was that all three of his sisters had had sisters his of three all that was him to embarrassment of source great A

in prison in 1972. 1972. in prison in

He was later convicted for politically motivated murders after the war, and died died and war, the after murders motivated politically for convicted later was He

stand trial in Nuremberg, but was instead used as a witness for the prosecution. prosecution. the for witness a as used instead was but Nuremberg, in trial stand

for numerous war crimes and crimes against humanity, Bach-Zelewski did not not did Bach-Zelewski humanity, against crimes and crimes war numerous for

the SS, and fourth in line for leader of the Nazi party. Despite his responsibility responsibility his Despite party. Nazi the of leader for line in fourth and SS, the

Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski (1899-1972) was a Nazi official, a member of of member a official, Nazi a was (1899-1972) Bach-Zelewski dem von Erich

July–September 1941: Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski dem von Erich 1941: July–September

Reference: 1941.5 Reference:

inside a barn that was set on fire. fire. on set was that barn a inside

including women and children, were murdered, some 300 of whom were locked locked were whom of 300 some murdered, were children, and women including

The figures of 1,600 deaths are considered high, but at least 340 Polish Jews, Jews, Polish 340 least at but high, considered are deaths 1,600 of figures The

it does not specifically mention the Poles. Poles. the mention specifically not does it

Although the new monument does not blame the Nazis, some are angered that that angered are some Nazis, the blame not does monument new the Although

this site on 10 July 1941.” July 10 on site this

and children, fellow-dwellers of this land, murdered and burned alive at at alive burned and murdered land, this of fellow-dwellers children, and

425 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 426. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Socialists that the Jews were a highly organized group, the appalling fact was that they had no organization whatsoever. The mass of the Jewish people were completely taken by surprise. They did not know at all what to do; they had no directives or slogan as to how they should act. That is the greatest proof of the lie of anti-Semitism because it gives the lie to the old slogan that the Jews are conspiring to dominate the world and that they are so highly organized. In reality they had no organization of their own at all, not even an information service. If they had some sort of organization, these people could have been saved by the millions; but instead they were taken completely by surprise. Never before has a people gone as unsuspectingly to its disaster. Nothing was prepared. Absolutely nothing. It is not so, as the anti-Semites say, that they were friendly to the Soviets. That is the most appalling misconception of all. The Jews in the old Poland, who were never communistic in their sympathies, were, throughout the area from the river Bug eastward, more afraid of Bolshevism than of the Nazis. This was insanity. They could have been saved. There were people among them who had much to lose, business people; they didn’t want to leave. In addition there was the love of home and their old experiences with the pogroms in Russia. After the first anti-Jewish actions of the Germans they thought now the wave was over and so they walked back to their undoing.”

Reference: 1941.6

August 2, 1941: 9th of Av: Himmler and the “Final Solution”

On the 9th of Av/August 2, Himmler received approval from the Nazi Party for the “Final Solution” of the Jews. As a result, the Holocaust began during which almost one third of the world’s Jewish population perished.

Reference: 1941.7

1941: Franklin Roosevelt and Congress

After the US entered the war we remained silent, and continued to limit immigration of Jews to a mere 20,000 per year. Roosevelt had great insight as to what was happening but believed that bringing Jews into America would

Reference: 1941.10 Reference:

ablaze. Romanian troops shot and killed any Jews trying to escape the fire. fire. the escape to trying Jews any killed and shot troops Romanian ablaze.

shot some of the Jews and locked others into warehouses that they then set set then they that warehouses into others locked and Jews the of some shot

at the local jail and then taken to the village of Dalnik. There, the Romanians Romanians the There, Dalnik. of village the to taken then and jail local the at

with gasoline and burned them alive. At least 20,000 other Jews were assembled assembled were Jews other 20,000 least At alive. them burned and gasoline with

a public square in the harbor area and shot many of them. They doused others others doused They them. of many shot and area harbor the in square public a

Using the incident as an excuse, Romanian army units assembled 19,000 Jews in in Jews 19,000 assembled units army Romanian excuse, an as incident the Using

commandant, 16 other Romanian officers, and four German naval officers. officers. naval German four and officers, Romanian other 16 commandant,

in Odessa. The blast killed 67 people, including the Romanian military military Romanian the including people, 67 killed blast The Odessa. in

On October 22, 1941, a bomb exploded in Romanian military headquarters headquarters military Romanian in exploded bomb a 1941, 22, October On

25,000 – 34,000 – 25,000 deaths: / affected People

October 22–24, 1941: Odessa massacre, Romania massacre, Odessa 1941: 22–24, October

Reference: 1941.9 Reference:

at the Wannsee Conference in Berlin in January 1942 ( 1942 January in Berlin in Conference Wannsee the at ). ). below entry see

massacre emboldened Hitler, leading to the endorsement of the Final Solution Solution Final the of endorsement the to leading Hitler, emboldened massacre

Rabbi Yisrael Meir Lau speculated that the lack of world reaction against this this against reaction world of lack the that speculated Lau Meir Yisrael Rabbi

see Operation Harvest Festival, November 3-4, 1942 below 1942 3-4, November Festival, Harvest Operation see ( date this to up ). ).

This was the largest single massacre of Jews in the history of the Holocaust Holocaust the of history the in Jews of massacre single largest the was This

33,771 deaths: / affected People

September 29–30, 1941: Babi Yar massacre, Kiev massacre, Yar Babi 1941: 29–30, September

Reference: 1941.8 Reference:

had taken in 200,000 per year we could have saved one million Jews. Jews. million one saved have could we year per 200,000 in taken had

disrupt the fact that we were mainly a (Protestant) Christian nation. If the US US the If nation. Christian (Protestant) a mainly were we that fact the disrupt

427 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 428. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

October 1941 – November 1943: Aktion Reinhardt, or Einsatz Reinhard: “Operation Reinhard”

People affected / deaths: 1.7 – 2 million, mostly Polish Jews

This deadliest phase of the Holocaust was marked by the introduction of extermination camps in German-occupied Poland at Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka. Once the killing centers were operational, German SS and police forces liquidated the ghettos and deported Jews by rail to those killing centers.

The aims of Operation Reinhard were to “resettle” (i.e. kill) Polish Jews; to exploit the skilled or manual labor of some Polish Jews before killing them; to secure the personal property of the Jews (clothing, currency, jewelry, and other possessions); to identify and secure alleged hidden and immovable assets such as factories, apartments, and land.

At its peak, the Nazis were killing about 15,000 Jews every day in the camps of German-occupied Poland under Operation Reinhard. Of the 1.7 million people killed between 1942 and 1943, about 1.32 million died in a 100-day period between August and October of 1942, which accounted for more than one- quarter of the total number of Jews known to have been killed in the Holocaust. The pace of killing abated only when victims became rare and difficult to find.

Operation Reinhard ended in November 1943 with Operation Harvest Festival (see entry below, November 3-4, 1943).

Reference: 1941.11

November 7, 1941: Minsk Ghetto, Belarus

People affected / deaths: 35,000

On June 28, 1941, the Minsk ghetto was created soon after the German invasion of the Soviet Union and capture of the city. It housed close to 100,000 Jews, most of whom perished in The Holocaust.

On November 7, the anniversary of the Russian Revolution, the Nazis murdered 35,000 Jews in one day (see entry below, February-July 1942).

Reference: 1941.12

Reference: 1941.13 Reference:

measures against the Jews and their expulsion from German territory.” territory.” German from expulsion their and Jews the against measures

“since after his bitter experience Luther had [strongly] suggested preventive preventive suggested [strongly] had Luther experience bitter his after “since

They also agreed with the policy of forcing Jews to wear the yellow badge: yellow the wear to Jews forcing of policy the with agreed also They

community.”

therefore decided not to accept Jewish Christians as members of the Church Church the of members as Christians Jewish accept to not decided therefore

The undersigned leaders of the German Evangelical Church have have Church Evangelical German the of leaders undersigned The

Church and no right to a place. a to right no and Church

of the German people. Christians who are Jews by race have no place in that that in place no have race by Jews are who Christians people. German the of

of a German Evangelical Church to foster and to promote the religious life life religious the promote to and foster to Church Evangelical German a of

his membership of the Jewish people and his biological nature. It is the duty duty the is It nature. biological his and people Jewish the of membership his

.... Christian baptism does not change in any way the Jew’s racial character, character, racial Jew’s the way any in change not does baptism Christian ....

expelled from all German countries. German all from expelled

the severest measures should be taken against Jews and that they should be be should they that and Jews against taken be should measures severest the

Martin Luther to demand, on the basis of his own bitter experience, that that experience, bitter own his of basis the on demand, to Luther Martin

of the German nation and of the world, just as it was also necessary for Dr Dr for necessary also was it as just world, the of and nation German the of

national police to issue a statement to the effect that the Jews are the enemies enemies the are Jews the that effect the to statement a issue to police national

struggle to defend our country, because of which it has been necessary for the the for necessary been has it which of because country, our defend to struggle

the German Evangelical Church stand in the forefront of this historical historical this of forefront the in stand Church Evangelical German the

As members of that same German nation, the undersigned leaders of of leaders undersigned the nation, German same that of members As

life of the German nation is protected against Judaism. against protected is nation German the of life

and taken the necessary steps, both internal and external, to ensure that the the that ensure to external, and internal both steps, necessary the taken and

world-wide magnitude. They have therefore made the necessary decisions decisions necessary the made therefore have They magnitude. world-wide

documentary evidence that the Jews are responsible for this war in its its in war this for responsible are Jews the that evidence documentary

“The National Socialist leaders of Germany have provided indisputable indisputable provided have Germany of leaders Socialist National “The

Lübeck in 1941, includes the following: following: the includes 1941, in Lübeck

Mecklenburg, Schleswig-Holstein, the Anhalt of Saxony, Thüringen and and Thüringen Saxony, of Anhalt the Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg,

A declaration made by the Church Presidents and bishops of Saxony, Saxony, of bishops and Presidents Church the by made declaration A

December 17, 1941: German Protestant Church: Declaration Church: Protestant German 1941: 17, December

429 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 430. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

December 21, 1941 – February 1942: Bogdanovka, Ukraine

People affected / deaths: 46,000–plus killed l 54,000–plus total l 50 survivors

Bogdanovka was a concentration camp for Jews that was established by the Romanian authorities during World War II as part of the Holocaust. It was built on the premises of one of the largest pig farms in the Soviet Union. By November 1941, 11,000 prisoners were held in pigsties originally meant for 7,000 animals. By December, there were 48,000 prisoners in the pigsties.

After an outbreak of typhus broke out in the camp in mid-December, a decision was made to murder all the inmates.

On December 21, 5,000 sick and disabled prisoners were locked inside two pigsties and burnt to death. Over the next few days, 30,000 prisoners were shot to death at a riverbank in a nearby forest. The killing halted on Christmas Eve — for a short break for Christmas — and resumed on December 28. By December 31 the remaining 11,000 prisoners were also dead.

In January and February, 200 Jews who had been kept alive (especially for the purpose) burnt the corpses. 150 either died of cold and hunger, or were shot to death by their Ukrainian guards.

50 people survived.

In early 1945 Isopescu (the district commissioner), Manescu (the military government official in charge of the district), and the camp commandants were put on trial, in the first such proceedings against Romanian war criminals. The men responsible for the mass murder were sentenced to death (although the sentences were commuted to life imprisonment), and the other defendants were given long prison terms.

Altogether, over 54,000 people died during the history of the camp. A small monument close to the remote village commemorates the victims, whose inscription reads:

“Buried here are more than 54,600 Jews (the elderly, women and children) — victims of the Nazi genocide. We remember you!”

Reference: 1941.14

Reference: 1942.1 Reference:

shows just how determined and methodical they were. were. they methodical and determined how just shows

a combined total of 11 million. That they succeeded in killing 6 million Jews Jews million 6 killing in succeeded they That million. 11 of total combined a

listed the estimated numbers of Jews living in countries across Europe, with with Europe, across countries in living Jews of numbers estimated the listed

Jewish, and thus determine the scope of the genocide. The Wannsee Protocol Protocol Wannsee The genocide. the of scope the determine thus and Jewish,

A secondary goal of the conference was to arrive at a definition of who was was who of definition a at arrive to was conference the of goal secondary A

. Question”

Discussions were held on how to implement the “Final Solution to the Jewish Jewish the to Solution “Final the implement to how on held were Discussions

January 20, 1942: Wannsee Conference, Berlin Conference, Wannsee 1942: 20, January

Reference: 1941.16 Reference:

August 17, 1944 by Allied forces. forces. Allied by 1944 17, August

murdered (including 6,000 children) before the transit camp was liberated on on liberated was camp transit the before children) 6,000 (including murdered

7,000. Of the 65,000 transported from Drancy to Auschwitz, 63,000 were were 63,000 Auschwitz, to Drancy from transported 65,000 the Of 7,000.

Camps. The camp was designed to hold 700, but at its peak held more than than more held peak its at but 700, hold to designed was camp The Camps.

Jews were held in Drancy transit camp before deportation to the Concentration Concentration the to deportation before camp transit Drancy in held were Jews

63,000 deaths: / affected People

1941–44: Drancy transit camp, France camp, transit Drancy 1941–44:

Reference: 1941.15 Reference:

the Synagogue”. Synagogue”. the

“stigma” because they condemned Christ to crucifixion, crucifixion, to Christ condemned they because “stigma” “the crime of the sons of of sons the of crime “the

In 1942 the journal attacks contemporary Jews as carrying an unexpungeable unexpungeable an carrying as Jews contemporary attacks journal the 1942 In

. . generation” every “in murder

deicide, and they repeated their involvement in this crime by means of ritual ritual of means by crime this in involvement their repeated they and deicide,

reminds its readers that the Jews were responsible for for responsible were Jews the that readers its reminds Cattolica Civiltà 1941 In

, Jesuit journal, on Jews and deicide and Jews on journal, Jesuit , Cattolica Civiltà 1941–42:

431 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 432. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

February – October 1942: Minsk Ghetto, Belarus

People affected / deaths: 67,000

On June 28, 1941, the Minsk ghetto was created soon after the German invasion of the Soviet Union and capture of the city. It housed close to 100,000 Jews, most of whom perished in The Holocaust (see entry November 7, 1941).

February 23, 1942: On the anniversary of the Red Army, 18,000 Jews were marched to the Jewish cemetery and shot by the Nazis.

March 2: The ghetto’s nursery or orphanage was “liquidated”; the children were buried alive in a pit after the SS officers tossed them candy.

March 8: 8,000 Jewish women were murdered.

April 29: On the day preceding the Russian May Day holiday, another 11,000 Jews were murdered.

July 28-31: 30,000 Jews were killed.

By August there were fewer than 9,000 Jews left in the ghetto according to German documents.

October 21, 1943: The ghetto was liquidated, with many of the Minsk Jews perishing in the Sobibor extermination camp.

The Minsk ghetto was one of the largest in the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, and the largest in the German-occupied territory of the Soviet Union. It housed close to 100,000 Jews, most of whom perished in The Holocaust.

Reference: 1942.2

April 1942: Augustine Pozdech, Catholic priest, Slovakia

Augustine Pozdech (1895-1961) sent the following letter to the Jewish community of Budapest, Hungary, rather than the Vatican (who were deaf to this kind of plea), asking them to intervene for the Jews of Slovakia:

Reference: 1942.4 Reference:

were killed in the streets and in their homes. The rest were sent to Auschwitz. Auschwitz. to sent were rest The homes. their in and streets the in killed were

Ghetto on March 13-14, 1943, 2,000 Jews unable to move or attempting to run run to attempting or move to unable Jews 2,000 1943, 13-14, March on Ghetto

were transported to various concentration camps. In the final ‘liquidation’ of the the of ‘liquidation’ final the In camps. concentration various to transported were

staging area to separate able workers from those deemed unworthy of life, who who life, of unworthy deemed those from workers able separate to area staging

neighbouring villages around Kraków, relocated to the Kraków Ghetto. It was a a was It Ghetto. Kraków the to relocated Kraków, around villages neighbouring

Operation Reinhard in Kraków was a countryside roundup of Jews from from Jews of roundup countryside a was Kraków in Reinhard Operation

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People plus 11,000–

June 1942 – March 1943: 1943: March – 1942 June and the Kraków Ghetto, Poland Ghetto, Kraków the and Krakau Aktion

Reference: 1942.3 Reference:

There is no indication he received a reply. reply. a received he indication no is There

sake of your poor, unfortunate coreligionists.” unfortunate poor, your of sake

I hope my words will be heard, I hope you will do everything possible for the the for possible everything do will you hope I heard, be will words my hope I

of Slovakian Jewry. Slovakian of

Act, before it is too late, act quickly, and it may still be possible to save some some save to possible be still may it and quickly, act late, too is it before Act,

an unknown place, to an uncertain future. uncertain an to place, unknown an

young people are deported like cattle: transports of livestock wagons going to to going wagons livestock of transports cattle: like deported are people young

children, the mortally ill elderly, young girls torn from their families and and families their from torn girls young elderly, ill mortally the children,

is impossible that the world witnesses this and remains inactive, while little little while inactive, remains and this witnesses world the that impossible is

that the atrocious suffering of the Jews in Slovakia be relieved. However, it it However, relieved. be Slovakia in Jews the of suffering atrocious the that

you, to whom I urge, to wake up and shake the conscience of the world, so so world, the of conscience the shake and up wake to urge, I whom to you,

alas, I am not able to make my words heard beyond this narrow circle. It is is It circle. narrow this beyond heard words my make to able not am I alas,

I wish to awaken the conscience of the world against this persecution. But But persecution. this against world the of conscience the awaken to wish I

country as slaves. as country

onto trains with the remnant of their personal freedom, and sent to a foreign foreign a to sent and freedom, personal their of remnant the with trains onto

other than being born Jews, have their property stolen from them, forced forced them, from stolen property their have Jews, born being than other

am appalled to the bottom of my heart as human beings, who have no fault fault no have who beings, human as heart my of bottom the to appalled am

silent witness of the horrible sufferings that afflicts my Jewish neighbours. I I neighbours. Jewish my afflicts that sufferings horrible the of witness silent

subject. I decided upon this action because it is impossible for me to remain a a remain to me for impossible is it because action this upon decided I subject.

“You may find it strange that a Catholic priest addressed you about this this about you addressed priest Catholic a that strange it find may “You

433 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 434. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

July – September 1942: Vel’ d’Hiv Roundup, Paris

People affected / deaths: 13,000 in the initial raid l 38,000 total

The Vel’ d’Hiv Roundup was named after Vélodrome d’Hiver, a bicycle velodrome, where a majority of the 13,000 Jewish victims were temporarily confined following the initial July 16-17 raids. By the end of September, almost 38,000 Jews had been transported to Auschwitz from France, of which only 780 survived.

In 1995, French President Jacques Chirac apologised for the complicit role that French police and civil servants played in the Vel’ d’Hiv raid.

In 2017, President Macron admitted responsibility for the roundup.

Reference: 1942.5

July 23, 1942: 9th of Av: Treblinka extermination camp becomes operational

People affected / deaths: 800,000 – 900,000

Treblinka II was an extermination camp which opened on the 9th of Av/July 23, 1942 (see entry above for Himmler, 9th of Av, 1941), built and operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland. (Treblinka I was a forced labour camp which had opened on September 1, 1941.) Unlike other Nazi concentration camps across German-occupied Europe, in which prisoners were used as forced labour for the German war effort, death camps (Vernichtungslager) like Treblinka, Bełżec, and Sobibór had only one function: to kill those sent there.

Treblinka II was divided into three parts: Camp 1 was the administrative compound where the guards lived; Camp 2 was the receiving area where incoming transports of prisoners were offloaded; Camp 3 was the location of the gas chambers.

All three parts were built by two groups of German Jews recently expelled from Berlin and Hanover and imprisoned at the Warsaw Ghetto (a total of 238 men from 17 to 35 years of age).

considered an expert on the “Jewish Question”. In December 1945, Dannecker Dannecker 1945, December In Question”. “Jewish the on expert an considered

helped organized the roundup of Jews in France, Bulgaria and Hungary and was was and Hungary and Bulgaria France, in Jews of roundup the organized helped

orchestrated the Final Solution in several countries during the Holocaust. He He Holocaust. the during countries several in Solution Final the orchestrated

Eichmann. As a a As Eichmann. (advisor in Jewish affairs), he was one of those who who those of one was he affairs), Jewish in (advisor Judenberater

Theodor Dannecker (1913-45) was an SS Captain, and an associate of Adolf Adolf of associate an and Captain, SS an was (1913-45) Dannecker Theodor

1942: Theodor Dannecker Theodor 1942:

Reference: 1942.6 Reference:

extermination camp apart from Auschwitz. Auschwitz. from apart camp extermination

Final Solution. More Jews were killed at Treblinka than at any other Nazi Nazi other any at than Treblinka at killed were Jews More Solution. Final

Operation Reinhard ( Reinhard Operation ), the deadliest phase of the the of phase deadliest the ), 1941 October above, entry see

The camp operated between July 22, 1942 and October 19, 1943 as part of of part as 1943 19, October and 1942 22, July between operated camp The

10,000–12,000 bodies at a time could be incinerated. be could time a at bodies 10,000–12,000

The pyres operated 24 hours a day. Once the system had been perfected, perfected, been had system the Once day. a hours 24 operated pyres The

The bodies were placed on rails over wood, splashed with petrol, and burned. burned. and petrol, with splashed wood, over rails on placed were bodies The

at Camp 3, which consisted of railroad rails laid as grates on blocks of concrete. concrete. of blocks on grates as laid rails railroad of consisted which 3, Camp at

an hour and a half. To incinerate bodies, large cremation pits were constructed constructed were pits cremation large bodies, incinerate To half. a and hour an

were built between August-September 1942, the killing process was reduced to to reduced was process killing the 1942, August-September between built were

14-hour workday, 12,000 to 15,000 people were killed. After new gas chambers chambers gas new After killed. were people 15,000 to 12,000 workday, 14-hour

A train transport of about 3,000 people could be “processed” in three hours. In a a In hours. three in “processed” be could people 3,000 about of transport train A

commonly used to deceive prisoners arriving from Western Europe. Europe. Western from arriving prisoners deceive to used commonly

which was about five kilometers away, and was a code word for Treblinka Treblinka for word code a was and away, kilometers five about was which

destinations, a fake ticket window, and the sign sign the and window, ticket fake a destinations, (“Upper Majdan”), Majdan”), (“Upper Majdan Ober

up train schedules, a fake train-station clock with hands painted on it, names of of names it, on painted hands with clock train-station fake a schedules, train up

disguised as a transit camp for deportations further east, complete with made- with complete east, further deportations for camp transit a as disguised

To prevent incoming victims from realising its nature, Treblinka II was was II Treblinka nature, its realising from victims incoming prevent To

receiving work uniforms and new orders. orders. new and uniforms work receiving

way to Ukraine and needed to shower and have their clothes disinfected before before disinfected clothes their have and shower to needed and Ukraine to way

trains. The deportees were told that they had arrived at a transit point on the the on point transit a at arrived had they that told were deportees The trains.

exhaustion, suffocation and thirst while in transit to the camp in the overcrowded overcrowded the in camp the to transit in while thirst and suffocation exhaustion,

period from July 22 to September 12, 1942. Hundreds of prisoners died from from died prisoners of Hundreds 1942. 12, September to 22 July from period

transported in freight trains from the Warsaw Ghetto to Treblinka during the the during Treblinka to Ghetto Warsaw the from trains freight in transported

the following morning. According to German records, 265,000 Jews were were Jews 265,000 records, German to According morning. following the

with the first shipment of 6,000 people. The gas chambers started operation operation started chambers gas The people. 6,000 of shipment first the with

The mass deportation of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto began on July 22, 1942 1942 22, July on began Ghetto Warsaw the from Jews of deportation mass The

435 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 436. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History was arrested by the United States Army, and, on December 10, he committed suicide in prison before his trial.

A passage from a 1942 report by Dannecker illustrates how the “Jewish Question” was handled in France:

“Subject: Points for the discussion with the French State Secretary for Police, Bousquet...

The recent operation for arresting stateless Jews in Paris has yielded only about 8,000 adults and about 4,000 children. But trains for the deportation of 40,000 Jews, for the moment, have been put in readiness by the Reich Ministry of Transport. Since the deportation of the children is not possible for the time being, the number of Jews ready for removal is quite insufficient. A further Jewish operation must therefore be started immediately. For this purpose Jews of Belgian and Dutch nationality may be taken into consideration, in addition to the former German, Austrian, Czech, Polish and Russian Jews who have so far been considered as being stateless. It must be expected, however, that this category will not yield sufficient numbers, and thus the French have no choice but to include those Jews who were naturalized in France after 1927, or even after 1919.”

Reference: 1942.7

1943: Ernst Kaltenbrunner

Ernst Kaltenbrunner (1903-46) was an Austrian-born senior official of Nazi Germany during World War II. From 1943-45 he was Director of the Reich Main Security Office, and President of Interpol. He played a key role in implementing the Nazis’ Final Solution against Europe’s Jews.

In 1943, Himmler ordered Kaltenbrunner, his chief subordinate in the SS, to discover cases of Jewish ritual murder “wherever Jews have not yet been evacuated”, notably in England, Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria, and publicize them.

In October 1943, he told Herbert Kappler, the head of German police and security services in Rome:

“It is precisely the immediate and thorough eradication of the Jews in Italy which is the special interest of the present internal political situation and the general security in Italy.”

Reference: 1943.3 Reference:

All residents of a Jewish home for the aged were deported to Auschwitz. Auschwitz. to deported were aged the for home Jewish a of residents All

June 23, 1943: Moravská Ostrava, Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia Ostrava, Moravská 1943: 23, June

Reference: 1943.2 Reference:

Hitler’s demands, and saved all its Jews! Jews! its all saved and demands, Hitler’s

to Israel. Bulgaria, an Axis power allied with Nazi-Germany, defied defied Nazi-Germany, with allied power Axis an Bulgaria, Israel. to masse en

railroad construction and other industrial work. After the war they emigrated emigrated they war the After work. industrial other and construction railroad

by lying on the railroad tracks. Boris III told Hitler he needed the Jews for for Jews the needed he Hitler told III Boris tracks. railroad the on lying by

citizens and religious leaders threatened to block the path of Holocaust trains trains Holocaust of path the block to threatened leaders religious and citizens

Orthodox Church, and a national public outcry: ordinary ordinary outcry: public national a and Church, Orthodox

thanks to pressure from Bulgarian politicians, the Bulgarian Bulgarian the politicians, Bulgarian from pressure to thanks

Bulgarian Jews to be deported to the concentration camps, camps, concentration the to deported be to Jews Bulgarian

Boris III, king of Nazi-allied Bulgaria, refused to allow 50,000 50,000 allow to refused Bulgaria, Nazi-allied of king III, Boris

March 1943: Tsar Boris III, Bulgaria III, Boris Tsar 1943: March

Reference: 1943.1 Reference:

the ashes deposited in the Isar River. River. Isar the in deposited ashes the

he was executed along with nine other defendants, their bodies cremated, and and cremated, bodies their defendants, other nine with along executed was he

humanity and the next day was sentenced to death by hanging. On October 16 16 October On hanging. by death to sentenced was day next the and humanity

On September 30, 1946 he was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against against crimes and crimes war of guilty found was he 1946 30, September On

been taken care of by me personally today.” today.” personally me by of care taken been

Jews, political and concentration camp internees in the Protectorate have have Protectorate the in internees camp concentration and political Jews,

“Please report to RF SS and to the Fuehrer that all arrangements against against arrangements all that Fuehrer the to and SS RF to report “Please

trials. A radio message of his was quoted in the trials: trials: the in quoted was his of message radio A trials.

He was the highest-ranking member of the SS to face trial at the first Nuremberg Nuremberg first the at trial face to SS the of member highest-ranking the was He

Jews by train to Auschwitz concentration camp. concentration Auschwitz to train by Jews

Four days later, Kappler’s SS and police units began rounding up and deporting deporting and up rounding began units police and SS Kappler’s later, days Four

437 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 438. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

September – October 1943: Danish Jews rescued

On September 28, 1943, Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz, a German diplomat, secretly informed the Danish resistance that the Nazis were planning to deport the Danish Jews.

On October 1, 1943, Hitler ordered Danish Jews to be arrested and deported. The rescue operation expanded to include participation by the Danish resistance, the police, and the government. Within 2-3 weeks fishermen helped ferry 7,220 of Denmark’s 7,800 Jews and 680 non-Jewish family members to safety in Sweden across the narrow body of water separating the two countries. The rescue allowed the vast majority of Denmark’s Jewish population to avoid capture by the Nazis and is considered to be one of the largest actions of collective resistance to aggression in the countries occupied by Nazi Germany.

464 Danish Jews were deported to the Theresienstadt ghetto in Czechoslovakia, where all but 51 survived the Holocaust, largely because Danish officials pressured the Germans with their concerns for the well-being of those who had been deported.

As a result of the rescue, and the following Danish intercession on behalf of the Jews deported to Theresienstadt, over 99% of Denmark’s Jewish population survived the Holocaust.

Reference: 1943.4

October 16–18, 1943: Jews rounded up in Rome: “Judenrazzia”

People affected / deaths: 1,035

On October 16, the Germans surrounded the Roman Ghetto on Shabbat and went door-to-door in the early morning, waking up the sleeping Jews on their list of addresses, who were given 20 minutes to gather their possessions and assemble outside in the rain. They were taken to the Military College of Rome, only a few blocks from St Peter’s Basilica. A few days earlier, Pope Pius XII had personally ordered the Vatican clergy to open the sanctuaries of the Vatican City to all “non-Aryans” in need of refuge. By the morning of October 16, a total of 477 Jews had been given shelter in the Vatican and its enclaves, while another 4,238 had been given sanctuary in the many monasteries and convents in Rome.

urging the destruction of Jewish property. Sasse argued that that argued Sasse property. Jewish of destruction the urging , Lies” Their and

he reprinted excerpts from Luther’s notorious 1543 pamphlet, “On the Jews Jews the “On pamphlet, 1543 notorious Luther’s from excerpts reprinted he

pamphlet entitled “Martin Luther on the Jews: Away with Them!” with Away Jews: the on Luther “Martin entitled pamphlet in which which in ,

Kristallnacht to (November 9-10, 1938) by publishing on the November 15, a a 15, November the on publishing by 1938) 9-10, (November

Bishop Martin Sasse, head of the Protestant church of Thuringia, responded responded Thuringia, of church Protestant the of head Sasse, Martin Bishop

November 15, 1943: Bishop Martin Sasse in Thuringia, Germany Thuringia, in Sasse Martin Bishop 1943: 15, November

Reference: 1943.6 Reference:

practical purposes purposes practical (“free of Jews”). Jews”). of (“free judenfrei

At the conclusion of the the of conclusion the At massacres, the district of Lublin was for all all for was Lublin of district the massacres, Erntefest

on as planned. as on

Jews staged a revolt. To stamp it out, the SS set it on fire and the killings went went killings the and fire on it set SS the out, it stamp To revolt. a staged Jews

At Poniatowa, the shootings took two days, because in one of the barracks the the barracks the of one in because days, two took shootings the Poniatowa, At

The killing operation was completed in a single day at Majdanek and Trawniki. Trawniki. and Majdanek at day single a in completed was operation killing The

day, single-camp massacre of the Holocaust under direct German occupation. occupation. German direct under Holocaust the of massacre single-camp day,

The murder of 43,000 Jews in Operation Harvest Festival was the largest single- largest the was Festival Harvest Operation in Jews 43,000 of murder The

camps to drown out the noise of the mass shooting. mass the of noise the out drown to camps

was played through loudspeakers at both Majdanek and Trawniki concentration concentration Trawniki and Majdanek both at loudspeakers through played was

out of the camps in groups and shot layer upon layer inside these pits. Music Music pits. these inside layer upon layer shot and groups in camps the of out

purpose as mass graves. Beginning at dawn on November 3 they were taken taken were they 3 November on dawn at Beginning graves. mass as purpose

ordered to dig “anti-tank trenches”, and were therefore unaware of their true true their of unaware therefore were and trenches”, “anti-tank dig to ordered

Majdanek concentration camp and all its subcamps. The inmates had been been had inmates The subcamps. its all and camp concentration Majdanek

into forced-labour at the camps of the Lublin reservation in Poland, including including Poland, in reservation Lublin the of camps the at forced-labour into

Operation Harvest Festival was aimed at the extermination of Jews pressed pressed Jews of extermination the at aimed was Festival Harvest Operation

43,000 deaths: / affected People

, or “Operation Harvest Festival” Harvest “Operation or , Erntefest Aktion 1943: 3–4, November

Reference: 1943.5 Reference:

attempted to both passively and actively resist the deportation of the Jews. Jews. the of deportation the resist actively and passively both to attempted

deportation to Auschwitz were deported. Sections of the Italian population population Italian the of Sections deported. were Auschwitz to deportation

Two days later, on October 18, at least 1,035 of the 1,060 Jews slated for for slated Jews 1,060 the of 1,035 least at 18, October on later, days Two

439 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 440. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Luther’s goal was finally being achieved now that the Holocaust was fully underway. 1943 was also the 400th anniversary of Luther’s treatise.

Reference: 1943.7

July 1944: Raoul Wallenberg, the Swedish “Schindler”

People affected / deaths: 100,000

Swedish diplomat, Raoul Wallenberg, was recruited by the US War Refugee Board, and arrived in Budapest. His mission: assist and save Hungarian Jews. Using WRB and Swedish funds he established hospitals, nurseries and a soup kitchen, and designated more than 30 “safe” houses that together formed the core of the “international ghetto” in Budapest. This ghetto was reserved for Jews and their families holding certificates of protection from a neutral country, who sheltered in buildings designated as Swedish territory. His colleagues in the Swedish legation in Budapest and diplomats from other neutral countries, such as Switzerland and Portugal, participated in rescue operations. At the height of the program, over 350 people were involved in the rescue of Jews. His work with the WRB prevented the deportation of thousands of Hungarian Jews, saving over 100,000 Jews within six months.

He was well known to the Nazis, whom he bribed, manipulated, confronted, and harassed tirelessly. Eichmann referred to him as “Jewdog Wallenberg”. He did whatever he could to save the Jews. After he reached the maximum number of passports he was permitted to issue, he invented a special Swedish passport, the “Schutzpass”. With permission from no one, he announced that it granted the holder immunity from deportation to the death camps. He distributed his Schutzpass to Jews indiscriminately and saved 20,000 Jews with that venture alone. On other occasions, he pulled Jews off cattle cars, handing them Swedish passports and claiming them as Swedish citizens. He sent a note to the Germans persuading them to cancel a final effort to organise a “death march” of the remaining Jews in Budapest, threatening to have them prosecuted for war crimes once the war was over, thus rescuing many Jews. When the Nazis were about to bomb the Budapest Ghetto, he persuaded the commander heading the mission to call off the attack.

He was last seen in the company of Soviet oficials in January 1945 when the Soviets besieged Budapest. He is believed to have died in Lubyanka Prison,

prisoners. He also warned him that if he harmed any of his men, he would be be would he men, his of any harmed he if that him warned also He prisoners.

commandant that if he wanted to shoot the Jews he’d have to shoot all of the the of all shoot to have he’d Jews the shoot to wanted he if that commandant

“We are all Jews here” Jews all are “We . Even with a gun to his head, he didn’t waver, telling the the telling waver, didn’t he head, his to gun a with Even .

ordered the more than 1,275 POWs to step forward with him and pronounce pronounce and him with forward step to POWs 1,275 than more the ordered

commandant ordered him to tell him who the Jews were. Edmonds, a Christian, Christian, a Edmonds, were. Jews the who him tell to him ordered commandant

officer held in the German POW camp Stalag IXA near Ziegenhain, the the Ziegenhain, near IXA Stalag camp POW German the in held officer

from non-Jews. As the highest-ranking noncommissioned noncommissioned highest-ranking the As non-Jews. from

The Germans had a strict policy of separating Jewish POWS POWS Jewish separating of policy strict a had Germans The

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 200

January 1945: Master Sgt. Roddie Edmonds Roddie Sgt. Master 1945: January

Reference: 1944.2 Reference:

helped save Jews during the Holocaust. Holocaust. the during Jews save helped

honorific Righteous Among the Nations, an award given to non-Jews who who non-Jews to given award an Nations, the Among Righteous honorific

France also has the third highest number of citizens who were awarded the the awarded were who citizens of number highest third the has also France

rate of 75% of Jews in France was one of the highest survival rates in Europe. Europe. in rates survival highest the of one was France in Jews of 75% of rate

sent to Auschwitz. Although most Jews who were deported died, the survival survival the died, deported were who Jews most Although Auschwitz. to sent

Most victims were sent from the Drancy transit camp in Paris, and most were were most and Paris, in camp transit Drancy the from sent were victims Most

76,000 deaths: / affected People

August 1944: Last transport of Jews leaves France leaves Jews of transport Last 1944: August

Reference: 1944.1 Reference:

Peace Prize. Prize. Peace

, and was twice nominated for the Nobel Nobel the for nominated twice was and , Holocaust” the during actions heroic and

Congressional Gold Medal by the US Congress Congress US the by Medal Gold Congressional “in recognition of his achievements achievements his of recognition “in

designated him as one of the Righteous Among the Nations. He was awarded a a awarded was He Nations. the Among Righteous the of one as him designated

is also an honorary citizen of Canada, Hungary, Australia, and Israel. Israel Israel Israel. and Australia, Hungary, Canada, of citizen honorary an also is

second person ever to receive this honour (after Winston Churchill). He He Churchill). Winston (after honour this receive to ever person second

sponsored a bill making him an honorary citizen of the United States, the the States, United the of citizen honorary an him making bill a sponsored

In 1981, US Congressman Tom Lantos, one of those saved by Wallenberg, Wallenberg, by saved those of one Lantos, Tom Congressman US 1981, In

proud of it. it. of proud

Jewish, and and Jewish, th 1/16 was he himself, Protestant a Although 1947. in Moscow,

441 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 442. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History investigated and prosecuted for war crimes, in light of the Geneva Conventions which required prisoners to only give their name, rank and serial number, not religion. The commandant backed down, and 200 Jews were saved.

In 2015 Edmonds was awarded the title “Righteous Among the Nations”, Israel’s highest award for non-Jews who risked their own lives to save Jews during the Holocaust. He died in 1985, his story unknown, having never received any official recognition, citation or medal for his defense of the Jewish POWs. It wasn’t until his son read his diaries and located several of the Jewish soldiers his father saved that his story became known.

Reference: 1945.1

1933–45: The HOLOCAUST: the number of Jews

People affected / deaths: 6 million

On January 30, 1933 Hitler is appointed Chancellor of Germany, and less than two months later Dachau concentration camp opens on March 20. The Holocaust is also known as the Shoah, an ancient Hebrew term signifying “utter destruction”, so now refers to the greatest modern tragedy to befall the Jewish people. Millions of non-Jews were also killed.

Hitler and the Nazi regime would use as moral justification the writings of Martin Luther (Protestant) and Chrysostom (Catholic), and 1,500 years of historical Catholic actions against Jews. Replacement Theology, the seeds of which were sown just 100 years after the deaths of the Jewish Apostles, flowered with the antisemitic writings of Martin Luther in particular (“On the Jews and Their Lies”), which was published exactly 400 years before it bore massive and tragic fruit in the Holocaust, leading the philosopher Karl Jaspers to say of Luther’s writings:

“There you have the whole Nazi program.”

So many Christians were silent during the Holocaust, their silence giving tacit approval to it.

Reference: 1945.2

And the opposite of life is not death, it’s indifference. indifference. it’s death, not is life of opposite the And

The opposite of faith is not heresy, it’s indifference. indifference. it’s heresy, not is faith of opposite The

The opposite of art is not ugliness, it’s indifference. indifference. it’s ugliness, not is art of opposite The

“The opposite of love is not hate, it’s indifference. indifference. it’s hate, not is love of opposite “The

political activist, Nobel Laureate, and Holocaust survivor, said: survivor, Holocaust and Laureate, Nobel activist, political

Eliezer “Elie” Wiesel, a Romanian-born American Jewish writer, professor, professor, writer, Jewish American Romanian-born a Wiesel, “Elie” Eliezer

Ordinary “decent people” were somehow able to rationalise their silence. silence. their rationalise to able somehow were people” “decent Ordinary

on, for the numbers involved negate the possibility of “collective ignorance”. ignorance”. “collective of possibility the negate involved numbers the for on,

The harsh truth was that almost everybody had to have known what was going going was what known have to had everybody almost that was truth harsh The

The Warsaw ghetto alone held 500,000 at its height. its at 500,000 held alone ghetto Warsaw The

the killing centers. centers. killing the

performing forced abortions, Germanising prisoners or transporting victims to to victims transporting or prisoners Germanising abortions, forced performing

Thousands of other camps were used for euthanising the elderly and infirm, infirm, and elderly the euthanising for used were camps other of Thousands

• Brothels filled with sex slaves: 500 slaves: sex with filled Brothels

• POW camps: 1,000 camps: POW

• Concentration camps: 980 camps: Concentration

• Jewish ghettos: 1,150 ghettos: Jewish

• Slave labour camps: 30,000 camps: labour Slave

• Nazi ghettos and camps throughout Europe: 42,500– Europe: throughout camps and ghettos Nazi plus

statistics: conclusive following

15-20 million died or were imprisoned were or died million 15-20 between . Researchers also revealed the the revealed also Researchers .

the total number of those who died or were imprisoned in the Holocaust was was Holocaust the in imprisoned were or died who those of number total the

reveals that the figures are far higher than anybody realised. Seventy years later, later, years Seventy realised. anybody than higher far are figures the that reveals

began in 2000, and was completed 13 years later in 2013. This documentation documentation This 2013. in later years 13 completed was and 2000, in began

Research at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Museum Memorial Holocaust States United the at Research

) figures total released newly (

15-20 million died or were imprisoned imprisoned were or died million 15-20 deaths: / affected People

1933–45: The HOLOCAUST: total figures total HOLOCAUST: The 1933–45:

443 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 444. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Because of indifference, one dies before one actually dies. To be in the window and watch people being sent to concentration camps or being attacked in the street and do nothing, that’s being dead.”

“Indifference, to me, is the epitome of evil.”

“What hurts the victim most is not the cruelty of the oppressor but the silence of the bystander.”

The unspeakable crime of the 20th Century, more than the triumph of evil, was the sin of the innocent bystander.

Reference: 1945.3

July 1945: Harrison Report

The Harrison Report was a July 1945 report carried out by United States lawyer Earl G. Harrison into the conditions of the Displaced Persons camps in post- World War II Europe, personally delivered to President Truman on August 24. The Harrison Report became the single most significant document of the DP era, and was released to newspapers on September 30. After widespread media attention and public embarrassment for the Army, his report prompted the War Department to issue an order to General Eisenhower to investigate and improve the situation. His report became part of the impetus for the creation of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry regarding Mandatory Palestine, then under a British mandate, which was formed to recommend policies for dealing with both Jewish war refugees and the problems of Palestine (see entry below, 1946).

The report blamed U.S. military authorities for the horrible conditions it described, as these excerpts show:

“Generally speaking, three months after V-E Day and even longer after the liberation of individual groups, many Jewish displaced persons and other possibly non-repatriables are living under guard behind barbed-wire fences, in camps of several descriptions (built by the Germans for slave-laborers and Jews), including some of the most notorious of the concentration camps, amidst crowded, frequently unsanitary and generally grim conditions, in complete idleness, with no opportunity, except surreptitiously, to communicate with the outside world, waiting, hoping for some word of encouragement and action in their behalf...

a petition that one hundred thousand additional immigration certificates certificates immigration additional thousand hundred one that petition a

The Jewish Agency of Palestine has submitted to the British Government Government British the to submitted has Palestine of Agency Jewish The

Palestine should be soon closed. soon be should Palestine

survivors, it is nothing short of calamitous to contemplate that the gates of of gates the that contemplate to calamitous of short nothing is it survivors,

visited the concentration camps and who has talked with the despairing despairing the with talked has who and camps concentration the visited

current month (August 1945). What is the future to be? To anyone who has has who anyone To be? to future the is What 1945). (August month current

for immigration to Palestine will be practically exhausted by the end of the the of end the by exhausted practically be will Palestine to immigration for

“It is my understanding, based upon reliable information, that certificates certificates that information, reliable upon based understanding, my is “It

On immigration to Palestine: Palestine: to immigration On

group with greater needs.” greater with group

and more barbaric persecution, which has already made them a separate separate a them made already has which persecution, barbaric more and

as such has the effect, in this situation, of closing one’s eyes to their former former their to eyes one’s closing of situation, this in effect, the has such as

mental, is far worse than that of other groups... Refusal to recognize the Jews Jews the recognize to Refusal groups... other of that than worse far is mental,

loved ones. Understandably, therefore, their present condition, physical and and physical condition, present their therefore, Understandably, ones. loved

many have been through the agony of witnessing the destruction of their their of destruction the witnessing of agony the through been have many

full extent is not yet known, they are the sole survivors of their families and and families their of survivors sole the are they known, yet not is extent full

years in the worst of the concentration camps. In many cases, although the the although cases, many In camps. concentration the of worst the in years

status and by this I mean their status as Jews. Most of them have spent spent have them of Most Jews. as status their mean I this by and status

“The first and plainest need of these people is a recognition of their actual actual their of recognition a is people these of need plainest and first “The

On the needs of the Jews: Jews: the of needs the On

anything but bright.” but anything

The outlook in many areas so far as shelter, food and fuel are concerned is is concerned are fuel and food shelter, as far so areas many in outlook The

displaced persons will be in Germany and Austria when winter sets in. in. sets winter when Austria and Germany in be will persons displaced

of a complete lack of fuel. There is every likelihood that close to a million million a to close that likelihood every is There fuel. of lack complete a of

unfit for winter use and everywhere there is great concern about the prospect prospect the about concern great is there everywhere and use winter for unfit

Many of the buildings in which displaced persons are housed are clearly clearly are housed are persons displaced which in buildings the of Many

family groups... groups... family

should not have undertaken immediately the organized effort to re-unite re-unite to effort organized the immediately undertaken have not should

three, four or five years and they cannot understand why the liberators liberators the why understand cannot they and years five or four three,

wives, husbands, parents, children. Most of them have been separated for for separated been have them of Most children. parents, husbands, wives,

The most absorbing worry of these Nazi and war victims concerns relatives- concerns victims war and Nazi these of worry absorbing most The

It is questionable which clothing they hate the more... more... the hate they clothing which questionable is It

while others, to their chagrin, were obliged to wear German S.S. uniforms. uniforms. S.S. German wear to obliged were chagrin, their to others, while

their concentration camp garb — a rather hideous striped pajama effect — — effect pajama striped hideous rather a — garb camp concentration their

many of the Jewish displaced persons, late in July, had no clothing other than than other clothing no had July, in late persons, displaced Jewish the of many

obvious difficulties, to find clothing of one kind or another for their charges, charges, their for another or kind one of clothing find to difficulties, obvious

Although some Camp Commandants have managed, in spite of the many many the of spite in managed, have Commandants Camp some Although

445 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 446. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

be made available. A memorandum accompanying the petition makes a persuasive showing with respect to the immediate absorptive capacity of Palestine and the current, actual man-power shortages there.

His conclusion:

“As matters now stand, we appear to be treating the Jews as the Nazis treated them except that we do not exterminate them. They are in concentration camps in large numbers under our military guard instead of S.S. troops. One is led to wonder whether the German people, seeing this, are not supposing that we are following or at least condoning Nazi policy... In conclusion, I wish to repeat that the main solution, in many ways the only real solution, of the problem lies in the quick evacuation of all non-repatriable Jews in Germany and Austria, who wish it, to Palestine. In order to be effective, this plan must not be long delayed. The urgency of the situation should be recognized. It is inhuman to ask people to continue to live for any length of time under their present conditions. The evacuation of the Jews of Germany and Austria to Palestine will solve the problem of the individuals involved and will also remove a problem from the military authorities who have had to deal with it. The army’s ability to move millions of people quickly and efficiently has been amply demonstrated. The evacuation of a relatively small number of Jews from Germany and Austria will present no great problem to the military. With the end of the Japanese war, the shipping situation should also become sufficiently improved to make such a move feasible. The civilized world owes it to this handful of survivors to provide them with a home where they can again settle down and begin to live as human beings.” (emphasis mine).

Reference: 1945.2

October 19, 1945: Stuttgart Declaration of Guilt

The Stuttgart Declaration of Guilt was a declaration issued by the Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany in which it confessed guilt for its inadequacies in opposition to the Nazis and the Third Reich. The Declaration makes no mention of any particular atrocities committed during the Third Reich or of the Church’s support for Hitler during the early years of the regime.

Many Germans viewed the Declaration as a further capitulation to the Allies and a betrayal of German interests; one signatory asked the foreign churchmen to refrain from publishing the Declaration, entirely contrary to the purpose of

violence and revenge, which again today wants to become powerful, will be be will powerful, become to wants today again which revenge, and violence

We hope to God that by the common service of the churches the spirit of of spirit the churches the of service common the by that God to hope We

with the other churches of the ecumenical community fills us with great joy. great with us fills community ecumenical the of churches other the with

The fact that we, in this new beginning, find ourselves sincerely connected connected sincerely ourselves find beginning, new this in we, that fact The

our whole people. whole our

word and to obtain obedience for His will, amongst ourselves and among among and ourselves amongst will, His for obedience obtain to and word

He will use our churches as His tools and give them license to proclaim His His proclaim to license them give and tools His as churches our use will He

and to reorganize themselves. We hope to the God of grace and mercy that that mercy and grace of God the to hope We themselves. reorganize to and

start to cleanse themselves of the influences of beliefs foreign to the faith faith the to foreign beliefs of influences the of themselves cleanse to start

Scripture, with complete seriousness directed to the Lord of the Church, they they Church, the of Lord the to directed seriousness complete with Scripture,

Now a new beginning is to be made in our churches. Based on the Holy Holy the on Based churches. our in made be to is beginning new a Now

ardently.

more faithfully, for not believing more joyously, and for not not loving more more loving not not for and joyously, more believing not for faithfully, more

ourselves for not standing to our beliefs more courageously, for not praying praying not for courageously, more beliefs our to standing not for ourselves

awful expression in the National Socialist regime of violence; but we accuse accuse we but violence; of regime Socialist National the in expression awful

years in the name of Jesus Christ against the mentality that found its its found that mentality the against Christ Jesus of name the in years

we express now in the name of the whole Church: We did fight for long long for fight did We Church: whole the of name the in now express we

peoples and countries. That which we often testified to in our communities, communities, our in to testified often we which That countries. and peoples

With great pain we say: By us infinite wrong was brought over many many over brought was wrong infinite us By say: we pain great With

of guilt. of

with our people in a large community of suffering, but also in a solidarity solidarity a in also but suffering, of community large a in people our with

We are all the more grateful for this visit, as we not only know that we are are we that know only not we as visit, this for grateful more the all are We

October 1945. October

of the Ecumenical Council of Churches at its meeting in Stuttgart on 18-19 18-19 on Stuttgart in meeting its at Churches of Council Ecumenical the of

“The Council of the Protestant Church in Germany welcomes representatives representatives welcomes Germany in Church Protestant the of Council “The

The Declaration states: states: Declaration The

to people.” people.” to

“I did nothing but preach the Declaration Declaration the preach but nothing did “I claimed, he years”, two next the “For it:

). Of the 11 signatories, only he chose to publicize publicize to chose he only signatories, 11 the Of ). 1946 below, and 1935, above,

One of the initiators of the Declaration was pastor Martin Niemöller ( Niemöller Martin pastor was Declaration the of initiators the of One see entries entries see

provided that the Allies reciprocated and admitted their own wrongdoing. own their admitted and reciprocated Allies the that provided

world. Most Protestants were willing to admit some degree of responsibility, responsibility, of degree some admit to willing were Protestants Most world.

guilt, which would in turn justify harsh treatment by the Allies in the postwar postwar the in Allies the by treatment harsh justify turn in would which guilt,

the Declaration would be interpreted by the Allies as an expression of collective collective of expression an as Allies the by interpreted be would Declaration the

obtaining it in the first place. Many Germans raised the practical objection that that objection practical the raised Germans Many place. first the in it obtaining

447 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 448. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

directed to the whole world, and that the spirit of peace and love will come to predominate, in which alone tortured humanity can find healing.

Thus we ask at a time, in which the whole world needs a new beginning: Veni creator Spiritus! (Come, spirit of the creator!)

Signatures:

D Worm (Wuerttemburg state bishop)

Asmussen of dd (president of the Church Chancellory of the EKD)

H. Meiser (state bishop Bavaria)

Held (minister in Essen, later Praeses of the Rhine. Church)

Dr. Lilje (Secretary-General of the Lutheran world convention, later state bishop in Hanover)

Hahn (minister, later Saxony state bishop)

Lic. Drizzle (minister, theology professor)

Smend D.Dr. (theology professor)

Dr. G. Heinemann (attorney, later federal politician and Federal President)

Dibelius (bishop of Berlin-Brandenburg)

Martin Niemoeller D.D. (minister, later church president of Hessen Nassau)”

Reference: 1945.5

November 13, 1945: British reaction to the Harrison Report

President Truman forwarded the Harrison Report (see entry above, July 1945) to British Prime Minister Clement Attlee, recommending the British allow 100,000 Jewish DPs to emigrate to Palestine. Attlee firmly rejected both Truman’s proposal and the recommendations of the Harrison Report and warned of “grievous harm” to US-British relations should the US government publicly advocate Jewish emigration to Palestine. To try to relieve tensions with the United States over the report, Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin proposed the

Reference: 1945.8 Reference:

that she should repent or even deny her deed.” deed.” her deny even or repent should she that

I walked out, stunned. I hadn’t expected that kind of answer. She did not feel feel not did She answer. of kind that expected hadn’t I stunned. out, walked I

Hitler was his tool. How could I stand by and be against the will of God?’ God?’ of will the against be and by stand I could How tool. his was Hitler

this she replied: ‘It wasn’t Hitler who killed the Jews; it was God’s will, and and will, God’s was it Jews; the killed who Hitler wasn’t ‘It replied: she this

man after having lived on good terms next door to her for so many years. To To years. many so for her to door next terms good on lived having after man

I asked the woman why she had given my mother’s hiding place to the SS SS the to place hiding mother’s my given had she why woman the asked I

the familiar, ‘I knew that some of you would survive.’ survive.’ would you of some that knew ‘I familiar, the

who had betrayed my mother now lived, and went there. I was greeted with with greeted was I there. went and lived, now mother my betrayed had who

enthusiastically help to murder us? I found out where the gentile neighbor neighbor gentile the where out found I us? murder to help enthusiastically

betrayed us. Why? We didn’t expect them to help us, but why did they so so they did why but us, help to them expect didn’t We Why? us. betrayed

“More often we spoke of how our own ‘good’ non-Jewish neighbors had had neighbors non-Jewish ‘good’ own our how of spoke we often “More

author Leon Wells’ mother’s hiding place: hiding mother’s Wells’ Leon author

After the liberation, a Polish Catholic explains why she led the Gestapo to to Gestapo the led she why explains Catholic Polish a liberation, the After

1945: Leon Wells: “The Janowska Road” Janowska “The Wells: Leon 1945:

Reference: 1945.7 Reference:

whom were Jewish. Jewish. were whom

the immigration in the following two years of 22,950 DPs, about two-thirds of of two-thirds about DPs, 22,950 of years two following the in immigration the

were in U.S. zones of occupation at the time of the executive order. This led to to led This order. executive the of time the at occupation of zones U.S. in were

immigration quotas for 1946 give preference to victims of Nazi persecution who who persecution Nazi of victims to preference give 1946 for quotas immigration

coming into the United States post-World War II. This order set forth that the the that forth set order This II. War post-World States United the into coming

Truman issued the Truman Directive, an executive order advocating for refugees refugees for advocating order executive an Directive, Truman the issued Truman

see entry above, July 1945 July above, entry see ( Report Harrison the from advice on Acting ), President President ),

December 22, 1945: The Truman Directive Truman The 1945: 22, December

Reference: 1945.6 Reference:

) to investigate the report’s claims. claims. report’s the investigate to ) 1946 below, entry

see see ( Palestine on Inquiry of Committee Anglo-American an of establishment

449 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 450. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1945–48: Bricha, or “escape” immigration to Palestine People affected / deaths: hundreds of thousands

Bricha was the underground organised effort in post-WWII Europe to help Holocaust survivors immigrate to Palestine in violation of Britain’s White Paper of 1939. It ended when Israel declared independence and annulled the White Paper.

Reference: 1945.9

1945-49: Nuremberg Trials, Germany

The Nuremberg Trials were a series of 13 trials carried out in Nuremberg for the purpose of bringing Nazi war criminals to justice. The defendants, who included Nazi Party officials and high-ranking military officers along with German industrialists, lawyers and doctors, were indicted on such charges as crimes against peace and crimes against humanity. The trials are now regarded as a milestone toward the establishment of a permanent international court, and an important precedent for dealing with later instances of genocide and other crimes against humanity. The best-known of the Nuremberg trials was the Trial of Major War Criminals, held from November 20, 1945 - October 1, 1946. Twenty-four individuals were indicted, along with six Nazi organizations determined to be criminal (such as the “Gestapo”, or secret state police). Hitler, Himmler and Goebbels had each committed suicide in the spring of 1945 before they could be brought to trial. In the end, the international tribunal found all but three of the defendants guilty. Twelve were sentenced to death, one in absentia, and the rest were given prison sentences ranging from 10 years to life behind bars. Ten of the condemned were executed by hanging on October 16, 1946. Hermann Göring (1893-1946), Hitler’s designated successor and head of the “Luftwaffe” (German air force), committed suicide the night before his execution with a cyanide capsule he had hidden in a jar of skin medication. More than 100 additional defendants, representing many sectors of German society, were tried before the United States Nuremberg Military Tribunals in a series of 12 trials known as “Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings.”

Reference: 1945.10

as it related to the problem of Jewish immigration and settlement with regards regards with settlement and immigration Jewish of problem the to related it as

examine the political, economic and social conditions in Mandatory Palestine Palestine Mandatory in conditions social and economic political, the examine

committee assembled in Washington on January 4, 1946, whose purpose was to to was purpose whose 1946, 4, January on Washington in assembled committee

The Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry was a joint British and American American and British joint a was Inquiry of Committee Anglo-American The

April 1946: Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry: the issue of Palestine of issue the Inquiry: of Committee Anglo-American 1946: April

Reference: 1946.2 Reference:

more guilty than many who bathed their hands in blood?” blood?” in hands their bathed who many than guilty more

being... a Jew... Are not we Christians much more to blame, am I not much much not I am blame, to more much Christians we not Are Jew... a being...

Jesus in the Brother who suffered and was persecuted despite him him despite persecuted was and suffered who Brother the in Jesus L the ord

National Socialists, the SS, and the Gestapo. We ought to have recognized recognized have to ought We Gestapo. the and SS, the Socialists, National

“Christianity in Germany bears a greater responsibility before God than the the than God before responsibility greater a bears Germany in “Christianity

In a lecture in Zurich, Niemoller stated: Niemoller Zurich, in lecture a In

March 7, 1946: Martin Niemöller Martin 1946: 7, March

Reference: 1946.1 Reference:

these things been done.” done.” been things these

name, even upon Christendom. For in our world and in our name have have name our in and world our in For Christendom. upon even name,

Europe. And this guilt lies heavily upon the German people and the German German the and people German the upon heavily lies guilt this And Europe.

six million clay urns containing the ashes of incinerated Jews from all over over all from Jews incinerated of ashes the containing urns clay million six

no doubt about that — even if there were no other guilt than that of the the of that than guilt other no were there if even — that about doubt no

started here and here it reached its highest peak. The guilt exists, there is is there exists, guilt The peak. highest its reached it here and here started

occupied countries. No doubt others made mistakes too, but the wave of crime crime of wave the but too, mistakes made others doubt No countries. occupied

the murder of German communists, Poles, Jews, and the people in German- in people the and Jews, Poles, communists, German of murder the

We must openly declare that we are not innocent of the Nazi murders, of of murders, Nazi the of innocent not are we that declare openly must We

acknowledge my guilt and beg you to forgive me and my people for this sin. sin. this for people my and me forgive to you beg and guilt my acknowledge

“Dear brother, fellow man, Jew, before you say anything, I say to you: I I you: to say I anything, say you before Jew, man, fellow brother, “Dear

lost everything, and said: said: and everything, lost

In a sermon in Erlangen, Niemöller spoke of meeting a German Jew who had had who Jew German a meeting of spoke Niemöller Erlangen, in sermon a In

January 1946: Martin Niemöller Martin 1946: January

451 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 452. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History to the resident Arab population, and to find a permanent solution for handling these problems.

The Committee’s report confirmed the Harrison Report’s findings (see entry above, 1945), and reported that given the chance, half a million Jews would immigrate to Palestine. A survey of Jewish DPs found that 96.8% would choose Palestine, so the Anglo-American Committee recommended that 100,000 Jews be immediately admitted into Palestine. Despite US pressure, the British persisted with restrictions on Jewish migration.

Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin told a Labour Party meeting in June 1946 that American pressure to admit Jews was being applied because:

“There has been agitation in the United States, and particularly in New York, for 100,000 Jews to be put in Palestine. I hope I will not be misunderstood in America if I say that this was proposed by the purest of motives. They did not want too many Jews in New York.”

Reference: 1946.3

July 4, 1946: Pogrom in Kielce, Poland

People affected / deaths: 42

The Kielce Pogrom was an outbreak of violence toward the Jewish community centre’s gathering of refugees in the city of Kielce, Poland on July 4, 1946 by Polish soldiers, police officers, and civilians during which 42 Jews were killed and more than 40 were wounded. Polish courts later sentenced nine of the attackers to death in connection with the crimes.

The mass violence of the Kielce pogrom drew on an entrenched local history of antisemitism — especially false allegations accusing Jews of using the blood of Christian children for ritual purposes (a charge known as a “blood libel”) — with the intent of discouraging the return of Jewish Holocaust survivors to Poland.

On July 1, 1946, a 9-year-old boy, Henryk Blaszczyk, left his home in Kielce, without informing his parents. When he returned on July 3, he told his parents and the police, in an effort to avoid punishment for wandering off, that he had been kidnapped and hidden in the basement of the local Jewish Committee building on 7 Planty Street. The Committee building sheltered up to 180 Jews,

Reference: 1946.5 Reference:

Then they came for me — and there was no one left to speak for me.” me.” for speak to left one no was there and — me for came they Then

a Jew. a

Then they came for the Jews, and I did not speak out — because I was not not was I because — out speak not did I and Jews, the for came they Then

was not a trade unionist. trade a not was

Then they came for the trade unionists, and I did not speak out — because I I because — out speak not did I and unionists, trade the for came they Then

not a socialist. a not

“First they came for the socialists, and I did not speak out — because I was was I because — out speak not did I and socialists, the for came they “First

groups targeted for persecution: for targeted groups

codified into a famous poem about the cowardice in not speaking out against against out speaking not in cowardice the about poem famous a into codified

Lutheran pastor Martin Niemöller starts writing speeches that were eventually eventually were that speeches writing starts Niemöller Martin pastor Lutheran

“First they came...” they “First Niemöller: Martin 1946:

Reference: 1946.4 Reference:

Jews who had survived the Holocaust. Holocaust. the survived had who Jews

recognized as a catalyst for the flight from Poland of most remaining Polish Polish remaining most of Poland from flight the for catalyst a as recognized

shocking Jews in Poland, Poles, and the international community. It has been been has It community. international the and Poles, Poland, in Jews shocking

place only a year after the end of the Second World War and the Holocaust, Holocaust, the and War World Second the of end the after year a only place

incident was a significant point in the post-war history of Jews in Poland. It took took It Poland. in Jews of history post-war the in point significant a was incident

As the deadliest pogrom against Polish Jews after the Second World War, the the War, World Second the after Jews Polish against pogrom deadliest the As

Jews and injured 40 others. others. 40 injured and Jews

killing some of them. By day’s end, civilians, soldiers and police had killed 42 42 killed had police and soldiers civilians, end, day’s By them. of some killing

viciously beat Jews fleeing the shooting, or driven onto the street by the attackers, attackers, the by street the onto driven or shooting, the fleeing Jews beat viciously

the Jews inside the building, killing some of them. Outside, the angry crowd crowd angry the Outside, them. of some killing building, the inside Jews the

After an unidentified individual fired a shot, officials and civilians fired upon upon fired civilians and officials shot, a fired individual unidentified an After

mill, gathered outside the building. the outside gathered mill,

a large crowd of angry Poles, including 1,000 workers from the Ludwikow steel steel Ludwikow the from workers 1,000 including Poles, angry of crowd large a

Henryk’s story began to unravel (the building, for example, had no basement), basement), no had example, for building, (the unravel to began story Henryk’s

police went to investigate the alleged crime in the building, and even though though even and building, the in crime alleged the investigate to went police

and housed various Jewish institutions operating in Kielce at the time. The local local The time. the at Kielce in operating institutions Jewish various housed and

453 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 454. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1946–47: London Conference

The London Conference was called by the British Government to resolve the future governance of Palestine and negotiate an end of the Mandate. It was scheduled following an Arab request after the April 1946 Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry report (see entry above).

On February 18, 1947, immediately following the conference, foreign secretary Ernest Bevin announced that Britain was unable to solve the problem and would pass it to the United Nations to propose a solution:

“His Majesty’s Government have of themselves no power, under the terms of the Mandate, to award the country either to the Arabs or to the Jews, or even to partition it between them. It is in these circumstances that we have decided that we are unable to accept the scheme put forward either by the Arabs or by the Jews, or to impose ourselves a solution of our own. We have, therefore, reached the conclusion that the only course now open to us is to submit the problem to the judgment of the United Nations. We intend to place before them an historical account of the way in which His Majesty’s Government have discharged their trust in Palestine over the last 25 years. We shall explain that the Mandate has proved to be unworkable in practice, and that the obligations undertaken to the two communities in Palestine have been shown to be irreconcilable. We shall describe the various proposals which have been put forward for dealing with the situation, namely, the Arab Plan, the Zionists’ aspirations, so far as we have been able to ascertain them, the proposals of the Anglo-American Committee, and the various proposals which we ourselves have put forward. We shall then ask the United Nations to consider our report, and to recommend a settlement of the problem. We do not intend ourselves to recommend any particular solution.”

A week later, on February 25, he blamed President Truman for the failure of the conference in a speech to the House of Commons:

“The Prime Minister telephoned me at midnight, and told me that the President of the United States was going to issue another statement on the 100,000. I think the country and the world ought to know about this. I went next morning to the Secretary of State, Mr. Byrnes, and told him how far I had got the day before. I believed we were on the road, if only they would leave us alone. I begged that the statement be not issued, but I was told that if it was not issued by Mr. Truman, a competitive statement would be issued by Mr. Dewey. In international affairs I cannot settle things if my problem is made the subject of local elections. I hope I am not saying anything to cause bad feeling with the United States, but I feel so intensely about this.

of Palestine. After the UN adopted Resolution 181 to partition Palestine in in Palestine partition to 181 Resolution adopted UN the After Palestine. of

On July 1922, the League of Nations entrusted Great Britain with the Mandate Mandate the with Britain Great entrusted Nations of League the 1922, July On

July 22, 1947: British relinquish the Mandate and submit Palestine to the UN the to Palestine submit and Mandate the relinquish British 1947: 22, July

Reference: 1947.1 Reference:

three months later in November. November. in later months three

swing of sympathy toward the Jews, and the passage of UN Resolution 181 just just 181 Resolution UN of passage the and Jews, the toward sympathy of swing

public embarrassment for Britain played a significant role in the diplomatic diplomatic the in role significant a played Britain for embarrassment public

Germany in August, barely two years after the Holocaust ended. The ensuing ensuing The ended. Holocaust the after years two barely August, in Germany

international media, especially after the refugees were forced to disembark in in disembark to forced were refugees the after especially media, international

an example of the “Exodus 1947” backfired under the widespread coverage by by coverage widespread the under backfired 1947” “Exodus the of example an

carrying 4,515 passengers, including 655 children. The British attempt to make make to attempt British The children. 655 including passengers, 4,515 carrying

when retrofitted, it became the largest of the 64 vessels that sailed in Aliyah Bet, Bet, Aliyah in sailed that vessels 64 the of largest the became it retrofitted, when

The SS Warfield was originally designed to carry about 500 passengers, but but passengers, 500 about carry to designed originally was Warfield SS The

violation of the British White Paper of 1939. 1939. of Paper White British the of violation

immigration of Jews who survived the Holocaust, back to Palestine — in in — Palestine to back Holocaust, the survived who Jews of immigration

bought it to use in the Aliyah Bet operation, the code name given to the illegal illegal the to given name code the operation, Bet Aliyah the in use to it bought

craft for the British, and returned to the US in 1944. In 1946 the Haganah Haganah the 1946 In 1944. in US the to returned and British, the for craft

Baltimore, MD and Norfolk, VA. In 1942 it was converted into a transport transport a into converted was it 1942 In VA. Norfolk, and MD Baltimore,

launched in 1928 to ferry passengers down the Chesapeake Bay between between Bay Chesapeake the down passengers ferry to 1928 in launched

The SS President Warfield was originally a coastal freight passenger ship ship passenger freight coastal a originally was Warfield President SS The

4,515 deaths: / affected People

1947: Haganah Ship: “Exodus 1947” “Exodus Ship: Haganah 1947:

Reference: 1946.6 Reference:

because the whole thing was spoilt.” spoilt.” was thing whole the because

was dealing with Jewish representatives at the time, and I had to call it off off it call to had I and time, the at representatives Jewish with dealing was

war before you know where you are. However, the statement was issued. I I issued. was statement the However, are. you where know you before war

in Ireland, and elsewhere. I know what it involves. It can lead to civil civil to lead can It involves. it what know I elsewhere. and Ireland, in

than I do. I have seen these tense religious struggles in parts of this country, country, this of parts in struggles religious tense these seen have I do. I than

to be handled with the greatest detail and care. No one knows that more more that knows one No care. and detail greatest the with handled be to

A vexed problem like this, with a thousand years of religious differences, has has differences, religious of years thousand a with this, like problem vexed A

455 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 456. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1947 (see entry below), Britain announced its termination of the Mandate, to take effect on May 15, 1948 — the day after Israel declared statehood (see entry below).

Reference: 1947.2

November 29, 1947: UN Resolution 181

The United Nations passed the landmark resolution for the formation of a Jewish state in its general assembly as follows:

Those in favour: Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Byelorussian SSR, Canada, Costa Rica, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, France, Guatemala, Haiti, Iceland, Liberia, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, South Africa, Soviet Union, Sweden, Ukrainian SSR, United States, Uruguay, Venezuela Those against: Afghanistan, Cuba, Egypt, Greece, India, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Yemen Abstentions: Argentina, Chile, China, Colombia, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Hondura, Mexico, United Kingdom, Yugoslavia Absent: Thailand Reactions: David Ben-Gurion, the primary national founder of the State of Israel and its first Prime Minister, said: “I know of no greater achievement by the Jewish people ... in its long history since it became a people.” The Arab states warned the Western Powers that endorsement of the partition plan might be met by either or both an oil embargo and realignment of the Arab states with the Soviet Bloc.

forgotten what Israel really is, and no longer loved the Jews. Christian circles circles Christian Jews. the loved longer no and is, really Israel what forgotten

and military circles, but also among Christian leaders... The churches had had churches The leaders... Christian among also but circles, military and

Christian nation); not only among the intelligentsia, and in governmental governmental in and intelligentsia, the among only not nation); Christian

rose and flourished not only among the people (who still seemed to be a a be to seemed still (who people the among only not flourished and rose

“What has happened, we allowed to happen in silence… Anti-semitism Anti-semitism silence… in happen to allowed we happened, has “What

Germany issued a statement, saying: statement, a issued Germany

The National Brethren Council of the Protestant Church in in Church Protestant the of Council Brethren National The

Germany

1948: National Brethren Council of the Protestant Church in in Church Protestant the of Council Brethren National 1948:

Reference: 1947.3 Reference:

prejudice and hatred.” hatred.” and prejudice

harmony among Jews and non-Jews in Iraq; it will breed inter-religious inter-religious breed will it Iraq; in non-Jews and Jews among harmony

Jews. But any injustice imposed upon the Arabs of Palestine will disturb the the disturb will Palestine of Arabs the upon imposed injustice any But Jews.

and economic rights. Harmony prevails among Moslems, Christians and and Christians Moslems, among prevails Harmony rights. economic and

Jews who share with Moslems and Christians all the advantages of political political of advantages the all Christians and Moslems with share who Jews

Palestine than there are in Palestine. In Iraq alone, we have about 150,000 150,000 about have we alone, Iraq In Palestine. in are there than Palestine

will greatly deteriorate. There are more Jews in the Arab world outside of of outside world Arab the in Jews more are There deteriorate. greatly will

cannot be restrained. The Arab-Jewish relationship in the Arab world world Arab the in relationship Arab-Jewish The restrained. be cannot

of the Arabs of Palestine is to be expected, but the masses in the Arab world world Arab the in masses the but expected, be to is Palestine of Arabs the of

jeopardize peace and harmony in the Middle East. Not only the uprising uprising the only Not East. Middle the in harmony and peace jeopardize

“Partition imposed against the will of the majority of the people will will people the of majority the of will the against imposed “Partition

Iraq’s Foreign Minister, Fadel Jamall, predicted: predicted: Jamall, Fadel Minister, Foreign Iraq’s

“satisfactory”, “severe measures should be taken against all Jews in Arab countries.” Arab in Jews all against taken be should measures “severe “satisfactory”,

He told British diplomats that if the United Nations solution was not not was solution Nations United the if that diplomats British told He

Jews seek shelter in.” shelter seek Jews

“We will smash the country with our guns and obliterate every place the the place every obliterate and guns our with country the smash will “We

Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al-Said, said: said: al-Said, Nuri Minister Prime Iraqi

“The blood will flow like rivers in the Middle East.” Middle the in rivers like flow will blood “The

Jamal Husseini, co-founder and chairman of the Palestine Arab Party, promised, promised, Party, Arab Palestine the of chairman and co-founder Husseini, Jamal

made: were

Concerning the welfare of Jews in Arab countries, a number of direct threats threats direct of number a countries, Arab in Jews of welfare the Concerning

457 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 458. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

washed their hands of all responsibility, justifying themselves by saying that there was a curse on the Jewish people... We Christians helped bring about all the injustice and suffering inflicted upon the Jews in our country.”

Reference: 1948.1

May 14, 1948: Israel issues Declaration of Independence

The Israeli Declaration of Independence was proclaimed on May 14, 1948 by David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization, who would go on to become Israel’s first Prime Minister. It declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, which would come into effect on termination of the British Mandate at midnight that day.

The Proclamation may be divided into four sections:

1. the section that describes the history of the Jewish people, its struggle to renew its political life and the international recognition of this right

2. the operative section, that proclaims the establishment of the state 3. the section that declares the principles which will guide the State of Israel

4. the appeal to the U.N., the Arab inhabitants of the state, the Arab states and world Jewry

The Proclamation states in part: “...On the 29th November, 1947, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution calling for the establishment of a Jewish State in Eretz- Israel... This recognition by the United Nations of the right of the Jewish people to establish their State is irrevocable. This right is the natural right of the Jewish people to be masters of their own fate, like all other nations, in their own sovereign State… We declare that, with effect from the moment of the termination of the Mandate being tonight, the eve of Sabbath, the 6th Iyar, 5708 (15th May, 1948)... the Provisional Government of the Jewish State, to be called “Israel.”

Reference: 1948.2 Reference:

United States. States. United

Epstein (1903–90) would go on to become Israel’s first Ambassador to the the to Ambassador first Israel’s become to on go would (1903–90) Epstein

Eleven minutes later, at 6:11pm, the United States recognised Israel. Eliahu Eliahu Israel. recognised States United the 6:11pm, at later, minutes Eleven

minute after six o’clock on the evening of 14 May 1948, Washington time...” Washington 1948, May 14 of evening the on o’clock six after minute

independent republic... The Act of Independence will become effective at one one at effective become will Independence of Act The republic... independent

I have the honor to notify you that the state of Israel has been proclaimed as an an as proclaimed been has Israel of state the that you notify to honor the have I

“My dear Mr. President: Mr. dear “My

Eliahu Epstein, Israeli diplomat, wrote to President Harry S. Truman: S. Harry President to wrote diplomat, Israeli Epstein, Eliahu

proclamation...”

Placing our trust in the Almighty, we affix our signatures to this this to signatures our affix we Almighty, the in trust our Placing

— the redemption of Israel. of redemption the —

stand by them in the great struggle for the realization of the age-old dream dream age-old the of realization the for struggle great the in them by stand

Jews of Eretz-Israel in the tasks of immigration and upbuilding and to to and upbuilding and immigration of tasks the in Eretz-Israel of Jews

We appeal to the Jewish people throughout the Diaspora to rally round the the round rally to Diaspora the throughout people Jewish the to appeal We

for the advancement of the entire Middle East. Middle entire the of advancement the for

own land. The State of Israel is prepared to do its share in a common effort effort common a in share its do to prepared is Israel of State The land. own

cooperation and mutual help with the sovereign Jewish people settled in its its in settled people Jewish sovereign the with help mutual and cooperation

of peace and good neighbourliness, and appeal to them to establish bonds of of bonds establish to them to appeal and neighbourliness, good and peace of

We extend our hand to all neighbouring states and their peoples in an offer offer an in peoples their and states neighbouring all to hand our extend We

institutions.

citizenship and due representation in all its provisional and permanent permanent and provisional its all in representation due and citizenship

and participate in the upbuilding of the State on the basis of full and equal equal and full of basis the on State the of upbuilding the in participate and

for months — to the Arab inhabitants of the State of Israel to preserve peace peace preserve to Israel of State the of inhabitants Arab the to — months for

We appeal — in the very midst of the onslaught launched against us now now us against launched onslaught the of midst very the in — appeal We

up of its State and to receive the State of Israel into the community of nations. of community the into Israel of State the receive to and State its of up

We appeal to the United Nations to assist the Jewish people in the building- the in people Jewish the assist to Nations United the to appeal We

faithful to the principles of the Charter of the United Nations... Nations... United the of Charter the of principles the to faithful

and culture; it will safeguard the Holy Places of all religions; and it will be be will it and religions; all of Places Holy the safeguard will it culture; and

or sex; it will guarantee freedom of religion, conscience, language, education education language, conscience, religion, of freedom guarantee will it sex; or

of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race race religion, of irrespective inhabitants its all to rights political and social of

peace as envisaged by the prophets of Israel; it will ensure complete equality equality complete ensure will it Israel; of prophets the by envisaged as peace

the benefit of all its inhabitants; it will be based on freedom, justice and and justice freedom, on based be will it inhabitants; its all of benefit the

Ingathering of the Exiles; it will foster the development of the country for for country the of development the foster will it Exiles; the of Ingathering

The State of Israel will be open for Jewish immigration and for the the for and immigration Jewish for open be will Israel of State The

459 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 460. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

May 15, 1948 – March 10, 1949: Israel’s War of Indepence: Israel’s first war

People affected / deaths: Israel: 6,373 (nearly 1% of the Jewish popn) l Arab armies: 3,700 – 7,000 l Palestinian Arabs: 3,000 – 13,000

Following the vote to partition the British mandate of Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state on November 29, 1947 (see United Nations Resolution 181 above, 1947), clashes broke out almost immediately between Jews and Arabs in Palestine. When Israel declared its independence on May 14, 1948, the army did not have a single cannon or tank, its air force consisted of nine obsolete planes, and Israel was forced to smuggle weapons in, principally from Czechoslovakia.

They even had to make their own bullets. Under the British, any Jew caught carrying weapons or ammunition could expect corporal punishment, and knowing war was imminent once the British left, they built a secret “bullet factory” beneath a laundry and bakery of a new kibbutz (built as a cover story) right next to a British military camp. Downstairs in the bullet factory, 45 pioneers crafted more than 2.5 million copper bullets by hand in a production line based around World War I-era machines smuggled in via Beirut. The copper, the Haganah (a Jewish paramilitary organization) told British customs officials, was needed to create lipstick containers, a storyline they backed up with gifts of lipstick to British officers’ wives.

On May 15, 1948, the day after Israel declared independence (see entry above) and the day the British mandate ended, five Arab states — Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan — invaded Israel. Their intentions were declared by Azzam Pasha, Secretary-General of the Arab League:

“It will be a war of annihilation. It will be a momentous massacre in history that will be talked about like the massacres of the Mongols or the Crusades.”

Around 700,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes in the area that became Israel, because they expected an Arab victory which would annihilate the Jews, and they could return home. They are known today as the Palestinian refugees.

As a result of the war, the State of Israel controlled both the area that the UN General Assembly Resolution 181 had recommended for the proposed Jewish state as well as almost 60% of the area of the Arab state proposed by the 1948 Partition Plan. In short, the Arabs wound up with less territory than they would have had if they had accepted partition.

precious promises of God? Shall we be accused of anti-Semitism, because because anti-Semitism, of accused be we Shall God? of promises precious

undesired and undesirable group are now heirs to the many and exceedingly exceedingly and many the to heirs now are group undesirable and undesired

but is it not monstrous to hold that by reason of this wickedness the said said the wickedness this of reason by that hold to monstrous not it is but

fact — a very sad fact, brought about by their wicked rebellion against God; God; against rebellion wicked their by about brought fact, sad very a — fact

no longer be any Jewish people in the world — yet here they are! That is a a is That are! they here yet — world the in people Jewish any be longer no

“God willed that after the institution of the New Covenant there should should there Covenant New the of institution the after that willed “God

nation, in which he writes: writes: he which in nation,

in America, wrote “The Seed of Abraham” just two years after Israel became a a became Israel after years two just Abraham” of Seed “The wrote America, in

Albertus Pieters (1869-1955), author, and minister of the Reformed Church Church Reformed the of minister and author, (1869-1955), Pieters Albertus

1950: Albertus Pieters Albertus 1950:

Reference: 1948.4 Reference:

destroyed the ancient synagogues that were in the Old City as well. well. as City Old the in were that synagogues ancient the destroyed

expelled all Jews (about 2,000) from the Old City (the Jewish Quarter) and and Quarter) Jewish (the City Old the from 2,000) (about Jews all expelled

Arab armies were able to conquer part of the West Bank and Jerusalem; they they Jerusalem; and Bank West the of part conquer to able were armies Arab

During the Siege of Jerusalem of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, War, Arab-Israeli 1948 the of Jerusalem of Siege the During

2,000 c. deaths: / affected People

) Muslims by Expulsion ( Jerusalem

1948: Jews expelled from the Old City (the Jewish Quarter), Quarter), Jewish (the City Old the from expelled Jews 1948:

Reference: 1948.3 Reference:

annually on May 15. 15. May on annually

of refugees and displaced persons resulting from the war, and is commemorated commemorated is and war, the from resulting persons displaced and refugees of

(“Catastrophe”) because of the large number number large the of because (“Catastrophe”) Nakba the as known be to came it

In Israel, the war is remembered as its War of Independence. In the Arab world, world, Arab the In Independence. of War its as remembered is war the Israel, In

previous countries of residence in the Middle East. Middle the in residence of countries previous

Jews immigrated to Israel, with many of them having been expelled from their their from expelled been having them of many with Israel, to immigrated Jews

to Jordan’s Arab Legion. In the three years following the war, about 700,000 700,000 about war, the following years three the In Legion. Arab Jordan’s to

with Israel, choosing instead to withdraw its troops and hand over its sector sector its over hand and troops its withdraw to instead choosing Israel, with

and Syria ( July 20). Iraq was the only country that did not sign an agreement agreement an sign not did that country only the was Iraq 20). July ( Syria and

with Egypt (February 24), followed by Lebanon (March 23), Jordan (April 3) 3) (April Jordan 23), (March Lebanon by followed 24), (February Egypt with

The Arab countries signed armistice agreements with Israel in 1949, starting starting 1949, in Israel with agreements armistice signed countries Arab The

461 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 462. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

we speak thus of the Jews?... How is it possible to believe that there are still prophecies of divine grace to be fulfilled in a group upon which the wrath of God has come ‘to the uttermost’”?

Reference: 1950.1

August 12, 1952: Night of the Murdered Poets, Soviet Union

August 12 became known as the Night of the Murdered Poets, after 13 Soviet Jews in the Lubyanka Prison in Moscow, Soviet Union were executed. The arrests had been made in September 1948 and June 1949 following Stalin’s campaign against “rootless cosmopolitans”, by which he meant Jews. All defendants were accused of espionage and treason as well as many other crimes. After their arrests, they were tortured, beaten, and isolated for three years before being formally charged.

A show trial was held in May, 1952 at which many of the defendants “confessed”. One defendant, Joseph Yuzefovich, told the court at the trial, “I was ready to confess that I was the pope’s own nephew and that I was acting on his direct personal orders” after a beating.

Lina Stern (who was then 74), who had done pioneering work on the blood– brain barrier, was sentenced to three and a half years in a correctional labor camp and five years of exile, but after Stalin’s death she was able to return to her home and continue her studies. During the trial, she was determined to be “no less guilty” than the other defendants but was considered important to the state because of her research.

After the execution of the other defendants, all of whom were part of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, and five of whom were Yiddish writers, the trial and its results were kept secret. Family members did not learn about the fates of the executed until November, 1955.

Reference: 1952.1

1952–53: Doctor’s plot in Moscow, Soviet Union

In 1952-53, a group of predominantly Jewish doctors from Moscow were accused of conspiring to assassinate Soviet leaders. On January 13, 1953,

Reference: 1952.2 Reference:

hell out of those Jews.” Jews.” those of out hell

“The good workers at the factory should be given clubs so they can beat the the beat can they so clubs given be should factory the at workers good “The

him to incite antisemitism in the Ukraine, by saying, saying, by Ukraine, the in antisemitism incite to him

massive purge of the Communist Party. He also claimed that Stalin hinted to to hinted Stalin that claimed also He Party. Communist the of purge massive

confessions elicited, so that Stalin could use the Doctors’ trial to launch a a launch to trial Doctors’ the use could Stalin that so elicited, confessions

asserted that Stalin had personally ordered that the cases be developed and and developed be cases the that ordered personally had Stalin that asserted

Personality and Its Consequences”, also called the “Secret Speech”, which which Speech”, “Secret the called also Consequences”, Its and Personality

On February 25, 1956, Khruschchev gave a speech called called speech a gave Khruschchev 1956, 25, February On On the Cult of of Cult the On “

were executed for their participation in fabricating the cases against the doctors. the against cases the fabricating in participation their for executed were

In 1954 an official in the Ministry of State Security and some police officers officers police some and Security State of Ministry the in official an 1954 In

caused by the accusations. the by caused

poisoning the wells, where thousands were murdered in subsequent pogroms pogroms subsequent in murdered were thousands where wells, the poisoning

medieval charge against the Jews of causing the Black Death in Europe by by Europe in Death Black the causing of Jews the against charge medieval

In accusing the Jewish doctors of being poisoners, Stalin was reviving the the reviving was Stalin poisoners, being of doctors Jewish the accusing In

into signing. into

Jews” had already been written and signed; the signatories had been coerced coerced been had signatories the signed; and written been already had Jews”

Stalin died, it was found that the supposedly “spontaneous appeal by leading leading by appeal “spontaneous supposedly the that found was it died, Stalin

publicly beg him to protect the Jews by sending them all to Siberia. When When Siberia. to all them sending by Jews the protect to him beg publicly

country, after which prominent members of the Jewish community would would community Jewish the of members prominent which after country,

It later became known that Stalin intended to organize pogroms around the the around pogroms organize to intended Stalin that known became later It

during the course of the investigation. investigation. the of course the during

obtained by torture. The doctors were exonerated, except for two who had died died had who two for except exonerated, were doctors The torture. by obtained

the case showed the charges against the doctors to be false and their confessions confessions their and false be to doctors the against charges the showed case the

Stalin died on March 5. In April, Pravda announced that a reexamination of of reexamination a that announced Pravda April, In 5. March on died Stalin

The trial and the rumoured purge that was to follow did not occur because because occur not did follow to was that purge rumoured the and trial The

press reported that all of the doctors had confessed their guilt. guilt. their confessed had doctors the of all that reported press

services, as well as of serving the interests of international Jewry. The Soviet Soviet The Jewry. international of interests the serving of as well as services,

Jewish, were also accused of being in the employ of U.S. and British intelligence intelligence British and U.S. of employ the in being of accused also were Jewish,

several marshals of the Soviet army. The doctors, at least six of whom were were whom of six least at doctors, The army. Soviet the of marshals several

Political Administration of the Soviet army, and with attempting to murder murder to attempting with and army, Soviet the of Administration Political

1948, and Alexander S. Shcherbakov (d. 1945), who had been head of the Main Main the of head been had who 1945), (d. Shcherbakov S. Alexander and 1948,

poisoning Andrey A. Zhdanov, Central Committee secretary, who had died in in died had who secretary, Committee Central Zhdanov, A. Andrey poisoning

attended major Soviet leaders, had been arrested. They were charged with with charged were They arrested. been had leaders, Soviet major attended

the newspapers Pravda and Izvestiya announced that nine doctors, who had had who doctors, nine that announced Izvestiya and Pravda newspapers the

463 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 464. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1956: Martin Niemöller

In a letter to Dr. Weiner, Niemöller said:

“I have never concealed the fact and said it before the court in 1938 that I came from an anti-Semitic past and tradition... I ask only that you look at my life historically and take it as history. I believe that from 1933 I truly represented the Lutheran-Christian outlook on the Jewish question — as I revealed before the court — but that I returned home after eight years’ imprisonment as a completely different person.”

Reference: 1956.1

October 29 – November 7, 1956: Suez Crisis: Israel’s second war

People affected/deaths: Israel: 172 l Egypt: 1,650 – 3,000 l UK: 16 l France: 10

July 26, 1956: Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, which precipitated the international crisis. When diplomatic efforts to settle the crisis failed, Britain and France secretly prepared military action to regain control of the canal and, if possible, to depose Nasser, with Israel’s help. It later became clear that the Israeli invasion and the subsequent Anglo-French attack had been planned beforehand by the three countries.

October 29: Ten Israeli brigades invaded Egypt and advanced toward the canal, routing Egyptian forces. Britain and France, following their plan, demanded that Israeli and Egyptian troops withdraw from the canal, and announced that they would intervene to enforce a cease-fire ordered by the United Nations.

November 5-6: British and French forces landed at Port Said and Port Fuad and began occupying the canal zone.

December 22: the UN evacuated British and French troops, and Israeli forces withdrew in March 1957.

Results of the crisis: • The Suez Canal was closed from October 1956 until March 1957; • the United Nations created the UNEF Peacekeepers (United Nations Emergency Force) to police the Egyptian-Israeli border;

— Man, where wast thou in those years 1933 to 1945? I knew I had no no had I knew I 1945? to 1933 years those in thou wast where Man, —

“And God asked me — as once He asked the First Man after the Fall, Adam Adam Fall, the after Man First the asked He once as — me asked God “And

before. never as him assailed failure own his and guilt

At that moment, Niemoller told his audience, the consciousness of his own own his of consciousness the audience, his told Niemoller moment, that At

incinerated.”

“Here between the years 1933 and 1945 238,756 human beings were were beings human 238,756 1945 and 1933 years the between “Here

letters, they read: read: they letters,

A great white-painted board had been affixed to a tree and on it, in black black in it, on and tree a to affixed been had board white-painted great A

months, they passed the crematorium.” crematorium.” the passed they months,

1945. After showing her the cell in which he had been confined for so many many so for confined been had he which in cell the her showing After 1945.

story of the visit which he and his wife paid to Dachau in the autumn of of autumn the in Dachau to paid wife his and he which visit the of story

exclude himself from a like responsibility, and told in this connexion the the connexion this in told and responsibility, like a from himself exclude

redeemed before a new life could begin. In so doing he was at pains not to to not pains at was he doing so In begin. could life new a before redeemed

all, he reminded them constantly of the burden of guilt which had to be be to had which guilt of burden the of constantly them reminded he all,

fellow-men, he abjured them not to forget the lessons of the past and, above above and, past the of lessons the forget to not them abjured he fellow-men,

“He called on the people to show a sense of responsibility towards their their towards responsibility of sense a show to people the on called “He

Excerpt: Excerpt:

Dachau Concentration Camp after the war. war. the after Camp Concentration Dachau

In his book “Pastor Niemöller”, Schmidt writes about Niemöller and his visit to to visit his and Niemöller about writes Schmidt Niemöller”, “Pastor book his In

1959: Dietmar Schmidt on Martin Niemöller Martin on Schmidt Dietmar 1959:

Reference: 1956.2 Reference:

• Britain and France lost most of their influence in the Middle East. East. Middle the in influence their of most lost France and Britain

shipping rights in the Straits of Tīrān; Tīrān; of Straits the in rights shipping

• Israel did not win freedom to use the canal, but it did regain regain did it but canal, the use to freedom win not did Israel

cause of Arab and Egyptian nationalism; Egyptian and Arab of cause

• Nasser emerged from the Suez Crisis a victor and a hero for the the for hero a and victor a Crisis Suez the from emerged Nasser

• the USSR may have been emboldened to invade Hungary; invade to emboldened been have may USSR the

Nobel Peace Prize; Peace Nobel

• Canadian Minister of External Affairs Lester Pearson won the the won Pearson Lester Affairs External of Minister Canadian

• British Prime Minister Anthony Eden resigned; Eden Anthony Minister Prime British

465 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 466. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

answer to that question. True, I had an alibi in my pocket, for the years 1937 to 1945, my identity disc from the concentration camp. But what help to me was that? God was not asking me where I had been from 1937 to 1945, but from 1933 to 1945, and for the years 1933 to 1937 I had no answer. Should I have said perhaps: ‘As a pastor in those years I bore courageous witness to the Faith; I dared to speak, and risked life and freedom in doing so?’ But God did not ask about that. God asked: ‘Where were you from 1933 to 1945 when human beings were incinerated here? When, in 1933, Goering publicly boasted that all active Communists had been imprisoned and rendered harmless — that was when we forgot our responsibility, that was when we should have warned our parishioners. Many a man from my own parish, who went and joined the National Socialist Party and who is now to do penance for his act, could rise up against me today and say that he would have acted differently if I had not kept silence at that time... I know that I made my contribution towards the enslavement of the German people.”

Reference: 1959.1

June 1, 1962: Adolf Eichmann executed

Adolf Eichmann (1906-62) was a German-Austrian Nazi SS- Obersturmbannführer (“Senior Assault Unit Leader”) and one of the major organizers of the Holocaust. He facilitated and managed the logistics involved in the mass deportation of Jews to ghettos and extermination camps in Nazi- occupied Eastern Europe during World War II. He threatened his victims with the prospect that after the “final victory”, Hitler would make him “World Commissar of the Jews”.

August 1944: The ‘Grand Inquisitor’ of European Jewry reported to Himmler that approximately four million Jews had died in the death camps and that another two million had been killed by mobile extermination units.

May 11, 1960: He was captured by the Mossad (Israel’s intelligence agency) in Argentina, and secretly abducted to Israel nine days later. While awaiting trial he said: “To sum it all up, I must say that I regret nothing.”

December 11, 1961: He was indicted on 15 criminal charges, including crimes against humanity, crimes against the Jewish people and membership in an outlawed organization. Four days later, he was sentenced to death.

ever seen 25,000 people in a pile? ... Have you ever seen 10,000 people in in people 10,000 seen ever you Have ... pile? a in people 25,000 seen ever

how can you simply let 25,000 animals just disappear en route? Have you you Have route? en disappear just animals 25,000 let simply you can how

Look, how can you make 25,000 Jews, or people, or let’s say 25,000 cows, cows, 25,000 say let’s or people, or Jews, 25,000 make you can how Look,

concentration camps to arrive completely useless and needing repair.... repair.... needing and useless completely arrive to camps concentration

It wasn’t in our interests for the material to be used for labor in the the in labor for used be to material the for interests our in wasn’t It

ought to have been gassed.” been have to ought

And this is why there are still a whole lot of Jews enjoying life today who who today life enjoying Jews of lot whole a still are there why is this And

others used the Jews as a means to an end, to milk them for their own ends.... ends.... own their for them milk to end, an to means a as Jews the used others

“While we were working with the Jews to solve the Jewish question, the the question, Jewish the solve to Jews the with working were we “While

Argentina in 1957: in Argentina

Quotes from audiotape recordings of Eichmann speaking to Nazi friends in in friends Nazi to speaking Eichmann of recordings audiotape from Quotes

deported them.” deported

“Legally not, but in the human sense … yes, for I am guilty of having having of guilty am I for yes, … sense human the in but not, “Legally

himself guilty of the murder of millions of Jews. Eichmann replied: replied: Eichmann Jews. of millions of murder the of guilty himself

During cross-examination, prosecutor Hausner asked him if he considered considered he if him asked Hausner prosecutor cross-examination, During

now feel called upon and have the desire to tell what happened.” what tell to desire the have and upon called feel now

wagon and couldn’t escape left or right because of the will of the driver, I I driver, the of will the of because right or left escape couldn’t and wagon

madness of destruction, because I was one of the many horses pulling the the pulling horses many the of one was I because destruction, of madness

“Because I have seen hell, death and the devil, because I had to watch the the watch to had I because devil, the and death hell, seen have I “Because

death of all times.” all of death

with gear, like clockwork. It was the biggest and most enormous dance of of dance enormous most and biggest the was It clockwork. like gear, with

“I witnessed the gruesome workings of the machinery of death; gear meshed meshed gear death; of machinery the of workings gruesome the witnessed “I

them to their final destination.” destination.” final their to them

“It was my job to catch our Jewish enemies like fish in a net and transport transport and net a in fish like enemies Jewish our catch to job my was “It

business.” business.”

loaded on those trains meant nothing to me. It was really none of my my of none really was It me. to nothing meant trains those on loaded

“Whether they were bank directors or mental cases, the people who were were who people the cases, mental or directors bank were they “Whether

to observe and report on it.” it.” on report and observe to

of corpses and blood... I personally had nothing to do with this. My job was was job My this. with do to nothing had personally I blood... and corpses of

“I was never an anti-Semite. … My sensitive nature revolted at the sight sight the at revolted nature sensitive My … anti-Semite. an never was “I

Notable quotes: Notable

“I hope that all of you will follow me.” follow will you of all that hope “I

Rafi Eitan, an Israeli intelligence officer standing behind him, heard him say: say: him heard him, behind standing officer intelligence Israeli an Eitan, Rafi

June 1, 1962: He was executed by hanging. Moments before he was hanged, hanged, was he before Moments hanging. by executed was He 1962: 1, June

467 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 468. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

a pile? That’s five transport trains, and if you pack them in the way the Hungarian police planned, then at best you’ll get no more than 3,000 people in one transport train. Loading a train is a tricky business anyway, whether it’s with cattle or flour sacks ... and so much more difficult to load it with people, especially when you have problems to reckon with.”

“These Jew-treks [death marches], as I called them, were carried out in the most elegant way.... I can tell you today that I saw two bodies on the whole route, they were old Jews - it’s clear, you can’t make an omelette without breaking eggs. And were no eggs broken when much larger contingents of Germans marched from the East after 1945?”

“I am one of those people who can’t stand to see corpses.... But there is one good thing nature gave me. I can switch off and forget very quickly, without trying to.... I still have a very devout saying from my youth, and I always do it when I find something horribly unpleasant and I can’t stop thinking about it. And in order to forcibly distract myself, do you know what I say? You’ll laugh! ‘I believe in God the Father, and the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary, died under Pontius Pilate, suffered’ and so on and so on, ‘was raised from the dead,’ and so on. I somehow realized early on, as a child - still a devout believer at that time, of course - that once I’d said that, I didn’t think about anything else.”

“I have no regrets! I am certainly not going to bow down to that cross! ... it would be too easy ... for me to pretend that a Saul has become a Paul. I tell you, Comrade Sassen, I cannot do that. That I cannot do, because I am not willing to do it, because I balk inwardly at saying that we did anything wrong.”

Alan Rosenthal, Jewish filmmaker, said of him:

“To the very last [at his trial], Eichmann appeared emotionless, a human iceberg. Only once did I see him show any expression other than injured innocence. Films of the concentration camps were being screened in the courtroom. The houselights were out, but from the control booth, on a monitor, I could see the close-up of Eichmann. As the corpses of Bergen- Belsen were bulldozed into their final pit, Eichmann, on camera, smiled.”

Reference: 1962.1

not conform to the truth of the Gospel and the spirit of Christ. of spirit the and Gospel the of truth the to conform not

or in the preaching of the word of God they do not teach anything that does does that anything teach not do they God of word the of preaching the in or

from the Holy Scriptures. All should see to it, then, that in catechetical work work catechetical in that then, it, to see should All Scriptures. Holy the from

should not be presented as rejected or accursed by God, as if this followed followed this if as God, by accursed or rejected as presented be not should

the Jews of today. Although the Church is the new people of God, the Jews Jews the God, of people new the is Church the Although today. of Jews the

be charged against all the Jews, without distinction, then alive, nor against against nor alive, then distinction, without Jews, the all against charged be

the death of Christ[ John 19:6]; still, what happened in His passion cannot cannot passion His in happened what still, 19:6]; John Christ[ of death the

True, the Jewish authorities and those who followed their lead pressed for for pressed lead their followed who those and authorities Jewish the True,

theological studies as well as of fraternal dialogues. fraternal of as well as studies theological

understanding and respect which is the fruit, above all, of biblical and and biblical of all, above fruit, the is which respect and understanding

great, this sacred synod wants to foster and recommend that mutual mutual that recommend and foster to wants synod sacred this great,

Since the spiritual patrimony common to Christians and Jews is thus so so thus is Jews and Christians to common patrimony spiritual the Since

stock... stock...

the bond that spiritually ties the people of the New Covenant to Abraham’s Abraham’s to Covenant New the of people the ties spiritually that bond the

“As the sacred synod searches into the mystery of the Church, it remembers remembers it Church, the of mystery the into searches synod sacred the “As

in article 4: article in

form, while upholding the essential doctrine of Replacement Theology, saying saying Theology, Replacement of doctrine essential the upholding while form,

repudiated charges of deicide against the Jews, and decried antisemitism in any any in antisemitism decried and Jews, the against deicide of charges repudiated

urged respect for all religions, and stressed the commonality of humanity. It also also It humanity. of commonality the stressed and religions, all for respect urged

“In our time”), was a 5-part landmark document that that document landmark 5-part a was time”), our “In ( Aetate Nostre as known

The Declaration on The Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions, Religions, Non-Christian to Church the of Relation The on Declaration The

Latin.

(“This sacred council”) allowed for the use of vernacular languages, rather than than rather languages, vernacular of use the for allowed council”) sacred (“This

In the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, article 36 of of 36 article Liturgy, Sacred the on Constitution the In Sacrosanctum Concilium Concilium Sacrosanctum

the Catholic church as we know it today. today. it know we as church Catholic the

Constitutions, three Declarations and nine Decrees, which laid a foundation for for foundation a laid which Decrees, nine and Declarations three Constitutions,

between 1962 and 1965. A total of 16 documents were issued, comprised of four four of comprised issued, were documents 16 of total A 1965. and 1962 between

auditors, sisters, laymen and laywomen to four sessions at St. Peter’s Basilica Basilica Peter’s St. at sessions four to laywomen and laymen sisters, auditors,

between 2,000 and 2,500 bishops and thousands of observers, observers, of thousands and bishops 2,500 and 2,000 between

the Catholic Church and the modern world. The council called called council The world. modern the and Church Catholic the

), addressed relations between between relations addressed ), 1869-70 above, entry see Council

for First Vatican Vatican First for ( II Vatican or Council, Vatican Second The

October 11, 1962 – December 8, 1965: Second Vatican Council Vatican Second 1965: 8, December – 1962 11, October

469 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 470. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Furthermore, in her rejection of every persecution against any man, the Church, mindful of the patrimony she shares with the Jews and moved not by political reasons but by the Gospel’s spiritual love, decries hatred, persecutions, displays of anti-Semitism, directed against Jews at any time and by anyone.”

Reference: 1962.2

1963: Yad Vashem, Israel’s Holocaust Memorial

People affected / deaths: 26,973

Since its founding, Yad Vashem has awarded the honorific “Righteous Among the Nations” to describe non-Jews who risked their lives during the Holocaust to save Jews from extermination by the Nazis. Notable recipients include President Lyndon B. Johnson, King Boris III of Bulgaria (who saved all 50,000 of his country’s Jews, (see entry above, March 1943)), Oskar Schindler (featured in the movie Schindler’s List), Pope Pius XII (see both entries above, 1939-58), Corrie ten Boom (see entry below, 1983), and Nicholas Winton (see entry below, 2015).

The title of Righteous is awarded to individuals, not to groups. The members of the Danish resistance (see entry above, September-October 1943) viewed the rescue operation as a collective act and therefore asked Yad Vashem not to recognize resistance members individually. Yad Vashem respected their request and consequently the number of Danish Righteous is relatively small (22).

A tree was planted on the Mount of Remembrance to commemorate the Danish resistance.

Reference: 1963.1

June 5–10, 1967: The Six-Day War: Israel’s third war; Jerusalem Reunified

People affected/deaths: Israel: 776 – 983 l Egypt: 10,000 – 15,000 l Jordan: 696 l Syria: 2,500 l Iraq: 10

The Six-Day War was won decisively by Israel, who captured the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, the Old City of Jerusalem, and the

action and not declarations.” not and action

battle, the critical hour has arrived. We have reached the stage of serious serious of stage the reached have We arrived. has hour critical the battle,

astound the world. Today they will know that the Arabs are arranged for for arranged are Arabs the that know will they Today world. the astound

Iraq, Algeria, Kuwait, Sudan and the whole Arab nation. This act will will act This nation. Arab whole the and Sudan Kuwait, Algeria, Iraq,

of Israel...to face the challenge, while standing behind us are the armies of of armies the are us behind standing while challenge, the face Israel...to of

“The armies of Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon are poised on the borders borders the on poised are Lebanon and Syria Jordan, Egypt, of armies “The

announced: announced:

pact with Egypt, placing Jordanian forces under Egyptian command. Nasser Nasser command. Egyptian under forces Jordanian placing Egypt, with pact

May 30: King Hussein of Jordan arrived in Cairo to sign a mutual defense defense mutual a sign to Cairo in arrived Jordan of Hussein King 30: May

Israel is in effect since 1948.” since effect in is Israel

establishment of peace between the Arab states and Israel....The war with with war Israel....The and states Arab the between peace of establishment

“We will not accept any...coexistence with Israel...Today the issue is not the the not is issue the Israel...Today with any...coexistence accept not will “We

May 28: Nasser declared: declared: Nasser 28: May

to fight.” to

“Our basic objective will be the destruction of Israel. The Arab people want want people Arab The Israel. of destruction the be will objective basic “Our

May 27: Nasser declared: declared: Nasser 27: May

“The Jews threaten to make war. I reply: Welcome! We are ready for war.” for ready are We Welcome! reply: I war. make to threaten Jews “The

them to fight daily, and on May 23 declared: declared: 23 May on and daily, fight to them

May 23: Nasser was aware of the pressure he was exerting on Israel, challenging challenging Israel, on exerting was he pressure the of aware was Nasser 23: May

stopped the flow of oil from Israel’s main supplier, Iran. supplier, main Israel’s from oil of flow the stopped

an effective blockade of the port city of Elat in southern Israel. This blockade blockade This Israel. southern in Elat of city port the of blockade effective an

May 22: Nasser closed the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping, thus instituting instituting thus shipping, Israeli to Aqaba of Gulf the closed Nasser 22: May

Emergency Force) stationed there. stationed Force) Emergency

May 18: Nasser formally requested the removal of the UNEF (United Nations Nations (United UNEF the of removal the requested formally Nasser 18: May

celebrating the Feast of Pentecost. of Feast the celebrating

May 14: Nasser mobilized Egyptian forces in the Sinai the day Israel was was Israel day the Sinai the in forces Egyptian mobilized Nasser 14: May

Timeline of events: of Timeline

be a stumbling block in Arab-Israeli peace negotiations. peace Arab-Israeli in block stumbling a be

Strip in 2005. The status of the Golan Heights and the West Bank continue to to continue Bank West the and Heights Golan the of status The 2005. in Strip

to Egypt in 1982 as part of a peace treaty, and then withdrew from the Gaza Gaza the from withdrew then and treaty, peace a of part as 1982 in Egypt to

). Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula Peninsula Sinai the returned Israel ). above entry see ( CE 70 in it destroyed Titus

Golan Heights. Jerusalem came under full Jewish control for the first time since since time first the for control Jewish full under came Jerusalem Heights. Golan

471 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 472. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

President Abdur Rahman Aref of Iraq said: “The existence of Israel is an error which must be rectified. This is our opportunity to wipe out the ignominy which has been with us since 1948. Our goal is clear — to wipe Israel off the map.” June 4: Iraq joined the military alliance with Egypt, Jordan and Syria. June 5: In response to the apparent mobilization of its Arab neighbours, early on the morning of June 5, Israel staged a sudden pre-emptive air assault that destroyed more than 90 percent Egypt’s air force on the tarmac. A similar air assault incapacitated the Syrian air force. Without cover from the air, the Egyptian army was left vulnerable to attack. After Jordan launched its attack on June 5, approximately 325,000 Palestinians living in the West Bank fled to other parts of Jordan in a second exodus (see entry above, 1948), primarily to avoid being caught in the cross-fire of a war. June 7: Israeli forces drove Jordanian forces out of East Jerusalem and most of the West Bank. The UN Security Council called for a cease-fire that was immediately accepted by Israel and Jordan. June 8: Egypt accepts the cease-fire. June 9: Israel launched an assault on the fortified Golan Heights, capturing it from Syrian forces after a day of heavy fighting. June 10: Syria accepts the cease-fire.

Reference: 1967.1

August 29 – September 1, 1967: Khartoum Resolution

The Khartoum Resolution was issued at the conclusion of the 1967 Arab League summit convened in the wake of the Six-Day War (see entry above), in Khartoum, the capital of Sudan. It was attended by eight Arab heads of state: Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq, Algeria, Kuwait, and Sudan. Two of those countries would go on to sign peace treaties with Israel: Egypt in 1979, and Jordan in 1994 (see entries below).

The seven paragraphs of the resolution called for a continued state of belligerency with Israel, ending the Arab oil boycott declared during the Six-Day War, an end to the North Yemen Civil War, and economic assistance for Egypt and Jordan.

use this to negotiate the return of the rest of Sinai. Both the United States States United the Both Sinai. of rest the of return the negotiate to this use

to use its military to seize a foothold on the east bank of the Suez Canal and and Canal Suez the of bank east the on foothold a seize to military its use to

fighting in African Egypt and northern Israel. Egypt’s initial war objective was was objective war initial Egypt’s Israel. northern and Egypt African in fighting

Heights. The war took place mostly in Sinai and the Golan Heights, with some some with Heights, Golan the and Sinai in mostly place took war The Heights.

Israel was attacked by Egypt across the Suez Canal and by Syria on the Golan Golan the on Syria by and Canal Suez the across Egypt by attacked was Israel

“Yom Kippur War”), War”), Kippur “Yom (thus Kippur Yom of day holy Jewish the 6, October On

23 Jordan: 278 Iraq: 3,500 – 3,000 Syria: l l

5,000 – 15,000 – 5,000 Egypt: 2,688 Israel: deaths: / affected People l l

October 6–25, 1973 : Yom Kippur War: Israel’s fourth war fourth Israel’s War: Kippur Yom : 1973 6–25, October

Reference: 1967.3 Reference:

Israel”. Israel”.

“anti-Jewish”, the antisemitic tactic of choice is reformed into being “anti- being into reformed is choice of tactic antisemitic the “anti-Jewish”,

acceptable to be publicly publicly be to acceptable

the nation of Israel. In the aftermath of the Holocaust, it being less socially socially less being it Holocaust, the of aftermath the In Israel. of nation the

antisemitism is formulated around the “unjust occupation of Arab lands” by by lands” Arab of occupation “unjust the around formulated is antisemitism

The authors of this document note that from this point on, a new kind of of kind new a on, point this from that note document this of authors The

those territories, and the need for a peace agreement. agreement. peace a for need the and territories, those

acquisitions by Israel inadmissible, calling for the withdrawal of Israel from from Israel of withdrawal the for calling inadmissible, Israel by acquisitions

The UN Security Council unanimously adopted a resolution calling the land land the calling resolution a adopted unanimously Council Security UN The

November 22, 1967: UN Resolution 242 Resolution UN 1967: 22, November

Reference: 1967.2 Reference:

mine) country.”(emphasis own their in

, and insistence on the rights of the Palestinian people people Palestinian the of rights the on insistence and , it with negotiations

States abide, namely, no peace with Israel, Israel, with peace no namely, abide, States no recognition of Israel, no no Israel, of recognition no

be done within the framework of the main principles by which the Arab Arab the which by principles main the of framework the within done be

lands which have been occupied since the aggression of 5 June. This will will This June. 5 of aggression the since occupied been have which lands

and to ensure the withdrawal of the aggressive Israeli forces from the Arab Arab the from forces Israeli aggressive the of withdrawal the ensure to and

international and diplomatic level to eliminate the effects of the aggression aggression the of effects the eliminate to level diplomatic and international

“3. The Arab Heads of State have agreed to unite their political efforts at the the at efforts political their unite to agreed have State of Heads Arab The “3.

: : No’s” “Three the as known became what for famous is 3 Paragraph

473 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 474. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History and the Soviet Union initiated massive resupply efforts to their respective allies during the war, and this led to a near-confrontation between the two nuclear superpowers.

October 22: The UN Security Council adopted Resolution 338 calling for “all parties to the present fighting to cease all firing and terminate all military activity immediately”. The vote came on the day that Israeli forces cut off and isolated the Egyptian Third Army and were in a position to destroy it. The ceasefire unraveled, with each side blaming the other for the breach.

October 24: The Israelis had improved their positions considerably and completed their encirclement of Egypt’s Third Army and the city of Suez. This development led to tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union

October 25: A second ceasefire was imposed cooperatively to end the war.

Reference: 1973.1

March 26, 1979: Egypt-Israel peace treaty

The Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C. on March 26, 1979 by Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin, and witnessed by United States president Jimmy Carter. It was signed 16 months after Egyptian president Anwar Sadat’s visit to Israel in 1977, and seven months after negotiations at Camp David in September 1978.

The main features of the treaty were mutual recognition, cessation of the state of war that had existed since the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, normalization of relations and the complete withdrawal by Israel of its armed forces and civilians from the Sinai Peninsula which Israel had captured during the Six-Day War in 1967. Egypt agreed to leave the area demilitarized. The agreement established diplomatic and commercial ties, and also provided for the free passage of Israeli ships through the Suez Canal, recognition of the Strait of Tiran and the Gulf of Aqaba as international waterways.

The peace treaty made Egypt the first Arab state to officially recognize Israel, and became effective in January 1980.

Because Egypt insisted that Jewish civilians leave the Sinai, more than 7,000 Israelis were uprooted from their homes and businesses, which they had spent years building in the desert.

military presence there. there. presence military

pulled all its troops out of southern Lebanon on May 24, 2000, ending a 22-year 22-year a ending 2000, 24, May on Lebanon southern of out troops its all pulled

continued to fight the IDF and SLA in the South Lebanon conflict until Israel Israel until conflict Lebanon South the in SLA and IDF the fight to continued

(SLA), thus officially ending the war, although the conflict continued. Hezbollah Hezbollah continued. conflict the although war, the ending officially thus (SLA),

Lebanon along with its principal Lebanese ally, the South Lebanon Army Army Lebanon South the ally, Lebanese principal its with along Lebanon

In June 1985, the IDF unilaterally withdrew to a security zone in southern southern in zone security a to withdrew unilaterally IDF the 1985, June In

The second phase which lasted until 1985 was directed against the terrorists. terrorists. the against directed was 1985 until lasted which phase second The

other Arab countries. Arab other

Altogether 8,500 PLO men were evacuated to Tunisia, and 2,500 by land to to land by 2,500 and Tunisia, to evacuated were men PLO 8,500 Altogether

Beirut), and ended with the PLO being forced out of Beirut and Lebanon. Lebanon. and Beirut of out forced being PLO the with ended and Beirut),

The first phase of the war lasted from June 6 - August 23, 1982 (the Siege of of Siege (the 1982 23, August - 6 June from lasted war the of phase first The

push PLO forces back 40 kilometers (25 miles) to the north. north. the to miles) (25 kilometers 40 back forces PLO push

called it “Operation Peace for Galilee”. Israel’s publicly stated objective was to to was objective stated publicly Israel’s Galilee”. for Peace “Operation it called

the incident, and treated the incident as a casus belli for the invasion. The IDF IDF The invasion. the for belli casus a as incident the treated and incident, the

Prime Minister Menachem Begin blamed Abu Nidal’s enemy, the PLO, for for PLO, the enemy, Nidal’s Abu blamed Begin Menachem Minister Prime

assassinate Shlomo Argov, Israel’s ambassador to the United Kingdom. Israeli Israeli Kingdom. United the to ambassador Israel’s Argov, Shlomo assassinate

was launched after gunmen from Abu Nidal’s terror organization attempted to to attempted organization terror Nidal’s Abu from gunmen after launched was

caused civilian casualties on both sides of the border. The military operation operation military The border. the of sides both on casualties civilian caused

Organization (PLO) operating in southern Lebanon and the IDF that had had that IDF the and Lebanon southern in operating (PLO) Organization

after repeated attacks and counter-attacks between the Palestine Liberation Liberation Palestine the between counter-attacks and attacks repeated after

On June 6, 1982, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) invaded southern Lebanon, Lebanon, southern invaded (IDF) Forces Defense Israel the 1982, 6, June On

4,000 – 5,000 civilians 5,000 – 4,000 Beirut: of Siege

1,000 – 2,400 – 1,000 PLO: 1,216 Israel: deaths: / affected People 1,200 Syria: l l l

June 6, 1982 – June 1985: First Lebanon War: Israel’s fifth war fifth Israel’s War: Lebanon First 1985: June – 1982 6, June

Reference: 1979.1 Reference:

Muslim extremists assassinated Sadat in Cairo. Cairo. in Sadat assassinated extremists Muslim

world; Egypt was suspended from the Arab League, and on October 6, 1981, 1981, 6, October on and League, Arab the from suspended was Egypt world;

achievement. Sadat’s peace efforts were not so highly acclaimed in the Arab Arab the in acclaimed highly so not were efforts peace Sadat’s achievement.

Sadat and Begin were jointly awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize for Peace for their their for Peace for Prize Nobel 1978 the awarded jointly were Begin and Sadat

resolved by the Camp David Accords. David Camp the by resolved

panel’s ruling in Cairo’s favor on September 29, 1988. Taba’s status had not been been not had status Taba’s 1988. 29, September on favor Cairo’s in ruling panel’s

barren desert area near Eilat — to Egypt, following an international arbitration arbitration international an following Egypt, to — Eilat near area desert barren

In 1988, Israel relinquished Taba — a resort built by Israel in what had been a a been had what in Israel by built resort a — Taba relinquished Israel 1988, In

475 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 476. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

In 2004, Osama bin Laden used the siege as a major reason for the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Towers in New York in 2001, saying:

“God knows it did not cross our minds to attack the Towers, but after the situation became unbearable—and we witnessed the injustice and tyranny of the American-Israeli alliance against our people in Palestine and Lebanon—I thought about it. And the events that affected me directly were those of 1982 and the events that followed—when America allowed the Israelis to invade Lebanon, helped by the U.S. Sixth Fleet. As I watched the destroyed towers in Lebanon, it occurred to me to punish the unjust the same way: to destroy towers in America so it could taste some of what we were tasting and to stop killing our children and women.”

Reference: 1982.1

1983: Corrie ten Boom dies, aged 91

Corrie ten Boom (1892-1983) and her family, members of the Dutch Reformed Church, helped many Jews escape the Nazi Holocaust in WWII by hiding them in her closet, later told in her best selling book “The Hiding Place”, and made into a movie in 1975. In her autobiography, ten Boom repeatedly cited religious motivations for hiding Jews, particularly her family’s strong belief in a basic tenet of their religion: the equality of all human beings before God.

After the war, ten Boom returned to The Netherlands to set up a rehabilitation center in Bloemendaal. She returned to Germany in 1946, and met with and forgave two Germans who had been employed at Ravensbrück (a women’s labour camp in Germany where she and her sister Betsie had been transferred), one of whom was particularly cruel to Betsie. She recounts the story of when she saw the first SS guard, after speaking at a church in Munich on forgiveness in this excerpt from “The Hiding Place”:

“He came up to me as the church was emptying, beaming and bowing. “How grateful I am for your message, Fraulein.” he said. “To think that, as you say, He has washed my sins away!”

His hand was thrust out to shake mine. And I, who had preached so often to the people in Bloemendaal the need to forgive, kept my hand at my side.

Even as the angry, vengeful thoughts boiled through me, I saw the sin of

Reference: 1987.1 Reference:

killed, 359 of whom were killed by fellow Palestinians. Palestinians. fellow by killed were whom of 359 killed,

on September 13, 1993. Altogether, 277 Israelis and 1,962 Palestinians were were Palestinians 1,962 and Israelis 277 Altogether, 1993. 13, September on

The uprising lasted from December 1987 until the signing of the Oslo Accords Accords Oslo the of signing the until 1987 December from lasted uprising The

be “collaborating with Israel”. Israel”. with “collaborating be

troops. PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat defended the killing of Arabs deemed to to deemed Arabs of killing the defended Arafat Yasser Chairman PLO troops.

Palestinian death squads exceeded the number killed in clashes with Israeli Israeli with clashes in killed number the exceeded squads death Palestinian

War in 1991, the number of Arabs killed for political and other reasons by by reasons other and political for killed Arabs of number the 1991, in War

Gaza a few days earlier. As the Intifada waned around the time of the Gulf Gulf the of time the around waned Intifada the As earlier. days few a Gaza

by Palestinians as an act of revenge for the death by stabbing of an Israeli in in Israeli an of stabbing by death the for revenge of act an as Palestinians by

carrying Palestinian workers, killing four of them, an event that was perceived perceived was that event an them, of four killing workers, Palestinian carrying

The Intifada began in December 1987 when an Israeli vehicle struck two vans vans two struck vehicle Israeli an when 1987 December in began Intifada The

the West Bank and Gaza ( Gaza and Bank West the see details for the Second Intifada below, 2000-05 below, Intifada Second the for details see ). ).

The First Intifada was a Palestinian uprising against the Israeli occupation of of occupation Israeli the against uprising Palestinian a was Intifada First The

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 277 Israelis 277

1987–93: First Intifada First 1987–93:

Reference: 1983.1 Reference:

in recognition of her work during the war. war. the during work her of recognition in

Among the Nations.” She was also knighted by the Queen of the Netherlands Netherlands the of Queen the by knighted also was She Nations.” the Among

On December 12, 1967, she was honoured by Israel as one of the “Righteous “Righteous the of one as Israel by honoured was she 1967, 12, December On

our enemies, He gives, along with the command, the love itself.” love the command, the with along gives, He enemies, our

goodness that the world’s healing hinges, but on His. When He tell us to love love to us tell He When His. on but hinges, healing world’s the that goodness

And so I discovered that it is not on our forgiveness any more than on our our on than more any forgiveness our on not is it that discovered I so And

overwhelmed me. overwhelmed

to him, while into my heart sprang a love for this stranger that almost almost that stranger this for love a sprang heart my into while him, to

along my arm and through my hand, a current seemed to pass from me me from pass to seemed current a hand, my through and arm my along

As I took his hand the most incredible thing happened. From my shoulder shoulder my From happened. thing incredible most the hand his took I As

prayer. Jesus, I cannot forgive him. Give Your forgiveness. Your Give him. forgive cannot I Jesus, prayer.

the slightest spark of warmth or charity. And so again I breathed a silent silent a breathed I again so And charity. or warmth of spark slightest the

I tried to smile, I struggled to raise my hand. I could not. I felt nothing, not not nothing, felt I not. could I hand. my raise to struggled I smile, to tried I

forgive me and help me to forgive him. forgive to me help and me forgive prayed, I Jesus,

Lord more? for ask to going I was man; this for died had Christ Jesus them.

477 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 478. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

April 18, 1994: Declaration of Evangelical Lutheran Church in America to the Jewish Community

The Church Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on April 18, 1994, adopted the following document as a statement on Lutheran-Jewish relations:

“In the long history of Christianity there exists no more tragic development than the treatment accorded the Jewish people on the part of Christian believers. Very few Christian communities of faith were able to escape the contagion of anti-Judaism and its modern successor, anti-Semitism. Lutherans belonging to the Lutheran World Federation and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America feel a special burden in this regard because of certain elements in the legacy of the reformer Martin Luther and the catastrophes, including the Holocaust of the twentieth century, suffered by Jews in places where the Lutheran churches were strongly represented.

The Lutheran communion of faith is linked by name and heritage to the memory of Martin Luther, teacher and reformer. Honoring his name in our own, we recall his bold stand for truth, his earthy and sublime words of wisdom, and above all his witness to God’s saving Word. Luther proclaimed a gospel for people as we really are, bidding us to trust a grace sufficient to reach our deepest shames and address the most tragic truths.

In the spirit of that truth-telling, we who bear his name and heritage must with pain acknowledge also Luther’s anti-Judaic diatribes and the violent recommendations of his later writings against the Jews. As did many of Luther’s own companions in the sixteenth century, we reject this violent invective, and yet more do we express our deep and abiding sorrow over its tragic effects on subsequent generations. In concert with the Lutheran World Federation, we particularly deplore the appropriation of Luther’s words by modern anti-Semites for the teaching of hatred toward Judaism or toward the Jewish people in our day.

Grieving the complicity of our own tradition within this history of hatred, moreover, we express our urgent desire to live out our faith in Jesus Christ with love and respect for the Jewish people. We recognize in anti-Semitism a contradiction and an affront to the Gospel, a violation of our hope and calling, and we pledge this church to oppose the deadly working of such bigotry, both within our own circles and in the society around us. Finally, we pray for the continued blessing of the Blessed One upon the increasing

Abdelsalam al-Majalion on October 26, 1994 at the southern southern the at 1994 26, October on al-Majalion Abdelsalam

Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Jordan’s Prime Minister Minister Prime Jordan’s and Rabin Yitzhak Minister

The Israel–Jordan peace treaty was signed by Israel’s Prime Prime Israel’s by signed was treaty peace Israel–Jordan The

October 26, 1994: Jordan–Israel peace treaty peace Jordan–Israel 1994: 26, October

Reference: 1994.2 Reference:

charges. charges.

is currently being prosecuted by a federal judge on conspiracy to commit murder murder commit to conspiracy on judge federal a by prosecuted being currently is

In 2018, she was accused of being the prime suspect in Nisman’s homicide, and and homicide, Nisman’s in suspect prime the being of accused was she 2018, In

involvement in the 1994 bomb attack. attack. bomb 1994 the in involvement

country’s senate to permit her arrest and trial for allegedly covering up Iranian Iranian up covering allegedly for trial and arrest her permit to senate country’s

In 2017, Judge Claudio Bonadio accused Kirchner of treason and called on the the on called and treason of Kirchner accused Bonadio Claudio Judge 2017, In

testify against the former president. president. former the against testify

Iran’s role in the incident. Nisman was murdered hours before he was due to to due was he before hours murdered was Nisman incident. the in role Iran’s

Fernandez de Kirchner, president of Argentina from 2007-15, of covering up up covering of 2007-15, from Argentina of president Kirchner, de Fernandez

In 2015 Alberto Nisman filed a 300-page document accusing Cristina Cristina accusing document 300-page a filed Nisman Alberto 2015 In

bombing, and the Hezbollah militia of carrying it out. out. it carrying of militia Hezbollah the and bombing,

Martínez Burgos formally accused the government of Iran of directing the the directing of Iran of government the accused formally Burgos Martínez

On 25 October 2006, Argentine prosecutors Alberto Nisman and Marcelo Marcelo and Nisman Alberto prosecutors Argentine 2006, October 25 On

to date. date. to

people and injuring hundreds. It remains Argentina’s deadliest terrorist attack attack terrorist deadliest Argentina’s remains It hundreds. injuring and people

which occurred in Buenos Aires on July 18, 1994, the 10 the 1994, 18, July on Aires Buenos in occurred which of Av, killing 85 85 killing Av, of th

(AMIA; Argentine Israelite Mutual Association) building, building, Association) Mutual Israelite Argentine (AMIA; Argentina Israelita

Asociación Mutual Mutual Asociación the on attack an was bombing AMIA The

85 deaths: / affected People

in Buenos Aires is bombed is Aires Buenos in

of Av: The AMIA Jewish community center center community Jewish AMIA The Av: of 10 1994: 18, July

th

Reference: 1994.1 Reference:

community.” Jewish

cooperation and understanding between Lutheran Christians and the the and Christians Lutheran between understanding and cooperation

479 1900–1999 Century: th 20 . 480. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History border crossing of Arabah. Israel’s President Ezer Weizman shook hands with Jordan’s King Hussein, and US President Bill Clinton and US Secretary of State Warren Christopher were present as observers.

Jordan was the second Arab country, after Egypt, to sign a peace accord with Israel (see entry above, 1979). Egypt welcomed the agreement while Syria ignored it. The Lebanese militia group Hezbollah resisted the treaty and 20 minutes prior to the ceremony launched mortar and rocket attacks against northern Galilee towns.

The treaty settled relations between the two countries, adjusted land and water disputes, and provided for broad cooperation in tourism and trade. It included a pledge that neither Jordan nor Israel would allow its territory to become a staging ground for military strikes by a third country.

In 1996 the two nations signed a trade treaty.

In December 2013, Israel and Jordan signed an agreement to build a desalination plant on the Red Sea, near the Jordanian port of Aqaba, as part of the Red Sea– Dead Sea Canal.

On October 21, 2018, Jordan announced it would cancel clauses in the peace treaty leasing border land to Israel, set to expire in October 2019.

Reference: 1994.3

1995: Pope asks for forgiveness of crimes

Pope John Paul II asks for forgiveness for the Church’s role in burnings at the stake; the religious wars that followed the Protestant Reformation; and injustices committed against women. This decade would also see a number of protestant denominations issue formal apologies relating to the Holocaust and treatment of Jews.

Reference: 1995.1 qr .

21st Century: 2000–2099

March 21–26, 2000: Pope John Paul II visits Israel

Pope John Paul II arrived in Israel on March 21, 2000, for an historic 5-day visit, during which he visited the holy sites of the three major religions and met with Israel’s political leaders and Chief Rabbis. This visit was seen by many Israeli Jews as a positive turning point in Jewish-Christian relations.

March 21: In his welcome speech at Tel Aviv airport, the Pope said:

“...Mr President, I thank you for your warm welcome, and in your person I greet all the people of the State of Israel... With new-found openness towards one another, Christians and Jews together must make courageous efforts to remove all forms of prejudice. We must strive always and everywhere to present the true face of the Jews and of Judaism, as likewise of Christians and of Christianity, and this at every level of attitude, teaching and communication. My journey therefore is a pilgrimage, in a spirit of humble gratitude and hope, to the origins of our religious history... The Psalmist reminds us that peace is God’s gift: “I will hear what the Lord God has to say, a voice that speaks of peace, peace for his people and his friends, and those who turn to him in their hearts” (Ps 85:8). May peace be God’s gift to the Land he chose as his own! Shalom.”

March 23: During a visit to Yad Vashem, the Pope said:

‘’As bishop of Rome and successor of the Apostle Peter, I assure the Jewish people that the Catholic Church, motivated by the Gospel law of truth and love, and by no political considerations, is deeply saddened by the hatred, acts of persecution and displays of anti-Semitism directed against the Jews by Christians at any time and in any place.’’ 482. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

March 26: In a visit to the Western Wall, he inserted a letter in a crack that read:

“God of our fathers, You chose Abraham and his descendants to bring your Name to the Nations: we are deeply saddened by the behaviour of those who in the course of history have caused these children of yours to suffer, and asking your forgiveness we wish to commit ourselves to genuine brotherhood with the people of the Covenant.”

Israeli reactions:

March 20: Israel Prime Minister Ehud Barak, in an interview with the Associated Press, said:

“I don’t think the Holy See is interested in giving any political weight to the Pope’s visit to Israel. The real importance of the Pope’s visit to the region is bringing back to people’s minds that this is the place where the whole count began, 2,000 years ago, and to bring his message of peace and tolerance among human beings. . . . It’s a monumental turning point in the relationship between the Christian world and the Jewish world.”

March 23: In a meeting with President Ezer Weizman, the Pope blessed Israel, an act seen by many Israelis as final church recognition of their state.

March 24: An editorial in the Jerusalem Post stated:

“There is no reason for the Jewish people to forget the past, or to gloss over wounds that will remain open until they are fully and honestly addressed. The pope’s visit to Israel, however, should mark a transition for the Jewish people as well: one of recognition of the fundamental change in the relationship between Jews and Christians in the modern world.”

Reference: 2000.1

2000–05: Second Intifada

People affected / deaths: 1,010 Israelis

The second Intifada, also known as the al-Aqsa Intifada, was a Palestinian uprising against Israel (see first Intifada above, 1987-93). The uprising was triggered by the visit to the Temple Mount September 28, 2000 by former Israeli cabinet minister and Likud leader Ariel Sharon, who would go on to become Israel’s prime minister from 2001-06. Israel responded by building a

eyewitnesses, this is the first time they have ever spoken about what they saw. saw. they what about spoken ever have they time first the is this eyewitnesses,

the blessing of the Vatican, to locate and document these sites. For many of the the of many For sites. these document and locate to Vatican, the of blessing the

In 2004 he created the organisation organisation the created he 2004 In (“Together as One”), with with One”), as (“Together Unum Yahad-In

then, and in their 80s and 90s now, lest the killing fields be forgotten. forgotten. be fields killing the lest now, 90s and 80s their in and then,

locate them before all the eyewitnesses are gone, many of whom were children children were whom of many gone, are eyewitnesses the all before them locate

and extermination sites are invisible, unmarked, and not recorded. He wants to to wants He recorded. not and unmarked, invisible, are sites extermination and

million Jewish victims in all of Ukraine and Belarus. Many of these mass graves graves mass these of Many Belarus. and Ukraine of all in victims Jewish million

discover that there existed not a single marking or commemoration to 1.25 1.25 to commemoration or marking single a not existed there that discover

Roma gypsies and other victims of the Holocaust. Desbois was shocked to to shocked was Desbois Holocaust. the of victims other and gypsies Roma

is on a mission across Eastern Europe to find Hitler’s killing fields of Jews, Jews, of fields killing Hitler’s find to Europe Eastern across mission a on is

Father Desbois (1955- ), French Catholic priest, founded an organisation that that organisation an founded priest, Catholic French ), (1955- Desbois Father

People affected / deaths: deaths: / affected People 2,135 execution sites / mass graves mass / sites execution 2,135

2004: Father Patrick Desbois Patrick Father 2004:

Reference: 2003.1 Reference:

see entry for Messianic tipping point below, 2018 below, point tipping Messianic for entry see ( world the in Jews of ). ).

Second Temple in 70 CE where Israel has the become the largest concentration concentration largest the become the has Israel where CE 70 in Temple Second

United States (5.2 million). This is the first time since the destruction of the the of destruction the since time first the is This million). (5.2 States United

The number of Jews in Israel (5.4 million) surpassed the number of Jews in the the in Jews of number the surpassed million) (5.4 Israel in Jews of number The

2003: More Jews in Israel than US than Israel in Jews More 2003:

Reference: 2000.2 Reference:

killed by fellow Palestinians. Palestinians. fellow by killed

1,010 Israelis and 3,179 Palestinians were killed, several hundred of whom were were whom of hundred several killed, were Palestinians 3,179 and Israelis 1,010

against all Palestinians everywhere. Palestinians all against

Israelis everywhere and, in parallel, that Israel would cease all its military activity activity military its all cease would Israel that parallel, in and, everywhere Israelis

agreed that all Palestinians factions would stop all acts of violence against all all against violence of acts all stop would factions Palestinians all that agreed

Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas and Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon Sharon Ariel Minister Prime Israeli and Abbas Mahmoud President Palestinian

February 8, 2005 is considered to be the end of the Second Intifada, when when Intifada, Second the of end the be to considered is 2005 8, February

Israel. Israel.

security wall to separate Judea and Samaria (the West Bank) from the rest of of rest the from Bank) West (the Samaria and Judea separate to wall security

483 2000–2099 Century: st 21 . 484. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

To date, Yahad has effectuated research concerning 2,135 execution sites and has gathered 5,298 testimonies during the course of its 124 research trips in 8 countries (Ukraine, Belarus, Russia, Poland, Romania, Moldova, Lithuania and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia).

The number of witnesses interviewed and execution sites located by country are as follows (zero sites were found in Macedonia):

Belarus: Witnesses interviewed: 917; execution sites: 405

Lithuania: Witnesses interviewed: 363; mass graves: 174

Moldova: Witnesses interviewed: 237; mass graves: 81

Poland: Witnesses interviewed: 661; execution sites: 340

Romania: Witnesses interviewed: 167; mass graves: 9

Russia: Witnesses interviewed: 662; execution sites: 210

Ukraine: Witnesses interviewed: 2,203; mass graves: 916

Reference: 2004.1

2004: Knesset Christian Allies Caucus

Originally launched by Yuri Shtern, this organization has become a means of communication between the Israeli Knesset and Christian leaders around the world.

Reference: 2004.2

2005–06: Memorial plaque in Atlit, Israel

People affected / deaths: 2,500–plus

The ‘Illegal Immigrant’ Detention Camp at Atlit, near Haifa in Israel, was an internment camp built by the British to intern Jewish people trying to reach the shores of Palestine who did not have the necessary permit. Britain severely restricted Jewish immigration in the

with the Fourth Geneva Convention. Convention. Geneva Fourth the with

damage done, and that other states take action to obtain Israel’s compliance compliance Israel’s obtain to action take states other that and done, damage

that it should be removed, that Arab residents should be compensated for any any for compensated be should residents Arab that removed, be should it that

stating that the Israeli West Bank barrier is a violation of international law, law, international of violation a is barrier Bank West Israeli the that stating

July 9, 2004: The ICJ (International Court of Justice) issued an advisory opinion opinion advisory an issued Justice) of Court (International ICJ The 2004: 9, July

Palestinians are entitled to the same rights as the rest of humanity.” of rest the as rights same the to entitled are Palestinians

for freedom, justice and equality. BDS upholds the simple principle that that principle simple the upholds BDS equality. and justice freedom, for

“Boycott, Divestment, Sanctions (BDS) is a Palestinian-led movement movement Palestinian-led a is (BDS) Sanctions Divestment, “Boycott,

According to the BDS website: website: BDS the to According

Palestinian BDS National Committee. National BDS Palestinian

homes and properties”. The campaign is organized and coordinated by the the by coordinated and organized is campaign The properties”. and homes

protecting, and promoting the rights of Palestinian refugees to return to their their to return to refugees Palestinian of rights the promoting and protecting,

West Bank, full equality for Arab-Palestinian citizens of Israel, and “respecting, “respecting, and Israel, of citizens Arab-Palestinian for equality full Bank, West

prefer the term “disputed territories”), removal of the separation barrier in the the in barrier separation the of removal territories”), “disputed term the prefer

law”, defined as withdrawal from the “occupied territories” (Israeli governments governments (Israeli territories” “occupied the from withdrawal as defined law”,

meets what the campaign describes as Israel’s “obligations under international international under “obligations Israel’s as describes campaign the what meets

a global campaign promoting various forms of boycott against Israel until it it until Israel against boycott of forms various promoting campaign global a

The Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement (also known as BDS) is is BDS) as known (also movement Sanctions and Divestment Boycott, The

July 9, 2005: BDS Movement begins Movement BDS 2005: 9, July

Reference: 2005.1 Reference:

commemorative events at Atlit. Atlit. at events commemorative

In 2006, the memorial was unveiled, and is the focus now for many many for now focus the is and unveiled, was memorial the 2006, In

Detention Camp. ‘Father, forgive us, we pray.’” we us, forgive ‘Father, Camp. Detention

Mandate for Palestine as represented by the Atlit Illegal Immigrant Immigrant Illegal Atlit the by represented as Palestine for Mandate

“In sorrow and shame, we recognise the complete betrayal of the British British the of betrayal complete the recognise we shame, and sorrow “In

plaque in English and Hebrew which reads: reads: which Hebrew and English in plaque

In 2005, the British group Love Never Fails held a ceremony and unveiled a a unveiled and ceremony a held Fails Never Love group British the 2005, In

to Mandatory Palestine. Mandatory to

by the British navy or army, and some who died of natural causes on their way way their on causes natural of died who some and army, or navy British the by

camp on Mauritius. Over 2,500 people perished, many lost at sea, some killed killed some sea, at lost many perished, people 2,500 Over Mauritius. on camp

return to their homeland. Many were interned in Atlit, or sent to a similar similar a to sent or Atlit, in interned were Many homeland. their to return

1930s and 1940s and there were many Jews trying to flee from Europe and and Europe from flee to trying Jews many were there and 1940s and 1930s

485 2000–2099 Century: st 21 . 486. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

July 9, 2005: On the first anniversary of the advisory opinion by the ICJ, a broad spectrum of over 170 Palestinian non-governmental organizations initiated a campaign for a boycott, divestment and international sanctions against Israel until it complied with international law and universal principles of human rights.

BDS has found support from some private companies, churches, and academic associations.

Denominations supporting BDS (as of July 19, 2017):

The following denominations are a few examples of those supporting BDS: United Methodist Church USA; Presbyterian Church USA; British Methodist Church; United Church of Canada; South African Council of Churches; Malaysia Council of Churches; Church of Sweden; World Council of Churches Central Committee; Episcopal Church; Mennonite Church USA; Evangelical Lutheran Church USA.

Reference: 2005.2

August 14, 2005: 9th of Av: Evacuation of Jews from Gaza Strip scheduled

The evacuation of all Israeli troops and civilians from the Gaza Strip was a unilateral “disengagement” ordered by then- Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, at the urging of US President George W. Bush. The withdrawal was scheduled for August 14, the 9th of Av, but was rescheduled for the next day after it was brought to PM Ariel Sharon’s attention he’d “coincidentally” slated his unilateral disengagement on the 9th Av (see entry below, 10th of Av).

Reference: 2005.3

Reference: 2006.1 Reference:

fighters killed for the release of their bodies. bodies. their of release the for killed fighters

Hezbollah guerrillas captured during the war and the remains of 200 Hezbollah Hezbollah 200 of remains the and war the during captured guerrillas Hezbollah

July 16, 2008: Israel transferred Lebanese terrorist Samir Kuntar, four other other four Kuntar, Samir terrorist Lebanese transferred Israel 2008: 16, July

see the return of the bodies of the two kidnapped IDF soldiers. soldiers. IDF kidnapped two the of bodies the of return the see

Lebanon War, Israel agreed to a prisoner exchange with Hezbollah that would would that Hezbollah with exchange prisoner a to agreed Israel War, Lebanon

June 2008: Nearly two full years after the initial attack that sparked the Second Second the sparked that attack initial the after years full two Nearly 2008: June

launched rockets into northern Israel and engaged the IDF in guerrilla warfare. warfare. guerrilla in IDF the engaged and Israel northern into rockets launched

Southern Lebanon, and Israel imposed an air and naval blockade. Hezbollah Hezbollah blockade. naval and air an imposed Israel and Lebanon, Southern

Ehud Goldwasser and Eldad Regev. The IDF launched a ground invasion of of invasion ground a launched IDF The Regev. Eldad and Goldwasser Ehud

killed three soldiers, injured two, and resulted in the capture of two soldiers soldiers two of capture the in resulted and two, injured soldiers, three killed

precipitated by a Hezbollah cross-border raid on an Israeli military patrol which which patrol military Israeli an on raid cross-border Hezbollah a by precipitated

September 8 when Israel lifted its naval blockade of Lebanon. The conflict was was conflict The Lebanon. of blockade naval its lifted Israel when 8 September

ceasefire went into effect on August 14, 2006, though it officially ended on on ended officially it though 2006, 14, August on effect into went ceasefire

Israel and the Golan Heights that ended when a United Nations-brokered Nations-brokered United a when ended that Heights Golan the and Israel

The Second Lebanon War was a 34-day military conflict in Lebanon, Northern Northern Lebanon, in conflict military 34-day a was War Lebanon Second The

c. Lebanon: 165 Israel: deaths: / affected People 1,200 l

July 12 – August 14, 2006: Second Lebanon War: Israel’s sixth war sixth Israel’s War: Lebanon Second 2006: 14, August – 12 July

Reference: 2005.4 Reference:

buildings. However, the Palestinians set fire to them. them. to fire set Palestinians the However, buildings.

wish to destroy holy sites and hoped that the Palestinians would respect these these respect would Palestinians the that hoped and sites holy destroy to wish

construction materials. The synagogues were left intact, as the IDF did not not did IDF the as intact, left were synagogues The materials. construction

dismantled most of what remained, scavenging for cement, rebar and other other and rebar cement, for scavenging remained, what of most dismantled

industrial buildings, factories and greenhouses were left intact. Palestinians Palestinians intact. left were greenhouses and factories buildings, industrial

buildings (schools, libraries, community centres, office buildings) as well as as well as buildings) office centres, community libraries, (schools, buildings

removed from their homes, which the Israeli authorities destroyed. All public public All destroyed. authorities Israeli the which homes, their from removed

Katif, a bloc of 17 Israeli settlements in the southern Gaza Strip, were forcibly forcibly were Strip, Gaza southern the in settlements Israeli 17 of bloc a Katif,

of Av, 8,600 Jews who lived in Gush Gush in lived who Jews 8,600 Av, of th 10 the 15, August On

8,600 deaths: / affected People

Strip carried out carried Strip

of Av: Evacuation of Jews from Gaza Gaza from Jews of Evacuation Av: of 10 2005: 15, August

th

487 2000–2099 Century: st 21 . 488. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

December 27, 2008 – January 18, 2009: Operation Cast Lead

People affected / deaths: Israelis: 13 l Palestinians: c. 1,300

Operation Cast Lead, also known as the Gaza War, was a three-week armed conflict between Palestinians in the Gaza Strip and Israel that ended in a unilateral ceasefire. The conflict resulted in between 1,166 and 1,417 Palestinian deaths, and 13 Israeli deaths (four from friendly fire).

Israel’s stated goal was to stop indiscriminate Palestinian rocket fire into Israel and weapons smuggling into the Gaza strip.

Hamas claimed victory after the fighting, insisting that Israeli forces did not weaken its military strength and that it had driven the Israelis from Gaza. Israel said IDF forces significantly degraded Hamas’ rocket arsenal, destroyed most of its smuggling tunnels and killed hundreds of its fighters.

Reference: 2008.1

September 7, 2009: Plaque commemorates British culpability in Arab riots, 1929

Research conducted by a UK Christian organization called Love Never Fails, contends that the British could have protected Jews in the riots of 1929, but did not. Their plaque, in English and Hebrew, reads:

In sorrow and shame

We recognise that officers of the British administration neglected their duty to protect the Jewish citizens of Hebron during the Arab uprising in 1929

“Father, Forgive us”, we pray

Love Never Fails. Network of UK Christian ministries

September 7th, 2009

Reference: 2009.1

of Av 1,941 years years 1,941 Av of 9 terrible that on heaven of safekeeping the to returned

th th

responsibility has been returned to our hands. The keys that the priests priests the that keys The hands. our to returned been has responsibility

history of their people is a growing tide that cannot be stemmed. A great great A stemmed. be cannot that tide growing a is people their of history

of the Jewish people… the movement of Jews back into the the into back Jews of movement the people… Jewish the of

necessity of the Third Temple has reentered the consciousness consciousness the reentered has Temple Third the of necessity

“An awareness of the historical inevitability and the spiritual spiritual the and inevitability historical the of awareness “An

The Temple Institute says: says: Institute Temple The

2012 was “The Children are Ready”. are Children “The was 2012

of Av. The message for for message The Av. of th 9 the of lineage historical tragic the

effect becomes a prophetic declaration to “break the curse” of of curse” the “break to declaration prophetic a becomes effect

“Tisha B’Av” videos, each with a concluding message that in in that message concluding a with each videos, B’Av” “Tisha

The Temple Institute began releasing the first of its annual annual its of first the releasing began Institute Temple The

B’Av” video B’Av”

of Av: Temple Institute releases first “Tisha “Tisha first releases Institute Temple Av: of 9 2012: 28, July

th

Reference: 2010.1 Reference:

The inheritance now belongs to the Bride.” Bride.” the to belongs now inheritance The

suffered the judgment of her whoredom. She was divorced and disinherited. disinherited. and divorced was She whoredom. her of judgment the suffered

whore riding her patron, the beast of Rome. And the great mother of harlots harlots of mother great the And Rome. of beast the patron, her riding whore

descending from heaven, uncorrupted by idolatry? He didn’t. He left that that left He didn’t. He idolatry? by uncorrupted heaven, from descending

to the whore he has cast aside and divorced when He has a pristine Bride Bride pristine a has He when divorced and aside cast has he whore the to

true nation. Christ created a new bride. Why would Christ desire to return return to desire Christ would Why bride. new a created Christ nation. true

to return. No. This time, the kingdom was taken from them and given to the the to given and them from taken was kingdom the time, This No. return. to

“The Old Jewish people were not merely exiled from their kingdom someday someday kingdom their from exiled merely not were people Jewish Old “The

and concludes: concludes: and

oblivion”; oblivion”;

temple in Jerusalem—suffered a final blow from God. It was destroyed into into destroyed was It God. from blow final a Jerusalem—suffered in temple

Within a generation, the idolatrous, adulterous nation—the great whore whore great nation—the adulterous idolatrous, the generation, a Within

“Final Sacrifice, the sacrifices at the Temple became idolatrous and pagan... pagan... and idolatrous became Temple the at sacrifices the Sacrifice, “Final

that because Jesus is the: the: is Jesus because that

“Jesus v. Jerusalem”), he claims that Jerusalem is the mystery whore Babylon; Babylon; whore mystery the is Jerusalem that claims he Jerusalem”), v. “Jesus

In his article “Jerusalem, Mother of Harlots” (later published in a book called called book a in published (later Harlots” of Mother “Jerusalem, article his In

Ministry”

2010: Joel McDurmon, president of American Vision, “a Biblical Worldview Worldview Biblical “a Vision, American of president McDurmon, Joel 2010:

489 2000–2099 Century: st 21 . 490. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

ago have been thrust back into our hands. G-d has entrusted us with our own fate — and with His future — as it were - on this earth. We must understand that the fast days of our times are the very last fast days to be. We have been blessed with the ability to make this happen. We have been entrusted with the responsibility to see to it that it happens. The days of mourning, the destruction of the second Temple have ended. The days of mourning our own lethargy regarding the Third Temple will soon be over. The time has arrived to effect the tikkun — the repair — and to establish the 9th of Av as a day of rejoicing forever. The choice is ours — if only we close ranks, and unite to make it happen.”

Reference: 2012.1

July 8 – August 26, 2014: Operation Protective Edge

People affected / deaths: Israel: 73 l Hamas: c. 2,300

The 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, sometimes referred to as the 2014 Gaza war, was a military operation launched by Israel on July 8 in the Hamas-ruled Gaza Strip. The stated aim of the Israeli operation was to stop rocket fire from Gaza into Israel, which increased after an Israeli crackdown on Hamas in the West Bank was launched following the June 12 kidnapping and murder of three Israeli teenagers by two Hamas members.

On July 17, the operation was expanded to an Israeli ground invasion of Gaza with the stated aim of destroying Gaza’s tunnel system; Israeli ground forces withdrew on August 5.

On August 26, an open-ended ceasefire was announced. By then, the IDF reported that Hamas, Islamic Jihad and other militant groups had fired 4,564 rockets and mortars from Gaza into Israel, with over 735 intercepted in flight and shot down by Iron Dome. At least 34 known tunnels were destroyed and two-thirds of Hamas’s 10,000-rocket arsenal was used up or destroyed.

Victory was claimed by both sides: according to Israel and Palestinian president Abbas, Hamas was severely weakened and achieved none of its demands; according to Hamas, Israel was repelled from Gaza.

The High Level Military Group (HLMG), which consists of military leaders and officials from NATO and other democratic countries exploring the challenges of 21th Century warfare, concluded (and partially excerpted here):

of the State of Palestine.” Palestine.” of State the of

of January 2013, at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Affairs Foreign of Ministry the at 2013, January of th 30 the on Ramallah

Liberation Organization (P.L.O), an official meeting took place in in place took meeting official an (P.L.O), Organization Liberation

“Following the bilateral negotiations held in past years with the Palestine Palestine the with years past in held negotiations bilateral the “Following

that read: read: that

January 30, 2013: The Vatican recognised the “State of Palestine” in a statement statement a in Palestine” of “State the recognised Vatican The 2013: 30, January

Nations.”

by which Palestine has become a Non-member Observer State of the United United the of State Observer Non-member a become has Palestine which by

“The Holy See welcomes with favour the decision of the General Assembly Assembly General the of decision the favour with welcomes See Holy “The

admission to the UN as a positive thing: thing: positive a as UN the to admission

41 abstentions. The Vatican issued a statement that welcomed Palestine’s Palestine’s welcomed that statement a issued Vatican The abstentions. 41

Micronesia (Federated States of ), Nauru, Panama, Palau, United States), with with States), United Palau, Panama, Nauru, ), of States (Federated Micronesia

138 in favour to 9 against (Canada, Czech Republic, Israel, Marshall Islands, Islands, Marshall Israel, Republic, Czech (Canada, against 9 to favour in 138

State status in the United Nations. The vote was an overwhelming majority of of majority overwhelming an was vote The Nations. United the in status State

November 29, 2012: The UN accorded Palestine as a non-Member Observer Observer non-Member a as Palestine accorded UN The 2012: 29, November

June 26, 2015: Vatican signs treaty with the “State of Palestine” of “State the with treaty signs Vatican 2015: 26, June

Reference: 2014.1 Reference:

efforts that accompanied its operation.” operation.” its accompanied that efforts

battlefield at significant tactical cost, as well as in the humanitarian relief relief humanitarian the in as well as cost, tactical significant at battlefield

obligations under the Law of Armed Conflict, but often exceeded these on the the on these exceeded often but Conflict, Armed of Law the under obligations

total commitment to the Law of Armed Conflict. The IDF not only met its its met only not IDF The Conflict. Armed of Law the to commitment total

displaying both a very high level of operational capability as well as a a as well as capability operational of level high very a both displaying

campaign, adequately conceived with appropriately limited objectives, objectives, limited appropriately with conceived adequately campaign,

our own nations’ militaries. It is our view that Israel fought an exemplary exemplary an fought Israel that view our is It militaries. nations’ own our

Conflict met and in some respects exceeded the highest standards we set for for set we standards highest the exceeded respects some in and met Conflict

We can further be categorically clear that Israel’s conduct in the 2014 Gaza Gaza 2014 the in conduct Israel’s that clear categorically be further can We

security.

were entirely necessary and justified in the defence of that country’s national national country’s that of defence the in justified and necessary entirely were

prior to our factfinding visits, were united in our view that Israel’s efforts efforts Israel’s that view our in united were visits, factfinding our to prior

High Level Military Group, some of whom had never visited the country country the visited never had whom of some Group, Military Level High

rockets and tunnels present to Israeli population centres. Members of the the of Members centres. population Israeli to present tunnels and rockets

No country would accept the threat against its civilian population that these these that population civilian its against threat the accept would country No

its strategic situation. strategic its

Hamas, which sought violent confrontation in an effort to seek to improve improve to seek to effort an in confrontation violent sought which Hamas,

“The responsibility for the outbreak of the 2014 Gaza Conflict lies with with lies Conflict Gaza 2014 the of outbreak the for responsibility “The

491 2000–2099 Century: st 21 . 492. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

June 26, 2015: The Vatican signed a treaty covering the life and activity of the Catholic Church in Palestine. The treaty makes it clear that the Holy See has switched its diplomatic relations from the Palestinian Liberation Organization to the State of Palestine. Israel’s Foreign Ministry spokesperson Emmanuel Nahshon said: “We’re disappointed by the decision taken by the Holy See. We believe that such a decision is not conducive to bringing the Palestinians back to the negotiating table.”

Reference: 2015.1

July 1, 2015: Sir Nicholas Winton MBE dies, the British “Schindler”

People affected / deaths: 669

Nicholas Winton (1909-2015) was a British humanitarian who organised the rescue of 669 children, mostly Jewish, from Czechoslovakia on the eve of WWII in an operation later known as the Czech Kindertransport (“children’s transport”). He found homes for them and arranged their safe passage to Britain, but it wouldn’t be until 1988 that the world found out what he’d done.

Among his many honours received, in 2003 he was knighted by the Queen for “services to humanity, in saving Jewish children from Nazi Germany occupied Czechoslovakia”, and in 2014 he was awarded the highest honour of the Czech Republic, the Order of the White Lion (1st class) by Czech President Miloš Zeman.

He was baptised and raised as a Christian by his parents, but his Jewish ancestry disqualified him from being declared “Righteous Among the Nations” in Israel.

Reference: 2015.2

recall its ambassador. ambassador. its recall

September, prompting Israel to close its embassy in Asunción, Paraguay, and and Paraguay, Asunción, in embassy its close to Israel prompting September,

16. Paraguay became the third country on May 21, but reversed its decision in in decision its reversed but 21, May on country third the became Paraguay 16.

founding of the State of Israel. Guatemala followed on May May on followed Guatemala Israel. of State the of founding

anniversary of the the of anniversary th 70 the with coincide to 2018, 14, May

formally moved its Embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem on on Jerusalem to Aviv Tel from Embassy its moved formally

After announcing the move on December 6, 2017, the US US the 2017, 6, December on move the announcing After

May 14, 2018: US moves its Embassy to Jerusalem to Embassy its moves US 2018: 14, May

Reference: 2016.1 Reference:

2019 in Dessau. in 2019

legal action has since been filed, with the next hearing scheduled for April 4, 4, April for scheduled hearing next the with filed, been since has action legal

the Protestant Reformation on October 31, 2017. The request was rejected, but but rejected, was request The 2017. 31, October on Reformation Protestant the

Luther’s home church in Wittenberg, Germany before the 500 the before Germany Wittenberg, in church home Luther’s anniversary of of anniversary th

A petition is made to remove the the remove to made is petition A (“Jew-pig”) from 1305 on Martin Martin on 1305 from (“Jew-pig”) Judensau

Judensau remove to Petition 2016:

Reference: 2015.4 Reference:

Christian doctrine of Replacement Theology led to the Holocaust. the to led Theology Replacement of doctrine Christian

people, the Land of Israel, and the city of Jerusalem. Part 1 documents how the the how documents 1 Part Jerusalem. of city the and Israel, of Land the people,

explores the history and theology of the enduring controversy over the Jewish Jewish the over controversy enduring the of theology and history the explores

The first of five movies is released by Frontier Alliance International, which which International, Alliance Frontier by released is movies five of first The

2015: Covenant and Controversy Part 1: The Great Rage Great The 1: Part Controversy and Covenant 2015:

Reference: 2015.3 Reference:

date when it might be possible to build it. it. build to possible be might it when date

the construction of a Third Temple, to be ready for a future future a for ready be to Temple, Third a of construction the

of Av, the Temple Institute released its plans for for plans its released Institute Temple the Av, of th 9 the On

Third Temple Third

of Av: Temple Institute releases plans for for plans releases Institute Temple Av: of 9 2015: 26, July

th

493 2000–2099 Century: st 21 . 494. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Of the 158 countries that maintain diplomatic relations with Israel, 86 countries have embassies in Tel Aviv, of which only a handful have said they would consider relocating their mission. Most of the countries with consulates-general in Jerusalem have separate embassies in Tel Aviv that are accredited to Israel.

In December 2018, Australia became one of the few countries to formally recognise West Jerusalem as Israel’s capital, but said it would not move its embassy from Tel Aviv until a peace settlement was reached.

Reference: 2018.1

July 2018: Messianic tipping point: Majority of Jews in Israel

People affected / deaths: 6.6 million

Israeli Jews now constitute the largest Jewish community in the world. Jewish tradition holds that this return to Israel will usher in the building of the Third Temple, the return of the Davidic Dynasty, and the Messianic era.

Reference: 2018.2

October 27, 2018: Pittsburgh massacre

People affected / deaths: 11

The Pittsburgh massacre was a mass shooting that occurred at the Tree of Life Synagogue in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, while Shabbat morning services were being held. Eleven people were killed and seven injured. It was the deadliest attack to date on the Jewish community in the United States.

Robert Bowers, a Christian nationalist with a deep hatred for Jews, yelled “All Jews must die” as he opened fire. In his bio section on the “Gab” website (the far right version of Twitter), his profile photo caption read “Jews are the children of Satan (John 8:44)”, adding “The Lord Jesus Christ is come in the flesh”.

By referencing John 8:44, which reads:

“You belong to your father, the devil, and you want to carry out your father’s desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, not holding to the truth, for

Reference: 2019.1 Reference:

AMEN!!

you.”’” with is God that heard have we because

Zechariah 8:19, 23 8:19, Zechariah

firm hold of one Jew by the hem of his robe and say, “Let us go with you, you, with go us “Let say, and robe his of hem the by Jew one of hold firm

for Judah... In those days ten people from all languages and nations will take take will nations and languages all from people ten days those In Judah... for

and tenth months will become joyful and glad occasions and happy festivals festivals happy and occasions glad and joyful become will months tenth and

Almighty says: ‘The fasts of the fourth, fifth, seventh seventh fifth, fourth, the of fasts ‘The says: Almighty L the what is “This ord

Jeremiah 32:37-38 Jeremiah

them live in safety. They will be my people, and I will be their God.” their be will I and people, my be will They safety. in live them

furious anger and great wrath; I will bring them back to this place and let let and place this to back them bring will I wrath; great and anger furious

“I will surely gather them from all the lands where I banish them in my my in them banish I where lands the all from them gather surely will “I

9:15

your God.” God.” your L the says them,’ given have I land the from uprooted

ord Amos Amos

“[In that day] ‘I will plant Israel in their own land, never again to be be to again never land, own their in Israel plant will ‘I day] that “[In

Man!

Jews, bringing to pass that which He has purposed all along: One New Creation Creation New One along: all purposed has He which that pass to bringing Jews,

promise that there will be people [Christians] who align themselves with the the with themselves align who [Christians] people be will there that promise

His people home to their land, the land of Israel, and bless them, with the the with them, bless and Israel, of land the land, their to home people His

From exile to return, from fast days to feast days: the the days: feast to days fast from return, to exile From promises to bring bring to promises Lord

End of Days – in progress now: The Promises of God of Promises The now: progress in – Days of End

Reference: 2018.3 Reference:

this document. document. this

that has been published to accompany accompany to published been has that LIST” The to Guide Companion A

the past. Regarding prayer, we suggest you look for the the for look you suggest we prayer, Regarding past. the “40 Days of Repentance: Repentance: of Days “40

Perhaps this is a sign that we have much work still to do to repair the damages of of damages the repair to do to still work much have we that sign a is this Perhaps

refrain that has characterized the 2,000 year bloody history with the Jews. Jews. the with history bloody year 2,000 the characterized has that refrain

How ironic that the last entry in this LIST would have to echo the antisemitic antisemitic the echo to have would LIST this in entry last the that ironic How

he was demonising Jewish people. people. Jewish demonising was he

is a liar and the father of lies”, lies”, of father the and liar a is

there is no truth in him. When he lies, he speaks his native language, for he he for language, native his speaks he lies, he When him. in truth no is there

495 2000–2099 Century: st 21 . 496. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qr .

Appendix 498. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History qList of 9th of Av Eventsr

For details of each event, refer to The LIST. Superscripts mean the event occurred on both the 9th of Av, and the 10th of Av.

1312 BCE Kadesh Barnea, where the 10 spies came back with a negative report on the 9th of Av, which has been a date of misfortune in the Jewish calendar. 586 BCE1 The First Temple is destroyed by the Babylonians (see 10th of Av below). 70 Titus destroys the Second Temple. 71 The Romans plow Jerusalem over with salt. 130 Emperor Hadrian orders Governor Rufus to plow Jerusalem over. 135 The fall of Betar, with over 100,000 Jews killed, begins the Jewish diaspora. 136 Jerusalem is rebuilt as the Roman city of Aelia Capitolina, and the region of “Israel” is changed to “Palaestina”. 1290 The Jews are expelled from England. 1492 The Jews are expelled from Spain. 1555 Pope Paul IV issues a papal bull confining 3,000 Jews into eight acres of walled ghetto in Rome. 1626 Sabbatai Zevi is born, who in 1648 claimed to be the Jewish Messiah. 1648 The Cossacks massacre an estimated 100,000 East European Jews. August 1, 1914 World War I officially began on July 28, but from a Jewish perspective this is the day that transformed the European conflict between the Austro-Hungarian Empire to a World War between opposing alliances. August 15, 19292 A right-wing Jewish group marched to the Western Wall shouting “The Wall is ours”, which sparked the riots the next day (see 10th of Av below). August 2, 1941 Himmler receives approval from the Nazi Party for the “Final Solution” of the Jews. July 23, 1942 The Treblinka extermination camp becomes operational, where between 800,000 and 900,000 Jews lost their lives. More Jews were killed at Treblinka than at any other Nazi extermination camp apart from Auschwitz. August 14, 20053 The forced evacuation of Jews from the Gaza Strip is scheduled (see 10th of Av below). July 28, 2012 Good news: The Temple Institute releases the first of its annual “Tisha B’Av” videos. July 26, 2015 Good news: The Temple Institute releases blueprints for the Third Temple. qList of 10th of Av Eventsr

For details of each event, refer to The LIST. Superscripts mean the event occurred on both the 9th of Av, and the 10th of Av.

586 BCE1 The fires that began the day before, the 9th of Av, continued to burn, which is when most of the destruction occurred (see 9th of Av above). 1306 The Jews are expelled from France. August 11, 1905 England passes the Aliens Act, denying entry to undesirable immigrants, which had grave implications for European Jewry seeking sanctuary during the Holocaust. August 16, 19292 The Palestine riots begin, with 133 Jews killed (see 9th of Av above). July 18, 1994 The AMIA Jewish community center in Buenos Aires is bombed, killing 85. August 15, 20053 The forced evacuation of 8,600 Jews from the Gaza Strip is carried out (see 9th of Av above). qList of Auto-da-fés Against Jewsr

An auto-da-fé (“Act of Faith”) was the ritual of public penance of condemned heretics and apostates, whose main victims were Jews. The following is a list of auto-da-fés where it is positively known that Jews were involved, with multiple events per year in parentheses.

SPAIN, SPANISH COLONIES

Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities. Entries with an asterisk* indicate that a detailed entry exists for this event in The LIST.

CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

1481 Seville* 1484 Ciudad Real 1485 Ciudad Real 1485-86 Guadalupe (7) 1488 Toledo (2) 1490 Huesca, Valencia 1506 Palma de Mallorca 1507 Las Palmas 1509 Palma de Mallorca 1510 Palma de Mallorca 1511 Palma de Mallorca 1526 Las Palmas 1528 Mexico* 1559 Valladolid 1560 Seville 1562 Murcia (2) 1574 Mexico 1576 Toledo 1578 Toledo 1592 Mexico 1598 Toledo 1600 Peru* 1610 Logroño (2) 1624 Seville 502. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1625 Córdoba, Seville 1627 Seville (2) 1628 Seville 1634 Cuença 1636 Valladolid 1639 Río de la Plata (Uruguay/Argentina) 1644 Seville, Valladolid 1645 Mexico 1647 Mexico 1648 Mexico, Seville 1651 Toledo 1654 Cuença, Granada 1655 Córdoba, Santiago de Compostela 1660 Seville (2) 1661 Toledo 1662 Córdoba 1663 Córdoba 1665 Córdoba 1666 Córdoba (2), Toledo 1667 Córdoba 1669 Córdoba 1670 Córdoba 1675 Palma 1679 Palma (5) 1680 Madrid (2) 1684 Granada 1689 Granada 1691 Majorca, Palma (4), Seville 1699 Valladolid 1700 Seville 1703 Seville 1706 Valladolid 1718 Córdoba, Seville 1721 Granada, Madrid, Palma, Seville (2)

Palma 1675, 1679 (5), 1691 (4), 1721, 1722, 1724 1722, 1721, (4), 1691 (5), 1679 1675,

1562 (2), 1722, 1723, 1724, 1725, 1726 1725, 1724, 1723, 1722, (2), 1562 Murcia

1528*, 1574, 1592, 1645, 1647, 1648, 1850* 1648, 1647, 1645, 1592, 1574, 1528*, Mexico*

1691 Majorca

1680 (2), 1721, 1722, 1724 1722, 1721, (2), 1680 Madrid

1610 (2) 1610 Logroño

1722, 1723, 1725 (2) 1725 1723, 1722, Llerena

1507, 1526 1507, Palmas Las

Huesca 1490

1485-86 (7) 1485-86 Guadalupe

Granada 1654, 1684, 1689, 1721, 1723 (3), 1724, 1725 (3), 1726, 1728 1726, (3), 1725 1724, (3), 1723 1721, 1689, 1684, 1654,

1634, 1654, 1722 (2), 1723, 1724, 1725 (2) 1725 1724, 1723, (2), 1722 1654, 1634, Cuença

1722, 1723, 1724 (2), 1726, 1728, 1730, 1731, 1745 1731, 1730, 1728, 1726, (2), 1724 1723, 1722,

1625, 1655, 1662, 1663, 1665, 1666 (2), 1667, 1669, 1670, 1718, 1718, 1670, 1669, 1667, (2), 1666 1665, 1663, 1662, 1655, 1625, Córdoba

Ciudad Real Ciudad 1484, 1485 1484,

1723, 1725, 1726 1725, 1723, Barcelona

ALPHABETICAL ORDER ALPHABETICAL

Mexico* 1850

Valencia* 1826

Seville 1799

Seville 1781

Córdoba, Valladolid Córdoba, 1745

Toledo 1738

Córdoba 1731

Córdoba 1730

Córdoba, Granada Córdoba, 1728

Valladolid 1727

Barcelona, Córdoba, Granada, Murcia, Valladolid Murcia, Granada, Córdoba, Barcelona, 1726

Toledo, Valencia (2), Valladolid (2), Valencia Toledo,

Barcelona, Cuença (2), Granada (3), Llerena (2), Murcia, Seville, Seville, Murcia, (2), Llerena (3), Granada (2), Cuença Barcelona, 1725

(2), Valencia, Valladolid Valencia, (2),

Córdoba (2), Cuença, Granada, Madrid, Murcia, Palma, Seville Seville Palma, Murcia, Madrid, Granada, Cuença, (2), Córdoba 1724

Saragossa, Seville (2), Valencia, Valladolid Valencia, (2), Seville Saragossa,

Barcelona, Córdoba, Cuença, Granada (3), Llerena, Murcia, Murcia, Llerena, (3), Granada Cuença, Córdoba, Barcelona, 1723

Toledo

Córdoba, Cuença (2), Llerena, Madrid, Murcia, Palma, Seville (3), (3), Seville Palma, Murcia, Madrid, Llerena, (2), Cuença Córdoba, 1722

503 Jews Against Auto-da-fés of List Appendixes: . 504. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Palma de Mallorca 1506, 1509, 1510, 1511 Peru 1600* Río de la Plata 1639 (Uruguay/Argentina) Santiago de 1655 Compostela Saragossa 1723 Seville 1481*, 1560, 1624, 1625, 1627 (2), 1628, 1644, 1648, 1660 (2), 1691, 1700, 1703, 1718, 1721 (2), 1722 (3), 1723 (2), 1724 (2), 1725, 1781, 1799 Toledo 1488 (2), 1576, 1578, 1598, 1651, 1661, 1666, 1722, 1725, 1738 Valencia 1490, 1723, 1724, 1725 (2), 1826* Valladolid 1559, 1636, 1644, 1699, 1706, 1723, 1724, 1725, 1726, 1727, 1745

PORTUGAL, PORTUGUESE COLONIES

Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities. Entries with an asterisk* indicate that a detailed entry exists for this event in The LIST.

CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

1541 Evora, Lisbon 1543 Porto 1580 Lima (Peru) 1582 Lima (Peru) 1603 Lisbon 1605 Evora, Lima (Peru)*, Lisbon* 1606 Evora 1624 Lisbon 1629 Evora, Lisbon 1639 Lima (Peru) 1642 Lisbon 1647 Lisbon 1652 Lisbon 1658 Porto 1660 Lisbon 1664 Coimbra

1543, 1658 1543, Porto

1752, 1755 1752,

1682, 1683, 1701 (2), 1705 (2), 1707, 1713, 1723, 1726, 1739 (2), (2), 1739 1726, 1723, 1713, 1707, (2), 1705 (2), 1701 1683, 1682,

Lisbon 1541, 1603, 1605*, 1624, 1629, 1642, 1647, 1652, 1660, 1675, 1675, 1660, 1652, 1647, 1642, 1629, 1624, 1605*, 1603, 1541,

1580, 1582, 1605*, 1639, 1736 1639, 1605*, 1582, 1580, (Peru) Lima

Evora 1541, 1605, 1606, 1629, 1706 1629, 1606, 1605, 1541,

1664, 1673, 1704, 1718, 1723 1718, 1704, 1673, 1664, Coimbra

ALPHABETICAL ORDER ALPHABETICAL

Lisbon 1755

1752 Lisbon

Lisbon (2) Lisbon 1739

1736 Lima (Peru) Lima

Lisbon 1726

Coimbra, Lisbon Coimbra, 1723

Coimbra 1718

Lisbon 1713

Lisbon 1707

Evora 1706

Lisbon (2) Lisbon 1705

Coimbra 1704

Lisbon (2) Lisbon 1701

Lisbon 1683

Lisbon 1682

Lisbon 1675

Coimbra 1673

Coimbra 1664

Lisbon 1660

Porto 1658

Lisbon (2) Lisbon 1652

Lisbon 1647

Lisbon 1675

Coimbra 1673

505 Jews Against Auto-da-fés of List Appendixes: . List of Blood Libel Accusations q r Against Jews

In chronological order, the following is a list of blood libel accusations. Entries with an asterisk* indicate that a detailed entry exists for this event in The LIST.

1144 Norwich (St. William)* 1168 Gloucester (Harold) 1171 Blois (31 burned; 17 Jewesses, singing ‘Alenu) 1181 Bury St. Edmunds (St. Robert) 1192 Winchester (boy) 1199 (?) Erfurt (3 Jews hanged, 3 burned [2 women]) 1235 Wolfsheim (18 Jews killed); Fulda (34 Jews killed)* 1247 Valréas* 1255 Lincoln (Little St. Hugh) 1267 Pforzheim 1270 Weissenburg, Alsace* 1283 Mayence (10 Jews killed) 1285 Munich (90 Jews killed)* 1286 Friesland 1287 Oberwesel and Boppard (St. Werner, 40 Jews killed)*; Salzburg 1288 Troyes 1290 Laibach 1292 Colmar; Krems (2 Jews broken on wheel) 1294 Bern (Rudolf) 1302 Remken 1303 Weissensee (boy found hanged) 1305 Prague; Vienna 1308 Thuringia 1317 Chinon 1329 Savoy, Geneva, Romilly, Annecy, etc. 1331 Ueberlingen 1345 Munich (Heinrich) 1387 Strasburg 1401 Diessenhofen 1407 Cracow*

1691 ) child-murder for executed Jews four ( Wilna

) burned Levi Raphael ( Metz 1670

Vienna 1668

Gt. Poland Gt. 1654

Razinai 1650

1623 ) martyred Jeshurun Isaac ( Ragusa

) executed Jews 3 ( Luck 1598

) Jew

blood accusation suggested in a trial of a a of trial a in suggested accusation blood ( Frankfort-on-the-Main 1593

1571 Hellerspring

) Lippold of case ( Brandenburg 1570

1564 Byelsk

) Farnese

1554 accusation through Hananel Foligno, averted by Alexander Alexander by averted Foligno, Hananel through accusation ( Rome

) charge murder on imprisoned Jews ( Asti 1553

1545 ) burned Abiob Joseph Dr. hanged; many ( Minor Asia Amasia,

Neuburg 1540

) burned Jews 30 ( Poesing 1529

Geisingen 1518

) themselves drowned

child murder accusation; 9 Jews were burnt alive, 13 Jews Jews 13 alive, burnt were Jews 9 accusation; murder child ( Budweis* 1505

Frankfort-on-the-Main 1504

12 Jews and 2 Jewesses burned; the remainder expelled remainder the burned; Jewesses 2 and Jews 12 ( Tyrnau 1494 )

La Guardia* La 1490

Sebastian of Porto Buffole; 3 Jews burned Jews 3 Buffole; Porto of Sebastian ( Venice 1480 )

through the apostate Wolfram apostate the through ( Regensburg 1476 )

)* Simon ( Trent 1475

Regensburg 1473

Endingen 1470

Sepulveda 1468

) Andreas ( Rinn 1462

Arles 1453

Lienz, Tyrol Lienz, 1442

Palma 1435

Ravensburg, Ueberlingen, Lindau Ueberlingen, Ravensburg, 1430

) Ratisbon ( Regensburg 1428

507 Jews Against Accusations Libel Blood of List Appendixes: . 508. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1696 Posen (false murder charge) 1698 Kaidan and Zausmer 1705 Viterbo 1710 Neamtz, Moldavia (Romania); Orlinghausen, Germany 1712 Frankfort-on-the-Main 1714 Roman, Rumania 1721 Danzig and Sinigaglia (child murder) 1736 Posen (lasted four years) 1743 Jaslau (Jew quartered) 1745 Fürth (synagogue closed through false charge by apostate) 1756 Jampol, Poland 1764 Orcuta, Hungary 1783 Botoshani, Rumania 1788 Totiz 1791 Tasnád, Transylvania (Hungary) 1797 Galatz, Rumania (4 killed; synagogue burned) 1801 Bucharest (128 Jews killed by soldiers and populace) 1803 Neamtz, Moldavia (four Jews imprisoned) 1811 Talowitza 1816 Piatra, Moldavia 1823 Velizh, Vitebsk (lasted twelve years) 1824 Bakau 1829 Boleslaw-on-the-Weichsel; Babowno 1834 Neuenhoven, near Düsseldorf 1838 Ferrara 1839 Niezdow 1840 “Near Aix-la-Chapelle; Trianda, Rhodes; Damascus (disappearance of Father Thomas; 13 Jews arrested and tortured; four died)*” 1843 Marmora 1844 Stobikowka 1837-47 Fiorenzola, Buffeto, Monticelli, Cortemaggiore 1857 Saratov 1859 Galatz, Rumania 1861 Chavlian

Massena, New York* New Massena, 1928

Nachod, Bohemia; Konitz, W. Prussia* W. Konitz, Bohemia; Nachod, 1900

Polná, Bohemia* Polná, 1899

Skaisgirren 1898

Berent, Prussia Berent, 1894

Kolin, Bohemia; Holleschau; Prague Holleschau; Bohemia; Kolin, 1893

Eisleben; Ingrandes, France; Bakau, Rumania Bakau, France; Ingrandes, Eisleben; 1892

Corfu; Xanten; Nagy-Szokol Xanten; Corfu; 1891

disappearance of Esther Solymosi Esther of disappearance ( Tisza-Eszlár 1882 )

Kutais, Transcaucasia Kutais, 1877

Rumania

); Calarash, Calarash, ); destroyed synagogues four injured; Jews 90 ( Galatz 1867

Smyrna 1863

509 Jews Against Accusations Libel Blood of List Appendixes: . qList of Crusadesr

For details of each Crusade, refer to The LIST.

NUMBERED CRUSADES

The Crusades 1096-1291 The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims, started primarily to secure control of holy sites considered sacred by both groups. First Crusade 1096-99 The First Crusade captured Jerusalem following a siege that lasted a few weeks in 1099. Second Crusade 1145-49 The Second Crusade was summoned by the Pope to defeat the Muslims who were still threatening to retake the Holy Lands. Third Crusade 1189-92 The Third Crusade was an attempt by European Christian leaders to reconquer the Holy Land following the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187. Fourth Crusade 1202-04 The Fourth Crusade was a Latin Christian armed expedition called by Pope Innocent III to recapture Muslim-controlled Jerusalem. Fifth Crusade 1217-21 The Fifth Crusade marked the last Crusade that was organised by the Church in which different nations came together to fight to recover the Holy Land. Sixth Crusade 1228-29 The Sixth Crusade was an attempt to regain Jerusalem, and was a military campaign organised mainly by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Seventh Crusade 1248-54 The Seventh Crusade was led by Louis IX of France and failed to reclaim the Holy Lands. Eighth & Ninth 1270-72 The Eighth Crusade was launched by Louis IX Crusades of France against the city of Tunis in 1270. The Ninth Crusade was led by Henry III of England’s son Edward to sail to Acre, following the death of King Louis in Tunis in 1270. Crusades end with the 1291 After a 2-month siege, Acre, one of the few fall of Acre, Israel remaining Crusader cities, fell to the Muslim Mamluks, marking the end of the Crusades.

crusading movement in northern France. northern in movement crusading 2 No.

The Shepherds’ Crusade of 1320 was a popular popular a was 1320 of Crusade Shepherds’ The 1320 Crusade Shepherds’

Crusade.

at rescuing King Louis IX during the Seventh Seventh the during IX Louis King rescuing at

crusading movement in northern France aimed aimed France northern in movement crusading 1 No.

The First Shepherds’ Crusade was a popular popular a was Crusade Shepherds’ First The 1251 Crusade Shepherds’

treaty signed between Frederick and Al-Kamil. and Frederick between signed treaty

existence past the 1239 expiration date for the the for date expiration 1239 the past existence

years to the Christian Crusader State’s State’s Crusader Christian the to years

The Barons’ Crusade guaranteed five more more five guaranteed Crusade Barons’ The 1239-41 Crusade Barons’

France.

(a Christian dualist movement) in southern southern in movement) dualist Christian (a

by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism Catharism eliminate to III Innocent Pope by France southern

This was a 20-year military campaign initiated initiated campaign military 20-year a was This 1209-29 Crusade, Albigensian

OTHER CRUSADES OTHER

511 Crusades of List Appendixes: . Lists of Nations Granting Emancipation q r for its Jews

In chronological order, the following is a list of nations granting emancipation for its Jews. Entries with an asterisk* indicate that a detailed entry exists for this event in The LIST.

1830 Belgium; Greece 1831 Jamaica 1832 Canada 1834 Netherlands 1839 Ottoman Empire 1849 Denmark 1851 Norway 1856 Switzerland 1858 United Kingdom* 1861 Italy 1867 Austria-Hungary 1870 Sweden-Norway 1871 Germany* 1878 Bulgaria; Serbia 1890 Brazil 1910 Spain; Sweden (Sweden-Norway emancipated Jews in 1870; they dissolved their union in 1905) 1911 Portugal 1917 Russia 1918 Finland 1919 Estonia 1923 Romania qList of Jewish Expulsionsr

Places in bold are either countries or regions; the rest are cities. Entries with an asterisk* indicate that a detailed entry exists for this event in The LIST.

139 BCE Rome, Italy* 19 CE Rome, Italy* 50? 52? Rome, Italy* 135-36 Judea* 250 Carthage, Tunisia 325 Jerusalem* 414-15 Alexandria, Egypt* 561 Diocese in Uzès, France* During reign of Visigoth (Spain)* King Sisebut: 612-21 624 Hejaz, Saudi Arabia* (Expulsion by Muslims) 629 Galilee* Kingdom of the Franks* c. 640 Arabia* (Expulsion by Muslims) 642 Visigothic Empire (Spain) 855 Paper expulsion of Jews issued in Italy* 985 Sparta, Greece* 1012 Mainz, Germany* 1013 Córdoba, Spain* (Expulsion by Muslims) 1026 Limoges, France* 1107 Morocco* (Expulsion by Muslims) 1121 Flanders* 1171 Bologna, Italy* 1182 France* 1206 Halle, Germany* 1231 Leicester, England* 1240 Brittany, France* 1249 Paper expulsion of Jews issued in Poitou, France* 1253 Vienna, Austria* 1254 France* 514. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

July 1271 Moissac, France* 1275 Gloucester, Guildford and Worcester, England* 1276 Upper Bavaria* 1288 Naples, Italy* 1289 Gascony and Anjou, France* 1290 9th of Av: England* 1293-1294 Bern, Switzerland* 1306 10th of Av: France* 1319 Breslau, Poland 1320 Papal States; Milan, Italy* 1322 France* 1348 Nauheim, Germany 1348-49 Strasbourg, France* 1349 Basel, Switzerland ( January)* Goerlitz, Heilbronn, Erfurt; Germany* Hungary* Breslau, Poland 1352 Bulgaria* 1353 Speyer, Germany* 1354 Sopron, Hungary 1360 Breslau, Poland Hungary 1365 Lorraine, France* 1370 Belgium 1376 Hungary 1380 Slovakia 1381 Strasbourg, France* 1388 Strasbourg, France 1389 Goerlitz in Silesia, Germany* 1392 Bern, Switzerland* 1394 France* (some sources say 1396) Germany 1401 Freiburg, Germany* 1415 Vizzini, Sicily 1418 Trier, Germany* 1420 Lyons, France*

Switzerland* 1490

Arles, France* Arles, 1488

Trent, Italy* Trent, 1486

Perugia, Italy Perugia,

Vincenza, Italy Vincenza, 1485

Warsaw, Poland Warsaw, 1484

Mainz, Germany Mainz, 1483

Bassano, Italy Bassano, 1481

Passau, Germany* Passau, 1478

1472 Schaffhausen, Switzerland Schaffhausen,

Mainz, Germany Mainz, 1471

1470 Bavaria*

) Muslims by Expulsion ( Egypt* Cairo, 1468

1467 ) Muslims by Expulsion ( Algeria Tlemcen,

Mainz, Germany Mainz, 1462

1458 Erfurt, Germany Erfurt,

Wurzburg, Germany Wurzburg,

Moravia 1454

Breslau, Lower Silesia* Lower Breslau,

Franconia, Germany* Franconia,

France 1453

Lower Bavaria* Lower 1450

Utrecht, Netherlands Utrecht, 1444

Upper Bavaria* Upper 1442

Augsburg, Germany* Augsburg, 1439

Mainz, Germany* Mainz, 1438

Zurich, Switzerland Zurich, 1436

Speyer, Germany* Speyer, 1435 5, May

Savoy, France Savoy,

Saxony* 1432

Freiburg, Switzerland Freiburg, 1428

Bern, Switzerland* Bern, 1427

Moravia 1426

Zurich, Switzerland Zurich,

Cologne, Freiburg; Germany* Freiburg; Cologne, 1424

Austria* 1421

Mainz, Germany* Mainz, 1420

515 Expulsions Jewish of List Appendixes: . 516. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1491 Ravenna, Italy* 1492 9th of Av: Spain* Mecklenberg, Germany* 1493 Sicily* 1494 Thurgau, Switzerland 1495 Lithuania* 1496 Portugal* Styria, Austria* Naples, Italy Maribor, Slovenia 1497 Graz, Austria* 1498 Navarre, Spain 1498-99 Nuremberg, Germany* 1499 Verona, Italy* 1501 Provence (France)* 1504 Pilsen, West Bohemia* 1506 Breslau, Bohemia* 1510 Prussia Brandenburg, Germany* Calabria, Italy* 1510-11 Naples, Italy* 1511 Apulia, Italy* 1514 Strasbourg, France 1515 Genoa, Italy* Laibach, Austria* 1519 Regensburg, Germany* 1524 Calabria, Italy 1533 Naples, Italy 1537 Saxony* 1539 Nauheim, Germany 1540-41 Naples, Italy* May 4, 1542 Bohemia* 1550 Genoa, Italy* Paper expulsion of Jews issued on July 23, Venice, Italy* 1551 Bavaria* 1555 Pesaro, Italy 1557 Prague, Czech Republic

Kaunas, Lithuania* Kaunas, 1753

Prague, Czech Republic* Czech Prague, 1744 18, December

1743 Riga, Livonia* (in Russia) (in Livonia* Riga,

Russia* 1742

Little Russia Little 1740 (modern Ukraine) (modern

Wurttemberg, Germany* Wurttemberg, 1738 4, February

1727 Russia*

Carniola, Styria and Carinthia, Slovenia* Carinthia, and Styria Carniola, 1718

1717 Gibraltar*

1714 Bavaria*

1712 Sandomierz, Poland* Sandomierz,

1682 Marseilles, France* Marseilles,

1669-70 Vienna, Austria* Vienna,

1669 Oran, North African coast (Algeria)* coast African North Oran,

Expulsion by Muslims by Expulsion ( Persia* Isfahan, 1656 )

Recife, Brazil* Recife, 1654

Hamburg, Germany* Hamburg,

Jamestown colony, America* (the second Jew in America) in Jew second (the America* colony, Jamestown 1649

Kiev, under Polish-Lithuanian rule* Polish-Lithuanian under Kiev, 1619

Worms, Germany* Worms, 1615

Frankfurt, Germany* Frankfurt, 1614

Lodi, Italy Lodi,

Pavia, Italy Pavia,

Cremona, Italy Cremona,

Milan, Italy* Milan, 1597

Brandenburg, Austria Brandenburg,

Papal States* Papal 1593

Hungary

Holland* 1582

Frankfurt on the Oder (in Brandenburg), Germany Brandenburg), (in Oder the on Frankfurt 1573

Brandenburg, Austria Brandenburg, 1571

Papal States* Papal 1569

Wurzburg, Germany Wurzburg,

Genoa, Italy* Genoa, 1567

Prague, Czech Republic Czech Prague, 1561

Austria 1559

517 Expulsions Jewish of List Appendixes: . 518. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1761 Kaunas, Lithuania* Bordeaux, France* 1775 Warsaw, Poland* 1783 Morocco* (Expulsion by Muslims) 1786 Jedda, Arabia* (Expulsion by Muslims) 1790 Warsaw, Poland 1843 Austria-Prussia border* December 17, 1862 Tennessee, Mississippi, and Kentucky, USA* 1891-92 Moscow, Russia* 1910 Kiev, Ukraine 1915 Western Russia, WWI* 1939-45 Europe, World War II* 1948 The Old City (the Jewish Quarter), Jerusalem* (Expulsion by Muslims) List of Host Desecration Accusations q r Against Jews

In chronological order, the following is a list of host desecration accusations. Entries with an asterisk* indicate that a detailed entry exists for this event in The LIST.

1243 Berlitz (near Berlin), Germany* 1260 Flanders, Belgium 1266 Santarém, Portugal 1292 Laa, Austria (several slain, the remainder fled) 1297 Meissen, Germany 1298 Röttingen, Germany (100,000 Jews said to have been killed)* 1302 Austria 1306 St. Pölten, Austria 1310 Styria, Austria 1312 Fürstenfeld; Styria, Austria (riots in Grätz and Judenburg; expulsion from Styria and Carinthia) 1330 Güstrow; Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Germany 1331 Überlingen, Germany 1334 Constance, Germany 1337 Deggendorf, Straubing, and other Bavarian and Austrian towns 1338 Pulka, Linzand, Wernatodorf, Retz, Znaim, Horn, Eggenburg, Neuburg, Zwettl etc, Germany; Wolfsberg, Austria* 1361 Coimbra, Portugal 1370 Brussels, Belgium* 1388 Prague 1399 Poznań, Poland* 1401 Głogów, Silesia (Poland) 1404 Mühlen, Austria (all Jews of Salzburg and Hallein burned) 1420 Ems, Germany 1421 (Jews expelled from Austria, Franconia, Saxony, Westphalia, the Rhine provinces)* 1422 Mainz, Germany 1432 Segovia, Spain 1453 Breslau, Lower Silesia (Jews expelled)* 1474 Bavaria 1478 Passau, Germany* 520. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

1484 Passau, Germany 1492 Mecklenburg, Germany* 1504 Pilsen, West Bohemia 1510 Berlin, Germany (26 burned, 2 beheaded); Brandenburg, Germany (38 killed, 400-500 expelled)* 1559 Sochaczew, Poland 1836 Bislad, Rumania qList of Inquisitionsr

For details of each Inquisition, refer to The LIST.

Medieval Inquisition: 1184 The Medieval Inquisition was established in Episcopal Inquisition response to movements considered apostate or heretical to Christianity. The Medieval Inquisition included the Episcopal Inquisition (1184–1230s), so-called because it was administered by local bishops, and the Papal Inquisition (see entry below). Medieval Inquisition: 1231 Pope Gregory IX shifted the power to punish Papal Inquisition heretics away from the local bishops (as in the Episcopal Inquisition — see entry above) by appointing a number of Papal Inquisitors, who kept detailed records. Spanish Inquisition 1478-1834 The Spanish Inquisition was established by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who believed that corruption in the Catholic Church was caused by Jews who, to survive centuries of antisemitism, had converted to Catholicism. Portuguese Inquisition 1536-1821 The Portuguese Inquisition was formally established in Portugal proper in 1536 at the request of King John III following the establishment of the Inquisition in Evora, Coimbra and Lisbon in 1531. Like the Spanish Inquisition, its main targets were conversos, those who had converted from Judaism to Catholicism. Roman Inquisition 1542-1860 The Roman Inquisition was established in 1542 by Pope Paul III, which had the tasks of maintaining and defending the integrity of the faith and of examining and proscribing errors and false doctrines; it thus became the supervisory body of local Inquisitions. The Roman Inquisition was responsible for prosecuting individuals accused of committing offenses relating to heresy, including Protestantism, sorcery, immorality, blasphemy, Judaizing and witchcraft, as well as for censorship of printed literature. The penances and sentences for those who confessed or were found guilty were pronounced together in a public ceremony at the end of all the processes, known as an auto-da-fé (see appendix). 522. The LIST: Persecution of Jews by Christians Throughout History

Goa Inquisition, India 1560-1820 The Goa Inquisition was part of the Portuguese Inquisition, and persecuted Hindus, Muslims, Jews and “New Christians” (Jews who had converted to Catholicism usually by force or coercion). Peruvian Inquisition 1570-1820 The Peruvian Inquisition, located in Lima, investigated crimes against the Church, which could range from heresy, sorcery, witchcraft, and other superstitious practices. Its victims were those of African descent, mestizos (mixed race), women, and Jewish or Protestant Europeans seeking refuge from religious persecution. Mexican Inquisition 1571-1820 The Mexican Inquisition was an extension of the Spanish Inquisition to “New Spain”, an area that included territories in North America, Central America, Asia and Oceania, with its capital in Mexico City. Almost all of the events associated with the Inquisition occurred in Mexico City. Maltese Inquisition 1574-1798 The Maltese Inquisition used torture and fear to make the accused plead guilty often for more crimes than they actually committed. Its main concern was heretical behaviour owing to the influence of Protestantism. Once the spread of that religion died out, the Inquisitors turned their attention to blasphemy, apostasy in Islam during a person’s term under slavery, bigamy and witchcraft.