C. S. Ramage Prospecting lor Meteorological Department of Meteorology University of Energy in Hawaii , Hawaii 96822

Abstract plans. Greater detail can be obtained by requesting re- Hawaii, with no indigenous resources, is particu- ports listed in the references. larly susceptible to oil shortages; hence, surveys have been underway for some time to evaluate the potential of wind 2. Wind surveys and insolation as alternate energy sources. Since numerical Until the oil embargo, wind was not seriously considered modeling of the wind field is inadequate, we have been using as an alternate energy source for Hawaii, although fixed and mobile stations to monitor the wind distribution, finding that on parts of each of the main islands average Noffsinger (1960) had pointed out the possibilities for speeds are more than adequate for economic power genera- . tion. A radiometer network on and scattered measure- ments elsewhere reveal that over most areas sheltered from a. Data the trade winds, insolation is as high as anywhere in the continental . We are using cloudiness data from Prior to our program, winds were measured for varying weather satellites to refine the insolation maps. On recent periods at more than 20 sites in Hawaii, chiefly at exist- field programs, we measured wind, insolation, temperature, ing or proposed airfields and agricultural facilities. Al- humidity, and rainfall, aiming at improving our understand- though the locations were not selected for their strong ing of physical processes and at developing methods of wind winds, the data have been used in a number of national and insolation forecasting. surveys of potential. The most recent 1. Introduction (Elliott, 1978) estimated a mean annual wind power of 2 The State of Hawaii, 16 700 km2 in area, includes seven >300 W m" for the islands (see Fig. 2). main mountainous islands extending 600 km southeast- Since the energy that might be extracted from the ward from , lying just within the tropics, to the wind is approximately proportional to the cube of the "Big Island" of Hawaii (Fig. 1). The total resident popu- wind speed (Fig. 2), a premium is placed on pinpointing lation of 886 621 (1976) is unevenly distributed, as is strong wind sites. One cannot assume that on rugged, the energy demand. Eighty-two percent live on Oahu topographically complex islands, wind measurements with 9% of the area, whereas only 8% live on the Big made at one location are representative of more than Island with 63% of the area. Over 90% of all the state's a few meters away. We considered three possible methods energy comes from . Thirty percent of the of attack on the problem of mapping the wind resource. 3 energy is accounted for by electricity. In 1976, 20 X 10 1) Diagnostic numerical modeling. Widely varying TJ were consumed. Only 2% of this came from hydro- models have been used to simulate air flow over electric sources and only 10% from the burning of one or another of the . All depend bagasse (sugar cane residue). On Oahu, all of the electric on the assumption that if "physically reasonable" power is generated from petroleum while each island constraints (both atmospheric and topographic) are has its own generating system. Hawaii possesses no applied appropriately to wind data from a few ob- indigenous fossil fuel and spends more than $500 000 000 serving points, the overall island wind field can be annually on oil imports. We have always been at the calculated. If this were true, special field observa- mercy of shipping strikes, but it was the 1973 oil em- tions would not be needed. None of the models in- bargo that really underlined our vulnerability and led corporated a diurnal cycle. That due to Lavoie to a search for alternate energy resources. At present-day (1974) failed to reveal the strong wind areas over prices, oil is still the most economic generator of power. Oahu. Another Oahu model (Dickerson, 1978; However, what we pay for oil has no positive impact Sherman, 1978; Hardy, 1977) interpolated between on our economy, whereas much of the money for alter- observations. It missed the Koko Head strong wind nate energy would be spent locally with a consequent area because neighboring anemometers were sited "multiplier effect." Besides biomass, ocean thermal, and in a much weaker wind regime. Nickerson and sources, attention focused on wind Magaziner's (1976) nonprecipitating 3-dimensional and insolation. Surveys to determine these resources, model applied to the Big Island inadequately dif- begun in 1974 on Oahu, are now being carried out on ferentiated between weak and strong wind areas. all the major islands. The remainder of this paper sum- Unfortunately, the physics of the atmospheric marizes the work, discusses our findings, and outlines boundary layer (especially over rugged terrain) de- fies valid theoretical generalization. We decided, i Contribution No. 78-5 of the Department of Meteorology, University of Hawaii. therefore, that numerical modeling of the wind dis- tribution would be incapable of providing the 0003-0007/79/050430-09$06.25 © 1979 American Meteorological Society necessary detail and accuracy.

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2) Fixed station sampling. Fixed stations are cumber- some to install and maintain. However, the con- straints of a rugged, heavily populated island forced us from the outset to adopt this survey method on Oahu (Ramage et al, 1977). In selecting the sites, we applied recognized gen- eral physical principles relating to airflow around and over obstacles (e.g., World Meteorological Or- ganization, 1954). In addition, we used our own judgment, local experience, and questionnaire an- swers from telephone and power company linemen who maintain systems that cross the ridges in many places. We applied four criteria:

1) The stations to be in secure locations. 2) No station to be established that would an- tagonize environmentalists excessively should subsequent wind generators be installed. 3) No stations to be established in nearly inac- cessible mountain rain forests. 4) As wide a variety of potential wind energy sites as possible to be sampled. Thus, five stations monitored the three gusty corners of the island, two the leeward slopes (facing away from the trade winds) of the Koolaus (the eastern range), two the crest of the Koolaus, and three the crest of the Waianaes (the western range). We also used data from four stations operated by Law- rence Livermore Laboratory (Hardy, 1977). In all cases, the instruments were placed high enough on masts (generally 10 m AGL 2) to be clear of surrounding terrain and vegetation.

3) Mobile station sampling. Fresh, steady, trade winds dominate the low-level circulation over the Ha- waiian Islands, blowing more than 90% of the time during summer and at least 50% of the time during FIG. 2. Estimated mean annual wind power (W m~2) at 50 m winter. Therefore, the power potential of the trade above ground level at airports and at the windiest site so far identified on each island (open circle). Power = (1/2) p F3^, winds must first be evaluated, for if they prove 3 7 where p = air density = 1.17 kg m" and VM = Va(50/Ha)^ in _1 insufficiently strong, there is no chance that winds m s ; Ha — height of anemometer above ground in m; Va = from other directions could make up the deficit. wind speed at anemometer height. Thus, for the islands of Kauai (Ramage and Oshiro, 1977), (Daniels et al, 1976; Daniels and a wind tunnel in which a pitot tube connected to Schroeder, 1978), Molokai (Schroeder et al, 1977), a Datametrics precision pressure transducer was and the Big Island (Schroeder et al, 1976), we mea- used to calibrate the anemometers. The wind speed sured the winds from van-mounted anemometers in the tunnel can be automatically increased from during periods of persistent trade winds (see Daniels 0-22 m s"1 and back down again while over a and Schroeder, 1978, for details). Three or four thousand simultaneous anemometer and manometer vans were used to survey areas previously deter- readings are recorded on a magnetic tape cassette. mined to be windy. Forty-seven sites were occupied on Kauai, 41 on Maui, 58 on Molokai and 15 on b. Results the Big Island. At each site, measurements were During the mobile surveys, the strength of the trade made for at least 24 h. On each island, fixed long- winds fluctuated (Fig. 3). We wished to estimate long- term monitoring stations were then set up at the term average wind speeds as soon as possible. However, two or three places identified by the survey as hav- even the year or more of records from the Oahu fixed ing the strongest winds. stations, let alone the 24 h records of the mobile surveys, To ensure instrument accuracy, we constructed were inadequate for this purpose. Thus, we tried to 2 Above Ground Level. "normalize" the data by comparing them with simul-

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FIG. 3. Data for Lihue Airport Kauai duri the Kauai mobile survey: 12 h average wind speed (full line); height of base of trade wind i: rsion at 12 h intervals (dashed line); long-term average wind speed (horizontal dashed line). taneous measurements made at well-exposed airport sharp frictional discontinuity between sea and land is sites with long-term records. For each survey station, associated with confluence and acceleration. Second, over wind speed was normalized by first calculating the ratio the flat land immediately inland, the winds are friction- of the average speed measured at the station to the ally slowed. Third, over gently sloping hills still farther neighboring airport speed averaged over the same time inland, distance from the corner and the sea-land dis- interval. Then the long-term average wind speed at the continuity and frictional slowing are overcome by ac- airport was multiplied by the ratio to obtain an esti- celeration as the flow is constricted between terrain and mated long-term average at the station. The results the overlying inversion; still farther inland up the ridge, compare favorably with those of a correlation technique distance from the corner and frictional slowing combine developed by Daniels (1979a) and with data from fixed to overcome the hill effect resulting in less speed with stations set up after the mobile surveys (Schroeder et al., greater land elevation. 1977). The corner and frictional effects are particularly evi- Some time ago, after receiving varied estimates from dent where the trades impinge at a small angle on a engineers, I made an educated guess that an average coast lined with low hills. During the mobile survey of annual wind speed exceeding ~7ms_1 at 10 m above southeast Kauai (Ramage and Oshiro, 1977) the average ground would suffice for economical power generation. wind speed at four coastal stations exceeded the average This corresponds to 350 W m~2 at 50 m above ground. at two stations 1-2 km inland by more than 60%. During Hardy (1978) has recently concurred. Significant areas the mobile survey of northwest Molokai (Schroeder et on all the islands surveyed satisfy this criterion (Fig. 1), al., 1977), where winds at four coastal stations and seven which is probably conservative; for instance, a limit of stations 1-2 km inland were compared, the corresponding 5 ms"1 is being used in Germany (Daniels, 1978). Figure excess was 30%. Mountain passes parallel to them funnel 2 shows the estimated mean annual wind power at the and accelerate the trade winds. However, limited area airports and at the windiest site so far identified on each and severe turbulence may make for unsuitable wind island. Details from the Koko Head station are shown in generator sites. Fig. 4. On Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii, the trades are con- stricted and accelerated as they flow through trade wind- c. Discussion facing saddles between mountain systems. The Hawaiian Islands mechanically affect the trade Since the trade winds cannot flow over mountains that winds. The surveys showed that at an exposed island normally penetrate the inversion—Mauna Kea (4205 m), "corner" three effects appear to be important, at least Mauna Loa (4169 m) and Haleakala (3055 m)—channel- at 10 m AGL (Ramage, 1978). First, near the beach, a ing around their flanks is enhanced. Accelerations are

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FIG. 4. Data for Koko Head, November 1975-May 1977. (Top) Diurnal variation of wind speed: at the station (dashed line); at Honolulu Airport for the same period (dot-dashed line); long-term estimate for the station (full line). Diurnal variation of Oahu weekday electric power load (ratio of load to maximum load) (dotted line). (Bottom) Wind speed duration curves: at the station (full line); at Honolulu Airport for the same period (dot-dashed line). also induced by the channels between the islands. Koko 3. Insolation survey Head in southeastern Oahu is probably the windiest spot a. Data on the island because it is a gently sloping hill on a NE-SW oriented coastline at the western end of Kaiwi Lying within the tropics, Hawaii experiences only a moderate annual variation in insolation. The winter Channel, which separates Oahu and Molokai. theoretical clear day sunlight at latitude 21° is only At most of the windy spots, thermal effects are not one-third less than the midsummer peak. The im- large (Fig. 4). Generally, however, thermally-induced portance of sunlight to plant growth and water use has turbulence brings higher momentum air down to the long been recognized by the sugar and pineapple growers surface during the day, reducing the slowing effect of (Ekern, 1978), who began measurements in the 1930s friction, whereas greater surface slowing occurs at night and later instrumented over 90 sites. The variety of when the frictional force is applied to a shallow surface instruments, and calibration problems handicapped in- layer. Thus, the strongest winds blow when the power tercomparison. However, at Makiki, in Honolulu, con- load ratio is greatest (Fig. 4). However, above about tinuous measurements have been made with Eppley 600 m MSL the diurnal pattern is reversed (Ramage pyranometers since 1932. et al., 1977). Makiki is typical of leeward areas on most of the

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FIG. 5. Mean annual insolation over Oahu; isopleths labelled in W m-2. islands, and of Honolulu where 42% of the state's popu- A more detailed study, using transects across the lation lives. Its annual average insolation (244 W m~2) Koolau Range, suggested an annual variation in any compares with an estimated national average of 194 rainfall-insolation relationship. "In summer, when the W m-2. Even the average for Phoenix, Ariz. (235 W m~2) trade winds were dominant, the coastal area sunlight is exceeded. Above the clouds and trade wind inversion was symmetric about midday, but the sunlight for the at the observatory on the upper slope of Mauna Loa inland stations was quite asymmetric with the highest (3494 m MSL) the average is even higher (284 W m-2). values in the afternoon after the morning cloudiness de- In 1976, a network of 20 stations was established on creased. The hourly patterns of winter . . . were much Oahu (Yoshihara and Ekern, 1977). The Makiki record more symmetric for all except the windward stations, has been used to normalize a year of records from the where the cloud and mountain shadow produced a morn- new stations and earlier historical data to obtain an esti- ing maximum and an afternoon minimum of insolation" mate of the average annual insolation over Oahu (Fig. 5). (Ekern, 1978). Global radiometers are now recording insolation on b. Discussion Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and , while global, direct, Not unexpectedly, the distribution of insolation re- diffuse, and ultraviolet radiation are being measured on sembles the distribution of rainfall, with large gradients the roof of the University's Department of Engineering. both to windward and leeward of the mountain range As part of a Department of Energy Program for solar axes. Yoshihara and Ekern (1977) postulated that "if energy monitoring, research and training (Riches and insolation can be related to rainfall, then the well- Koomanoff, 1978), we are operating a research station on established pattern of rainfall distribution throughout the Big Island at the Cloud Physics Observatory on the the State can be useful in predicting the distribution grounds of Hilo College. It is equipped to measure pattern of [insolation]." Efforts to correlate monthly global, direct, diffuse, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation insolation and monthly rainfall failed, possibly because at 1 min intervals. The station is included in a NOAA- of the preponderance of nocturnal showers and because operated nationwide solar radiation network (SOLMET) rain falls for only a small fraction of the time. along with NOAA stations at Honolulu International

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Airport and Mauna Loa Observatory (Riches and Koomanoff, 1978). In the past, lack of standardization has destroyed the value of many otherwise adequate insolation data. To remove this difficulty, the manufacturers sent our Hilo radiometers to the NOAA Solar Radiation Facility in Boulder, Colo., for calibration. We are now using them as secondary standards for our network instruments. The Solar Data Center at Trinity University, San Antonio, Tex., has undertaken to calibrate infrared radiometers. Flat-plate solar collectors do not differentiate between the direct solar beam and diffuse radiation. However, concentrating solar collectors can utilize only the direct component. At Makiki, the ratio of diffuse to total radiation (0.4) is rather high, and the ratio is certainly larger where insolation is less. More measurements are needed to determine the limits of the areas within which concentrating collectors are economically preferable to flat-plate collectors.

4. Focused monitoring We now believe that on all the main Hawaiian Islands power can be generated economically by wind or insola- tion. Many groups that are starting to exploit this po- tential are requesting detailed, site-specific measure- ments. a. Wind As part of a Department of Energy (DOE) program to evaluate possible sites for demonstration wind turbine generators (Western Scientific Services, 1976), we have FIG. 6. Instrumentation for Kahuku wind power survey: van; tethered balloon about to be launched; anemometer provided and analyzed wind data from three levels (9, visible just below tail. Wind direction at balloon height is 27, and 55 m) on a mast at Kaena Point on northwestern determined from azimuth of tether that passes down through Oahu. In September 1978 the Hawaiian Electric Com- the instrument mast. Mast carries anemometer at top and pany received a grant from the Department of Energy wet and dry bulb housing near base. to build and operate a 200 kW wind generator at from the mobile survey, they are attempting to reproduce Kahuku on Oahu. It should begin running during 1980. the Kahuku regime. It may well prove that wind tunnel State of Hawaii interest in wind-powered water pump- simulation is an essential link between observations and ing led to a mobile survey of the Waimea Saddle on the realistic numerical models. Big Island between 30 June and 6 July 1978 (Daniels, 1979b) (Fig. 1). A one-week mobile survey at Kaneohe b. Insolation Marine Corps Air Station in eastern Oahu aided plan- The Wilcox Hospital, Lihue, Kauai, has received a DOE ning for a 20 kW wind generator (Daniels, 1979c). grant for a solar demonstration project. We have in- The annual average wind exceeds 8 m s"1 over an area stalled a global radiometer on the hospital roof. Molokai of 80 km2 in the Kahuku district of northern Oahu. In Electric Company plans to move their generating sta- a detailed study, the Aerospace Corporation (Lindley tion from Kaunakakai to Palaau and is hoping to obtain and Melton, 1977) concluded that wind generators with DOE funding for a 1 MW solar thermal plant. We are a total capacity of 600 MW could be installed there. providing them with a data base by monitoring the Proper siting of hundreds of generators may require de- insolation there. tailed mapping of the wind resource. Thus, in the A modest tourist development is being contemplated summer of 1978 we supplemented data from five fixed for Manele on the southeast coast of Lanai. Since the stations in the area by an intensive mobile survey (Fig. sun could be tapped for much of the power required by 1, inset) that not only measured winds at 10 m above the resort, we have been asked to measure the insolation. ground, but occasionally determined the wind profile in the lowest 100 m using anemometers carried by tethered 5. Understanding and prediction balloons (Fig. 6) (Daniels and Oshiro, 1979). Scientists at The degree to which Hawaii can displace oil-based the Fluid Dynamics and Diffusion Laboratory of Colo- energy by meteorological energy does not entirely de- rado State University have been simulating topographic pend on the resources available, for if their variable effects on airflow in their meteorological wind tunnel contributions could be predicted up to 24 h in advance, (Meroney et al., 1976). Using a scale model and data the use of backup oil-based generators would be mini-

Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/08/21 06:26 AM UTC Bulletin American Meteorological Society 437 mized. The mesometeorological processes that determine and insolation. Then, as observational data accumulate, local changes in both wind and insolation must be de- the hypotheses will be statistically tested. As useful pre- scribed and understood if prediction is to be feasible. dictive techniques are identified, they will also be tested We made a start with an intensive mobile survey on and the economic value of the forecasts assessed. We the Big Island during the summer of 1978 (Schroeder, hope that the forecasts will improve through iteration 1979a) (Fig. 1). The van instrumentation, which had incorporating growing experience, refined statistics, and consisted of wind vane and anemometer, was expanded operational feedback. to include dry and wet bulb thermometers, rain intensity 6. Concluding remarks gage, and global and diffuse radiometers, all recorded on a magnetic tape cassette. The four vans were sta- a. Wind tioned along each of three transects for approximately Although we have roughly delineated the windiest parts a week. The first transect, on the eastern flank of Mauna of the state, closer measurements such as were made at Loa, was anchored by the fixed stations at the Cloud Kahuku (Daniels and Oshiro, 1979) will be needed on Physics Observatory (48 m MSL) and the Mauna Loa the sites of "wind farms." We also plan to instrument Observatory (3494 m MSL) (Ekern and Garrett, 1979a). 45 m masts to determine the vertical profile of the wind The second transect extended from 15-650 m MSL up at several representative locations. the south flank of Mauna Loa (Ekern and Garrett, In Hawaii, interest in wind power is focused on large 1979b). Both transects traversed the Big Island rainfall megawatt-range machines linked to the electric grid maxima. The third transect extended west-southwest system and on 30-80 kW waterpumpers. The latter from the Waimea Airport (814 m MSL) to the coast. Its would be used in irrigation and aquaculture. Fortui- purpose was to measure the diurnal variations in winds tously, at many places, demand and strong winds coin- and clouds occasioned by interaction between the trade cide. The possibility of feeding electricity back into the winds sweeping over the Waimea Saddle and the local mains and obtaining credit on the monthly electric bill land, sea, and mountain winds (Schroeder, 1979b). has begun to interest homeowners in 5-20 kW wind On some of the transects, double-theodolite balloon generators. We are testing this concept at Kahuku. ascents were made. These data, together with enlarge- Recent studies sponsored by the Federal Government ments of GOES pictures of the Big Island, have been envisage a much larger wind contribution to the nation's used to develop a mesoscale and synoptically integrated energy than had earlier studies (Metz, 1978). From picture of events during the survey. Hawaii's viewpoint, design and construction of durable, The trade wind inversion is a semipermeable, semi- efficient wind generators seem to be taking a long time. permanent lid on the lower troposphere over Hawaii. Its However, now that development by industry is proceed- fluctuations should be closely linked to changes in winds ing parallel to government-funded development, the and clouds. One might conceive of winds being chan- pace is quickening. neled between the inversion and the earth's surface and, b. Insolation therefore, would expect a lowered inversion to accom- pany stronger winds. Why Fig. 3 does not support this Some 6000 flat-plate solar collectors have been installed simple view needs investigating. Twice daily rawin in Hawaii. In Honolulu they are an economical invest- soundings are made from Lihue and Hilo, while infre- ment, especially for expert home handymen. A profusion quent daily soundings are made by the U.S. Army from of makes and advertising claims has confused potential in Central Oahu. Research radar has buyers. But now that standards have been established and detected vertical shifts of at least 1 km in 5 min in the large-scale manufacturing is underway, this problem is inversion over the islands (Bean et al, 1973). Such diminishing. Many demonstration units, largely funded orographically induced waves, diurnal variations, and by the Department of Energy or the Housing and Urban mesoscale distortions are all probably linked to cloud Affairs Department, are operating or are being installed and surface wind discontinuities but cannot be resolved in apartments, schools, hospitals, and shops. by the existing synoptic observing schedule. Thus, we Using data from our surveys, the Hawaii Natural have turned to a high-powered acoustic sounder (bought Energy Institute is preparing an atlas of the windiest by the State of Hawaii) to monitor continually the height and sunniest parts of the State. The many inquiries now and condition of the inversion. The sounder is located being made testify to the need for such a publication. at Kahuku. Acknowledgments. Local funding for this work was pro- In consultation with power company engineers, we vided by the State of Hawaii, the City and County of Hono- shall first precisely define the forecast requirements, lulu, and the Counties of Maui and Kauai. Federal support came from the National Science Foundation (AER 76-06696) which will be site-specific and be for as short a lead time and the Department of Energy (EG-77-G-03-1617). Many as possible. Within this framework, we shall try to individuals have participated in the program. They include: formulate physically reasonable hypotheses relating Arne Austring, Kitty Chung, Constance Craig, Anders Daniels, synoptic situations to the mesoscale effects of the islands Paul Ekern, Robert Farrell, Alfred Garrett, Mark Harris, Gary Hirokane, Garry Knipe, Philip Lum, Timothy Mc- through i) cloud motion vectors and cloudiness from the Donough, Norman Oshiro, Thomas Schroeder, Thomas Tarl- GOES, ii) fluctuations in inversion height from the ton, Noel Thompson, and Takeshi Yoshihara. Ora Mae acoustic sounder, and iii) measurements of surface winds Barber, Office Manager, typed the manuscript.

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References Rider, 1976: Wind tunnel simulation of the influence of Bean, B. R., B. D. Warner, and R. E. McGavin, 1973: A note two-dimensional ridges on wind speed and turbulence. on the FM-CW radar as a remote probe of the Pacific Proceedings International Symposium on Wind Energy Systems, Cambridge, England, 7-9 September 1976, tradewind inversion. Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 4, 201-209. A6-89-104. (Available from Dept. Civil Engineering, Colo- Daniels, P. A., 1978: European wind energy research and rado State University, Ft. Collins, Colo.) recommendations for Hawaii. UHMET 78-01, 29 pp. (Also DOE reference HCP/T1617-01 available from NTIS, Metz, W. D., 1978: Solar energy: Unsung potential for wind Springfield, Va.) and biomass, Science, 200, 636. , 1979a: Estimating long-term surface wind speeds from Nickerson, E. C., and E. L. Magaziner, 1976: A three-dimen- short-term measurements. (Submitted to J. Appl. Meteorol.) sional simulation of winds and non-precipitating oro- , 1979b: Project Ahupuaa—Solar-meteorological field graphic clouds over Hawaii. NOAA Tech. Rept. 377-APCL measurements on the island of Hawaii, Summer 1978. 4. 39, 35 pp. Wind power assessment for the Waimea Saddle. UHMET Noffsinger, T., 1960: Wind as a source of electricity for 79-7. (Available from Dept. Meteorol., University of Hawaii. Tech. Paper No. 2, Land Study Bureau, University Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.) of Hawaii, 11 pp. , 1979c: Wind generator siting survey, Kaneohe Marine Ramage, C. S., 1978: Effects of the Hawaiian Islands on the Corps Air Station, Oahu. UHMET 79-3. (Available from trade winds. Preprints, Conference on Climate and Energy: Dept. Meteorol., University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.) Climatological Aspects and Industrial Operations (Ashe- , and N. E. Oshiro, 1979: Detailed wind survey of ville, N.C.), AMS, Boston, pp. 62-67. Kahuku, Oahu. UHMET 79-6. (Available from Dept. , and N. E. Oshiro, 1977: Kauai wind power survey. Part Meteorol., University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.) 1: Mobile sampling program 19 August-5 September 1977. , and T. A. Schroeder, 1978: Air flow in the central UHMET 77-05, 33 pp. (Available from Dept. Meteorol., valley of Maui, Hawaii. /. Appl. Meteorol., 17, 812-818. University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.) , B. E. Palmer, T. G. Tarlton and T. A. Schroeder, 1976: , P. A. Daniels, T. A. Schroeder, and N. J. Thompson, A survey of the winds on the island of Maui for potential 1977: Oahu wind power survey, first report. UHMET 77-01, wind power generation. Part 1: Mobile sampling program 42 pp. (Available from Dept. Meteorol., University of 7 August to 26 August 1976. UHMET 76-06, 67 pp. Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.) (Available from Dept. Meteorol., University of Hawaii, Riches, M. R., and F. A. Koomanoff, 1978: The national Honolulu, Hawaii.) insolation resource assessment program: a status report. Dickerson, M. H., 1978: MASCON—A mass consistent atmo- Preprints, Conference on Climate and Energy: Climato- spheric flux model for regions with complex terrain. J. logical Aspects and Industrial Operations (Asheville, N.C.), Appl. Meteorol17, 241-253. AMS, Boston, pp. 41-46. Ekern, P. C., 1978: Variations in sunlight induced by topogra- Schroeder, T. A., 1979a: Project Ahupuaa—Solar meteorologi- phy under the trade wind regime on Oahu, Hawaii. Pre- cal field measurements on the Island of Hawaii, Summer prints, Conference on Climate and Energy: Climatological 1978. 1. Narrative. UHMET 79-1, 42 pp. (Available from Aspects and Industrial Operations (Asheville, N.C.), AMS, Dept. Meteorol., University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.) Boston, pp. 56-61. , 1979b: Project Ahupuaa—Solar-meteorological field , and Garrett, A. J., 1979a: Project Ahupuaa—Solar- measurements on the Island of Hawaii, Summer 1978. 3. meteorological field measurements on the Island of Hawaii, Trade wind interactions with local winds in South Kohala. Summer 1978. 2. Eastern flank of Mauna Loa. UHMET UHMET 79-5. (Available from Dept. Meteorol., University 79-4. (Available from Dept. Meteorol., University of Hawaii, of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.) Honolulu, Hawaii.) , T. G. Tarlton, and P. A. Daniels, 1976: A survey of , 1977b: Project Ahupuaa—Solar meteorological field the winds on the island of Hawaii for potential wind power measurements on the Island of Hawaii, summer 1978. 5. generation. Part 1: Mobile sampling program 3 September Southern flank of Mauna Loa. UHMET 79-8. (Available to 12 September 1976. UHMET 76-07, 46 pp. (Available from Dept. Meteorol., University of Hawaii, Honolulu, from Dept. Meteorol., University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.) Hawaii.) Elliott, D. L., 1978: An overview of the national wind energy potential. Preprints, Conference on Climate and Energy: —7—, , and , 1977: Maui County wind power survey. Climatological Aspects and Industrial Operations (Ashe- Part 2: Molokai mobile sampling program 21 June to 30 ville, N.C.), AMS, Boston, pp. 80-87. July 1977. Part 3: Maui fixed station data September 1976 Hardy, D. M., 1977: Wind studies in complex terrain. Pre- to July 1977. UHMET 77-04, 66 pp. (Available from Dept. prints, American Wind Energy Association Conference Meteorol., University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.) (Boulder), 38 pp. (Available from Lawrence Livermore Lab., Sherman, C. A., 1978: A mass-consistent model for winds Livermore, Calif.) over complex terrain. /. Appl. Meteorol., 17, 312-319. , 1978: Regional wind energy development. Preprints, Western Scientific Services, 1976: Candidate Wind Turbine Solar 78 Northwest Conference (Portland, Oreg.), 19 pp. Generator Site Meteorological Monitoring Program, (Available from Solar Energy Res. Inst., Golden, Colo.) Monthly Data Report. (Available from Western Scientific Lavoie, R. L., 1974: A numerical model of trade wind weather Services, Ft. Collins, Colo.) on Oahu. Mon. Wea. Rev., 102, 630-637. World Meteorological Organization, 1954: Energy from the Lindley, C. A., and W. C. Melton, 1977: Wind energy systems wind; assessment of suitable winds and sites. W.M.O. No. applications in Hawaii. Preprint, Third Biennial Confer- 32, TP. 10, 205 pp. ence and Workshop on Wind Energy Conversion Systems Yoshihara, T., and Ekern, P. C., 1977. Solar radiation mea- (Washington, D.C.), 12 pp. (Available from Aerospace Corp., surements in Hawaii. 70 pp. (Available from Hawaii Na- Los Angeles, Calif.) tural Energy Inst., University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Ha- Meroney, R. N., V. A. Sandborn, R. Bouwmeeser and M. waii.) •

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